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Process of Air conditioning

Moving Heat from the Inside to the Outside

Heat Transfer at the Inside Coil

Evaporator CoilCollecting Hot Air


Inside the House

The Freon Gas Goes Outside

CompressorsHeating up Freon Gas

Condenser CoilExhausting Hot Air to


the Outside

Hot Liquid Back to House

Expansion DevicesCooling Hot Liquid


Freon

Air ConditioningSchematic of System

Latent Heat of Vaporization

Discharging Condensate

High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Sides

Inspecting the Condenser Unit

Seasonal Energy-Efficiency Ratio


The SEER is simply a ratio of how many BTUs per
hour youre getting out of the system relative to
the watts of electrical energy consumed to run
the unit.
SEER ratings of 6 are typical for old air
conditioners. New air conditioners are typically
around 10, and high-efficiency air conditioners
are typically about 14.

Water-Cooled Air Conditioning


Schematic of System

One Ton of Cooling

How Much Area Can One Ton Cool?

Larger Ducts Are Required for Air


Conditioning

Bigger is not Better

Guessing the Size

Measure Temperature Drop across


Inside Coil

HVAC
1

DEFINITIONS

Air Conditioning

Process of treating air so as to control


simultaneously its temperature, humidity,
cleanliness, and distribution to meet the
environmental requirements of the conditioned
space.

Environmental requirements of the conditioned


space may be determined by human occupancy
as related to comfort and health, a process, or a
product.
4

Air Conditioning Processes

Heating: Transfer of energy to the air in a space.


Cooling: Transfer of energy from the air in a space.
Humidifying: Transfer of water vapor to the air in a
space.
Dehumidifying: Removal of water vapor from the air in
the space.
Cleaning: Removal of particulate and biological
contaminants from the air in a space.
Air Motion (Circulation): movement of air through the
spaces in a building to achieve the proper ventilation and
facilitate the energy transfer, humidification (or
dehumidification), and cleaning processes described above.
5

Energy

The capacity for producing an effect

Either stored or transient, and can be


transformed from one to another

Forms include: thermal (heat),


mechanical (work), electrical, chemical
6

Heat
Energy

in transit from one mass to


another as a result of a temperature
difference between two masses.

basic law of thermodynamics states that


heat always flows from a higher
temperature to a lower temperature
7

PRINCIPLE ONE
Heat ALWAYS flows
from hot to cold when
objects are in contact
or connected by a
good heat conductor.
The rate of heat
transfer will increase
as the difference in
temp between the two
objects increases

PRINCIPLE TWO
Cold objects have less
heat than hot objects of
the same mass.
To make a object
colder, remove heat
To make it hotter, add
heat.
The mass of the object
remains the same
regardless of the heat
content.

EVAPORATION
The process of moisture becoming a
vapor(molecules escaping from the surface
of the liquid)
As moisture vaporizes from a warm surface,
it removes heat and lowers the
temperature of the surface.
The warmer the substance the quicker it
will evaporate.

PRINCIPLE THREE
Everything is composed of matter
All matter exists in one of three states: solid,
liquid or vapor.
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: When
matter changes from liquid to vapor or vice
versa, it absorbs or releases a relatively large
amount of heat without a change in
temperature.

Sensible Heat
Heat

which changes the temperature


of a substance without changing its
state.

12

Latent Heat

Heat which changes the state of a substance


without changing its temperature.

Two familiar examples: latent heat of fusion


(changing ice to water) and latent heat of
vaporization (changing water to vapor)

13

MBH stands for One Thousand BTU per hour. BTU stands for
British Thermal Unit. MBh units should help with the cost
estimate of running your air conditioning (AC). It's a measure of
the heating/cooling capacity of AC equipment.
MBH - One MBH is equivalent to 1,000 BTU's per hour. The 'M'
is derived from the Roman Numeral M that equals 1000.Note
BTUs and therefore MBH are Imperial Units.)
BTU - A standard unit of measurement used to denote both the
amount of heat energy in fuels and the ability of appliances and air
conditioning systems to produce heating or cooling. It is the
amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a pint of
water by one degree Fahrenheit.
BTUs are measurements of energy consumption, and can be
converted directly to kilowatt-hours (3412 BTUs = 1 kWh) or
joules (1 BTU = 1,055.06 joules).

14

BRITISH THERMAL UNIT

BTU is a heat quantity


measure.
BTU is the quantity of heat
needed to raise the
temperature of 1 lb. of water
one degree Fahrenheit.
Vaporization: Will absorb
more than five times amount
of heat.
1 ton = 12,000 BTU/hr.
12,000 BTU/hr = 3,516Watts
or 3.516 kW (kilo-Watts).

Heat Energy Flow Rate


Rate

of heat loss/heat gain associated


with buildings.
Also associated with applied heating and
air conditioning equipment.
Normally stated in the terms BTU/hr.

16

PRINCIPLE FOUR
CONDENSATION
When a vapor is cooled
below its dew point, it
becomes a liquid.
(boiling point in reverse)
When vapor condenses,
releases five times as
much heat

PRINCIPLE FIVE
Changing the pressure on
a liquid or a vapor changes
the boiling point.
Each lb. of pressure above
atmospheric pressure,
raises the boiling point
about three degrees
Fahrenheit.

PRINCIPLE SIX

When a vapor is
compressed, its
temperature and
pressure will increase
even though heat has
not been added.

HEAT TRANSFER/
HEAT GENERATION

20

Heat Transfer

Movement of heat through surfaces and openings of


a building

Usually assumed to be steady state (various


temperatures throughout a system remain constant
with respect to time during heat transmission)

Based upon predetermined temperature differences

21

Heat Loss/ Heat Gain

Heat Loss heat transferred from the interior of a


building to its exterior

Heat Gain heat transferred from the exterior to


the interior of a building

22

Heat Transfer

Conduction

Convection

Radiation

Resistance (R-Value)

U=1/R

Q = U x A x T

Usually all three modes occur simultaneously

U-Value is the rate of heat


flow in Btu/h through a one
ft2 area when one side is
1oF warmer

Conduction
Conduction is the transmission of heat through solids
and composite sections such as structural
components
Conduction does not occur only within one object
or substance, it also occurs between different
substances that are in contact with one another
By building the walls and roofs of a building of
materials having known conductive characteristics,
the heat flow rate for the building can be controlled

24

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat due to the


movement of a fluid: gases, vapors, and liquids

If the fluid moves because of a difference in density


resulting from temperature changes, the process is
called natural convection or free convection

If the fluid is moved by mechanical means (pumps


or fans), the process is called forced convection

25

Radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat through space by


energy carrying electromagnetic waves

Radiant heat passing through air does not warm the


air through which it travels

All objects absorb and radiate heat

The amount of radiant heat given off in a specified


period of time is dependent on both the temperature
as well as the extent and nature of the radiating
object
26

CONDUCTION,CONVECTION & RADIATION

SPECIFIC HEAT

The amount of heat that must be absorbed


by a certain material if it is to undergo a
temperature change of 1Fahrenheit.

Materials will absorb, emit and exchange heat


at different rates. It takes different amounts
of heat energy (Btu's) to make a temperature
change of the material.

SENSIBLE HEAT
Any heat that can be felt (with your senses) and
can be measured with a thermometer.
Like ambient air. You feel the change in
temperature which makes you feel cold or feel
hot. Even a few degrees

PRESSURE
Pressure: A force
exerted per unit of
surface area.
Atmospheric
Pressure: 21% Oxygen
78% Nitrogen 1%
other gases
Atmospheric pressure
is 14.696 psia

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Service Manuals refer to pressure when
using A/C gauges as: psig (pounds per
square inch gauge)
A/C Gauges are calibrated to compensate
for atmospheric pressure.
Pressures below atmospheric are called
vacuum and measured in inches of mercury
(in Hg)

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
At sea level where atmospheric pressure is 14.7
PSI, the boiling point of water is 212 degrees
Fahrenheit
At any point higher than sea level the
atmospheric pressure is lower and so is the
boiling point of water.
Boiling point of H20 decreases by 1.1 0F for
every 1000 foot in altitude.

PRESSURE AFFECTS BOILING


POINT

Pressure Increase
A Pressure increase
also raises the boiling
point of water.
For every 1 PSI of
pressure increase, the
boiling point raises
2.53 degrees
Fahrenheit

Result of controlling Pressure


If water boils at a higher temperature when
pressure is applied and at a lower
temperature when the pressure is reduced,
it is obvious that the temperature can be
controlled by controlling the pressure.
This is the basic theory of physics that
determines and controls the temperature
conditions of air conditioning systems

PSYCHROMETRICS
REFER TO NEXT PPT

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38

Importance of Load Estimating


An accurate load estimate is needed to get the process of designing,
installing, and operating a project off to a good start.
The load estimate numbers provide the data for a host of subsequent
calculations, selections, and decisions.
Among these items are:
HVAC system selection
Equipment selections for fans
Coils and pumps
Duct and electrical feeder sizing
water piping design
An accurate estimate will provide the correct cooling and heating
requirements, offer option for load reductions at the least
incremental cost, provide properly sized equipment, and yield
efficient air, water, and electrical distribution designs.
39

A load calculation is a more detailed analysis of load


components based on actual building design knowledge performed by computer software spreadsheets and programs.
Not all the details of the inputs required by the software are
known.
The user must rely on good judgment, so the word estimate
is still appropriate for the results. Current calculation models
have increased the accuracy of software programs.
However, simplifying assumptions are a part of these
methods too, so as far as trying to approach the reality of
nature, it is still an estimate, but on increasingly higher levels.

40

Factors that Determine Building HVAC


Energy Use

Building configuration and orientation

Building envelope construction

Interior space arrangement

Design temperature and humidity, indoor and outdoor

Zoning criteria

Equipment application and sizing

Control methodologies

41

TERMINOLOGY
Commonly used terms relative to heat transmission and
load calculations are defined below in accordance with
ASHRAE Standard 12-75, Refrigeration Terms and
Definitions.
Space is either a volume or a site without a partition or
a partitioned room or group of rooms.
Room is an enclosed or partitioned space that is usually
treated as single load.
Zone is a space or group of spaces within a building with
heating and/or cooling requirements sufficiently similar so
that comfort conditions can be maintained throughout by a
single controlling device.
42

Space Heat Gain is the rate at which heat enters into and/or
is generated within the conditioned space during a given time
interval.
The manner in which it enters the space
a. Solar radiation through transparent surfaces such as windows
b. Heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs
c. Heat conduction through interior partitions, ceilings and floors
d. Heat generated within the space by occupants, lights, appliances,
equipment and processes
e. Loads as a result of ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air
f. Other miscellaneous heat gains

43

Sensible Heat Gain is the energy added to the space by


conduction, convection and/or radiation.

Sensible heat load is total of


a. Heat transmitted thru floors, ceilings, walls

b. Occupants body heat


c. Appliance & Light heat

d. Solar Heat gain thru glass


e. Infiltration of outside air

f. Air introduced by Ventilation


44

Latent Heat Gain is the energy added to the space when


moisture is added to the space by means of vapor emitted by the
occupants, generated by a process or through air infiltration from
outside or adjacent areas.
Latent heat load is total of
a. Moisture-laden outside air form Infiltration & Ventilation
b. Occupant Respiration & Activities
c. Moisture from Equipment & Appliances
To maintain a constant humidity ratio, water vapor must
condense on cooling apparatus at a rate equal to its rate of
addition into the space. This process is called dehumidification
and is very energy intensive, for instance, removing 1 kg of
humidity requires approximately 0.7 kWh of energy.

45

Radiant Heat Gain the rate at which


heat absorbed is by the surfaces enclosing
the space and the objects within the space.
Space Cooling Load is the rate at which
energy must be removed from a space to
maintain a constant space air temperature.

46

Space Heat Extraction Rate - the rate at which heat is removed from the
conditioned space and is equal to the space cooling load if the room
temperature remains constant.

Temperature, Dry Bulb is the temperature of air indicated by a regular


thermometer.
Temperature,Wet Bulb is the temperature measured by a thermometer
that has a bulb wrapped in wet cloth. The evaporation of water from the
thermometer has a cooling effect, so the temperature indicated by the wet bulb
thermometer is less than the temperature indicated by a dry-bulb (normal,
unmodified) thermometer.
The rate of evaporation from the wet-bulb thermometer depends on the
humidity of the air. Evaporation is slower when the air is already full of water
vapor. For this reason, the difference in the temperatures indicated by ordinary
dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers gives a measure of atmospheric humidity.
Temperature, Dewpoint is the temperature to which air must be cooled in
order to reach saturation or at which the condensation of water vapor in a
space begins for a given state of humidity and pressure.
47

SIZING YOUR AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM


The heat gain or heat loss through a building depends on:
a. The temperature difference between outside temperature and our
desired temperature.
b. The type of construction and the amount of insulation is in your
ceiling and walls.
c. How much shade is on your buildings windows, walls, and roof. Two
identical buildings with different orientation with respect to the
direction of sun rise and fall will also influence the air conditioner
sizing.
d. How large is your room? The surface area of the walls. The larger
the surface area - the more heat can loose, or gain through it.

48

e. How much air leaks into indoor space from the outside? Infiltration plays a
part in determining our air conditioner sizing. Door gaps, cracked windows,
chimneys - are the "doorways" for air to enter from outside, into your living
space.
f. The occupants. It takes a lot to cool a town hall full of people.
g. Activities and other equipment within a building. Cooking? Hot bath?
Gymnasium?
h. Amount of lighting in the room. High efficiency lighting fixtures generate less
heat.
i. How much heat the appliances generate. Number of power equipments such
as oven, washing machine, computers, TV inside the space; all contribute to heat.
The air conditioner's efficiency, performance, durability, and cost depend on
matching its size to the above factors. Many designers use a simple square foot
method for sizing the air-conditioners.
49

What is the difference between ventilation and


infiltration?
A)

B)

C)

Ventilation refers to the total amount


of air entering a space, and infiltration
refers only to air that unintentionally
enters.
Ventilation is intended air entry into a
space. Infiltration is unintended air
entry.
Infiltration is uncontrolled ventilation.

Heat transfer in the building


Not only conduction and convection !

51

COOLING LOAD IN BUILDING

ROOF
OPAQUE WALL
GLASS
INFILTRATION
APPLIANCES AND LIGHTING FIGURES
USER

53

54

Building Cooling and Heating


Requirements

A function of three heat transfer components:


Heat gains or losses through the building surfaces
[walls, fenestration, roof, etc.]
Heat gains from internal heat producing sources
[lights, people, appliances, etc.]
Heat gains or losses from infiltration of outdoor air
through window and door cracks, floors, walls, etc.

55

Indoor Design Conditions


The primary purpose of the heating and airconditioning system is to maintain the space in a
comfortable and healthy condition.
This is generally accomplished by maintaining the drybulb temperature and the relative humidity within an
acceptable range.
The HVAC Applications Volume of the ASHRAE
Handbook gives recommendations for indoor design
conditions for specific comfort as well as industrial
applications.

56

Comfort Zone for human being


Temperature Range :21-24 degree
centigrade
Relative Humidity 30 -70 %
Out side and Inside
A man in outdoor needs to adjust himself
with his clothing and whims of nature.
A man inside shelter We can control his
comfort .
HOW ?

Indoor Design Conditionscontd

ANSI / ASHRAE Standard 55-2004


Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy specifies the combinations of indoor
thermal environmental factors and personal factors that
produce acceptable conditions to a majority of the
occupants

58

Typical Brick Veneer Wall Section

59

Transmission Coefficient(U-Factor)
The `U` factor is the rate at which heat is
transferred through a building barrier. It is
determined by the following equation.
U=1/(R1+R2+R3......Rn)
Where the `R` values are the resistance of
the various wall segments to the flow of
heat.
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/
hr sf F
R = thermal resistance, hr sf F /BTU

Transmission Heat Loss Through Walls, Roofs, and Glass

H = U x A x T
H = heat loss, BTU/hr
A = surface area of element, sf
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ hr sf F
T = design dry bulb temperature difference between indoors
and outdoors, F
Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) Equivalent
temperature difference used for calculating the instantaneous
external cooling load across a wall or roof.
61

Transmission Heat Gain Through Walls and Roofs

H = U x A x T
H = heat gain, BTU/hr
A = surface area of element, sf
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ hr sf F
T = cooling load temperature difference, F

62

Conduction Heat Gains Through Glass

H = U x A x T
H = heat gain, BTU/hr
A = surface area of element, sf
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ hr sf F
T = cooling load temperature difference, F

Solar Heat Gain Through Glass

H = A x SC x SCL
H = heat gain, BTU/hr
SC = shading coefficient
SCL = solar cooling load factor
63

Infiltration Heat Gain and Heat Loss

The uncontrolled leakage of outdoor air into a


building through window and door cracks, floors,
walls, etc., as well as the flow of outdoor air into a
building through the normal use of exterior doors.
[Ex filtration is the leakage of indoor air out of the
building.The amount of ex filtration equals the
amount of infiltration]

64

Heat Gain from Occupants


Activity

Typical Application

Sensible
(BTU/hr)

Latent
(BTU/hr)

Seated at rest

Theater

210

140

Seated, very light work

Hotels, Apartments

230

190

Seated, eating

Restaurant

255

325

Seated, light work

Offices

255

255

Standing, walking slowly

Retail store, bank

315

325

Light bench work

Factory

345

435

Walking, light machine work

Factory

345

695

Bowling

Bowling alley

345

625

Heavy work, lifting

Factory

565

1035

Heavy work

Gymnasium

635

1165
65

Heat Gains from Lights

Each watt of lighting load (including both lamp and ballast) releases
3.413 BTU/hr

Heat Gain from Motors

Each brake or net horsepower of motor load divided by the


efficiency (including both motor and drive) releases 2545
BTU/hr

H = 2545 BTU/hr x Bhp / EffM x EffD


H = heat gain, BTU/hr
Bhp = brake horsepower
EffM = motor efficiency, decimal fraction, 0 1.0
EffD = drive efficiency, decimal fraction, 0 1.0
66

Heat Gains from Appliances and Equipment

Appliances and equipment (including food prep., hospital,


lab, office, etc.) normally produce significant sensible heat,
and may also produce significant latent heat.
To estimate the cooling load, specific heat gain data obtained
from the manufacturer is preferred. However, if it is not
available, recommended heat gains are published by
ASHRAE and other sources.
Evaluation of the operating schedule and the load factor for
each piece of equipment is essential.

67

Energy Saving Opportunities

Change indoor temperature and/or humidity


set-points

Improve building thermal envelope


Apply additional thermal insulation
Improve fenestration
Reduce infiltration

Improve lighting system efficiency


68

Low-e coatings

Heating Load Calculation Procedure


A. Obtain building characteristics:
1. Materials
2. Size
3. Color
4. Shape
5. Location
6. Orientation, N, S, E,W, NE, SE, SW, NW, etc.
7. External shading
8. Occupancy type and time of day

B. Select outdoor design weather conditions:


1. Temperature.
2. Wind direction and speed.
3. Conditions in selecting outdoor design weather conditions:
a. Type of structure, heavy , medium or light.
b. Is structure insulated?
c. Is structure exposed to high wind?
d. Infiltration or ventilation load.
e. Amount of glass.
f. Time of building occupancy.
g. Type of building occupancy.
h. Length of reduced indoor temperature.
i. What is daily temperature range, minimum/maximum?
j. Are there significant variations from ASHRAE weather data?
k. What type of heating devices will be used?
l. Expected cost of fuel.

C. Select indoor design temperature to be maintained in each


space.
Energy Conservation and Design Conditions, for code
restrictions on selection of indoor design conditions.
D. Estimate temperatures in un-heated spaces.
E. Select and/or compute U-values for walls, roof, windows, doors,
partitions, etc.
F. Determine area of walls, windows, floors, doors, partitions, etc.
G. Compute heat transmission losses for all walls, windows, floors,
doors, partitions, etc.
H. Compute heat losses from basement and/or grade level slab
floors.
I. Compute infiltration heat losses.
J. Compute ventilation heat loss required.
K. Compute sum of all heat losses indicated in items G, H, I, and J
above.

L. For a building with sizable and steady internal heat


release, a credit may be taken, but only a portion of
the total. Use extreme caution!!! For most buildings,
credit for heat gain should not be taken.
M. Include morning warm-up for buildings with
intermittent use and night set-back. Energy
Conservation and Design Conditions, for code
restrictions on excess HVAC system capacity
permitted for morning warm-up.
N. Consider equipment and materials which will be
brought into the building below inside design
temperature.
O. Heating load calculations should be conducted using
industry accepted methods to determine actual heating
load requirements.

Example problem

Calculate the cooling load for the building with the geometry shown on
figure. On east north and west sides are buildings which create shade on the
whole wall.
Walls: 4 face brick + 2 insulation + 4 concrete block, U value = 0.1, Dark
color
Roof: 2 internal insulation + 4 concrete , U value = 0.120 , Dark color
Below the building is basement with temperature of 75 F.

Internal design parameters:


air temperature 75 F
Relative humidity 50%
Find the amount of fresh air
that needs to be supplied by
ventilation system.

Example problem

Internal loads:

10 occupants, who are there from 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.doing


moderately active office work
1 W/ft2 heat gain from computers and other office equipment
from 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.
0.2 W/ft2 heat gain from computers and other office
equipment from 5:00 P.M. to 8:00 A.M.
1.5 W/ft2 heat gain from suspended fluorescent lights from
8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.
0.3 W/ft2 heat gain from suspended fluorescent lights from
5:00 P.M. to 8:00 A.M.

Infiltration:

0.5 ACH per hour

Example
For which hour to dosolution
the calculation when you do manual calculation?

Identify the major single contributor to the cooling load and do the calculation for
the hour when the maximum cooling load for this contributor appear.

For example problem major heat gains are


through the roof or solar through windows!
Roof: maximum TETD=61F at 6 pm (Total equivalent temperature differance)
South windows: max. SHGF=109 Btu/hft2 at 12 am (solar heat gain factor)

If you are not sure, do the calculation for both hours:


at 6 pm
Roof gains = A x U x TETD = 900 ft2 x 0.12 Btu/hFft2 x 61 F = 6.6 kBtu/h
Window solar gains = A x SC x SHGF =80 ft2 x 0.71 x 10 Btu/hft2 = 0.6 kBtu/h

total = 7.2 kBtu/h

at 12 am
Roof gains = A x U x TETD = 900 ft2 x 0.12 Btu/hFft2 x 30 F = 3.2 kBtu/h
Window solar gains = A x SC x SHGF =80 ft2 x 0.71 x 109 Btu/hft2 = 6.2 kBtu/h

For the example critical hour is July 12 AM.

total= 9.4 kBtu/h

How to calculate Cooling Load for HVAC


design

If the room with no outdoor influence has 4


lighting fixtures with 100 W each and 10
students,
what is the needed relative humidity and
temperature of supply air if only required
amount of fresh air is supplied
and room temperature is 75 F and RH 50%

"Rule of Thumb" Method


This method is simple to understand and use. However, it only
provides a rough guideline on the estimation of cooling load
requirement for the conventional window or split airconditioning system.

Procedures

a) Determine the function of the room (assuming there is no overcrowding of occupants and / or heat generating equipments).
b) Measure the floor area (A) of the room in either in square feet or
square meter (a standard height of about 8.5 feet or 2.65 meter
between the floor and false ceiling shall be assumed for the
room).
c) Depending on whether you are using the imperial ( square feet )
or metric ( square meter ) system of measurement, decide on
which Factor (F) to use
78

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80

81

INDOOR AIR QUALITYASHRAE STD. 62-1

82

83

AHSRAE Standard 62.1


Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality

Acceptable Indoor Air Quality:


Air in which there are no known
contaminants at harmful concentrations as
determined by cognizant authorities and
with which a substantial majority (80% or
more) of the people exposed do not
express dissatisfaction
84

The Purpose of Standard 62

The purpose of the Standard, first published in


1973 Standards for Natural and Mechanical
Ventilation, has remained consistent:
To specify minimum ventilation rates and
other measures intended to provide indoor air
quality that is acceptable to human occupants
and that minimizes adverse health effects.

85

Under Continuous Maintenance

The standard is updated on a regular bases using


ASHRAEs Continuous Maintenance Procedures
Continuously revised addenda are publicly reviewed
and approved by ASHRAE
Published in a Supplement approximately 18 months
after each new edition of the Standard
OR
A new, complete edition of the Standard is published
every three years

86

Significant Changes to ASHRAE Standard 62


1981 Edition:
Reduced the minimum outdoor air requirements for ventilation
Office 15 cfm/person to 5 cfm/person

1989 Edition:
Increased minimum outdoor air requirements for ventilation [Response
to growing number of buildings with apparent IAQ problems]
Office 5 cfm/person to 20 cfm/person

2004 Edition:
Changed the ventilation rate procedure to include the summation of two
components: the occupant-density related component, and the area
related component
Changed the ventilation rates in Table 6-1 to apply to non-smoking
spaces
87

Significant Changed contd


2004 contd:
Added classification of air with respect to contaminant and odor
intensity, and established guidelines for recirculation

2007 Edition:
Updated information in Table 4-1 National primary ambient
air quality standards for outdoor air as set by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
Added Section 5.18 Requirements for buildings containing ETS
areas and ETS-free areas (ETS-Environmental Tobacco Smoke)

88

ASHRAE Standard 62.1

Two alternative procedures for determining


outdoor air intake rates:
Ventilation Rate Procedure
This is a prescriptive procedure in which outdoor
air intake rates are determined based on space
type/application, occupancy level, and floor area

IAQ Procedure
This is a design procedure in which outdoor air
intake rates and other system design parameters
are based on an analysis of contaminant
concentration targets, and perceived acceptability
targets
89

90

91

62.1-2007

92

62.1-2007

93

NCSBC

94

NCSBC

95

Noteworthy Energy Conservation


Considerations

CO2 based demand controlled ventilation

Air-to-air energy recovery


[Exhaust air stream outdoor ventilation air stream]

96

Energy Conservation Imperative

Ongoing effective maintenance program for


equipment and controls

97

Commentary
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 Code Adoption
Standard 62.1 is voluntary until adopted by code or
other regulation
Code adoption is often delayed due to time required
to be accepted and integrated into the model codes,
as then accepted and adopted by the local codes

98

Energy Saving Opportunities


Optimize the energy requirements
associated with outdoor ventilation air

Apply CO2 based demand control

Apply air-to-air energy recovery equipment

99

VAPOR
COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION
CYCLE

100

Vapor Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
Evaporation: Low pressure liquid absorbs
heat (heat source) and changes state to a low
pressure vapor
Compression: Low pressure vapor is
compressed to high pressure vapor
Condensation: High pressure vapor is cooled
(heat sink) and changes state to a high pressure
liquid
Expansion: High pressure liquid is reduced to
low pressure liquid via throttling

101

Vapor Compression
Refrigeration Cycle Components

EVAPORATOR

102

Basic Liquid Chiller - Water Cooled

EVAPORATOR

CHILLED WATER

103

ENERGY USAGE

HVAC SYSTEM ENERGY USE


The energy use in a Heating, Ventilating and AirConditioning System is that associated with:
The generation of heating and cooling medium steam,
hot water, chilled water, and dx refrigeration (through
boilers, chillers, and dx refrigeration assemblies utilizing
fossil fuels and electricity)
The movement of heat transfer fluids air and water
(through fans and pumps utilizing electricity)
[As in the previous sections, energy saving opportunities
will be identified and discussed throughout this seminar]

HVAC SYSTEMS

106

Developing an HVAC System


Basic System Requirements
Provide heating
Modulate heating to satisfy variations in load
Provide cooling
Modulate cooling to satisfy variations in load
Provide adequate ventilation
Provide air cleaning (filtration)
Control humidity (humidify/dehumidify)
Integrate with other building systems

107

Developing an HVAC System


Critical Consideration Issues

Environmental Control Requirements


Occupant Comfort
Clean Air / Ventilation
Product / Process Requirements

Equipment Fuctionality
Reliability while meeting requirements

Economics
Initial Cost
Operating Cost
Maintenance Cost
108

HVAC System General Classification

All-Air Systems

Air-and-Water Systems

All-Water Systems

Unitary Air Conditioners

109

HVAC System Definitions


All-Air System
Provides complete sensible and latent cooling capacity in the
cold air supplied by the system
No additional cooling is required at the zone
Heating can be accomplished by the same airstream, either in
the central system or at a particular zone

Air-and-Water System
Conditions the spaces by distributing air and water sources to
terminal units installed in habitable space throughout a building
The air and water are cooled or heated in central mechanical
equipment rooms
The air supplied is called primary air, the water supplied is called
secondary water
110

HVAC System Definitions


All-Water System
Heats and/or cools a space by direct heat transfer between
water and circulating air

Unitary System
Packaged air conditioning units with integral refrigeration cycles

111

All-Air Systems

Single zone draw-through

Constant volume terminal reheat

Dual-duct

Multizone

Variable air volume (VAV)

112

General Air Handling System Layout

113

Air Side Economizer

Modes:
Free Cooling
Economy Refrigeration
114

Constant Volume System with Terminal


Reheat

115

Dual Duct System

116

Variable Air Volume System (VAV)

117

True VAV Terminal Unit

118

Parallel Fan-Powered VAV Terminal Unit

119

Series Fan-Powered VAV Terminal


Unit

120

Fan Volume Modulation for VAV


Systems

122

Basic Fan Laws


1.

Volume varies directly with speed ratio


CFM2 = CFM1 (RPM2 / RPM1)

2.

Pressure varies with square of speed ratio


P2 = P1 (RPM2 / RPM1)2

3.

Horsepower varies with cube of speed ratio


HP2 = HP1 (RPM2 / RPM1)3
123

Fan Problem
An existing centrifugal supply air fan serving a central
station air washer delivers 90,000 cfm @ 2 s.p. (wg), 825
rpm and 47.3 bhp.
It has been established that the volumetric air flow rate
(cfm) can be reduced 20% because of excessive design
safety factors and plant production equipment
modifications.
Determine: 1) new air volume, 2) rpm @ new cfm, 3) bhp
@ new cfm, and 4) annual electrical savings
Electricity cost:
Demand charge - $6.00/kw (avg)
Energy charge - $0.031/kwh (avg)

124

FanNewProblem
Air Volume = 0.8Solution
x 90,000 = 72,000 cfm
1.
2.
3.
4.

New RPM = 825 (72,000/90,000) = 660 rpm


New HP = 47.3 (660/825)3 = 24.2 hp
Annual electrical savings
HP reduction = 47.3 24.2 = 23.1 hp
KW reduction = (23.1 hp)(0.746 kw/hp) = 17.2 kw

Energy:
(23.1 hp)(0.746 kw/hp)(8760 hr/yr)($0.031/kwh)(1.03 tax)
= $4,820 /yr
Demand:
(17.2 kw/mo)(12 mo/yr)($6.00/kw)(1.03 tax)
= $1,276 /yr
Annual Electrical Savings:
$4,820 + $1,276 = $6,096 /yr
125

Air and Water System

Induction

Fan Coil

126

Induction Unit

Induction Nozzle

127

Fan Coil Unit

Note: Conditioned outdoor ventilation air is delivered


into the space through an independent de-coupled
system
128

All-Water Systems

Unit Ventilator

Fan Coil

129

Unit Ventilator

130

Fan Coil Unit

Note: Outdoor ventilation air provided through


infiltration
131

Unitary Air Conditioners

Rooftop

Split System

Through-the-wall

132

Packaged Rooftop Air Conditioning Units

133

Water-Source Heat Pumps

134

Water Loop Heat Pump System

135

Energy Saving Opportunities

Convert air-handling systems from constant volume to


variable-air-volume (VAV) airflow: employ VAV boxes and
fan motor variable speed drives. [Typical target systems:

constant volume systems with terminal reheat, & dual


duct systems]

Convert traditional multi-zone units to by-pass multi-zone


units

Install air-side economizers maximize the use of


outdoor air for cooling: free-cooling and economy
refrigeration

Eliminate the air-side economizer cycle on multi-zone units


Install water-side economizers

136

Energy Saving Opportunities contd

Optimize/balance volumetric airflow rates and eliminate


excess by fan speed adjustments
Implement occupied/unoccupied scheduling
Employ air-to-air heat exchangers exhaust air heat
recovery
Develop and implement an effective Preventative
Maintenance (PM) program
Replace equipment with higher efficiency equipment.
[Evaluate the employment of evaporative condensers in lieu
of air-cooled condensers]

Air-to-Air Heat Recovery


Properly applied air-to-air energy recovery equipment, which
transfers energy between supply and exhaust airstreams, will
reduce building and/or process energy usage in a costeffective manner.
Air-to-air energy recovery applications fall into three
categories (ASHRAE):
Comfort-to-comfort
Process-to-comfort
Process-to-process
[Because of time constraints in this workshop, we will limit our
discussion to comfort-to-comfort applications]

138

Comfort-to-Comfort Applications

Sensible Heat Devices - only transfer sensible heat


between the supply and exhaust airstreams, except
when the exhaust airstream is cooled to below its dew
point.

Total Heat Devices - transfer both sensible and latent


heat between the supply and exhaust airstreams

139

Performance Rating of Air-to-Air EnergyRecovery Equipment


ASHRAE Standard 84-1991, Method of Testing Air-toAir Heat Exchangers, was developed to establish a
uniform testing and rating standard.

e=

Actual transfer for the given device


Maximum possible transfer between airstreams

e = effectiveness

140

Air-to-Air Heat Recovery


Equipment

Rotary (Heat Wheel)

Heat Pipe

Static Heat Echanger

Runaround System

141

Rotary (Heat Wheel)

142

Heat Pipe

143

Static Heat Exchangers

144

Runaround System

145

CONTROL STRATEGY

146

Control Strategy
Optimize the operation of the HVAC systems
[To minimize the fan, heating and cooling energy requirements]
Develop and implement system scheduling
occupied/unoccupied
Implement optimal start/stop
Optimize the temperature and/or humidity setpoints in both
the occupied and unoccupied periods
Introduce outdoor ventilation air only when the building is
occupied
Provide control system override

147

In the early 1900s, there was a young engineer


Working For Buffalo Forge Company that received
a 'flash of genius' while waiting for a train.
It was a foggy night and he was going over in his
mind the problem of temperature and humidity
control. By the time the train arrived, Carrier had
an understanding of the relationship between
temperature, humidity and dew point.

That young engineer was


Willis H. Carrier

What Mr. Carriers 'flash of genius' that


day came to be known as
Psychrometry...

the study of air and

water vapor in mixture.

COMFORT
Comfort describes a delicate balance of pleasant feelings in
the body produced by its surrounding
Comfort involves
Temperature
Humidity
Air movement
Air cleanliness
The human body makes adjustments to comfort conditions
by its circulatory and respiratory systems

FOOD, ENERGY, AND THE BODY


The body uses food to produce energy
The body energy
Some stored as fatty tissue
Some leaves as waste
Some leaves as heat
Some is used to keep the body functioning

BODY TEMPERATURE
Humans are comfortable when the heat is transferring to
the surroundings at the correct rate
The body gives off and absorb heat by conduction,
convection and radiation
Surroundings must be cooler than the body for the body to
be comfortable
The body is close to being comfortable when it is at rest
and in surroundings of 75 F and 50% humidity with slight
air movement
Comfort conditions in winter and in summer are different

BODY TEMPERATURE
OF 98.6F

Heat travels from the


body to the ambient
air

AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE 75F at
50% HUMIDITY

Outside ambient
temperature
100F

The body cannot give up heat


readily

THE COMFORT CHART


Can be used to compare one comfort
situation or condition with another
Shows the different combinations of
temperature and humidity for summer and
winter
The closer the plot falls to the middle of the
chart, the more people would be comfortable
Different charts for summer and winter
conditions

Psychrometric

Chart...
graphically shows
the Properties of Air.

10

Psychrometric
Chart used...
to model conditions
inside buildings by
system designers.
11

Psychrometric

Chart used...
to monitor conditions in
commercial refrigeration
plants and manufacturing
environments.
12

Psychrometric

Chart used...
to evaluate problems
in air conditioned
environments.
13

Structure
H
E
E
L
SOLE
14

Seven Properties of Air

7
2

6
1
15

Seven Properties of Air...

Dry bulb temperature taken


with a standard thermometer.

0F

SOLE

800 F DB
16

Dry Bulb Temperature


Measured with a dry-bulb thermometer
Measures the level of heat intensity of a
substance
Used to measure and calculate sensible heat
and changes in sensible heat levels
Does not take into account the latent heat
aspect
Room thermostats measure the level of heat
intensity in an occupied space

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE SCALE


As we move up and down, the
dry bulb temperature does not
change

As we move from left to


right, the dry bulb
temperature increases

As we move from right


to left, the dry bulb
temperature decreases

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

PROPERTY
OF AIR
DRY BULB
TEMP

SYMBOL

DB

EXPRESSED
BY

SCALE
LOCATION

LINE
DRAWN

0F

SOLE
BOTTOM

STRAIGHT
UP

19

Seven Properties of Air...

2. Wet Bulb Temperature

taken with a thermometer


with a wetted wick.

660 F WB
Instep
SLING
PSYCHROMETER
20

Wet Bulb Temperature


Measured with a wet-bulb thermometer
Temperature reading is affected by the
moisture content of the air
Takes the latent heat aspect into account
Used in conjunction with the dry-bulb
temperature reading to obtain relative
humidity readings and other pertinent
information regarding an air sample

WET-BULB TEMPERATURE SCALE


As we move up and down along a
wet-bulb temperature line, the
wet bulb temperature does not
change
The red arrow indicates an
increase in the wet bulb
temperature reading

The blue arrow


indicates a decrease
in the wet bulb
temperature reading

WET-BULB, DRY-BULB COMBO

DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE

PROPERTY
OF AIR

SYMBOL

EXPRESSED
BY

SCALE
LOCATION

LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP
SLANTED

DRY BULB
TEMP

DB

0F

SOLE
BOTTOM

WET BULB
TEMP

WB

0F

INSTEP

24

Seven Properties of Air...

3.Dew Point Temperature

temperature at which
moisture condenses on
a surface.

25

PROPERTY
OF AIR

SYMBOL

EXPRESSED
BY

SCALE
LOCATION

LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP

DRY BULB
TEMP

DB

0F

SOLE
BOTTOM

WET BULB
TEMP

WB

0F

INSTEP

SLANTED

INSTEP

HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT

DEW POINT
TEMP

DP

0F

26

DEW POINT TEMPERATURE


The temperature at which the moisture in the air
begins to condense out of the air
The temperature at which water forms on objects
from the air is called the dew point temperature of
the air
The evaporator in an air conditioning or
refrigeration system operates below the dew
point temperature, so, as air comes in contact
with the coil, moisture begins to condense out of
the air

Glass of ice water (45F)


Dew point
temperature of the
surrounding air 55F
Droplets of moisture
begin to form on the
surface of the glass

Seven Properties of Air...

4. Specific Humidity
Absolute Humidity or Humidity
Ratio

amount of water vapor in


dry air. Measured in grains
per pound of dry air.
77 gr/lb

Heel
29

OF AIR

BY

LOCATION

DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP

DRY BULB
TEMP

DB

0F

SOLE
BOTTOM

WET BULB
TEMP

WB

0F

INSTEP

SLANTED

0F

INSTEP

HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT

GR/LB

HEEL
RIGHT VERT

HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT

DEW POINT
TEMP

SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY

DP

30

---- HUMIDITY ---ABSOLUTELY RELATIVE


There are two types of humidity
ABSOLUTE
RELATIVE

AH and RH are not the same


Cannot be used interchangeably
All humidities are not created equal

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
Amount of moisture present in an air
sample
60
Measured in grains
per pound of air
GRAINS
7,000 grains of moisture = 1 pound

1 POUND

The moisture scale on the


right-hand side of the chart
provides information regarding
the absolute humidity of an air
sample

As we move from side to


side, the moisture content
does not change
As we move up, the moisture
content increases
As we move down, the
moisture content decreases

MOISTURE CONTENT
(BTU/LBAIR)

MOISTURE CONTENT SCALE

Seven Properties of Air...

5. Relative Humidity
the amount of moisture
vapor the air is holding
compared to what it could
hold at the same DB
temperature.

Curved Lines
Saturation Point
Curve = 100% RH
35

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Amount of moisture present in an air sample
relative to the maximum moisture capacity of
the air sample
Expressed as a percentage
Can be described as the absolute humidity
divided by the maximum moisture-holding
capacity of the air

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #1

HOW FULL IS THE PARKING


LOT?

#10
of CARS
CARS

100%
X
% FULL
=
% FULL = 0.5 X 100%
#20
of SPACES
SPACES

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #2

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #3

60
GRAINS

If capacity is 120 grains, then the relative humidity


will be:

RH = (60 grains 120 grains) x 100% =


50%

RELATIVE HUMIDITY SCALE


As we move along a relative
humidity line, the relative
humidity remains the same
As we move up, the relative
humidity increases
As we move down, the
relative humidity decreases

PROPERTY
OF AIR

SYMBOL

EXPRESSED
BY

SCALE
LOCATION

LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP

DRY BULB
TEMP

DB

0F

SOLE
BOTTOM

WET BULB
TEMP

WB

0F

INSTEP

SLANTED

GR/LB

HEEL
RIGHT VERT

HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT

SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY

DEW POINT
TEMP

DP

0F

INSTEP

HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT

RELATIVE
HUMIDITY

RH

%RH

CURVED

CURVED

41

Seven Properties of Air...

6. Specific Volume
- Space that one pound of
dry air takes up
- Steeply slanted lines
- Expressed in Cubic Feet
per Pound ( ft3/lb )

42

SPECIFIC VOLUME & DENSITY


Specific volume and density are reciprocals
of each other
Density = lb/ft3
Specific volume = ft3/lb
Density x Specific Volume = 1
Specific volume can be determined from the
psychrometric chart, density must be
calculated

LINES OF SPECIFIC VOLUME


As we move along a line of
constant specific volume, the
specific volume remains
unchanged
As we move to the right, the
specific volume increases
As we move to the left,
the specific volume
decreases

PROPERTY
OF AIR

SYMBOL

EXPRESSED
BY

SCALE
LOCATION

LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP

DRY BULB
TEMP

DB

0F

SOLE
BOTTOM

WET BULB
TEMP

WB

0F

INSTEP

SLANTED

GR/LB

HEEL
RIGHT VERT

HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT

SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY

DEW POINT
TEMP

DP

0F

INSTEP

HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT

RELATIVE
HUMIDITY

RH

%RH

CURVED

CURVED

FT3/LB

STEEPLY
SLANTED

STEEPLY
SLANTED

SPECIFIC
VOLUME

45

Seven Properties of Air...

7. Enthalpy
- Total amount of heat
energy (sensible and
latent) in one pound
of air.

46

The lines that represent


constant wet-bulb temperature
also represent the enthalpy of
the air

ENTHALPY SCALE
As we move up and down
along an enthalpy line, the
enthalpy does not change
The red arrow
indicates an increase
in enthalpy
The blue arrow
indicates a decrease
in enthalpy

PROPERTY
OF AIR

SYMBOL

EXPRESSED
BY

SCALE
LOCATION

LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP

DRY BULB
TEMP

DB

0F

SOLE
BOTTOM

WET BULB
TEMP

WB

0F

INSTEP

SLANTED

GR/LB

HEEL
RIGHT VERT

HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT

SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY

DEW POINT
TEMP

DP

0F

INSTEP

HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT

RELATIVE
HUMIDITY

RH

%RH

CURVED

CURVED

STEEPLY
SLANTED

STEEPLY
SLANTED

ABOVE
INSTEP

EXTENSION
OF WB LINE

SPECIFIC
VOLUME

FT3/LB

ENTHALPY

BTU/LB

49

Making a Sling Psychrometer for reading


WB: Need: 1 ea. Athletic Shoe Lace
Cut Shoe Lace

Poke Pocket Thermometer into long piece of Shoe Lace

To use: Wet short end and sling while


holding on to long end.
Short piece taped or rubber-banded to Thermometer

50

Return Air: 75FDB,


50% r.h.
Supply Air: 55FDB,
90% r.h.

Airflow: 1200 cfm

SUPPLY
AIR

RETURN
AIR

T = Return Air Temp Supply Air


Temp
T = 75F - 55F = 20F
W = Return grains/lbAIR Supply
grains/lbAIR
W = 64 Grains 60 Grains = 4 grains/lbAIR

Return Air: 75FDB,


50% r.h.
Airflow: 1200 cfm

h = Return btu/lbAIR Supply btu/lbAIR

Supply Air: 55FDB, 90% r.h.

h = 28.1 btu/lbAIR

h = 28.1 btu/lbAIR - 21.6 btu/lbAIR = 6.5


btu/lbAIR

h = 21.6 Btu/lbAIR
RETURN
AIR

SUPPLY
AIR

64
grains/lb
60
grains/lb

55F

75F

54

Air Conditioning Processes...


Transition
Evap Coil
Blower Section
Supply Air
Plenum

SA

Heat
Section

Psychrometric
changes take
place between
RA and SA

Return Air
Plenum

RA
55

Heating only

Sensible
change

Process Line moves

horizonally to right
Initial Point
0DGR
(Return Air reading)

DT

56

Cooling only

Sensible
change

Process Line moves

horizonally to left
0DGR

DT

57

Humidifying only
Process Line moves
straight up

DGR

Latent
change

0DT

58

Dehumidifying only
Process Line moves
straight down
Latent

DGR

change

0DT

59

Other AC Processes...
Sensible and Latent change

Cooling &
Humidifying

Heating &
Humidifying

Cooling &
Heating &
Dehumidifying Dehumidifying
60

What we need
for evaluating
AC Processes...
DH

RA
50% RH

SA
80% RH

600

F DB

DGR

800 F DB

DT

Prof. Koldenhott's FUNdamentals


of Cocktailmetrics

61

AIR FORMULAE

QT = QS + QL
QT = 4.5 x Cfm X h
Qs = 1.1 x Cfm X T
QL = 0.68 x Cfm x W

Air Side Equations


Sensible Load:

Qs = 1.1 X CFM X DT
A constant based
on the Density of
Air and a time
conversion factor

Determined from
the Condensing
Unit model number

QS is expressed in BTUH
63

Air Side Equations


Latent Load:

QL = .68 X CFM X DGR


A constant
including a time
conversion factor

Same as that used


for QS

QL is expressed in BTUH
64

Air Side Equations


Total Load:

QT = 4.45 X CFM X DH
A constant
including a time
conversion factor

Same as that used


for QS

QT is expressed in BTUH
65

66

Sensible Heat
Ratio
LATENT SENSIBLE

the ratio of Sensible


Load (QS) to
Total Load (QT)
67

Sensible Heat
Ratio
SHR =

QS

QT

68

Sensible Heat Ratio

Example:
SHR =

29,060 btuh
36,325 btuh

.80 SHR
69

Sensible Heat Ratio


The way Engineers Plot SHR
on the Psychrometric Chart

Permanent
Index Point

.80 SHR

Note: Any Process Line


parallel to this line will
maintain the SHR
Prof. Koldenhott's FUNdamentals
of Cocktailmetrics

70

HL

Latent
change in
Enthalpy

Hs
Sensible
change in
Enthalpy

DGR
Latent
change

DT
Sensible change

71

RETURN AIR

SUPPLY AIR

Water Vapor at 75F

Water at
50F

TOTAL HEAT
The capacity of a heating and cooling unit
may be field checked with the total heat
feature of the psychrometric chart
Total heat = sensible heat + latent heat
Sensible heat formula: Qs = 1.08 x cfm x T
Total heat formula: Qt = 4.5 x cfm x total heat
difference
CFM formula: ______Qs______
1.08 x T

SUMMARY
Comfort is affected by air movement, humidity,
air cleanliness and temperature
Humans are considered to be comfortable
when heat is transferred from the body to its
surroundings at the proper rate
The body is close to being comfortable when it
is at rest and in surroundings of 75F and 50%
humidity with slight air movement
The comfort chart is used to compare one
comfort situation or condition with another

SUMMARY
Psychrometrics is the study of air and its
properties
Density indicates how many pounds one cubic
foot of a substance weighs
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density
Moisture in air is referred to as humidity
Dry bulb temperature is the sensible heat level
of air
Wet bulb temperatures take the moisture
content of the air into account

SUMMARY
The dew point temperature is the point at
which moisture in the air begins to
condense out of the air
The psychrometric chart provides a
graphical representation of an air sample
as well as a means to calculate other
properties of the air
Total heat = sensible heat + latent heat

LAW OF THE TEE FOR MIXED AIR

OUTSIDE AIR

RETURN AIR

MIXED
AIR

AIR
HANDLER

LAW OF THE TEE FOR MIXED AIR


PERCENTAGE OF RETURN AIR +
PERCENTAGE OF OUTSIDE AIR

100% of MIXED AIR


OUTSIDE
RETURN

LAW OF THE TEE FOR MIXED AIR


SAMPLE PROBLEM
AIR CONDITIONS:

RETURN AIR (80%): 75FDB, 50%RH


OUTSIDE AIR (20%): 85FDB, 60%RH

MIXED AIR = 80% RETURN AIR + 20% OUTSIDE AIR


MIXED AIR = (.80) RETURN AIR + (.20) OUTSIDE AIR
MIXED AIR = (.80) (75FDB, 50%RH) + (.20) (85FDB, 60%RH)
MIXED AIR = 60FDB, 40%RH + 17FDB, 12%RH
MIXED AIR = 77FDB, 52%RH

Return Air: 75FDB,


50% r.h.
Outside Air: 85FDB,
60% r.h.
Mixed Air: 77FDB, 52%
r.h.

OUTSIDE AIR

SUPPLY AIR

MIXED AIR

RETURN AIR

Heat/cooling load calculations

Principles of Heat Transfer

Heat energy cannot


be destroyed
Heat always flows
from a higher
temperature
substance to a lower
temperature
substance.
Heat can be
transferred from one
substance to another

3 Basic principles of heat transfer


1.Heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can
only be transferred to another substanceprinciple of "conservation of energy.
2) Heat energy naturally flows from a highertemperature substance to a lowertemperature substance, in other words, from
hot to cold.
3) Heat energy is transferred from one
substance to another by one of three basic
processes: conduction, convection, or
radiation.

Methods of Heat Transfer

Sensible heat is heat energy that, when added to or


removed from a substance, results in a measurable
change in dry-bulb temperature.
Changes in the latent heat content of a substance
are associated with the addition or removal of
moisture.
Latent heat can also be defined as the hidden heat
energy that is absorbed or released when the phase
of a substance is changed.
For example, when water is converted to steam, or
when steam is converted to water.

Heat Generated by People

Factors Affecting Human Comfort


Dry-bulb
temperature
Humidity
Air movement
Fresh air
Clean air
Noise level
Adequate lighting
Proper furniture and
work surfaces

Indoor Design Conditions

Cooling Load Components


roof

lights

glass solar

infiltration

people
equipment

glass
conduction
exterior
wall

floor

partition
wall

Sensible and Latent Gains


cooling load components
conduction through roof, walls, windows,
and skylights
solar radiation through windows, skylights
conduction through ceiling, interior
partition walls, and floor
people
lights
equipment/appliances
infiltration
ventilation
system heat gains

sensible latent
load
load

Time of Peak Cooling Load

heat gain

east-facing
window

roof

12

12

12

mid

a.m.

noon

p.m.

mid

Example Office Space

The windows face west and the solar heat gain through these
windows will peak in the late afternoon when the sun is setting
and shining directly into the windows. Because of this, we will
assume that the maximum cooling load for our example
space occurs at 4 p.m.
Basis for estimating the space cooling and heating loads.
Open-plan office space located in a single-story office building
Floor area = 45 ft x 60 ft
Floor-to-ceiling height = 12 ft (no plenum between the space
and roof).
Desired indoor conditions = 78F [25.6C] dry-bulb
temperature, 50% relative humidity during cooling season;
72F [22.2C] dry-bulb temperature during heating season.
West-facing wall, 12 ft high x 45 ft long constructed of 8 in.
[203.2 mm] lightweight concrete

Block with aluminum siding on the outside, 3.5 in. [88.9 mm] of
insulation, and in. [12.7 mm] gypsum board on the inside.
Eight clear, double-pane ( in. [6.4 mm]) windows mounted in
aluminum frames. Each window is 4 ft wide x 5ft high
Flat, 45 ft x 60 ft roof constructed of 4 in. [100 mm] concrete
with 3.5 in. [90 mm] insulation & steel decking.
Space is occupied from 8:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m. by 18 people
doing moderately active work.
Fluorescent lighting in space = 2 W/ft2
Computers and office equipment in space = 0.5 W/ft2, plus one
coffee maker.
In order to simplify this example, we will assume that, with the
exception of the west-facing exterior wall, room
Room is surrounded by spaces that are air conditioned to the
same temperature as this space.

Outdoor Design Conditions

0.4%, means that the dry-bulb temperature in St.


Louis exceeds 95F [35C] for only 0.4% of all of
the hours in an average year. Also, 76F [25C] is
the wet-bulb temperature that occurs most
frequently when the dry-bulb temperature is 95F
[35C].

Heat Conduction through Surfaces

Conduction is the process


of transferring heat through
a solid, such as a wall, roof,
floor, ceiling, window, or
skylight. Heat naturally
flows by conduction from a
higher temperature to
a lower temperature.

Conduction through a Shaded Wall


Q = U A T
where,
Q = heat gain by conduction, Btu/hr
U = overall heat-transfer coefficient of
the surface, Btu/hrft2F
A = area of the surface, ft2
T = dry-bulb temperature difference
across the surface, F

U-factor

U-factor for Example Wall

The U-factor of this wall is calculated by


summing the thermal resistances of each of
these layers and then taking the inverse.

The U-factor of the roof

Conduction through a Shaded Wall


Qwall = 0.06 380 (95 78) = 388 Btu/hr
Conduction heat gain through the west-facing
wall (assume shaded at all times):
U-factor = 0.06 Btu/hrft2F
Total area of wall + windows = 12 ft x 45 ft =
540 ft2
Area of windows = 8 windows x (4 ft x 5 ft) =
160 ft2
Net area of wall = 540 160 = 380 ft2
T = outdoor temperature (95F) indoor
temperature 78F

Sunlit Surfaces
sun
rays

solar angle changes throughout the day

When the suns rays strike the surface at a


90 angle, the maximum amount of
radiant heat energy is transferred to that
surface. When the same rays strike that
same surface at a lesser angle, less
radiant heat energy is transferred to the
surface.

Time Lag
solar effect

time lag

Curve A shows the


magnitude of the
solar effect on the
exterior wall. Curve
B shows the
resulting heat that
is transferred
through the wall
into the space.

12

12

12

mid

a.m.

noon

p.m.

mid

Storage Effect (thermal lag)

Conduction Sunlight Surfaces


Q = U A CLTD

A factor called the cooling load


temperature difference (CLTD) is used
to account for the added heat transfer due
to the sun shining on exterior walls, roofs,
and windows, and the capacity of the wall
and roof to store heat. The CLTD is
substituted for T in the equation to
estimate heat transfer by conduction.

BH = U A T

CLTD

The wall in our example is classified as Wall Type 9. At 5 p.m.


(Hour 17 in this table), the CLTD for a west-facing wall of this
type is 22F. This means that, even though the actual dry-bulb
temperature difference is only 17F (95F 78F) the sun
shining on the outer surface of this wall increases the effective
temperature difference to 22F.
Notice that the CLTD increases later in the day, and then
begins to decrease in the evening as the stored heat is finally
transferred from the wall into the space.

Conduction through Sunlit Surfaces

Q wall = 0.06 380 22 = 502


Btu/hr
Q roof = 0.057 2,700 80 =
12,312 Btu/hr

U-factors for Windows

Conduction through Windows

Q windows = 0.63 160 13 = 1,310 Btu/hr

Conduction heat gain through the west-facing


windows:
U-factor = 0.63 Btu/hrft2F
Total area of glass = 8 windows x (4 ft x 5 ft) = 160
ft2
CLTDhour=17 = 13F

Solar radiation through glass


Q = A SC SCL
Q = heat gain by solar
radiation through glass,
Btu/hr
A = total surface area
of the glass, ft2
SC = shading
coefficient of the
window, dimensionless
SCL = solar cooling
load factor, Btu/hrft2

BH = solar gain + conduction

Solar Cooling Load Factor


Direction that the window faces
Time of day
Month
Latitude
Construction of interior partition walls
Type of floor covering
Existence of internal shading devices
The solar cooling load (SCL) factor is used to estimate the rate at which
solar heat energy radiates directly into the space, heats up the surfaces
and furnishings, and is later released to the space as a sensible heat
gain. Similar to CLTD, the SCL factor is used to account for the capacity
of the space to absorb and store heat.
The shading coefficient (SC) is an expression used to define how much
of the radiant solar energy, that strikes the outer surface of the window,
is actually transmitted through the window and into the space.

Shading Coefficient

Solar Radiation through Windows


Q windows = 160 0.74 192 = 22,733 Btu/hr
Solar radiation heat gain through the windows on
the west-facing wall:
Total area of glass = 8 windows x (4 ft x 5 ft) =
160 ft2
SC = 0.74
SCL hour=17 = 192 Btu/hrft2

Types of Shading Devices


Interior blinds

Installing internal shading


devices, such as venetian
blinds, curtains, or drapes,
can reduce the amount of
solar heat energy passing
through a window. The
effectiveness of these shading
devices depends on their
ability to reflect the in coming
solar radiation back through
the window, before it is
converted into heat inside the
space.

External shading devices,


such as overhangs, vertical
fins, or awnings, can also
reduce the amount of solar
heat energy passing
through a window. They
can be used to reduce the
area of the glass surface
that is actually impacted by
the suns rays.
Exterior fins

Internal Heat Gains

While all of these sources contribute sensible heat to


the space, people, cooking processes,and some
appliances (such as a coffee maker) also contribute
latent heat to the space.

Heat Generated by People

people generate more heat than is needed to maintain body


temperature. This surplus heat is dissipated to the surrounding air in
the form of sensible and latent heat. The amount of heat released by
the body varies with age, physical size, gender, type of clothing, and
level of physical activity.

The equations used to predict the sensible and


latent heat gains from people in the space are:
QS = number of people x sensible heat
gain/person x CLF
QL = number of people x latent heat
gain/person
where,
QS = sensible heat gain from people, Btu/hr
QL = latent heat gain from people, Btu/hr
CLF = cooling load factor, dimensionless

CLF Factors for People

For heat gain from people, the value of CLF depends on


1) the construction of the interior partition walls in the space
2) the type of floor covering
3) the total number of hours that the space is occupied
4) the number of hours since the people entered the space.

The cooling load factor (CLF) is used to account for


the capacity of the space to absorb and store heat.
Some of the sensible heat generated by people is
absorbed and stored by the walls, floor, ceiling, and
furnishings of the space, and released at a later time.
If the space is not maintained at a constant
temperature during the 24-hour period, however, the
CLF is assumed to equal 1.0. Most air-conditioning
systems designed for non-residential buildings
either shut the system off at night or raise the
temperature set point to reduce energy use. Thus, it
is uncommon to use a CLF other than 1.0 for the
cooling load due to people.

Heat Gain from People


Q sensible = 18 250 1.0 = 4,500 Btu/hr

Q latent = 18 200 = 3,600 Btu/hr


Internal heat gain from people:
Number of people = 18
Sensible heat gain/person = 250 Btu/hr
Latent heat gain/person = 200 Btu/hr
CLF = 1.0 (because the space temperature set point is
increased at night)
QS = 18 people x 250 Btu/hr per person x 1.0=4,500 Btu/hr
QL = 18 people x 200 Btu/hr per person = 3,600 Btu/hr

Heat Gain from Lighting


Q = watts 3.41 ballast factor CLF
when estimating the heat gain generated by fluorescent lights,
approximately 20% is added to the lighting heat gain to account for the
additional heat generated by the ballast.
The equation used to estimate the heat gain from lighting is:
Q = watts x 3.41 x ballast factor x CLF
[Q = watts x ballast factor x CLF]
where,
Q = sensible heat gain from lighting, Btu/hr [W]
Watts = total energy input to lights, W
3.41 = conversion factor from W to Btu/hr
Ballast factor = 1.2 for fluorescent lights, 1.0 for incandescent lights
CLF = cooling load factor, dimensionless
If the lights are left on 24 hours a day, or if the air-conditioning system
is shut off or set back at night, the CLF is assumed to be equal to 1.0.

Heat Gain from Lighting


Q lights = 5,400 3.41 1.2 1.0 = 22,097 Btu/hr

Internal heat gain from lighting:


Amount of lighting in space = 2 W/ft2
Floor area = 45 ft x 60 ft = 2,700 ft2
Total lighting energy = 2 W/ft2 x 2,700 ft2 = 5,400
W
Ballast factor = 1.2 (fluorescent lights)
CLF = 1.0 (because the space temperature set
point is increased at night)

Heat Generated by Equipment

Additionally, we are told that there are 0.5 W/ft2 of


computers and other office equipment in the
space (floor area = 2,700 ft2.
Therefore, the internal heat gain from computers and
office equipment:
Sensible heat gain = 0.5 W/ft2 x 2,700 ft2 x 3.41
Btu/hr/W = 4,604 Btu/hr

Infiltration
Air leaks into or out of a
space through doors,
windows, and small
cracks in the building
envelope. Air leaking into a
space is called infiltration.
During the cooling season,
when air leaks into a
conditioned space from
outdoors, it can contribute
to both the sensible and
latent heat gain in the space
because the outdoor air is
typically warmer and more
humid than the indoor air.

Methods of Estimating Infiltration


Air change method
Crack method
Effective leakage-area method

There are three methods commonly used to estimate infiltration


airflow.
The air change method is the easiest, but may be the least
accurate of these methods. It involves estimating the number of air
changes per hour that can be expected in spaces of a certain
construction quality.
using the equation:
Infiltration airflow = (volume of space x air change rate) 60
where,
Infiltration airflow = quantity of air infiltrating into the space, cfm
Volume of space = length x width x height of space,ft3
Air change rate = air changes per hour
60 = conversion from hours to minutes

The crack method is a little more complex and is based


upon the average quantity of air known to enter through
cracks around windows and doors when the wind velocity
is constant.
The effective leakage-area method takes wind speed,
shielding, and stack effect into account, and requires a
very detailed calculation.

Heat Gain from Infiltration


Q sensible = 1.1 airflow T
Q latent = 0.7 airflow W
QS = sensible heat gain from infiltration, Btu/hr
1.1 = product of density and specific heat,
Btumin/hrft3F
Airflow = quantity of air infiltrating the space, cfm
T = design outdoor dry-bulb temperature minus the
desired indoor dry-bulb temperature, F
QL = latent heat gain from infiltration, Btu/hr
0.7 = latent heat factor, Btuminlb/hrft3gr
Airflow = quantity of air infiltrating the space, cfm
W = design outdoor humidity ratio minus the desired
indoor humidity ratio, grains of water/lb of dry air

Heat Gain from Infiltration


QS = 1.1 162 (95 78) = 2,988 Btu/hr
QL = 0.7 162 (105 70) = 3,969 Btu/hr
Infiltration airflow = 162 cfm [0.077 m3/s]
Outdoor conditions: 95F dry bulb and 76F wet
bulb results in Wo = 105 grains of water/lb dry air
Indoor conditions: 78F dry bulb and 50% relative
humidity results in Wi = 70 grains of water/lb dry air.

1.1 and 0.7 are not constants, but are derived from
properties of air at standard conditions.

Density = 0.075 lb/ft3


Specific heat = 0.24 Btu/lbF
Latent heat of water vapor = 1,076 Btu/lb
0.075 x 0.24 x 60 min/hr = 1.085

Summary of Space Cooling Loads

Ventilation

Outdoor air is often used to dilute or remove contaminants


from the indoor air. The intentional introduction of outdoor
air into a space, through the use of the buildings HVAC
system, is called ventilation.This outdoor air must often be
cooled and dehumidified before it can be delivered to the
space, creating an additional load on the air-conditioning
equipment.

It is common to introduce outdoor air through the


HVAC system, not only to meet the ventilation
needs, but also to maintain a positive pressure
(relative to the outdoors) within the building.
This positive pressure reduces, or may even
eliminate, the infiltration of unconditioned air from
outdoors.
To pressurize the building, the amount of outdoor
air brought in for ventilation must be greater than
the amount of air exhausted through central and
local exhaust fans.

ventilation airflow =18 people x 20 cfm/person = 360 cfm


Cooling Load Due to Ventilation

QS = 1.1 360 (95 78) = 6,640 Btu/hr


QL = 0.7 360 (105 70) = 8,820 Btu/hr

Outdoor Air Requirements

System Heat Gains


There may be others sources of heat
gain within the HVAC system. One
example is the heat generated by
fans. When the supply fan, driven by
an electric motor, is located in the
conditioned airstream, it adds heat
to the air. Heat gain from a fan is
associated with three energy
conversion losses.
1.Fan motor heat gain = power
input to motor (1 motor
efficiency)
2. Fan blade heat gain = power
input to fan (1 fan efficiency)
3. Duct friction heat gain = power
input to fan fan efficiency

Components of Fan Heat

It is important to know where the fan heat gain occurs with


respect to the cooling coil. If the fan is located upstream and
blows air through the cooling coil, the fan heat causes an increase
in the temperature of the air entering the coil. If, however, the fan
is located downstream and draws air through the cooling coil, the
fan heat causes an increase in the temperature of the air supplied
to the space.

Heat Gain in Ductwork


Another source of heat gain in
the system may be heat that is
transferred to the conditioned
air through the walls of the
supply and return ductwork.
Eg, if the supply ductwork
is routed through an
unconditioned space,
heat can be transferred from
the air surrounding the duct to
the supply air.
Supply ductwork is generally insulated to prevent this heat gain and
the associated increase in temperature of the supply air. An increased
supply air temperature requires a greater amount of supply air to
maintain the desired space conditions, resulting in more fan energy
use. Insulation also reduces the risk of condensation on the cool, outer
surfaces of the duct. Return ductwork, is generally not insulated unless
it passes through a very warm space.

Summary of Cooling Loads

Cooling and Heating Load EstimationPsychrometric Analysis

Space Load versus Coil Load

Notice that all space loads are also coil loads, but all coil loads are
not necessarily also space loads. Ventilation air is conditioned prior
to being delivered to the space. Therefore, the ventilation load
adds to the total cooling coil load, but does not add to the space
cooling load.Additionally,heat gains that occur within the HVAC
system, such as fan heat and duct heat gain, are considered coil
loads, but not space loads.

Space Sensible and Latent Loads

Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR)

The SHR for our example space is 0.89. That is,


89% of the cooling load for this space is sensible
and 11% is latent.

Single-Space Analysis

This analysis assumes that the example space is


served by its own dedicated air conditioning
system, consisting of a cooling coil and supply fan.

Determine Supply Airflow

where,
Sensible heat gain = sensible heat gain in the space, Btu/hr
1.085 = product of density and specific heat, Btumin/hrft3F
Supply airflow = quantity of air supplied to the space, cfm
Room DB = desired space dry-bulb temperature, F
Supply DB = supply air dry-bulb temperature, F
Remember that 1.085 is not a constantit is derived from the
density and specific heat of the air at actual conditions.

Calculate Entering Coil Conditions

Calculate Entering Coil Conditions

We need to calculate the condition of the air entering the cooling coil. The
condition of this air mixture (C) must fall on a line connecting the condition
of the recirculated air (A) and the condition of the outdoor air (B).The wetbulb temperature that marks the intersection of the connecting line and
the 80F dry-bulb temperature mark is approximately 66.5F.Because the
recirculated air constitutes a larger percentage (88%) of the mixture, the
mixed-air condition (C) is much closer to the recirculated air condition (A)
than the outdoor design condition (B).

Determine Supply Air Temperature

Now to determine the supply-air condition (dry-bulb


and wet-bulb temperatures) necessary to absorb the
sensible and latent heat in the space.

A sensible-heat-ratio line is drawn by connecting the 0.89


value on the SHR scale with the index point. Since the
index point is the same as the desired space condition for
this example (A), this line is extended until it intersects the
saturation curve.
If the desired space condition was different, a line would
be drawn parallel to the 0.89 SHR line through the space
condition.
Using the curvature of the nearest two coil curves as a
guide, draw a curve from the mixed air condition (C) until it
intersects the SHR line.
This point of intersection (D) represents the supply-air
condition that will offset the space sensible and latent heat
gains in the correct proportions required to maintain the
desired space condition.
Here, this supply-air condition is 59F dry bulb, 57.4F
wet bulb.

Recalculate Supply Airflow

Total Cooling Load on Coil

Multiple-Space Analysis

If each space is conditioned by a separate system, then


the fan and coil would be sized to handle the maximum
load for the particular space.
If,however, a single system is used to condition several
spaces in a building, the method used to size the fan and
coil depends on whether the system is a constant-volume
(CV) or variable-air-volume (VAV) system.
If the supply fan delivers a constant volume of air, the fan
must be sized by summing the peak sensible loads for each
of the spaces it serves.
If, however, it is a VAV system and the fan delivers a
varying amount of air to the system, the fan is sized based
on the one-time, worst-case airflow requirement of all of
the spaces it serves.

Room 101 (Faces West)

Because room 101 has several west-facing windows,


the peak (highest) space sensible load occurs in the
late afternoon when the sun is shining directly
through the windows.

Room 102 (Faces East)

Because room 102 has several east-facing windows,


the peak space cooling load occurs in the morning
when the rising sun shines directly through the
windows.

Although rooms 101 and 102 peak at different times of the day, there
will be a single instance in time when the sum of these two space loads
is highest. This is called the block load. If these two spaces are served
by a single VAV system, in which the supply fan delivers a varying
amount of air to the system, the fan only needs to be sized for the time.
When the sum of the space sensible loads is the highest129,939
Btu/hr. This is the reason that VAV systems can use smaller supply fans
than constant-volume systems.
Sum of peaks =74,626 + 62,414 = 137,040 Btu/hr
Block = 74,626 + 55,313 = 129,939 Btu/hr

Assume that the supply air dry bulb is the 59F that was calculated
during the psychrometric analysis.The sum-of-peaks and block
airflows for sizing the supply fan in these two cases can then be
calculated as follows:

Block Cooling Load

12000 Btu/hr = 1 TR
Then 179,077/12000 =14.92 TR

Computerized Load Analysis


Time Savings
Determining time of peak
and block loads
Changes to building design
Space usage
Building orientation
Construction materials
Zoning
Performing what if?
analyses

Space versus Plenum Loads


exterior
wall

roof

plenum

return air
lights

ceiling

Heat absorbed by Return Air

Space versus Plenum Loads

While some of this heat is absorbed by the return air, 3,620 Btu/hr is
transferred through the ceiling into the space. This heat transfer
between the plenum and the space does affect the space sensible
load, but it does not affect the coil load. This is because any heat that
is not transferred to the space is absorbed by the return air and must
be eventually removed by the cooling coil.

Ducted Return

People

Equipment - Office

Equipment
-Restaurant

Heat Gain in Ductwork


If insulated
Add 1-3%
depending of the
extent of the duct
work
Not insulated
Add 10 15%
depending on
extent of duct work
or climate (best to
calculate gain by
conduction)
BH = U A T

Duct leakage If outside of


conditioned space add 5%

Review

Thermal comfort depends upon creating an environment of drybulb temperature, humidity and air motion that is appropriate
for the activity level of the people in the space. This environment
allows the bodys rate of heat generation to balance with the
bodys rate of heat loss. ASHRAE has prescribed a comfort
zone that can be used as the basis for HVAC system design.

Review

Basic components of Air


conditioner

The parts we find in a airconditioning


system are
compressor
condeser
expantion valve
evaporator
accumulator
drier
sight glass

compressor

positive displacement compressors


This reduces the volume of a constant
amount of gas
This could be divided further
1. reciprocating compressors
2. rotary compressors

Reciprocating compressors
A reciprocating compressor or piston
compressor is a positive-displacement
compressor that uses pistons driven by a
crankshaft to deliver gases at high
pressure.

Reciprocating compressor are used for


large duty cycle work
They are basically energy hungry
They have a longer life time

Advatages

Simple design, easy to install


Lower initial cost
Large range of horsepower
Special machines can reach extremely high
pressure
Two stages models offer the highest efficiency

Disadvatages

Higher maintenance cost


Many moving parts
Potential for vibration problems
Foundation may be required depending on
size
Many are not designed to run at full
capacity

Reciprocating compressor could be further


divide into
a) single acting compressor
b) Double acting compressor
c) dighpram compressor

single and double acting compressors


were once the most commonly used
compressors
These compressors have been replaced
by rotary screw compressors
The reciprocating compressors are smaller
and requires lesser foundation

it is lesser efficient since it uses lesser


horse power
It produces more noise in comparison with
a screw compressor
It has a longer life time

single acting compressors


It is a compressor that has one discharge per
revolution of crankshaft.

piston rings

Piston rings provide a seal that prevents or minimizes


leakage through piston and liner. Metal piston rings are
made either in one piece, with a gap or in several
segments. Gaps in the rings allow them to move out or
expand as the compressor reaches operating
temperature.

crankshaft

The crankshaft is built in a single piece.


On the inside of the shaft are holes for
passage and distribution of lube oil.
Lubricants reduce friction and therefore
wear between moving compressor parts.
Lubricant also serves as a coolant.

piston
For low speed compressors (upto 330 rpm) and
medium speed compressors (330-600 rpm),
pistons are usually made of cast iron.
Upto 7 diameter cast iron pistons are made of
solids. Those of more than 7 diameters are
usually hollow
(to reduce cost).
Carbon pistons are sometimes used for
compressing oxygen and other gases that must
be kept free of lubricant.

cylinder and liner


Piston reciprocates inside a cylinder. To provide for
reduced reconditioning cost, the cylinder may be fitted
with a liner or sleeve. A cylinder or liner usually wears at
the points where the piston rings rub against it. Because
of the weight of the piston, wear is usually greater at the
bottom of a horizontal cylinder. A cylinder liner is usually
counter bored near the ends of the outer ring travel i.e.
counter bores are made just ahead of the points where
the end piston rings stop and reverse direction.
Shoulders may form in the liner where the rings travel
stops unless counter bores are provided.

piston rod packing

Piston rod packing ensures sealing of the compressed


gas. The piston rod packing consists of series of cups
each containing several seal rings side by side. The
rings are built of three sectors, held together by a spring
installed in the groove running around the outside of the
ring.
The entire set of cups is held in place by stud bolts.
Inside channels are there for cooling, gas recovery and
lubrication of the piston rod packing.

piston rods and piston

Generally, the piston rod is fastened to the piston by


means of special nut that is prevented from unscrewing.
The surface of the rod has suitable degree of finish
designed to minimize wear on the sealing areas as much
as possible. The piston is provided with grooves for
piston rings and rider rings.
The function of rider rings, is to support or guide the
piston and rod assembly and prevent contact between
the piston and the cylinder (risk of seizure).

crank case
Crank case supports the crankshaft. All
bearing supports are bored under setup
condition to ensure perfect alignment.
Crankcase is provided with easy
removable covers on the top for inspection
and maintenance. The bottom of the
crankcase serves as the oil reservoir.

connecting rod
The connecting rod has two bearings. The
big end bearing is built in two halves. It is
made of metal with inner coating of
antifriction metal. The connecting rod
small end bearing is build of steel, with
inner coating of antifriction metal. A hole
runs through the connecting rod for its
entire length, to allow passage of oil from
the big end to the small end bush.

Cross Head
Crosshead fastens piston rod to the connecting rod
It permits to slide back and fort within the cross head slide
it has channels fro distribution of oil

Lubrication system

Double acting compressors

This type of compressor operates in exactly the


same way as the single acting with respect to its
action. The difference is, that the cylinder has
inlet and outlet ports at each end of the cylinder
As the piston moves forward, liquid is being
drawn into the cylinder at the back end while, at
the front end, liquid is being discharged. When
the piston direction is reversed, the sequence is
reversed.

Dighpram compressor

Dighpram compressor is a kind of


displacement compressor driven by
displacement motor.
The particularity of dighpram compressors
is that there are two chambers in a
cylinder body
A hydraulic oil chamber and a gas
chamber

when the machine is started the


electromotor drives the crankshaft making
rotational moments
The crankshaft is connected with a piston
by a connecting rod which can transform
the rotational moment of the crankshaft
into reciprocating moment of the piston

when the piston is pulled to the down end


the hydraulic oil will flow back to the
cylinder
The pressure difference will mske the
dighprams have a downward elastic
deformation.
The volume of the gas chamber will be
enlarged

The gas inlet valve will open automatically


In this way the gas is sucked in
when the con-rod pushes the piston to the
top end the piston will further push the
hydraulic oil to make the dighpram have a
upper elastic deformation

The voulume of the gas chamber reduces


and the gas is compressed
The gas discharge valve will be opened
automatically when the gas pressure
reaches a certain value
As a result of dighprams periodic elastic
derformation ,the gas is sucked
compressed and discharged periodically.

Rotary compressors
Rotary compressors are those
compressors which use rotors instead of
piston to compress gas.
The different types of rotary compressors
are screw ,vane ,scroll ,lobe and liquid ring
compressors

Rotory compressors are energy effictient


Rotary compressors have a lower duty
cycle
They have a shorter life span in
comparison with a reciprocating
compressor

Advantages

Simple design
Low to medium initial and maintenance cost
Two-stages design provide good efficiencies
Easy to install
Few moving parts

Disadvatages
High rotational speed
Shorter life expectancy than any other
designs
Single-stage designs have lower efficiency
Difficulty with dirty environment

screw compressors

one of the most appealing factor of this


compressor is that its excellent return on
investment.
Low initial installation and maintenance
cost
it requires smaller floor space and it is
lesser noisy when compared with a
reciprtocating compressor

Rotary screw compressors use two meshing


helical screws, known as rotors, to compress the
gas. In a dry running rotary screw compressor,
timing gears ensure that the male and female
rotors maintain precise alignment. In an oilflooded rotary screw compressor, lubricating oil
bridges the space between the rotors

A typical oil flooded twin screw


compressor consists of male and female
rotors mounted on bearings to fix their
position in a rotor housing which holds the
rotors inclosely toleranced intersecting
cylindrical bores

The driving device is generally connected


to the male rotor with the male driving the
female through an oil film
Some designs connect the drive to the
female rotor in order to produce higher
rotor speeds thus increasing
displacement. However, this
increasesloading on the rotors in the area
of torque transfer and can reduce rotor life.

One screw has a right-handed thread, and the


other screw has a left-handed thread and they
rotate in opposite directions.The screws rotate in
closely fitting cylinders that have overlapping
bores. All clearances are small, but there is no
actual contact between the two screws or
between the screws and the cylinder walls.

Suction gas is drawn into the compressor


to fill the void where the male rotor rotates
out of the female flute on the suction end
of the compressor. Suction charge fills the
entire volume of each screw thread as the
unmeshing thread proceeds down the
length of the rotor.

Gas is compressed by pure rotary motion


of the two intermeshing helical rotors. Gas
travels around theoutside of the rotors,
starting at the top and traveling to the
bottom while it is transferredaxially from
the suction end to the discharge end of the
rotor area.

vane compressor
When a gas is compressed in the compressor,
its temperature is increased considerably. To
prevent spontaneous combustion of the
lubricant, the compressor is equipped with water
cooling (with a pipe for water supply) or air
cooling. In this way, the air compression process
will approximate an isothermal process (with
constant temperature), which is theoretically
most advantageous.

Rotary compressors have one or more


rotors, which may be of various designs.
Considerable use is made of rotary
(sliding-vane) compressors (Figure 2),
which have a rotor with slots into which the
vanes fit freely. The rotor is located
eccentrically in the cylinder of the casing.
Upon clockwise rotation of the rotor,

spaces bounded by the vanes, as well as the


surfaces of the rotor and cylinder casing, will
increase in the left half of the compressor, thus
causing the inlet of gas through the aperture. In
the right half of the compressor the volume of
the spaces decreases and the gas within them is
compressed and then delivered from the
compressor to the cooler or directly into the
pressure piping. The casing of rotary
compressors is cooled by water, which is
supplied and discharged through pipes

scroll compressor

This compressor is a wonderful invention,


since it has only 1 moving part. The
compressor exists of two spiral elements.
One moves in eccentric circles and the other
one is stationary.

What happens? Air gets trapped between


the two spirals at the suction side and get
transported to the center of the spiral. This
way the air is compressed. It takes about
2.5 turns for the air to reach the center
exhaust pipe.

Lobe compressors
Rotary Lobe type Air Compressor has two
mating lobe-type rotors mounted in a case. The
lobes are gear driven at close clearance, but
without metal-to-metal contact. The suction to the
unit is located where the cavity made by the lobes
is largest.

As the lobes rotate, the cavity size is


reduced, causingcompression of the vapor
within. The compression continues until the
discharge port is reached, at which point the
vapor exits the compressor at a higher
pressure.

Liquid ring compressor


The liquid ring pump compresses gas by rotating
a vaned impeller located eccentrically within a
cylindrical casing. Liquid (usually water) is fed
into the pump and, by centrifugal acceleration,
forms a moving cylindrical ring against the inside
of the casing. This liquid ring creates a series of
seals in the space between the impeller vanes,
which form compression chambers. The
eccentricity between the impeller's axis of
rotation and the casing geometric axis results in
a cyclic variation of the volume enclosed by the
vanes and the ring.

Gas, often air, is drawn into the pump via


an inlet port in the end of the casing. The
gas is trapped in the compression
chambers formed by the impeller vanes
and the liquid ring. The reduction in
volume caused by the impeller rotation
compresses the gas, which reports to the
discharge port in the end of the casing.

Dynamic compressors
Adding more amount of gas in a constant
amount of volume. Common
types of dynamic compressors include
centrifugal compressors
axial compressors

The dynamic compressor is characterized


by rotating impeller to add velocity and
pressure to fluid. Compare to positive
displacement type compressor, dynamic
compressor are much smaller in size and
produce much less vibration.

It is widely used in chemical and


petroleum refinery industry for specifies
services. They are also used in other
industries such as the iron and steel
industry, pipeline booster, and on offshore
platforms

Axial compressors

Axial flow compressors are used mainly as


compressors for gas turbines. They are
used in the steel industry as blast furnace
blowers and in the chemical industry for
large nitric acid plantsThe efficiency in an
axial flow compressor is higher than the
centrifugal compressor.

Advatages
High peak efficiency
Small frontal area for given airflow
Increased pressure rise due to increased
number of stages with negligible losses

Disadvatages
Good efficiency over narrow rotational
speed range
Difficulty of manufacture and high cost.
Relatively high weight
High starting power requirements

Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors


that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress
the working fluid. They are used where there is a
requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design.
The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one
rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also
known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid.

The stationary airfoils, also known as


stators or vanes, decelerate and redirect
the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it
for the rotor blades of the next stage.Axial
compressors are almost always multistaged, with the cross-sectional area of
the gas passage diminishing along the
compressor to maintain a high pressure.

Applications
Axial compressors can have high
efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their
design conditions. However, they are
relatively expensive, requiring a large
number of components, tight tolerances
and high quality materials. Axial-flow
compressors can be found in medium to
large gas turbine engines, in natural gas
pumping stations, and within certain
chemical plants.

centrifugal compressors

Advantages
High efficiency approaching two stages
reciprocating compressor
Can reach pressure up to 1200 psi
Designed to give lubricant free air
Does not require special foundations

Disadvantages
High initial cost
Complicated monitoring and control systems

Limited capacity control modulation,


requiring unloading for reduced capacities
High rotational speed require special
bearings and sophisticated vibration and
clearance monitoring
Specialized maintenance considerations

Centrifugal compressors use the rotating action


of an impeller wheel to exert centrifugal force on
refrigerant inside a round chamber (volute). A
diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the
velocity energy to pressure energy.
Unlike other designs, centrifugal compressors do
not operate on the positive displacement
principle, but have fixed volume chambers. They
are well suited to compressing large volumes of
refrigerant to relatively low pressures.

The compressive force generated by an


impeller wheel is small, so systems that
use centrifugal compressors usually
employ two or more stages (impellers
wheels) in series to generate high
compressive forces. Centrifugal
compressors are desirable for their simple
design, few moving parts, and energy
efficiency when operating multiple stages.

applications
Many large snowmaking operations (like
ski resorts) use this type of compressor.
They are also used in internal combustion
engines as superchargers and
turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors
are used in small gas turbine engines or
as the final compression stage of medium
sized gas turbines.

Expansion valve
There are basically two types of expansion
valves
Internally equalised valve
Externally equalised valve

constant pressure expansion valve

The constructional details of the constant pressure


expansion valve are shown in the figure above. It
comprises of the metallic body inside which is the metallic
diaphragm or bellow. On the upper side of the diaphragm is
the spring which is under pressure and its pressure is
controlled by the adjusting screw.
Below the diaphragm there is thin plate or seat that has the
small opening. The opening in the seat is controlled by the
needle or stem connected to the diaphragm.

As the diaphragm moves down the needle


also moves down thus opening the valve.
The the seat and the needle form the orifice
for the constant pressure valve.
There are also two opening in the valve.
From one side the refrigerant from the condenser
enters the expansion valve and from the other side
the refrigerant leaves the valve to enter the
evaporator.

The spring above the diaphragm is under compression thus


the spring pressure along with the atmospheric pressure
acts on the diaphragm. Due to the pressure the diaphragm
tends to move down due to which the needle also tends to
move down away from the seat leading to the opening of
the valve.
Below the diaphragm there is refrigerant at the evaporator
pressure thus the evaporator pressure tends to move the
diaphragm in the upward direction. Due to this the needle
tends to move in the upward direction towards the seat to
close the valve.

Thus the spring pressure and the evaporator


pressure act against each other and
whichever is greater would determine the
position of the needle and the opening of the
orifice of the valve. In the normal running
condition of the plant the valve maintains
equilibrium between the evaporator pressure
and the spring pressure and maintains
certain opening of the valve to allow the flow
of refrigerant through it.

The tension of the spring can be adjusted as


per the requirements by the adjusting screw.
The constant pressure expansion valve
maintains the pressure inside the evaporator
constant and automatically as per the setting
of the spring pressure. This means that the
evaporator pressure can be varied by
changing the position of the spring.

Internally equalised expansion


valve

Opposed to this opening force on the underneath


side of the diaphragm and acting in the closing
direction are two forces: (1) the force exerted by
the evaporator pressure and (2) that exerted by
the superheat spring. In the first condition, the
valve will assume a stable control position when
these three Forces are in balance (that is, when
P1 = P2 + P3).

In the next step, the temperature of the


refrigerant gas at the evaporator outlet
(remote bulb location) increases above the
saturation temperature corresponding to
the evaporator pressure as it becomes
superheated. The pressure thus
generated in the remote bulb, due to this
higher temperature, Increases above the
combined pressures of the evaporator
pressure and the superheat spring (P1
greater than P2 + P3) And causes the
valve pin to move in an opening direction.

Conversely, as the temperature of the


refrigerant gas leaving the evaporator
decreases, the pressure in the remote
bulb and Power assembly also decreases
and the combine evaporator and Spring
pressure cause the valve pin to move in a
closing Direction (P1 less than P2 + P3).

Externally equalised expansion


valve
In order to compensate for an excessive
pressure drop through an evaporator, the
thermal expansion valve must be of the
external equalizer type, with the equalizer
line connected either into the evaporator at
a point beyond the greatest pressure drop
or into the suction line at a point on the
compressor side of the remote bulb
location.

Drier

The functions of drier in brief are (i) to


receive and store liquid refrigerant for the
evaporator,
(ii) to filter out any dirt from the refrigerant,
(Hi) to absorb mdisture if present in the
refrigerant, and (iv) to trap any refrigerant
vapour that did not condense in the
condenser.

Accumulator

Some air conditioners use an accumulator to prevent


liquid refrigerant from entering the compressor. The
accumulator also serves as a tank to store excess liquid
refrigerant and contains a desiccant. The desiccant in
the accumulators serves the same function as in
receives-drier.

Liquid refrigerant is collected at the bottom


of the tank. Refrigerant vapour remains at
the top of the tank, and is passed to the
compressor through the pickup tube. At
the bottom of the tank, the pickup tube
contains a small hole or orifice,

which allows a very small amount of


trapped oil or liquid refrigerant to return to
the compressor, without damaging the
compressor. The accumulator cannot be
serviced unlike the receiver-drier, and
hence if found defective, has to be
replaced.

Types of refrigeration evaporators

Bare Tube Evaporators


The bare tube evaporators are made up of
copper tubing or steel pipes. The copper tubing
is used for small evaporators where the
refrigerant other than ammonia is used, while
the steel pipes are used with the large
evaporators where ammonia is used as the
refrigerant. The bare tube evaporator comprises
of several turns of the tubing, though most
commonly flat zigzag and oval trombone are the
most common shapes.

The bare tube evaporators are usually


used for liquid chilling. In the blast cooling
and the freezing operations the
atmospheric air flows over the bare tube
evaporator and the chilled air leaving it
used for the cooling purposes. The bare
tube evaporators are used in very few
applications, however the bare tube
evaporators fitted with the fins, called as
finned evaporators are used

Plate Type of Evaporators

In the plate type of evaporators the coil usually made up


of copper or aluminum is embedded in the plate so as so
to form a flat looking surface. Externally the plate type of
evaporator looks like a single plate, but inside it there are
several turns of the metal tubing through which the
refrigerant flows. The advantage of the plate type of
evaporators is that they are more rigid as the external
plate provides lots of safety. The external plate also
helps increasing the heat transfer from the metal tubing
to the substance to be chilled. Further, the plate type of
evaporators are easy to clean and can be manufactured
cheaply.

Finned Evaporators

The finned evaporators are the bare tube type of


evaporators covered with the fins. When the fluid (air or
water) to be chilled flows over the bare tube evaporator
lots of cooling effect from the refrigerant goes wasted
since there is less surface for the transfer of heat from
the fluid to the refrigerant. The fluid tends to move
between the open spaces of the tubing and does not
come in contact with the surface of the coil, thus the bare
tube evaporators are less effective. The fins on the
external surface of the bare tube evaporators increases
the contact surface of the of the metallic tubing with the
fluid and increase the heat transfer rate, thus the finned
evaporators are more effective than the bare tube
evaporators.

Shell and Tube types of


Evaporators
The shell and tube types of evaporators are
used in the large refrigeration and central air
conditioning systems. The evaporators in these
systems are commonly known as the chillers.
The chillers comprise of large number of the
tubes that are inserted inside the drum or the
shell. Depending on the direction of the flow of
the refrigerant in the shell and tube type of
chillers, they are classified into two types: dry
expansion type and flooded type of chillers.

In dry expansion chillers the refrigerant


flows along the tube side and the fluid to
be chilled flows along the shell side. The
flow of the refrigerant to these chillers is
controlled by the expansion valve. In case
of the flooded type of evaporators the
refrigerant flows along the shell side and
fluid to be chilled flows along the tube. In
these chillers the level of the refrigerant is
kept constant by the float valve that acts
as the expansion valve also.

Air-Cooled Condensers
An air-cooled condenser consists of a coil of
ample surface that air is blown by a fan or
induced by natural draft. This type of condenser
is universally used in small capacity
refrigerating units. Mostly designed for
residential or small office air conditioners.
Air-chilled condensers should be kept from free
from dirt, lint and other foreign materials
because they tend to reduce the airflow around
the tubes and fins if they are allowed to
accumulate just like evaporators.

Combined Air- and Water-cooled


Condensers
This type of condenser is also know as an
evaporative condenser and consists of a coil
cooled by water sprayed from above and then
cold air enters from the bottom and is blown
across the coils. As water evaporates from the
coil it creates a cooling effect that condenses
the refrigerant within the coil. The refrigerant
gas in the coil is hot which changed to the liquid
state by combining the sprayed water and the
large column of moving air supplied by the fan.
The water that does not evaporate is
recirculated by means of a pump.

Water-Cooled Condensers
A water-cooled condenser is similar to a
steam surface condenser in that cooling is
accomplished by water alone that
circulates through tubes or coils enclosed
in a shell. IN a water-cooled condenser the
refrigerant circulates through the annular
space between the tubes or coils.
Because of its construction, a watercooled condenser is also referred to as a
double-pipe condenser

Heating, Ventilating, Air-Conditioning


&
Refrigeration Technology

CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
Air has to be conditioned in most cases for us
to be comfortable
Equipment includes cooling coil, heating device,
device to add humidity, and device to clean air
Forced air systems use the same room air over
and over again
Fresh air enters the structure by infiltration or
by mechanical means

Mechanical means to introduce


Return air from the ventilation
occupied space
Damper in
fresh air
duct

Supply duct
Air handler

Fresh air from outside the structure

CORRECT AIR QUANTITY


The forced air system delivers the
correct quantity of conditioned air
to the occupied space
Different spaces require different
air quantities
Same structure may have several
different cooling requirements

100
cfm

200
cfm

50
cfm

Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm

100
cfm

100
cfm

100 cfm

50 cfm

200 cfm

THE FORCED-AIR SYSTEM


Components that make up the forced-air
system

The blower
Air supply system
Return air system
Grilles and registers

Occupants should not be aware if the


system is on or off

Return air from the


occupied space

Supply
registers

Supply duct
Air handler (blower)

THE BLOWER
Provides the pressure difference to force the
air into the duct system, through the grilles
and registers, and into the room
Typically 400 cfm of air must be moved per
minute per ton of air conditioning
Pressure in the ductwork is measured in inches
of water column (in. W.C)
Air pressure in the ductwork is measured with
a water manometer

SYSTEM AIR PRESSURES


Duct system is pressurized by two
pressures
Static pressure air pressure in the duct
Velocity pressure pressure generated by the
velocity and weight of the air
Combined, these pressures are called
Total pressure

Static pressure plus velocity pressure


equals total pressure

Probe
located on
the surface
Airflow of the duct

Duct

Static pressure

Probe located in
the duct, facing
into the
direction of
airflow

Total pressure

Velocity pressure
Total
pressure

Static pressure

Velocity pressure = Total pressure Static pressure

AIR-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR


DUCT SYSTEMS
Velometer Measures actual air velocity
(how fast the air is actually moving in the
duct)
Air volume in cfm can be calculated by
multiplying the air velocity by the crosssectional area of the duct in square feet
Pitot tube Used with special manometers
for checking duct pressure

PROPELLER FAN
Used in exhaust fan and condenser fan
application
Will handle large volumes of air at low
pressure differentials
Set into a housing called a venturi
The venturi forces airflow in a straight
line from one side of the fan to the other
Makes noise and is used where noise is not
a factor

Propeller fan
Venturi

SQUIRREL CAGE OR
CENTRIFUGAL FAN
Desirable for ductwork
Builds more pressure from the inlet to the
outlet
Has a forward curved blade and a cutoff to
shear the air spinning around the fan wheel
Very quiet when properly applied
Can be used in very large high-pressure systems

Centrifugal Blower

End View of Squirrel Cage


Blower Wheel

CENTRIFUGAL BLOWER HOUSING

TYPES OF FAN DRIVES


Belt-drive blowers have two bearings on
the fan shaft and two bearing on the motor
Motor pulleys and fan motor pulleys can be
adjusted to change fan speeds
Direct-drive motors use no pulleys or belts
Direct-drive motors can be multi-speed
motors
Speeds can be changed by changing motor
wire leads

BLOWER

Belt-driven
Assembly
BOTH THE DRIVE
AND DRIVEN
PULLEYS MUST BE
PERFECTLY
ALIGNED

MOTOR

DIRECT DRIVE MOTOR ASSEMBLY

THE MOTOR AND THE BLOWER TURN AT THE SAME


SPEED

THE SUPPLY DUCT SYSTEM


Distributes air to the terminal units,
registers, or diffusers in the
conditioned space
Duct systems

Plenum system
Extended plenum system
Reducing plenum system
Perimeter loop

THE PLENUM SYSTEM


Suited for a job where the room outlets
are all close to the unit
Supply diffusers are normally located on
the inside walls
Work better on fossil-fuel systems
Fossil-fuel supply air temperatures could
easily reach 130F

Plenum system

Supply plenum

Return
duct

Branch
ducts

THE EXTENDED PLENUM


SYSTEM
Can be applied to a long structure
This system takes the plenum closer
to the farthest point
Called the trunk duct system
Ducts called branches complete the
connection to the terminal units

THE EXTENDED PLENUM SYSTEM

100
cfm

200
cfm

50
cfm

Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm

100
cfm

100
cfm

100 cfm
50 cfm

200 cfm

THE REDUCING PLENUM


SYSTEM
Reduces the trunk duct size as
branch ducts are added
Has the advantage of saving material
and keeping the same pressure from
one end of the duct system to the
other

THE REDUCING EXTENDED PLENUM SYSTEM

100
cfm

200
cfm

50
cfm

Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm

100
cfm

100
cfm

100 cfm
50 cfm

200 cfm

THE PERIMETER LOOP SYSTEM


Well suited for installation in a concrete
floor in a colder climate
Warm air is in the whole loop when the
furnace fan is running
Keeps the slab at a more even
temperature
Provides the same pressure to all outlets

THE PERIMETER LOOP SYSTEM

100
cfm

200
cfm

50
cfm

Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm

100
cfm

100
cfm

100 cfm
50 cfm

200 cfm

DUCT MATERIALS
Ductwork must meet local codes
For years, galvanized sheet metal was
used exclusively
Other ductwork materials

Aluminum
Fiberglass ductboard
Spiral metal duct
Flexible duct

GALVANIZED STEEL DUCT


Gauge is the measurement of the
thickness of galvanized steel duct
The gauge size means how many pieces of
that material would need to be stacked
together to make a one-inch stack
Metal duct can be round, square, or
rectangular

JOINING SECTIONS OF GALVANIZED DUCT WITH


SLIPS AND DRIVES

Drive cleat

Slip

JOINING SECTIONS OF GALVANIZED DUCT WITH


SLIPS AND DRIVES

Ends of drives are


bent over to
secure

Slip

FIBERGLASS DUCT
Styles: Flat sheet or round prefabricated
cut
Duct is normally 1 in. thick with aluminum
foil backing
Special knives are used to make special
cuts to turn duct board into ductwork
All duct seams should be stapled and taped

SPIRAL METAL DUCT


Used more on large systems
Comes in rolls of flat narrow
metal
Runs can be made at the job site
Can be located within the
occupied space for a more
contemporary look

FLEXIBLE DUCT
Comes in sized up to about 24 in. in diameter
Some have a reinforced aluminum foil backing
Some come with vinyl or foil backing and
insulation on it
Keep duct runs as short as possible
Has more friction loss inside it than metal
duct
Flex duct should be stretched as tight as
possible

Floor Register

Return
Damper

Flexible Duct

Supply

COMBINATION DUCT SYSTEMS


Metal trunk lines with round branch ducts
Metal trunk lines with flexible branch ducts
Ductboard trunk lines with round metal branch
ducts
Ductboard trunk lines with flexible branch ducts
Round metal duct with round metal branch ducts
Round metal trunk lines with flexible branch
ducts

DUCT AIR MOVEMENT


Branch ducts are fastened to the main
trunk by a takeoff-fitting
The takeoff encourages the air moving
the duct to enter the takeoff to the
branch duct
Air moving in the duct has inertia, meaning
it wants to move in a straight line
Using turning vanes will improve the airflow around corners

Main supply duct

Takeoff fitting

BALANCING DAMPERS
Used to balance the air in various parts
of the system
Dampers should be located as close as
practical to the trunk line
The trunk is the place to balance airflow
Handles allow the dampers to be turned
at an angle to the airstream to slow the
air down

Branch duct

Damper in the open position

Balancing damper in
the closed position

DUCT INSULATION
A 15F temperature difference from the
inside of the duct to the outside of the
duct is considered the maximum
difference allowed before insulation is
necessary
Metal duct can be insulated on the outside
and on the inside
The insulation is joined by lapping it,
stapling it, and taping it

BLENDING THE CONDITIONED


AIR WITH ROOM AIR
When possible, air should be directed on the
walls
The diffuser spreads the air to the desired air
pattern
Cool air distributes better from the ceiling
Place diffusers next to the outside walls
How far the air will be blown from the diffuser
into the room depends on the air pressure
behind the diffuser and the style of the
diffuser blades

THE RETURN AIR DUCT SYSTEM


Individual return air system will give the most
positive return air
The return air duct is normally sized slightly
larger than the supply duct
Central return systems are usually
satisfactory for a one-level residence
A path must be provided for the air to return
to the central return
The return air grille should be around an elbow
from the furnace

Central Return
Supply plenum

Return plenum
One central return grill in the common
area

INDIVIDUAL RETURN AIR SYSTEM

SIZING DUCT FOR MOVING AIR


Friction loss in ductwork is due to the actual
rubbing action of the air against the side of the
duct and the turbulence of the air rubbing
against itself while moving down the duct
The smoother the ducts interior surface is, the
less friction there is
The slower the air is moving, the less friction
there will be
Each foot of duct offers a known resistance to
airflow

MEASURING AIR MOVEMENT FOR


BALANCING
Air balancing is accomplished by
measuring the air leaving each register
Measuring velocity of the duct in a cross
section of the duct
Determine the cfm by using the formula:
CFM = area in square feet x velocity in
feet per minute

Cross-sectional area =
1 ft x 1 ft = 12 x 12 =
144 square inches =
1 foot

Average
air
velocity is
400 fpm

144 in2 / 144 in2 = 1ft2

1 foot

Air Volume (cfm) = 400 ft/min x 1ft2 = 400 cfm

Cross-sectional area =
18 x 18 = 324 in2
18

Average
air
velocity is
400 fpm

324 in2 / 144 in2 =


2.25ft2

18

Air Volume (cfm) = 400 ft/min x 2.25ft2 = 900 cfm

THE AIR FRICTION CHART


Used by system designers to size ductwork and
duct systems
Gives recommended duct sized and velocities for
optimum performance
Can be used to troubleshoot airflow problems
Pressure drops in duct fittings have equivalent
lengths
All lengths and equivalent lengths are added
together to achieve the total

RESIDENTIAL DUCT SYSTEM


Common duct problems

Excessively long flexible duct runs


Disconnected duct runs
Closed dampers
Collapsed flexible duct
Loose insulation in the duct
Blocked grills and/or registers

COMMERCIAL DUCT SYSTEMS


Each area has specifications regarding the
required amount of airflow
Certified testing and balancing company to
verify airflow
Flow hoods measure air volume at supply
registers
Total airflow can be measured at the main duct
Common problems include dirty filters,
partially closed dampers, and incorrect fan
rotation

SUMMARY
Forced air systems use the same air over and
over
Fresh air enters the structure by infiltration
Forced air systems deliver the correct quantity
of conditioned air to the occupied space
Different spaces require different air quantities
Forced air systems are made up of the blower,
supply duct system, return air system and supply
registers or grilles

SUMMARY
Typically, 400 cfm of air must be moved
per minute per ton of air conditioning
Pressure in the ductwork is measured in
inches of water column (in. W.C)
Static pressure plus velocity pressure
equals total pressure
Air volume in cfm can be calculated by
multiplying the air velocity by the crosssectional area of the duct in square feet

SUMMARY
Propeller fans are used in exhaust fan and
condenser fan applications and can handle large
volumes of air at low pressure differentials
Centrifugal blowers are used in duct systems
Motor drives can be direct or belt driven
assemblies
The supply duct system can be configured as a
plenum, extended plenum, reducing extended
plenum or perimeter loop system

SUMMARY - 4

Duct systems can be made of galvanized metal,


aluminum, fiberglass duct board, spiral metal,
flexible duct or a combination of different
materials
Branch ducts deliver the proper amount of air to
remote locations in the structures
Balancing dampers are used to help ensure proper
airflow to the remote locations
The return air system can be configured as a
central or individual return air system

SUMMARY - 5
Friction in the duct slows the air flowing in
it
Slower air experiences less friction
Air balancing ensures the proper amount of
air is delivered to each supply register
CFM = velocity x cross sectional area
The friction chart is used to properly size
duct systems

Comfort Requirements
Temperature
Humidity
Air movement
Fresh air
Clean air
Noise levels
Lighting
Furniture and work
surfaces

The Five System Loops


Airside loop (yellow)
Chilled-water loop (blue)
Refrigeration loop (green)
Heat-rejection loop (red)
Controls loop (purple)

The premise of this method is that any HVAC system can be dissected into
basic subsystems. These subsystems will be referred to as "loops/" There are
five primary loops that can describe virtually any type of HVAC system.
These five loops can be used to describe virtually any HVAC system, not every
system uses all five loops.

Airside Loop

Airside Loop
The first loop is the airside loop, and the first component of this loop is the
conditioned space. The first two comfort requirements mentioned were drybulb temperature and humidity. In order to maintain the dry-bulb temperature in
the conditioned space, heat (referred to as sensible heat) must be added or
removed at the same rate as it leaves or enters the space. In order to maintain the
humidity level in the space, moisture (sometimes referred to as latent heat) must
be added or removed at the same rate as it leaves or enters the space.

Supply Fan and Filter


The next component of the airside loop is a
supply fan that delivers the supply air (SA) to
the space.One of the comfort requirements is to
provide an adequate amount of fresh, outdoor air
to the space. The required amount of outdoor air
(OA) for ventilation is brought into the building
and mixed with the re circulated portion of the
return air (RA).
The remaining return air, that which has been
replaced by outdoor air, is exhausted as exhaust
air (EA) from the building, often by an exhaust
(or relief) fan. Outdoor air at 95F (35C) dry
bulb mixes with re-circulated return air at 75F
(23.9C) dry bulb.
This mixture contains 25 percent outdoor air and
75 percent re-circulated return air, so the resulting
temperature of the mixed air (MA) is 80F
(26.7C) dry bulb.

Cooling Coil

The supply air must be cold enough to absorb excess sensible heat from the space
and dry enough to absorb excess moisture (latent heat).
A heat exchanger, commonly known as a cooling coil, is often used to cool and
dehumidify the supply air before it is delivered to the space.
A typical cooling coil includes rows of tubes passing through sheets of formed fins. A
cold fluid, either water or liquid refrigerant, enters one header at the end of the coil
and then flows through the tubes, cooling both the tubes and the fins.

Chilled-Water Cooling Coil


A cooling coil that has chilled water
flowing through it. As the warm, humid
mixed air passes through the coil, it
comes into contact with the cold tubes
and fins. Sensible heat is transferred from
the air to the fluid inside the tubes,
causing the air to
be cooled.
Many HVAC systems also use the airside
loop for heating and humidification. Often,
a heating coil or humidifier is located near
the cooling coil in the same airside loop.
Alternatively, a heating coil or humidifier
may be part of a second, separate airside
loop.
Assuming a fixed quantity of air, if the
supply air is warmer, it can add more
sensible heat to the space. If the supply
air is more humid, it can add more
moisture to the space.

part-load operation
Constant-Volume System
A constant-volume system provides a
constant quantity of supply air and
varies the supply-air temperature in
response to the changing cooling load
in the space.
A thermostat compares the dry-bulb
temperature in the conditioned space to
a set point. It then modulates cooling
capacity until the space temperature
matches the set point.
constant supply-air quantity
variable supply-air temperature

part-load operation
Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) System

A VAV terminal unit is added to the airside loop. Each conditioned space, or
group of similar spaces (called a zone), has a separate VAV terminal unit that
varies the quantity of supply air delivered to that space or zone. The VAV terminal
unit contains an airflow modulation device, typically a rotating-blade damper.

A thermostat compares the dry-bulb


temperature in the conditioned space to a set
point.
It then modulates the quantity of supply air
delivered to the space by changing the
position of the airflow modulation device in the
VAV terminal unit.
The capacity of the supply fan is modulated to
deliver only the quantity of supply air needed,
and cooling capacity is modulated to maintain
a constant supply-air temperature.

Fan-Coil Unit

A simple example of the airside loop is a fan-coil unit. Return air from the space
is drawn into the unit at the base and can be mixed with outdoor air that enters
through a separate damper in the back of the unit.
This mixed air passes through a filter, a supply fan, and a cooling coil before
being discharged from the top of the unit directly into the conditioned space.

Central Air Handler

A central air handler is typically installed outside of the conditioned space, possibly
on the roof or in a dedicated mechanical room. Return air from the space is drawn
into the unit through the return-air dampers and mixes with outdoor air that enters
through another set of dampers. This mixed air passes through the filters, the supply
fan, and the cooling coil before being discharged from the air handler.
The central air handler needs a method for delivering the supply air to the
conditioned space(s).

Chilled-Water Loop
In the airside loop, a cooling coil is used to
cool and dehumidify the supply air.
As mentioned, the cold fluid flowing through the
tubes of the coil may be either water or liquid
refrigerant. Systems that use water flowing
through the cooling coil also contain a chilled
water loop.
Heat energy flows from a higher-temperature
substance to a lower-temperature substance.
Therefore, in order for heat to be transferred
from the air, the fluid flowing through the tubes
of the cooling coil must be colder than the air
passing over the tubes and fins.
Chilled water at 42F (5.6C) flows through the
coil, absorbing heat from the air. The water
leaves the coil at a warmer temperature57F
(13.9C).

Evaporator

A heat exchanger is used to cool the water that returns from the coilat 57F
(13.9C)back to the desired supply-water temperature of 42F (5.6C).
This heat exchanger, called an evaporator, is one component of the
refrigeration (cooling) equipment.

Shell-and-Tube Evaporator

A shell-and-tube evaporator that has cold liquid refrigerant flowing through


the tubes. Warm water enters at one end of the shell and fills the space
surrounding the tubes.
Heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant inside the tubes, and chilled
water leaves from the opposite end of the shell.

Pump and Control Valve


The third component of the chilledwater loop is a pump that moves
water around the loop.
This pump needs to have enough
power to move the water through
the piping, the evaporator, the tubes
of the coil, and any other
accessories installed in the chilledwater loop.

Similar to the airside loop, the chilled-water loop responds to changing cooling loads
by varying either the temperature or the quantity of water delivered to the cooling
coil.The most common method, however, is to vary the quantity of water flowing
through the cooling coil by using a control valve. As the cooling load decreases,
the modulating control valve reduces the rate of chilled-water flow through the
coil, decreasing its cooling capacity.

Two-Way Versus Three-Way Valves

At part-load conditions, a two-way control valve reduces the rate of chilled-water flow
through the coil.
A three-way control valve also reduces the rate of flow through the coil, but it
bypasses the excess water to mix downstream with the water that flows through the
coil.

With a three-way valve, the quantity of water flowing through


the system (water flowing through the coil plus water
bypassing the coil) is constant at all loads. With a two-way
valve, the water flowing through the system varies, which
allows the pump to reduce its capacity and save energy at
part load.
Notice that the control valve is located at the outlet, or
downstream, of the cooling coil.
This location ensures that the tubes inside the coil are
always full of water.
A valve located at the inlet, or upstream, of the coil may
modulate to the point where the water just "trickles through
the tubes, not filling the entire tube diameter.
The result is unpredictable heat transfer and less-stable
control.

Small Chilled-Water System


A packaged water chiller produces
chilled water by transferring heat from
the water to the refrigerant inside the
evaporator.
This chilled water flows through the
cooling coils, where it is used to cool and
dehumidify the supply air.
A pump is used to circulate water
through the evaporator, the piping, the
cooling coils, and the control valves.
Finally, each cooling coil is equipped
with a three-way control valve that varies
the rate of chilled-water flow through the
coil in response to changing cooling
loads.

Refrigeration Loop

The third loop is the refrigeration loop.In the chilled-water loop, the evaporator
allows heat to transfer from the water to cold liquid refrigerant.
Liquid refrigerant at 38F (3.3C) enters the tubes of the shell-and-tube evaporator.
As heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant, the liquid refrigerant boils.
The resulting refrigerant vapor is further warmed (superheated) to 50F (10C)
inside the evaporator before being drawn to the compressor.

Compressor

The compressor is used to pump the low-pressure refrigerant vapor from the
evaporator and compress it to a higher pressure. This increase in pressure also
raises the temperature of the refrigerant vapor120F (48.9C) .
Common types of compressors used in HVAC systems include reciprocating,
scroll, helical-rotary (screw), and centrifugal.

Condenser

After being discharged from the compressor, the hot, high-pressure refrigerant
vapor enters a condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger that transfers
heat from the hot refrigerant vapor to air, water, or some other fluid that is at a
colder temperature. As heat is removed from the refrigerant, it condenses and
returns to the liquid phase.

Types of Condensers

A typical air-cooled condenser has the hot, high-pressure refrigerant


vapor flowing through the tubes of a finned-tube heat exchanger and
uses propeller-type fans to draw outdoor air over the outer surfaces of the
tubes and fins.
A variation of the air-cooled condenser is the evaporative condenser.
Within this device, the refrigerant flows through tubes and air is drawn or
blown over the tubes by a fan.
The difference is that water is sprayed on the outer surfaces of the tubes.
As the air passes over the tubes, it causes a small portion of the water to
evaporate. This evaporation process improves the heat transfer from the
condensing refrigerant. The remaining water then falls into the sump to be
re-circulated by a small pump and used again.
The most common type of water-cooled condenser is the shell-and-tube
design. With this design, water flows through the tubes while the hot
refrigerant vapor fills the space surrounding the tubes.
As heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water, the refrigerant
vapor condenses on the outer surfaces of the tubes and the condensed
liquid refrigerant falls to the bottom of the shell.

Expansion Device

The liquid refrigerant that leaves the condenser is still at a relatively high
temperature-110F (43.3C) .The final step of the refrigeration cycle is for this
hot liquid refrigerant to pass through an expansion device. This device creates a
large pressure drop that reduces the pressure, and correspondingly the
temperature, of the refrigerant. where it is again cold enough to absorb heat inside
the evaporator.

Helical-Rotary Water Chiller

An example of the refrigeration loop is a packaged, helical-rotary (screw) water


chiller. This example chiller uses an evaporator to produce chilled water by
transferring heat from the water to the liquid refrigerant. The compressor consists of
two screw-like rotors to compress the refrigerant vapor, raising its pressure and
temperature. A second heat exchanger serves as the water-cooled condenser, where
refrigerant is condensed inside the shell and water flows through the tubes. The
expansion device (not shown) used in this chiller is an electronic expansion valve.

Finned-Tube Evaporator (Coil)

Not all HVAC systems use all five loops. So far, we have looked at the airside loop,
the chilled-water loop, and the refrigeration loop.
Instead of chilled water flowing through the tubes of the cooling coil, some systems
have cold liquid refrigerant flowing through the tubes. In this case, the finned-tube
cooling coil is also the evaporator of the refrigeration loop. As air passes through the
coil, heat is transferred from the air to the refrigerant. This heat transfer causes the
refrigerant to boil and leave the evaporator as vapor.

No Chilled-Water Loop

In this arrangement, the chilled-water loop does not exist. Heat is


transferred from the airside loop directly to the refrigeration loop.

Packaged Rooftop Air Conditioner

A system that does not use the chilled-water loop is one that uses a
packaged rooftop air conditioner. It combines several components of the airside loop
with all the components of the refrigeration loop.
Similar to the central air handler shown earlier, return air from the space is drawn
into the unit and is mixed with outdoor air that enters through a separate damper.
This mixed air passes through the filters, the cooling coil (which is also the
evaporator), and the supply fan before it is discharged from the unit. Packaged
inside this same piece of equipment are one or more compressors, an air-cooled
condenser complete with propeller-type fans, and expansion devices.

Heat-Rejection Loop

The fourth loop is the heat-rejection loop. In the refrigeration loop, the condenser transfers heat
from the hot refrigerant to air, water, or some other fluid. In a water-cooled condenser, water
flows through the tubes while the hot refrigerant vapor enters the shell space surrounding the
tubes. Heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water, warming the water.water enters the
condenser at 85F (29.4C), absorbs heat from the hot refrigerant, and leaves at 100F (37.8C).
The water flowing through the condenser must be colder than the hot refrigerant vapor. A heat
exchanger is required to cool the water that returns from the condenserat 100F (37.8C)back
to the desired temperature of 85F (29.4C) before it is pumped back to the condenser. When a
water-cooled condenser is used, this heat exchanger is typically either a cooling tower or a fluid
cooler (also known as a dry cooler).

Cooling Tower

In a cooling tower, the warm water returning from the


condenser is sprayed over the fill inside the tower while a
propeller fan draws outdoor air upward through the fill.
One common type of fill consists of several thin, closely
spaced layers of plastic or wood. The water spreads over the
surface of the fill to increase the contact with the passing air.
The movement of air through the fill allows heat to transfer
from the water to the air.
This causes some of the water to evaporate, a process that
cools the remaining water. The remaining cooled water then
falls to the tower sump and is returned to the condenser.
A fluid cooler is similar to an air-cooled condenser. Water
flows through the tubes of a finned-tube heat exchanger and
fans draw outdoor air over the surfaces of the tubes and fins.
Heat is transferred from the warmer water to the cooler air.

COOLING TOWER FUNCTION


Water is moved by a pump from the condenser to the
cooling tower and back to the condenser
Tower must reject more heat than the chiller absorbs
The compressor adds approximately 25% additional heat
Design temperature of water leaving the tower is 85
The tower can cool the water down to within 7 of the
wet-bulb temperature of the ambient air (approach)
Cools the water by evaporation
As air is passed over the water, some of it evaporates
This evaporating water cools the remaining water

Hot water in (95F)

Fan
motor

Air in 95F dry


bulb, 78F wet
bulb

Air out

Cooled water out (85F)

95F
water

Load

85F
water

45F

Condenser
Pump

Evaporator

55F
Pump

TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS


Natural draft towers rely on prevailing
winds
Forced/induced draft towers use a fan to
move air through the tower
Fans can be gear-driven or belt-driven

Closed-loop hybrid tower


Dry/wet mode, adiabatic mode, and dry mode

Warm water from


condenser
Spray nozzles
Prevailing winds
Float

Water to pump

Valve

Slats on all
four sides of
the tower

Make-up
water

DRY/WET MODE
Fluid to be cooled is fed first to the dry
finned coil
Fluid then fed to the prime surface coil
Fluid then leaves tower
Water in the tower flows over the prime
surface coil and wet deck surface
Air is drawn through the prime surface coil
and wet deck surface

ADIABATIC MODE
Condenser water is cooled by evaporating
the tower water
No heat is added or removed during from
the process
Fluid to be cooled passes only through
finned coil
Spray water is used to help cool the air
passing through the tower
Plume is the saturated discharge air

DRY MODE
Fluid to be cooled passes through the
finned coil and the primed surface
coil
No spray water is used
No plume results
Fluid is cooled by air passing over the
coil

FIRE PROTECTION
The off season can create a fire
hazard
Tower components may be flammable
A tower wetting system may be
required
Some towers are kept wet whenever
the temperature is above freezing

FILL MATERIAL
Designed to slow the flow of trickling water
through the tower
Splash method
Uses wood slats, PVC pipe, or FRP plastic
Tower has framework to support slats at the
correct angle

Film or wetted surface


Fill is usually plastic or fiberglass
The water is spread out over the fill as air is passed
over it

FLOW PATTERNS
Crossflow
Air enters from the side and is discharged from
the top or the other side

Counterflow
Air enters from the bottom and is exhausted at
the top
The water flows down as the air moves up

Water that is blown out of the tower is


called drift
Eliminators reduce the amount of drift

TOWER MATERIALS
Must withstand the environment
Must withstand fan and drive mechanism
vibrations
Usually made of galvanized steel,
fiberglass, or FRP
Larger towers may have a concrete base
The sides of the tower can be made of
wood, fiberglass, corrugated FRP

FAN SECTION
Belt-driven fan
Primarily found on smaller towers

Gear box transmissions


Motors are usually mounted at a 90
degree angle to the fan
May be designed to reduced the fan
speed
Motor, gear box, and bearings must be
accessible for servicing

TOWER ACCESS
Tower fill must be accessible for cleaning or
replacement
Sludge needs to be cleaned from the tower basin
Garbage, bird features, and other pollutants
accumulate in the sump
There is a strainer to prevent garbage from
entering the pump and water circuit
Stairs or ladders provide access to fans and
drive mechanisms on tall towers

TOWER SUMP

Area where tower water collects


Sump water must not freeze
May be installed underground
Should be accessible for cleaning
Is usually equipped with a strainer to
protect the pump

Warm water from


condenser
Spray nozzles
Prevailing winds
Float

Thermostatically
controlled heater

Valve

Slats on all
four sides of
the tower

Make-up
water
Water to pump

MAKE-UP WATER
Water continuously evaporates from the
system
Fresh water must be supplied to the
system as needed
Float valve

As the water level drops, the valve will open and


add supply water

Solenoid controlled valve

Solenoid valve operation controlled by a float


switch

Electrodes

Used to sense the water level

Float and Valve


Float ball

Water level

Make up
water

Float valve
Strainer

To pump

Float Switch and Solenoid


Solenoid

Float
switch
Float ball

Water level

Make up
water

Strainer

To pump

Electronic Water Level Control


Control

Sensors

Solenoid

Strainer

To pump

BLOWDOWN
Process of bleeding off a portion of the
system water
This water is replaced with fresh water
Designed to reduce the amount of solid
materials in the water
Blowdown reduces head pressure and
approach temperature
Must be done correctly

BALANCING THE WATER FLOW


FOR A TOWER
Water flow to each of tower cell must be equal
Distribution pans
Receives water returning from the condenser
Have calibrated holes to distribute water
Holes must be clean

Balancing valves must be adjusted properly

Pump and Control Valve

The third component of the heat-rejection loop moves the condensing media
around the loop. In the case of a water-cooled condenser, a pump is needed to
move the water through the tubes of the condenser, the piping, the cooling tower,
and any other accessories installed in the heat-rejection loop.
The heat-rejection capacity of this loop can be varied in response to changing
heat-rejection requirements. In the case of a water-cooled condenser, this is
commonly accomplished by varying the temperature of water delivered to the
condenser.
Varying the temperature of the entering condenser water may be accomplished
by using variable-speed fans in the cooling tower or by cycling the fans on and
off.
One method of varying the quantity of water flowing through the water-cooled
condenser is to use a modulating control valve.
As the heat-rejection requirement decreases, the modulating control valve
directs less water through the condenser. If a three-way valve is used, the
excess water bypasses the condenser and mixes downstream with the water
that flows through the condenser.

WATER PUMPS
Responsible for moving water through
the condenser and cooling tower
circuit
Usually a centrifugal pump
Close coupled pump
Impeller is mounted to the motor shaft
Used in small applications
Shaft seal prevents water leakage

WATER PUMPS
Base mounted pump
Motor and pump are connected by a
flexible coupling
Can have a single- or double-sided
impeller
Motor and pump are mounted on a base
Base is usually cemented to the floor
Motor and pump are factor aligned

WATER PUMPS
Pump must have a shaft seal
Most pumps are made from cast iron
Most centrifugal pump impellers are made of
bronze
The eye of the impeller must be under water
during startup
If the pump is located higher than the sump, the
pump must be filled with water before starting
Whirlpool action in the pump is called vortexing

WATER PUMPS
Strainers are located between the sump and
pump
Tower bypass valve
Helps to maintain correct water pressure during
start-up and low-ambient conditions
Water from the pump outlet is recirculated to the
pump inlet

Pumps can have sleeve bearing or ball bearings


Pumps and shafts must be properly aligned

Water Chiller and Cooling Tower


The water-cooled condenser
on this chiller transfers heat
from the refrigerant to the
water in the loop.
This water passes through a
cooling tower and heat is
rejected to outdoor air passing
through the tower.
A pump is used to circulate
water through the condenser,
the piping, the cooling tower,
and the control valve.

Finally, a modulating, three-way control valve is used to vary the water flow through
the condenser in response to a changing heat-rejection requirement. This valve
modulates the water flow through the condenser by diverting some of the water
around the condenser through the bypass pipe, directly back to the cooling tower.

Packaged Air-Cooled Chiller

Another example of the heat-rejection loop is a packaged, air-cooled chiller. It


combines all the components of the refrigeration and heat-rejection loops.
This example air-cooled chiller contains an evaporator, two or more compressors,
an aircooled condenser coil, and expansion devices. Propeller-type condenser fans
draw outdoor air across the condenser coil.

Packaged Air-Cooled Chiller

In the case of an air-cooled condenser, heat is transferred from the hot refrigerant
vapor directly to the outdoor air without the need for a separate condenser-water
loop.
As the heat-rejection requirement decreases, the quantity of air passing through the
condenser coil(s) is reduced. This is accomplished by cycling the condenser fans on
and off, or by modulating a damper or variable-speed drive on one or more of the
fans.

Controls Loop

The fifth, and final, loop of the HVAC system is the controls loop. Each of
the previous four loops contains several components. Each component must
be controlled in a particular way to ensure proper operation.
Typically, each piece of equipment (which may be comprised of one or
more components of a loop) is equipped with a unit-level, automatic
controller.
In order to provide intelligent, coordinated control so that the individual
pieces of equipment operate together as an efficient system, these individual
unit-level controllers are often connected to a central, system-level
controller.
Finally, many building operators want to monitor the system, receive alarms
and diagnostics at a central location, and integrate the HVAC system with
other systems in the building.
These are some of the functions provided by a building automation
system (BAS).

Rooftop VAV System

This system uses a


packaged rooftop air
conditioner to deliver air to
several VAV terminal units.
This packaged rooftop air
conditioner includes a unitlevel controller that
coordinates the operation of
all components packaged
inside this piece of
equipment, such as the
outdoor-air and return-air
dampers, the supply and
exhaust fans, the
compressors, and the
condenser fans.

In addition, each VAV terminal unit is equipped with a unit-level controller that
directs its response to space conditions.
The system-level controller coordinates the operation of the VAV terminal units and
the rooftop unit during the various modes of operation, such as occupied,
unoccupied, and morning warm up.

Air-Cooled Chiller, Fan-Coil System

This system includes fan-coil units served by an air-cooled chiller


and a hot-water boiler. A fan-coil unit is located in or near each
conditioned space, and each one includes its own unit-level
controller to modulate water flow through the coil in response to
the changing load in the space.
The unit-level controller on the air-cooled water chiller ensures
the flow of chilled water whenever it is required, and the boiler
controller ensures the flow of hot water whenever it is required.
Finally, a dedicated outdoor-air unit conditions all of the outdoor
air brought into the building for ventilation, before delivering it
directly to the individual spaces.
In this example, a separate, system-level controller coordinates
starting and stopping the pumps, the dedicated outdoor-air unit,
and the stand-alone exhaust fan.
It also determines when to change over from cooling to heating
mode, and coordinates the operation of the chiller and boiler to
prevent them from operating simultaneously.

Direct Expansion (DX) Versus


Chilled-Water Systems
Some HVAC systems have chilled water flowing
through the tubes of the cooling coil. These
systems are referred to as chilled-water systems.
Other systems have cold, liquid refrigerant
flowing directly through the tubes of the cooling
coil. These are referred to as direct-expansion, or
DX, systems.

Direct Expansion (DX)

Direct-Expansion (DX) Systems


The term "direct" refers to the position of the evaporator
with respect to the airside loop. In a direct-expansion
system, the finned-tube cooling coil of the airside
loop is also the evaporator of the refrigeration loop. The
evaporator is in direct contact with the airstream.
The term "expansion" refers to the method used to
introduce the refrigerant into the cooling coil. The liquid
refrigerant passes through an expansion device just
before entering the cooling coil (evaporator). This device,
reduces the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant
to the point where it is colder than the air passing through
the coil.

Air-Cooled DX System

The primary difference between a chilled-water system and a direct-expansion


system is that the DX system does not include the chilled-water loop. Instead,
heat is transferred from the airside loop directly to the refrigeration loop.
In this case, the components of the heat rejection loop are packaged together.
The air-cooled condenser contains propeller-type fans that draw outdoor air
across the finned-tube condenser coils. Heat is transferred from the
hot refrigerant vapor directly to the outdoor air without the use of a separate
condenser water loop.

Packaged DX Air Conditioner

In a DX system, the components of the refrigeration loop may be packaged


together or split apart. A packaged DX unit includes all the components of the
refrigeration loop (evaporator, compressor, condenser, and expansion device)
inside a single casing.
The packaged rooftop air conditioner was introduced in Period One.
It combines several components of the airside loop with all the components of
both the refrigeration and heat rejection loops.
This type of equipment is intended for outdoor installation, commonly on the roof
of a building.
A major advantage of a packaged DX unit is the factory assembly and testing of
all components, including the electrical wiring, the refrigerant piping, and the
controls.
It is important to recognize that the allowable distance between the components
of a split system is limited to ensure reliable operation. Refrigerant does not flow
like water.
Refrigerant is in a vapor state during part of its cycle and in a liquid state during
the remainder of its cycle. Oil, used to lubricate the compressor, is often carried
along by the refrigerant as it flows throughout the system.
The sizing and layout of the refrigerant piping is critically important in ensuring
that the oil is returned to the compressor at the required rate.
All components, including the refrigerant piping and controls, must be carefully
selected to work properly over the desired range of operating conditions.

Chilled-Water Loop

In a chilled-water system, the chilled-water loop transports heat


energy between the airside loop and the refrigeration loop.
It is comprised primarily of a cooling coil, a circulating pump, an evaporator,
a control valve, and interconnecting piping.

Packaged Water Chillers

In a chilled-water system, the components of the refrigeration loop (evaporator,


compressor, condenser, and expansion device) are often manufactured, assembled,
and tested as a complete package within the factory. This type of equipment is called
a "packaged" water chiller, and may include either a water-cooled condenser or an
air-cooled condenser. The components are selected and optimized by the
manufacturer, and the performance is tested as a complete assembly, rather than as
individual components.
A major advantage of this configuration is factory assembly and testing of all chiller
components, including the electrical wiring, the refrigerant piping, and the controls.
This eliminates field labor and often results in faster installation and improved
reliability.

Split Chilled-Water System

Alternatively, the components of the refrigeration loop may be split apart. While
water-cooled chillers are rarely installed as separate components, some air-cooled
chillers offer the flexibility of separating the components for installation in different
locations.
This flexibility allows the system design engineer to place the components where
they best serve the space, acoustic, and maintenance requirements of the building
owner.
The other components of the refrigeration loop (evaporator and expansion device)
are installed inside the building. These components are connected to the
condensing unit with field-installed refrigerant piping. This configuration places the
part of the system that is susceptible to freezing (evaporator and water piping)
indoors, and the primary noise-generating components of the refrigeration loop
(compressors and condenser fans) outdoors.
This usually eliminates any requirement to protect the chilled-water loop from
freezing during cold weather.
A drawback of splitting the components is the requirement for field-installed
refrigerant piping. The possibility of system contamination and leaks increases
when field-installed piping and brazing are required.
Additionally, the components must be properly selected to work together over the
desired range of operating conditions. With a packaged water chiller, the selection
of the components, and the design and installation of the refrigerant piping, is
handled by the manufacturer in the factory.

DX versus chilled water


Factors Affecting the Decision

One of the most common reasons for selecting a DX system, especially a


packaged DX system, is that, in a smaller building, it can frequently have a
lower installed cost than a chilled-water system.

Installed Cost

In the DX system, the chilled-water pumps, the control valves, the piping, and related
accessories are eliminated.
Packaged DX equipment generally requires less field labor and materials to install.
Also, many of the system-level control functions can be packaged along with the
unit-level control functions in the same piece of control hardware. This can reduce
the amount of time it takes to design, install, and commission the control system.
If a split DX system is used, there is an added cost for designing and installing the
refrigerant piping and controls.

Energy Consumption

Decisions based solely or primarily on installed cost often ignore ongoing costs,
such as energy, maintenance, and replacement costs. Life-cycle cost includes the
total cost of owning and operating the HVAC system over a specified period of
years.
A DX system does not have the added energy use of the pumps, but the larger
compressor on the water chiller is often more efficient than the compressor in the
DX unit.

Space Requirements

Another common reason for selecting a DX system is limited space available for
indoor equipment rooms. Water-cooled, chilled-water systems frequently require
indoor equipment rooms to house the chillers and pumps.
Air-cooled, chilled-water systems require less space indoors, but may still need
space for the evaporator and/or pumps. Indoor equipment rooms reduce the
amount of usable or rentable floor space.

Freeze Prevention

In many climates, the outdoor temperatures drop below 32F (0C) at some point
during the year.
Systems that contain water are at risk of freezing when the piping or other
components of the chilled-water loop are exposed to these cold ambient
temperatures, or if the refrigeration equipment cools the water to a temperature
below 32F (0C).
Air-cooled DX systems, however, use refrigerant as the heat-transfer media and
are not at risk for freezing under these conditions.

A common approach used to prevent freezing in a chilled-water system is to use a


mixture of water and antifreeze, such as ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. This
lowers the freezing point of the fluid mixture. Here shows the freezing point for
various concentrations of water-and-ethylene-glycol solutions.
If 20 percent (by weight) of the solution is ethylene glycol and 80 percent is water,
the temperature at which this mixture will begin to freeze is 15.5F (-9.1C),
compared to 32F (0C) for pure water.
Realize that there are two levels of freeze prevention: burst protection and freeze
protection. As the temperature drops below the freezing point of the solution, ice
crystals begin to form. Because the water freezes first, the remaining waterglycol
solution is further concentrated and remains in the liquid phase. The combination
of ice crystals and remaining waterglycol solution makes a flowable slush, but the
volume increases as this slush forms.
If the chilled-water loop has an expansion tank large enough to accommodate
this increase in volume, and if the waterglycol solution does not need to be
pumped during below-freezing weather, burst protection is usually sufficient to
prevent damage to the system.
If the chilled-water loop does not have adequate expansion volume, or if the
waterglycol solution must be pumped during below-freezing weather, freeze
protection is probably required.

System Capacity

Packaged water chillers are typically available in sizes ranging from 7.5 to
approximately 4,000 tons (25 to 14,000 kW). Direct-expansion equipment is
typically available in sizes ranging from 1 to 200 tons (3.5 to 704 kW).
In large buildings, a chilled-water system generally consists of fewer pieces of
refrigeration equipment than a DX system.

System Categories

Single Zone, Constant Volume

A single-zone, constant-volume system delivers a constant quantity of air


to a single, temperature-controlled zone. The thermostat measures the dry-bulb
temperature within the zone and compares it to the desired set point.
In response to a deviation from that set point, the thermostat sends a signal to
vary the cooling or heating capacity of the system.
Because the supply fan delivers a constant quantity of air to the zone, this
reduction in cooling or heating capacity varies the temperature of the supply air
at part-load conditions.

single-zone systems Single Thermostat

If the zone is comprised of multiple conditioned spaces, the space in which the
thermostat is located dictates the operation of the HVAC system. All other spaces
must accept the resulting level of comfort based on the space containing the
thermostat. If the thermostat calls for more cooling, all spaces get more cooling.
Therefore, in a building with this type of system, it is common to use several singlezone systems to satisfy the different thermal requirements of the building.

single zone, constant volume


Packaged Terminal Air Conditioner

A simple example of a single-zone, constant-volume system is a


packaged
terminal air conditioner (PTAC).
This type of equipment contains several components of the airside
loop and all the components of the refrigeration, heat-rejection, and
controls
loops, inside a common casing.
PTAC units are typically installed in the perimeter wall of the building,
which allows the aircooled condenser to reject heat directly to the
outdoors. They are commonly used in hotels,dormitories, nursing homes,
and apartments.
In this example PTAC, return air from the occupied space is drawn in
through the front grille, and passes through a filter and DX cooling coil
before the supply fan discharges the air from the top of the unit directly
into the occupied space.
Outdoor air for ventilation can enter through a separate damper and mix
with the recirculated air, or it can be delivered to the conditioned space by
a dedicated outdoor-air ventilation system.
Packaged inside this same piece of equipment is a compressor, an aircooled condenser coil, a condenser fan, an expansion device, and all the
controls.

single zone, constant volume


Packaged DX Rooftop System

Another example of a single-zone, constant-volume system (Figure 63) is a


packaged DX rooftop unit. Like the PTAC, this unit includes several
components of the airside loop, all the components of the refrigeration and heatrejection loops, and most of the components of the controls loop, inside a common
casing. The conditioned air, however, is discharged from the unit into the supply
ductwork and is delivered to the occupied space(s) through supply diffusers.

single zone, constant volume


Chilled-Water Terminal System

Single-zone, constant-volume systems may also use chilled water as the cooling
media. In the case of this chilled-water terminal system, chilled water and hot
water are produced at a central location and pumped throughout the building to
individual terminal units that are installed in or near each zone.

Dedicated Outdoor-Air System

Single Zone, Variable Volume

A single-zone, variable-volume (VAV) system varies the quantity of


constant-temperature air delivered to one temperature-controlled zone.
Again, a zone may be either a single space, or a group of spaces that react
thermally in a similar manner over time, and are governed by one thermostat.
Unlike a traditional multiple-zone VAV system, the single-zone VAV system
uses no VAV terminal boxes to vary airflow to the zone.
Instead, fan capacity is modulated in direct response to the zone thermostat.

Multiple Zones, Constant Volume

A multiple-zone, constant-volume system uses a central supply fan and


cooling coil to deliver a constant quantity of air to several individually controlled
zones.The central cooling coil cools and dehumidifies the supply air to a particular
leaving-air temperature.

multiple zones, constant volume


Multi zone Air Handler

multizone system, uses a central air handler that contains both a cooling coil
and a heating coil, and several pairs of dampers located at the discharge of the
air handler. Each pair of "cooling" and "heating" zone dampers is controlled by a
thermostat in the zone served by the damper pair. After passing through this pair of
dampers, the supply air is delivered to the individual zones through separate,
dedicated supply ducts.

multiple zones, constant volume


ChangeoverBypass System

Many smaller buildings, however, cannot afford to install a large number of singlezone units or a more-advanced multiple-zone system. An economical alternative
may be to use a changeoverbypass system, which uses traditional, single-zone
HVAC equipment, but allows independent control for multiple zones.
A changeoverbypass system includes an airflow modulation device, typically a
rotating blade damper, for each individually controlled zone.

multiple zones, constant volume


ChangeoverBypass System

In response to the varying load, a thermostat in each zone instructs the


modulating damper to vary the quantity of supply air delivered to that zone. The
bypass duct also contains a damper that is modulated to prevent too much supply
air from bypassing to the return airstream.
A changeoverbypass system cannot accommodate a demand for simultaneous
cooling and heating, because the HVAC unit operates in either the cooling mode
or the heating mode.

Multiple Zones, Variable Volume

A multiple-zone, variable-volume (VAV) system consists of a central air


handler that serves several individually controlled zones. Each zone has a
VAV terminal unit (VAV box) that is controlled by a thermostat in the zone.

multiple zones, variable volume


VAV Terminal Units

The cooling-only VAV terminal unit consists of an airflow modulation


device with controls packaged inside a sheet-metal enclosure. This VAV terminal
unit can modulate the supply airflow to the zone, and is typically used for those
zones that require year-round cooling, like the interior zones of a building.
The VAV reheat terminal unit also contains an airflow-modulation device
and controls, but it has an electric or hot-water heating coil added to the
discharge of the terminal unit. The heating coil is turned on when the supply
airflow has been reduced to a minimum setting.
The parallel fan-powered VAV terminal unit has this small fan configured
inside the terminal unit to provide parallel airflow paths. The terminal-unit fan
cycles on only when the zone requires heating. The fan draws warm air from the
ceiling plenum to raise the temperature of the air supplied to the zone.
The series fan-powered VAV terminal unit has the fan configured inside the
terminal unit so the airflow paths are in series. The terminal-unit fan operates
continuously whenever the zone is occupied, and draws air from either the
primary air stream or the ceiling plenum, based on the cooling or heating
requirement of the zone.

multiple zones, variable volume


DX Rooftop VAV System

Supply air is discharged from the unit and travels


down a central supply shaft before being distributed
through the ductwork that is located in the ceiling
plenum above each floor. The supply ductwork
delivers air to the VAV terminal units. Each VAV
terminal unit is controlled by a thermostat in the zone it
serves, and varies the quantity of air delivered to that
zone.

A multiple-zone,
variable-volume system
is the packaged
rooftop VAV system.
A large, packaged DX
rooftop unit is located
outdoors and
contains several
components of the
airside loop, as well as
all the components of
the refrigeration and
heat-rejection loops. A
building may use a
single rooftop unit or
several units,
depending on its size,
load characteristics,
and function.

multiple zones, variable volume


Self-Contained DX VAV System

Similar to a packaged rooftop unit, a packaged, self-contained DX unit combines


several components of the airside loop with all the components of the refrigeration
loop and some components of the heat-rejection loop. One or more of these units
are typically installed in a small equipment room on each floor of the building.

multiple zones, variable volume


Central Chilled-Water VAV System
a chilled-water air
handler is located in
an equipment room
on each floor of the
building. Each air
handler is equipped
with a variablevolume supply fan,
and discharges
conditioned supply air
into ductwork located
in the ceiling plenum
above
each floor. The supply ductwork is connected to the VAV terminal units that serve
each zone. Air returns from the zones through the open ceiling plenum into the
equipment room, where it is drawn back into the air handler.
The chilled water is provided by a water-cooled chiller that is located in the
basement, along with the chilled-water and condenser-water pumps. A cooling
tower is located on the roof.

multiple zones, variable volume


Two-Fan, Dual-Duct VAV System
The multiple-zone VAV
system introduced
earlier used a single
supply duct to deliver
conditioned supply air
to multiple, individually
controlled zones.
Another type of multiple
zone VAV system is the
dual-duct VAV
system.

Inside the "heating" air handler, the remainder of the re-circulated return air is
heated, and delivered as warm primary airflow through the "hot" supply-duct
system to the other airflow modulation device in each dual-duct VAV terminal unit.

multiple zones, variable volume


Dual-Duct VAV Terminal Unit
A dual-duct VAV terminal unit
(Figure 84) consists of two
airflow-modulation devices,
along
with controls, packaged
inside a sheet-metal
enclosure. One modulation
device varies the
amount of cold primary air
and the other varies the
amount of warm primary air.
These two air streams mix inside the dual-duct unit before proceeding downstream
to the zone. A dual duct VAV terminal unit can be controlled to provide either a
variable volume or a constant volume of supply air to the zone. Dual-duct VAV
systems are intended for buildings that require seasonal cooling and heating.

Typical HVAC processes - AHU


Air handling units are used for circulating air inside a
building or a part of a building
Typically consists of two fans (exhaust and supply),
filters, a heat recovery unit, and one or more coils for
heating/cooling
To improve air quality circulating air is mixed with
fresh air.
Usually equipped with a heat recovery unit for energy
saving purposes
Supply air temperature kept constant so that
temperature can be adjusted locally with thermostats

Typical HVAC processes - FAHU


Fresh air handling units are used for supplying fresh
air inside a building or part of a building
Indoor air quality is improved as the serving area is
treated with 100% fresh air
Usually takes more energy to heat/cool fresh air to
target temperature
Usually equipped with a heat recovery unit for energy
saving purposes
Can also be used for supplying pre cooled air for
FCUs

Typical HVAC processes Exhaust fans


Used for extracting air from the building or part of
a building
Ventilated areas are usually toilets, kitchens and
other areas where fumes should be extracted
directly outside.
Parking areas are usually equipped with exhaust
fans that are controlled according to carbon
monoxide measurements or time schedules

Typical HVAC processes FCUs


Fan coil units are used for cooling
purposes in small areas
Consist of a blower and a cooling coil
Can either circulate the air inside the
serving area or are supplied with pre
cooled air from an air-handling unit

Typical HVAC processes - VAV


Variable air volume systems are used for
controlling the air flow of constant temperature in
different parts of the building
Dampers inside ducts regulate the flow of air to
different serving areas
Pressure difference measurements accross supply
and exhaust fans are used for maintaining a
constant pressure inside ducts
Thermostats inside serving areas are used for
local set point adjustments that affect the air flow
through dampers.

Typical plumbing processes


Transfer pumps
Transfer pumps are used for pumping
liquid from one place to another
In residential and office buildings they
are typically used for maintaining
adequate supply of water in water tanks
Usually On/Off controlled according to
liquid level switches

Typical plumbing processes


Booster pumps
Booster pumps are used in applications where
the normal system pressure is low and needs to be
increased
Typical in high rise buildings where domestic
water pipeline pressure needs to be high to better
serve tenants in the upper floors
Pipeline usually divided into a high and low
pressure zone (lower and higher floors)
Either PRV or VSD controlled

Typical plumbing processes


Sump pumps

Sump pumps are used to remove water that has


accumulated in a sump pit
Sump pumps are usually controlled with two level
switches: higher switch for indicating when the
pump should start and a lower switch for
indicating when the pump should stop
Pump should not be let run dry so the lower level
switch should be above the pump, upper level
switch should be located near the top.

Typical plumbing processes


Water tanks
Water tanks are used for storing e.g.
domestic water in high rise buildings
High and low level switches are used for
alarming and controlling transfer pumps
More accurate level indication can be
obtained with a pressure difference
transducer.

Typical chilled water processes


Chillers

Chillers transfer heat from a liquid to the


surrounding air
Consist of a primary pump and a heat exchanger
Chilled fluid is used by air handling units and
FCUs to cool supply air temperature
Usually more than one chiller is used so that
some of them are on standby and are taken into
use when more cooling power is needed.
Usually controlled according to return
temperature

Typical chilled water processes


Secondary Pumps
Secondary pumps maintain adequate system
pressure in a chilled water system
Usually a pump set that consists of several pumps
equipped with variable frequency drives are used
As with chillers, when the cooling power (pressure)
needed is very low only one pump should be running
and the others on standby
When more cooling is needed more pumps should
be started
Controlled according to the pressure difference
between the return and supply headers

Secondary Pumps Control Diagram

Water-cooled air conditioning system


Technology outline

Building air conditioning system works on


refrigeration principles, using cooling medium
to lower the indoor air temperature. The heat
absorbed by the refrigerant is then rejected
to the outdoor environment either directly to
the atmosphere (i.e. air-cooled), by
evaporation through cooling towers, or by
seawater discharge to the sea (i.e. watercooled). The last two heat rejection methods
can be categorized as water-cooled method
because they use water (either fresh water
or seawater) as a heat rejection medium.

a) Cooling Tower Scheme

The air conditioning


system uses evaporative
cooling tower for heat
rejection. Water in
cooling tower will be lost
due to continuous
evaporation, bleed-off and
wind drift. The water lost
will be replaced by water
coming from the city
water mains.

b) Central Sea Water Scheme

The air conditioning


system uses seawater
for heat rejection. A
dedicated central sea
water supply
distributes seawater
from the sea to the
user building. The
rejected warm
seawater from the
condenser will be
returned to the sea via
dedicated pipe.

c) District Cooling Scheme

Chilled water is produced by


central chilled water plant.
Individual user purchases
chilled water for their
building from the district
cooling scheme operator and
do not need to install their
own chiller plants. For this
scheme, a central chiller
plant, a pump house and a
central distribution pipeline
network are required.

How it can save energy:


Water-cooled air conditioning system rejects heat depending on the ambient
wet-bulb temperature rather than the dry-bulb temperature, so the refrigerant
can be cooled to a lower temperature. This results in a better system
coefficient of performance (COP) and thus more energy efficient.
How much energy can be saved?
A study commissioned by the Electrical and Mechanical Services Department
(EMSD) showed that the District Cooling Scheme and Cooling Tower Scheme
are more efficient than conventional air-cooled system as much as 35% and
20% respectively

Primary and secondary


pumps

There are basically 3 flow conditions in


primary and secondary pumbing system
1. Primary flow equals secondary flow
2. Secondary flow is greater than primary
flow
3. Primary flow is greater than secondary
flow

Primary flow equals secondary flow

The chiller is supplying 1500 GPM of 45F


water to the load systems.
Because the load is equal to 625 tons, the
return water temperature to the chiller is
55F at a flow rate of 1500 GPM. The
thermal balance is complete. There is no
flow in the common pipe.

Secondary Flow Greater Than


Primary Flow

To increase the flow rate to 2000 GPM.


The one chiller that is operating will accept
only 1500 GPM and to balance the mass
flow, the excess 500 GPM must run
through the common pipe.Look also at the
temperature relationships.

The temperature of the 500 GPM in the


common pipe is 55F. This blends with the
1500 GPM of 45F supply water, resulting
in 2000 GPM of 47.5F blended supply
water

To deal with this situation, they will


immediately start additional chiller that will
result in primary flows greater than the
secondary This requirement leads to a
simple design rule:

primary circuit flow should equal or


slightly exceed secondary circuit design
flow rate. In short, flow in the reverse
primary direction in a de-coupler bridge is
not good.

Primary flow greater than


secondary flow

The flow rate through two chillers is fixed, this time at 3000
GPM. The new secondary load is say 875 tons, which
corresponds to demand rate of 2100 GPM at10 F delta -T
across the cooling coils. There will be excess flow of 900
GPM in de-coupler as 2100 GPM circulates in the
secondary loop and 3000 GPM is being pumped into the
primary loop.

Look at temperature relationships. The 900


GPM common flow at45F blends with the
2100 GPM at 55F to produce 3000 GPM at
52F. This is lower than the desired return
water temperature of 55F, which makes it
impossible to fully load the on-line chillers
and robs the plant of its rated
capacity..low T syndrome.

Advantages

Constant Flow through Evaporator


Simplified Controls
Past Experience
Divided Hydraulic Head

Disadvantages

Does not resolve Low T Syndrome:


Capital Investment:
Higher Operating and Energy Costs:
Requires More Plant Space:

constant primary and constant


secondary

Primary pumps are lower horsepower than the


secondary pumps because they only have to
overcome the friction loss associated with the
chiller, pipes, and valves in the primary loop. The
secondary pumps, in contrast, are higher
horsepower because they must overcome the
friction loss associated with the secondary loop:
the distribution piping, fittings, valves, coils, etc.
The secondary loop contains 3-way valves to
vary chilled water quantity through the coil in
response to load but the total quantity of flow in
secondary loop remains the same.

constant primary and variable


secondary

The constant speed pumps in secondary


circuit are replaced with variable speed
pumps. The speed of the secondary
pumps is determined by a controller
measuring differential pressure (DP)
across the supply-return mains or across
the selected critical zones. The decoupled
section isolates the two systems
hydraulically

Also the system uses two-way valves in the air


handlers that modulate secondary loop flow rate
with load requirements. During light load
condition, the 2-way control valves will close
partially or fully in response to load conditions,
resulting in pressure rise in the secondary
chilled water loop. A differential pressure sensor
measures the pressure rise in the secondary
loop and signals variable frequency drive of
secondary pumps to alter the speed

Primary-secondary variable-flow systems


are more energy efficient than constantflow systems, because they allow the
secondary variable-speed pump to use
only as much energy as necessary to
meet the system demand. Refer to the
schematic below.

primary pumps
CONSTANT FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEM

A constant flow system is the simplest


chilled water distribution scheme. Here, a
set of constant speed pumps distributes
fixed quantity of water at all times and the
temperature varies to meet the load.

The system uses 3-way control valves at air


handler coils that allow some water to
bypass the cooling coil during part load
conditions. At low loads, the chilled water
flow through the cooling coil is restricted
but the total quantity returned to the chiller
remains constant

Tandem pumps

Here each pump is dedicated to its respective


chiller i.e. pump 1 is piped directly to chiller 1
and whenever this chiller is operating its \
dedicated pump should be operating.Another
benefit of dedicated pumps is that they can
handle unequally sized chillers without using
control valves and .

flow measurement devices to balance


the correct flow to each chiller The
downside is that a standby pump cannot
be started automatically by the building
control system, but instead needs manual
intervention.

Headered pump

This gives the users the ability to use any


pump for the system.This is a advatage
when one system is under maintenance.
Also, headered pumps give users the
ability to operate more than one pump for
a single chiller. This can help solve a low
T problem by increasing primary flow and
forcing a chiller to a greater load when the
return temperature is less than design.

VARIABLE PRIMARY FLOW


SCHEME

In a variable primary flow (VPF) system, chilled


water flow is allowed to vary throughout the loop,
including the chiller evaporators. In this system,
the secondary pumps are eliminated, the
primary pumps provide variable flow to supply
system demand to the extent tolerated by the
chillers, and the decoupling bypass of the
primary/secondary system has been replaced by
a bypass with a normally closed control valve
that opens only to maintain minimum flow
through active chillers.

The pumps in a typical VPF system


operate to maintain a target differential
pressure (Delta P) at a specific point in the
system. This pressure difference tends to
decrease when the terminals (air-handlers
or fan-coils) two-way control valves open
in response to increasing loads.

To restore the Delta P across the system,


the pump controller increases the speed of
the pump. Conversely, when the terminals
control valves close in response to
decreased coil loads, the pump controller
slows the pump speed to maintain the
target Delta P. Meanwhile, the plant
controller stages the chillers on and off to
match cooling capacity with system load.

Advantages
VPF systems are not prone to low T
syndrome
VPF provides enhanced capacity
Capital Investment
Lower Operating and Energy Costs
Requires Less Plant Space

Duct pressure in Hvac system

Flow of air or any other fluid is caused by a


pressure differential between two points.
Flow will originate from an area of high
energy, or pressure, and proceed to area(s)
of lower energy or pressure

P1

FLOW
P1>P0

P0

Duct air moves according to threefundamental


laws of physics:
conservation of mass
conservation of energy
conservation of momentum

Conservation of mass
Conservation of mass simply states that an
air mass is neither created nor destroyed.
From this principle it follows that the
amount of air mass coming into a junction
in a ductwork system is equal to the amount
of air mass leaving the junction
V2 = (V1 * A1)/A2

law of energy conservation

The law of energy conservation states that energy


cannot disappear; it is only converted from one
form to another. This is the basis of one of the
main expression of aerodynamics, the Bernoulli
equation. Bernoulli's equation in its simple form
shows that, for an elemental flow stream, the
difference in total pressures between any two
points in a duct is equal to the pressure loss
between these point
(Pressure loss)1-2 = (Total pressure)1 - (Total
pressure)2

Conservation of momentum

Conservation of momentum is based on


Newton's law that a body will maintain its
state of rest or uniform motion unless
compelled by another force to change that
state. This law is useful to explain flow
behavior in a duct system's fitting.

Types of Flow

Laminar Flow
Flow parallel to a boundary layer
Turbulent Flow
Flow which is perpendicular and near the
center of the duct and parallel near the outer
edges of the duct.

Total Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and


Static Pressure

Static pressure
Static pressure is the measure of the potential
energy of a unit of air in the particular cross
section of a duct. Air pressure on the duct wall is
considered static. Imagine a fan blowing into a
completely closed duct; it will create only static
pressure because there is no air flow through the
duct. A balloon blown up with air is a similar case
in which there is only static pressure.

Dynamic (velocity) pressure


Dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy of a
unit of air flow in an air stream. Dynamic
pressure is a function of both air velocity
and density:
Dynamic pressure = (Density) * (Velocity)2
/2

Total Pressure
PT = PV + PS
PT = Total Pressure
PV = Velocity Pressure
PS = Static Pressure

Types of Pressure Losses or Resistance to


Flow

Pressure loss in ductwork has three


components
frictional losses along duct walls
dynamic losses in fittings
component losses in duct-mounted
equipment

Component Pressure
Due to physical items with known pressure
drops, such as hoods, filters, louvers or
dampers.

Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic losses are the result of changes in
direction and velocity of air flow. Dynamic losses
occur whenever an air stream makes turns,
diverges, converges, narrows, widens, enters, exits,
or passes dampers, gates, orifices, coils, filters, or
sound attenuators. .

Velocity profiles are reorganized at these


places by the development of vortexes that
cause the transformation of mechanical
energy into heat
Dynamic loss = (Local loss coefficient) *
(Dynamic pressure)
where the Local loss coefficient, known as a
C-coefficient, represents flow disturbances
for particular fittings

Frictional Pressure
Frictional losses in duct sections are result
from air viscosity and momentum exchange
among particles moving with different
velocities. These losses also contribute
negligible losses or gains in air systems
unless there are extremely long duct runs

Pressure Losses of an Air System

Sections in Series
For sections or components in series simply
sum up all the sections. A single duct that
has the same shape, cross section, and mass
flow is called a duct section or just a
section.

Following is the recommended procedure for


calculating total pressure loss in a single
duct section:
Gather input data: air flow, duct shape, duct
size, roughness, altitude, air temperature,
and fittings;
Calculate air velocity as a function of air
flow and cross section;
Calculate local C-coefficients for each
fitting used; and
Calculate pressure loss using the friction
chart

Sections in Parallel

For sections that run parallel, always use the


section with the higher pressure loss/gain to
determine pressure losses/gains through a
system. Adjust the branch with the lower
pressure loss/gain by increasing the flow
rate or decreasing the duct size to increase
the pressure loss to that of the higher branch

System

System Effect occurs in an air system when two or


more elements such as fittings, a hood and a fitting,
or a fan and a fitting occur within close proximity
to one another. The effect is to increase the energy
or pressure in a system as air flows through the
elements. To calculate the pressure loss incurred
by such a configuration, consider two elements at
a time. For example, if two elbows occur 4 feet
from one another this configuration will have a
pressure loss associated with it.

Fan Performance Specification

Fan total Pressure is the pressure differential


between the inlet and the outlet of the fan.
It can be expressed in these terms:

P t fan = P t loss + P v system outlet + (P s system outlet +


P s system entry + P v system entry)
P t fan = Fan Total Pressure
P t loss = Dynamic, Component, and Frictional Pressure
through the air system.
P s system outlet = Static Pressure at System Outlet
P s system entry = Static Pressure at System Entry
P v system entry = Velocity Pressure at System Entry
P v system outlet = Velocity Pressure at System
Outlet

Fan Static Pressure

The Fan Static Pressure is expressed as the Fan Total


Pressure minus the velocity pressure at the fan discharge,
or:
P s fan = P t loss + P v system outlet - P v discharge
Where P v discharge = Velocity Pressure at the Fan
Discharge.
For Exhaust Systems with resistance only on the inlet side,
the fan static pressure is:
P s fan = P t loss
For exhaust system: P v system outlet = P v discharge

For Supply Systems with resistance on the


outlet side, the fan static pressure is:
P s fan = P t loss - P v discharge
P v system outlet can be assumed to be 0.

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