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Discharging Condensate
HVAC
1
DEFINITIONS
Air Conditioning
Energy
Heat
Energy
PRINCIPLE ONE
Heat ALWAYS flows
from hot to cold when
objects are in contact
or connected by a
good heat conductor.
The rate of heat
transfer will increase
as the difference in
temp between the two
objects increases
PRINCIPLE TWO
Cold objects have less
heat than hot objects of
the same mass.
To make a object
colder, remove heat
To make it hotter, add
heat.
The mass of the object
remains the same
regardless of the heat
content.
EVAPORATION
The process of moisture becoming a
vapor(molecules escaping from the surface
of the liquid)
As moisture vaporizes from a warm surface,
it removes heat and lowers the
temperature of the surface.
The warmer the substance the quicker it
will evaporate.
PRINCIPLE THREE
Everything is composed of matter
All matter exists in one of three states: solid,
liquid or vapor.
LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: When
matter changes from liquid to vapor or vice
versa, it absorbs or releases a relatively large
amount of heat without a change in
temperature.
Sensible Heat
Heat
12
Latent Heat
13
MBH stands for One Thousand BTU per hour. BTU stands for
British Thermal Unit. MBh units should help with the cost
estimate of running your air conditioning (AC). It's a measure of
the heating/cooling capacity of AC equipment.
MBH - One MBH is equivalent to 1,000 BTU's per hour. The 'M'
is derived from the Roman Numeral M that equals 1000.Note
BTUs and therefore MBH are Imperial Units.)
BTU - A standard unit of measurement used to denote both the
amount of heat energy in fuels and the ability of appliances and air
conditioning systems to produce heating or cooling. It is the
amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a pint of
water by one degree Fahrenheit.
BTUs are measurements of energy consumption, and can be
converted directly to kilowatt-hours (3412 BTUs = 1 kWh) or
joules (1 BTU = 1,055.06 joules).
14
16
PRINCIPLE FOUR
CONDENSATION
When a vapor is cooled
below its dew point, it
becomes a liquid.
(boiling point in reverse)
When vapor condenses,
releases five times as
much heat
PRINCIPLE FIVE
Changing the pressure on
a liquid or a vapor changes
the boiling point.
Each lb. of pressure above
atmospheric pressure,
raises the boiling point
about three degrees
Fahrenheit.
PRINCIPLE SIX
When a vapor is
compressed, its
temperature and
pressure will increase
even though heat has
not been added.
HEAT TRANSFER/
HEAT GENERATION
20
Heat Transfer
21
22
Heat Transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Resistance (R-Value)
U=1/R
Q = U x A x T
Conduction
Conduction is the transmission of heat through solids
and composite sections such as structural
components
Conduction does not occur only within one object
or substance, it also occurs between different
substances that are in contact with one another
By building the walls and roofs of a building of
materials having known conductive characteristics,
the heat flow rate for the building can be controlled
24
Convection
25
Radiation
SPECIFIC HEAT
SENSIBLE HEAT
Any heat that can be felt (with your senses) and
can be measured with a thermometer.
Like ambient air. You feel the change in
temperature which makes you feel cold or feel
hot. Even a few degrees
PRESSURE
Pressure: A force
exerted per unit of
surface area.
Atmospheric
Pressure: 21% Oxygen
78% Nitrogen 1%
other gases
Atmospheric pressure
is 14.696 psia
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Service Manuals refer to pressure when
using A/C gauges as: psig (pounds per
square inch gauge)
A/C Gauges are calibrated to compensate
for atmospheric pressure.
Pressures below atmospheric are called
vacuum and measured in inches of mercury
(in Hg)
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
At sea level where atmospheric pressure is 14.7
PSI, the boiling point of water is 212 degrees
Fahrenheit
At any point higher than sea level the
atmospheric pressure is lower and so is the
boiling point of water.
Boiling point of H20 decreases by 1.1 0F for
every 1000 foot in altitude.
Pressure Increase
A Pressure increase
also raises the boiling
point of water.
For every 1 PSI of
pressure increase, the
boiling point raises
2.53 degrees
Fahrenheit
PSYCHROMETRICS
REFER TO NEXT PPT
36
38
40
Zoning criteria
Control methodologies
41
TERMINOLOGY
Commonly used terms relative to heat transmission and
load calculations are defined below in accordance with
ASHRAE Standard 12-75, Refrigeration Terms and
Definitions.
Space is either a volume or a site without a partition or
a partitioned room or group of rooms.
Room is an enclosed or partitioned space that is usually
treated as single load.
Zone is a space or group of spaces within a building with
heating and/or cooling requirements sufficiently similar so
that comfort conditions can be maintained throughout by a
single controlling device.
42
Space Heat Gain is the rate at which heat enters into and/or
is generated within the conditioned space during a given time
interval.
The manner in which it enters the space
a. Solar radiation through transparent surfaces such as windows
b. Heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs
c. Heat conduction through interior partitions, ceilings and floors
d. Heat generated within the space by occupants, lights, appliances,
equipment and processes
e. Loads as a result of ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air
f. Other miscellaneous heat gains
43
45
46
Space Heat Extraction Rate - the rate at which heat is removed from the
conditioned space and is equal to the space cooling load if the room
temperature remains constant.
48
e. How much air leaks into indoor space from the outside? Infiltration plays a
part in determining our air conditioner sizing. Door gaps, cracked windows,
chimneys - are the "doorways" for air to enter from outside, into your living
space.
f. The occupants. It takes a lot to cool a town hall full of people.
g. Activities and other equipment within a building. Cooking? Hot bath?
Gymnasium?
h. Amount of lighting in the room. High efficiency lighting fixtures generate less
heat.
i. How much heat the appliances generate. Number of power equipments such
as oven, washing machine, computers, TV inside the space; all contribute to heat.
The air conditioner's efficiency, performance, durability, and cost depend on
matching its size to the above factors. Many designers use a simple square foot
method for sizing the air-conditioners.
49
B)
C)
51
ROOF
OPAQUE WALL
GLASS
INFILTRATION
APPLIANCES AND LIGHTING FIGURES
USER
53
54
55
56
58
59
Transmission Coefficient(U-Factor)
The `U` factor is the rate at which heat is
transferred through a building barrier. It is
determined by the following equation.
U=1/(R1+R2+R3......Rn)
Where the `R` values are the resistance of
the various wall segments to the flow of
heat.
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/
hr sf F
R = thermal resistance, hr sf F /BTU
H = U x A x T
H = heat loss, BTU/hr
A = surface area of element, sf
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ hr sf F
T = design dry bulb temperature difference between indoors
and outdoors, F
Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) Equivalent
temperature difference used for calculating the instantaneous
external cooling load across a wall or roof.
61
H = U x A x T
H = heat gain, BTU/hr
A = surface area of element, sf
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ hr sf F
T = cooling load temperature difference, F
62
H = U x A x T
H = heat gain, BTU/hr
A = surface area of element, sf
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, BTU/ hr sf F
T = cooling load temperature difference, F
H = A x SC x SCL
H = heat gain, BTU/hr
SC = shading coefficient
SCL = solar cooling load factor
63
64
Typical Application
Sensible
(BTU/hr)
Latent
(BTU/hr)
Seated at rest
Theater
210
140
Hotels, Apartments
230
190
Seated, eating
Restaurant
255
325
Offices
255
255
315
325
Factory
345
435
Factory
345
695
Bowling
Bowling alley
345
625
Factory
565
1035
Heavy work
Gymnasium
635
1165
65
Each watt of lighting load (including both lamp and ballast) releases
3.413 BTU/hr
67
Low-e coatings
Example problem
Calculate the cooling load for the building with the geometry shown on
figure. On east north and west sides are buildings which create shade on the
whole wall.
Walls: 4 face brick + 2 insulation + 4 concrete block, U value = 0.1, Dark
color
Roof: 2 internal insulation + 4 concrete , U value = 0.120 , Dark color
Below the building is basement with temperature of 75 F.
Example problem
Internal loads:
Infiltration:
Example
For which hour to dosolution
the calculation when you do manual calculation?
Identify the major single contributor to the cooling load and do the calculation for
the hour when the maximum cooling load for this contributor appear.
at 12 am
Roof gains = A x U x TETD = 900 ft2 x 0.12 Btu/hFft2 x 30 F = 3.2 kBtu/h
Window solar gains = A x SC x SHGF =80 ft2 x 0.71 x 109 Btu/hft2 = 6.2 kBtu/h
Procedures
a) Determine the function of the room (assuming there is no overcrowding of occupants and / or heat generating equipments).
b) Measure the floor area (A) of the room in either in square feet or
square meter (a standard height of about 8.5 feet or 2.65 meter
between the floor and false ceiling shall be assumed for the
room).
c) Depending on whether you are using the imperial ( square feet )
or metric ( square meter ) system of measurement, decide on
which Factor (F) to use
78
79
80
81
82
83
85
86
1989 Edition:
Increased minimum outdoor air requirements for ventilation [Response
to growing number of buildings with apparent IAQ problems]
Office 5 cfm/person to 20 cfm/person
2004 Edition:
Changed the ventilation rate procedure to include the summation of two
components: the occupant-density related component, and the area
related component
Changed the ventilation rates in Table 6-1 to apply to non-smoking
spaces
87
2007 Edition:
Updated information in Table 4-1 National primary ambient
air quality standards for outdoor air as set by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
Added Section 5.18 Requirements for buildings containing ETS
areas and ETS-free areas (ETS-Environmental Tobacco Smoke)
88
IAQ Procedure
This is a design procedure in which outdoor air
intake rates and other system design parameters
are based on an analysis of contaminant
concentration targets, and perceived acceptability
targets
89
90
91
62.1-2007
92
62.1-2007
93
NCSBC
94
NCSBC
95
96
97
Commentary
ASHRAE Standard 62.1 Code Adoption
Standard 62.1 is voluntary until adopted by code or
other regulation
Code adoption is often delayed due to time required
to be accepted and integrated into the model codes,
as then accepted and adopted by the local codes
98
99
VAPOR
COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION
CYCLE
100
Vapor Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
Evaporation: Low pressure liquid absorbs
heat (heat source) and changes state to a low
pressure vapor
Compression: Low pressure vapor is
compressed to high pressure vapor
Condensation: High pressure vapor is cooled
(heat sink) and changes state to a high pressure
liquid
Expansion: High pressure liquid is reduced to
low pressure liquid via throttling
101
Vapor Compression
Refrigeration Cycle Components
EVAPORATOR
102
EVAPORATOR
CHILLED WATER
103
ENERGY USAGE
HVAC SYSTEMS
106
107
Equipment Fuctionality
Reliability while meeting requirements
Economics
Initial Cost
Operating Cost
Maintenance Cost
108
All-Air Systems
Air-and-Water Systems
All-Water Systems
109
Air-and-Water System
Conditions the spaces by distributing air and water sources to
terminal units installed in habitable space throughout a building
The air and water are cooled or heated in central mechanical
equipment rooms
The air supplied is called primary air, the water supplied is called
secondary water
110
Unitary System
Packaged air conditioning units with integral refrigeration cycles
111
All-Air Systems
Dual-duct
Multizone
112
113
Modes:
Free Cooling
Economy Refrigeration
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
122
2.
3.
Fan Problem
An existing centrifugal supply air fan serving a central
station air washer delivers 90,000 cfm @ 2 s.p. (wg), 825
rpm and 47.3 bhp.
It has been established that the volumetric air flow rate
(cfm) can be reduced 20% because of excessive design
safety factors and plant production equipment
modifications.
Determine: 1) new air volume, 2) rpm @ new cfm, 3) bhp
@ new cfm, and 4) annual electrical savings
Electricity cost:
Demand charge - $6.00/kw (avg)
Energy charge - $0.031/kwh (avg)
124
FanNewProblem
Air Volume = 0.8Solution
x 90,000 = 72,000 cfm
1.
2.
3.
4.
Energy:
(23.1 hp)(0.746 kw/hp)(8760 hr/yr)($0.031/kwh)(1.03 tax)
= $4,820 /yr
Demand:
(17.2 kw/mo)(12 mo/yr)($6.00/kw)(1.03 tax)
= $1,276 /yr
Annual Electrical Savings:
$4,820 + $1,276 = $6,096 /yr
125
Induction
Fan Coil
126
Induction Unit
Induction Nozzle
127
All-Water Systems
Unit Ventilator
Fan Coil
129
Unit Ventilator
130
Rooftop
Split System
Through-the-wall
132
133
134
135
136
138
Comfort-to-Comfort Applications
139
e=
e = effectiveness
140
Heat Pipe
Runaround System
141
142
Heat Pipe
143
144
Runaround System
145
CONTROL STRATEGY
146
Control Strategy
Optimize the operation of the HVAC systems
[To minimize the fan, heating and cooling energy requirements]
Develop and implement system scheduling
occupied/unoccupied
Implement optimal start/stop
Optimize the temperature and/or humidity setpoints in both
the occupied and unoccupied periods
Introduce outdoor ventilation air only when the building is
occupied
Provide control system override
147
COMFORT
Comfort describes a delicate balance of pleasant feelings in
the body produced by its surrounding
Comfort involves
Temperature
Humidity
Air movement
Air cleanliness
The human body makes adjustments to comfort conditions
by its circulatory and respiratory systems
BODY TEMPERATURE
Humans are comfortable when the heat is transferring to
the surroundings at the correct rate
The body gives off and absorb heat by conduction,
convection and radiation
Surroundings must be cooler than the body for the body to
be comfortable
The body is close to being comfortable when it is at rest
and in surroundings of 75 F and 50% humidity with slight
air movement
Comfort conditions in winter and in summer are different
BODY TEMPERATURE
OF 98.6F
AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE 75F at
50% HUMIDITY
Outside ambient
temperature
100F
Psychrometric
Chart...
graphically shows
the Properties of Air.
10
Psychrometric
Chart used...
to model conditions
inside buildings by
system designers.
11
Psychrometric
Chart used...
to monitor conditions in
commercial refrigeration
plants and manufacturing
environments.
12
Psychrometric
Chart used...
to evaluate problems
in air conditioned
environments.
13
Structure
H
E
E
L
SOLE
14
7
2
6
1
15
0F
SOLE
800 F DB
16
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE
PROPERTY
OF AIR
DRY BULB
TEMP
SYMBOL
DB
EXPRESSED
BY
SCALE
LOCATION
LINE
DRAWN
0F
SOLE
BOTTOM
STRAIGHT
UP
19
660 F WB
Instep
SLING
PSYCHROMETER
20
DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE
PROPERTY
OF AIR
SYMBOL
EXPRESSED
BY
SCALE
LOCATION
LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP
SLANTED
DRY BULB
TEMP
DB
0F
SOLE
BOTTOM
WET BULB
TEMP
WB
0F
INSTEP
24
temperature at which
moisture condenses on
a surface.
25
PROPERTY
OF AIR
SYMBOL
EXPRESSED
BY
SCALE
LOCATION
LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP
DRY BULB
TEMP
DB
0F
SOLE
BOTTOM
WET BULB
TEMP
WB
0F
INSTEP
SLANTED
INSTEP
HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT
DEW POINT
TEMP
DP
0F
26
4. Specific Humidity
Absolute Humidity or Humidity
Ratio
Heel
29
OF AIR
BY
LOCATION
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP
DRY BULB
TEMP
DB
0F
SOLE
BOTTOM
WET BULB
TEMP
WB
0F
INSTEP
SLANTED
0F
INSTEP
HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT
GR/LB
HEEL
RIGHT VERT
HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT
DEW POINT
TEMP
SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY
DP
30
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
Amount of moisture present in an air
sample
60
Measured in grains
per pound of air
GRAINS
7,000 grains of moisture = 1 pound
1 POUND
MOISTURE CONTENT
(BTU/LBAIR)
5. Relative Humidity
the amount of moisture
vapor the air is holding
compared to what it could
hold at the same DB
temperature.
Curved Lines
Saturation Point
Curve = 100% RH
35
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Amount of moisture present in an air sample
relative to the maximum moisture capacity of
the air sample
Expressed as a percentage
Can be described as the absolute humidity
divided by the maximum moisture-holding
capacity of the air
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #1
#10
of CARS
CARS
100%
X
% FULL
=
% FULL = 0.5 X 100%
#20
of SPACES
SPACES
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #2
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Example #3
60
GRAINS
PROPERTY
OF AIR
SYMBOL
EXPRESSED
BY
SCALE
LOCATION
LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP
DRY BULB
TEMP
DB
0F
SOLE
BOTTOM
WET BULB
TEMP
WB
0F
INSTEP
SLANTED
GR/LB
HEEL
RIGHT VERT
HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT
SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY
DEW POINT
TEMP
DP
0F
INSTEP
HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
RH
%RH
CURVED
CURVED
41
6. Specific Volume
- Space that one pound of
dry air takes up
- Steeply slanted lines
- Expressed in Cubic Feet
per Pound ( ft3/lb )
42
PROPERTY
OF AIR
SYMBOL
EXPRESSED
BY
SCALE
LOCATION
LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP
DRY BULB
TEMP
DB
0F
SOLE
BOTTOM
WET BULB
TEMP
WB
0F
INSTEP
SLANTED
GR/LB
HEEL
RIGHT VERT
HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT
SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY
DEW POINT
TEMP
DP
0F
INSTEP
HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
RH
%RH
CURVED
CURVED
FT3/LB
STEEPLY
SLANTED
STEEPLY
SLANTED
SPECIFIC
VOLUME
45
7. Enthalpy
- Total amount of heat
energy (sensible and
latent) in one pound
of air.
46
ENTHALPY SCALE
As we move up and down
along an enthalpy line, the
enthalpy does not change
The red arrow
indicates an increase
in enthalpy
The blue arrow
indicates a decrease
in enthalpy
PROPERTY
OF AIR
SYMBOL
EXPRESSED
BY
SCALE
LOCATION
LINE
DRAWN
STRAIGHT
UP
DRY BULB
TEMP
DB
0F
SOLE
BOTTOM
WET BULB
TEMP
WB
0F
INSTEP
SLANTED
GR/LB
HEEL
RIGHT VERT
HORIZONTAL
TO RIGHT
SPECIFIC
HUMIDITY
DEW POINT
TEMP
DP
0F
INSTEP
HORIZONTAL
TO LEFT
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
RH
%RH
CURVED
CURVED
STEEPLY
SLANTED
STEEPLY
SLANTED
ABOVE
INSTEP
EXTENSION
OF WB LINE
SPECIFIC
VOLUME
FT3/LB
ENTHALPY
BTU/LB
49
50
SUPPLY
AIR
RETURN
AIR
h = 28.1 btu/lbAIR
h = 21.6 Btu/lbAIR
RETURN
AIR
SUPPLY
AIR
64
grains/lb
60
grains/lb
55F
75F
54
SA
Heat
Section
Psychrometric
changes take
place between
RA and SA
Return Air
Plenum
RA
55
Heating only
Sensible
change
horizonally to right
Initial Point
0DGR
(Return Air reading)
DT
56
Cooling only
Sensible
change
horizonally to left
0DGR
DT
57
Humidifying only
Process Line moves
straight up
DGR
Latent
change
0DT
58
Dehumidifying only
Process Line moves
straight down
Latent
DGR
change
0DT
59
Other AC Processes...
Sensible and Latent change
Cooling &
Humidifying
Heating &
Humidifying
Cooling &
Heating &
Dehumidifying Dehumidifying
60
What we need
for evaluating
AC Processes...
DH
RA
50% RH
SA
80% RH
600
F DB
DGR
800 F DB
DT
61
AIR FORMULAE
QT = QS + QL
QT = 4.5 x Cfm X h
Qs = 1.1 x Cfm X T
QL = 0.68 x Cfm x W
Qs = 1.1 X CFM X DT
A constant based
on the Density of
Air and a time
conversion factor
Determined from
the Condensing
Unit model number
QS is expressed in BTUH
63
QL is expressed in BTUH
64
QT = 4.45 X CFM X DH
A constant
including a time
conversion factor
QT is expressed in BTUH
65
66
Sensible Heat
Ratio
LATENT SENSIBLE
Sensible Heat
Ratio
SHR =
QS
QT
68
Example:
SHR =
29,060 btuh
36,325 btuh
.80 SHR
69
Permanent
Index Point
.80 SHR
70
HL
Latent
change in
Enthalpy
Hs
Sensible
change in
Enthalpy
DGR
Latent
change
DT
Sensible change
71
RETURN AIR
SUPPLY AIR
Water at
50F
TOTAL HEAT
The capacity of a heating and cooling unit
may be field checked with the total heat
feature of the psychrometric chart
Total heat = sensible heat + latent heat
Sensible heat formula: Qs = 1.08 x cfm x T
Total heat formula: Qt = 4.5 x cfm x total heat
difference
CFM formula: ______Qs______
1.08 x T
SUMMARY
Comfort is affected by air movement, humidity,
air cleanliness and temperature
Humans are considered to be comfortable
when heat is transferred from the body to its
surroundings at the proper rate
The body is close to being comfortable when it
is at rest and in surroundings of 75F and 50%
humidity with slight air movement
The comfort chart is used to compare one
comfort situation or condition with another
SUMMARY
Psychrometrics is the study of air and its
properties
Density indicates how many pounds one cubic
foot of a substance weighs
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density
Moisture in air is referred to as humidity
Dry bulb temperature is the sensible heat level
of air
Wet bulb temperatures take the moisture
content of the air into account
SUMMARY
The dew point temperature is the point at
which moisture in the air begins to
condense out of the air
The psychrometric chart provides a
graphical representation of an air sample
as well as a means to calculate other
properties of the air
Total heat = sensible heat + latent heat
OUTSIDE AIR
RETURN AIR
MIXED
AIR
AIR
HANDLER
OUTSIDE AIR
SUPPLY AIR
MIXED AIR
RETURN AIR
lights
glass solar
infiltration
people
equipment
glass
conduction
exterior
wall
floor
partition
wall
sensible latent
load
load
heat gain
east-facing
window
roof
12
12
12
mid
a.m.
noon
p.m.
mid
The windows face west and the solar heat gain through these
windows will peak in the late afternoon when the sun is setting
and shining directly into the windows. Because of this, we will
assume that the maximum cooling load for our example
space occurs at 4 p.m.
Basis for estimating the space cooling and heating loads.
Open-plan office space located in a single-story office building
Floor area = 45 ft x 60 ft
Floor-to-ceiling height = 12 ft (no plenum between the space
and roof).
Desired indoor conditions = 78F [25.6C] dry-bulb
temperature, 50% relative humidity during cooling season;
72F [22.2C] dry-bulb temperature during heating season.
West-facing wall, 12 ft high x 45 ft long constructed of 8 in.
[203.2 mm] lightweight concrete
Block with aluminum siding on the outside, 3.5 in. [88.9 mm] of
insulation, and in. [12.7 mm] gypsum board on the inside.
Eight clear, double-pane ( in. [6.4 mm]) windows mounted in
aluminum frames. Each window is 4 ft wide x 5ft high
Flat, 45 ft x 60 ft roof constructed of 4 in. [100 mm] concrete
with 3.5 in. [90 mm] insulation & steel decking.
Space is occupied from 8:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m. by 18 people
doing moderately active work.
Fluorescent lighting in space = 2 W/ft2
Computers and office equipment in space = 0.5 W/ft2, plus one
coffee maker.
In order to simplify this example, we will assume that, with the
exception of the west-facing exterior wall, room
Room is surrounded by spaces that are air conditioned to the
same temperature as this space.
U-factor
Sunlit Surfaces
sun
rays
Time Lag
solar effect
time lag
12
12
12
mid
a.m.
noon
p.m.
mid
BH = U A T
CLTD
Shading Coefficient
Infiltration
Air leaks into or out of a
space through doors,
windows, and small
cracks in the building
envelope. Air leaking into a
space is called infiltration.
During the cooling season,
when air leaks into a
conditioned space from
outdoors, it can contribute
to both the sensible and
latent heat gain in the space
because the outdoor air is
typically warmer and more
humid than the indoor air.
1.1 and 0.7 are not constants, but are derived from
properties of air at standard conditions.
Ventilation
Notice that all space loads are also coil loads, but all coil loads are
not necessarily also space loads. Ventilation air is conditioned prior
to being delivered to the space. Therefore, the ventilation load
adds to the total cooling coil load, but does not add to the space
cooling load.Additionally,heat gains that occur within the HVAC
system, such as fan heat and duct heat gain, are considered coil
loads, but not space loads.
Single-Space Analysis
where,
Sensible heat gain = sensible heat gain in the space, Btu/hr
1.085 = product of density and specific heat, Btumin/hrft3F
Supply airflow = quantity of air supplied to the space, cfm
Room DB = desired space dry-bulb temperature, F
Supply DB = supply air dry-bulb temperature, F
Remember that 1.085 is not a constantit is derived from the
density and specific heat of the air at actual conditions.
We need to calculate the condition of the air entering the cooling coil. The
condition of this air mixture (C) must fall on a line connecting the condition
of the recirculated air (A) and the condition of the outdoor air (B).The wetbulb temperature that marks the intersection of the connecting line and
the 80F dry-bulb temperature mark is approximately 66.5F.Because the
recirculated air constitutes a larger percentage (88%) of the mixture, the
mixed-air condition (C) is much closer to the recirculated air condition (A)
than the outdoor design condition (B).
Multiple-Space Analysis
Although rooms 101 and 102 peak at different times of the day, there
will be a single instance in time when the sum of these two space loads
is highest. This is called the block load. If these two spaces are served
by a single VAV system, in which the supply fan delivers a varying
amount of air to the system, the fan only needs to be sized for the time.
When the sum of the space sensible loads is the highest129,939
Btu/hr. This is the reason that VAV systems can use smaller supply fans
than constant-volume systems.
Sum of peaks =74,626 + 62,414 = 137,040 Btu/hr
Block = 74,626 + 55,313 = 129,939 Btu/hr
Assume that the supply air dry bulb is the 59F that was calculated
during the psychrometric analysis.The sum-of-peaks and block
airflows for sizing the supply fan in these two cases can then be
calculated as follows:
12000 Btu/hr = 1 TR
Then 179,077/12000 =14.92 TR
roof
plenum
return air
lights
ceiling
While some of this heat is absorbed by the return air, 3,620 Btu/hr is
transferred through the ceiling into the space. This heat transfer
between the plenum and the space does affect the space sensible
load, but it does not affect the coil load. This is because any heat that
is not transferred to the space is absorbed by the return air and must
be eventually removed by the cooling coil.
Ducted Return
People
Equipment - Office
Equipment
-Restaurant
Review
Thermal comfort depends upon creating an environment of drybulb temperature, humidity and air motion that is appropriate
for the activity level of the people in the space. This environment
allows the bodys rate of heat generation to balance with the
bodys rate of heat loss. ASHRAE has prescribed a comfort
zone that can be used as the basis for HVAC system design.
Review
compressor
Reciprocating compressors
A reciprocating compressor or piston
compressor is a positive-displacement
compressor that uses pistons driven by a
crankshaft to deliver gases at high
pressure.
Advatages
Disadvatages
piston rings
crankshaft
piston
For low speed compressors (upto 330 rpm) and
medium speed compressors (330-600 rpm),
pistons are usually made of cast iron.
Upto 7 diameter cast iron pistons are made of
solids. Those of more than 7 diameters are
usually hollow
(to reduce cost).
Carbon pistons are sometimes used for
compressing oxygen and other gases that must
be kept free of lubricant.
crank case
Crank case supports the crankshaft. All
bearing supports are bored under setup
condition to ensure perfect alignment.
Crankcase is provided with easy
removable covers on the top for inspection
and maintenance. The bottom of the
crankcase serves as the oil reservoir.
connecting rod
The connecting rod has two bearings. The
big end bearing is built in two halves. It is
made of metal with inner coating of
antifriction metal. The connecting rod
small end bearing is build of steel, with
inner coating of antifriction metal. A hole
runs through the connecting rod for its
entire length, to allow passage of oil from
the big end to the small end bush.
Cross Head
Crosshead fastens piston rod to the connecting rod
It permits to slide back and fort within the cross head slide
it has channels fro distribution of oil
Lubrication system
Dighpram compressor
Rotary compressors
Rotary compressors are those
compressors which use rotors instead of
piston to compress gas.
The different types of rotary compressors
are screw ,vane ,scroll ,lobe and liquid ring
compressors
Advantages
Simple design
Low to medium initial and maintenance cost
Two-stages design provide good efficiencies
Easy to install
Few moving parts
Disadvatages
High rotational speed
Shorter life expectancy than any other
designs
Single-stage designs have lower efficiency
Difficulty with dirty environment
screw compressors
vane compressor
When a gas is compressed in the compressor,
its temperature is increased considerably. To
prevent spontaneous combustion of the
lubricant, the compressor is equipped with water
cooling (with a pipe for water supply) or air
cooling. In this way, the air compression process
will approximate an isothermal process (with
constant temperature), which is theoretically
most advantageous.
scroll compressor
Lobe compressors
Rotary Lobe type Air Compressor has two
mating lobe-type rotors mounted in a case. The
lobes are gear driven at close clearance, but
without metal-to-metal contact. The suction to the
unit is located where the cavity made by the lobes
is largest.
The liquid ring pump compresses gas by rotating
a vaned impeller located eccentrically within a
cylindrical casing. Liquid (usually water) is fed
into the pump and, by centrifugal acceleration,
forms a moving cylindrical ring against the inside
of the casing. This liquid ring creates a series of
seals in the space between the impeller vanes,
which form compression chambers. The
eccentricity between the impeller's axis of
rotation and the casing geometric axis results in
a cyclic variation of the volume enclosed by the
vanes and the ring.
Dynamic compressors
Adding more amount of gas in a constant
amount of volume. Common
types of dynamic compressors include
centrifugal compressors
axial compressors
Axial compressors
Advatages
High peak efficiency
Small frontal area for given airflow
Increased pressure rise due to increased
number of stages with negligible losses
Disadvatages
Good efficiency over narrow rotational
speed range
Difficulty of manufacture and high cost.
Relatively high weight
High starting power requirements
Applications
Axial compressors can have high
efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their
design conditions. However, they are
relatively expensive, requiring a large
number of components, tight tolerances
and high quality materials. Axial-flow
compressors can be found in medium to
large gas turbine engines, in natural gas
pumping stations, and within certain
chemical plants.
centrifugal compressors
Advantages
High efficiency approaching two stages
reciprocating compressor
Can reach pressure up to 1200 psi
Designed to give lubricant free air
Does not require special foundations
Disadvantages
High initial cost
Complicated monitoring and control systems
applications
Many large snowmaking operations (like
ski resorts) use this type of compressor.
They are also used in internal combustion
engines as superchargers and
turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors
are used in small gas turbine engines or
as the final compression stage of medium
sized gas turbines.
Expansion valve
There are basically two types of expansion
valves
Internally equalised valve
Externally equalised valve
Drier
Accumulator
Finned Evaporators
Air-Cooled Condensers
An air-cooled condenser consists of a coil of
ample surface that air is blown by a fan or
induced by natural draft. This type of condenser
is universally used in small capacity
refrigerating units. Mostly designed for
residential or small office air conditioners.
Air-chilled condensers should be kept from free
from dirt, lint and other foreign materials
because they tend to reduce the airflow around
the tubes and fins if they are allowed to
accumulate just like evaporators.
Water-Cooled Condensers
A water-cooled condenser is similar to a
steam surface condenser in that cooling is
accomplished by water alone that
circulates through tubes or coils enclosed
in a shell. IN a water-cooled condenser the
refrigerant circulates through the annular
space between the tubes or coils.
Because of its construction, a watercooled condenser is also referred to as a
double-pipe condenser
CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
Air has to be conditioned in most cases for us
to be comfortable
Equipment includes cooling coil, heating device,
device to add humidity, and device to clean air
Forced air systems use the same room air over
and over again
Fresh air enters the structure by infiltration or
by mechanical means
Supply duct
Air handler
100
cfm
200
cfm
50
cfm
Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm
100
cfm
100
cfm
100 cfm
50 cfm
200 cfm
The blower
Air supply system
Return air system
Grilles and registers
Supply
registers
Supply duct
Air handler (blower)
THE BLOWER
Provides the pressure difference to force the
air into the duct system, through the grilles
and registers, and into the room
Typically 400 cfm of air must be moved per
minute per ton of air conditioning
Pressure in the ductwork is measured in inches
of water column (in. W.C)
Air pressure in the ductwork is measured with
a water manometer
Probe
located on
the surface
Airflow of the duct
Duct
Static pressure
Probe located in
the duct, facing
into the
direction of
airflow
Total pressure
Velocity pressure
Total
pressure
Static pressure
PROPELLER FAN
Used in exhaust fan and condenser fan
application
Will handle large volumes of air at low
pressure differentials
Set into a housing called a venturi
The venturi forces airflow in a straight
line from one side of the fan to the other
Makes noise and is used where noise is not
a factor
Propeller fan
Venturi
SQUIRREL CAGE OR
CENTRIFUGAL FAN
Desirable for ductwork
Builds more pressure from the inlet to the
outlet
Has a forward curved blade and a cutoff to
shear the air spinning around the fan wheel
Very quiet when properly applied
Can be used in very large high-pressure systems
Centrifugal Blower
BLOWER
Belt-driven
Assembly
BOTH THE DRIVE
AND DRIVEN
PULLEYS MUST BE
PERFECTLY
ALIGNED
MOTOR
Plenum system
Extended plenum system
Reducing plenum system
Perimeter loop
Plenum system
Supply plenum
Return
duct
Branch
ducts
100
cfm
200
cfm
50
cfm
Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm
100
cfm
100
cfm
100 cfm
50 cfm
200 cfm
100
cfm
200
cfm
50
cfm
Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm
100
cfm
100
cfm
100 cfm
50 cfm
200 cfm
100
cfm
200
cfm
50
cfm
Living Room
9,000 btu (cooling)
18,000 btu
(heating) 300 cfm
100
cfm
100
cfm
100 cfm
50 cfm
200 cfm
DUCT MATERIALS
Ductwork must meet local codes
For years, galvanized sheet metal was
used exclusively
Other ductwork materials
Aluminum
Fiberglass ductboard
Spiral metal duct
Flexible duct
Drive cleat
Slip
Slip
FIBERGLASS DUCT
Styles: Flat sheet or round prefabricated
cut
Duct is normally 1 in. thick with aluminum
foil backing
Special knives are used to make special
cuts to turn duct board into ductwork
All duct seams should be stapled and taped
FLEXIBLE DUCT
Comes in sized up to about 24 in. in diameter
Some have a reinforced aluminum foil backing
Some come with vinyl or foil backing and
insulation on it
Keep duct runs as short as possible
Has more friction loss inside it than metal
duct
Flex duct should be stretched as tight as
possible
Floor Register
Return
Damper
Flexible Duct
Supply
Takeoff fitting
BALANCING DAMPERS
Used to balance the air in various parts
of the system
Dampers should be located as close as
practical to the trunk line
The trunk is the place to balance airflow
Handles allow the dampers to be turned
at an angle to the airstream to slow the
air down
Branch duct
Balancing damper in
the closed position
DUCT INSULATION
A 15F temperature difference from the
inside of the duct to the outside of the
duct is considered the maximum
difference allowed before insulation is
necessary
Metal duct can be insulated on the outside
and on the inside
The insulation is joined by lapping it,
stapling it, and taping it
Central Return
Supply plenum
Return plenum
One central return grill in the common
area
Cross-sectional area =
1 ft x 1 ft = 12 x 12 =
144 square inches =
1 foot
Average
air
velocity is
400 fpm
1 foot
Cross-sectional area =
18 x 18 = 324 in2
18
Average
air
velocity is
400 fpm
18
SUMMARY
Forced air systems use the same air over and
over
Fresh air enters the structure by infiltration
Forced air systems deliver the correct quantity
of conditioned air to the occupied space
Different spaces require different air quantities
Forced air systems are made up of the blower,
supply duct system, return air system and supply
registers or grilles
SUMMARY
Typically, 400 cfm of air must be moved
per minute per ton of air conditioning
Pressure in the ductwork is measured in
inches of water column (in. W.C)
Static pressure plus velocity pressure
equals total pressure
Air volume in cfm can be calculated by
multiplying the air velocity by the crosssectional area of the duct in square feet
SUMMARY
Propeller fans are used in exhaust fan and
condenser fan applications and can handle large
volumes of air at low pressure differentials
Centrifugal blowers are used in duct systems
Motor drives can be direct or belt driven
assemblies
The supply duct system can be configured as a
plenum, extended plenum, reducing extended
plenum or perimeter loop system
SUMMARY - 4
SUMMARY - 5
Friction in the duct slows the air flowing in
it
Slower air experiences less friction
Air balancing ensures the proper amount of
air is delivered to each supply register
CFM = velocity x cross sectional area
The friction chart is used to properly size
duct systems
Comfort Requirements
Temperature
Humidity
Air movement
Fresh air
Clean air
Noise levels
Lighting
Furniture and work
surfaces
The premise of this method is that any HVAC system can be dissected into
basic subsystems. These subsystems will be referred to as "loops/" There are
five primary loops that can describe virtually any type of HVAC system.
These five loops can be used to describe virtually any HVAC system, not every
system uses all five loops.
Airside Loop
Airside Loop
The first loop is the airside loop, and the first component of this loop is the
conditioned space. The first two comfort requirements mentioned were drybulb temperature and humidity. In order to maintain the dry-bulb temperature in
the conditioned space, heat (referred to as sensible heat) must be added or
removed at the same rate as it leaves or enters the space. In order to maintain the
humidity level in the space, moisture (sometimes referred to as latent heat) must
be added or removed at the same rate as it leaves or enters the space.
Cooling Coil
The supply air must be cold enough to absorb excess sensible heat from the space
and dry enough to absorb excess moisture (latent heat).
A heat exchanger, commonly known as a cooling coil, is often used to cool and
dehumidify the supply air before it is delivered to the space.
A typical cooling coil includes rows of tubes passing through sheets of formed fins. A
cold fluid, either water or liquid refrigerant, enters one header at the end of the coil
and then flows through the tubes, cooling both the tubes and the fins.
part-load operation
Constant-Volume System
A constant-volume system provides a
constant quantity of supply air and
varies the supply-air temperature in
response to the changing cooling load
in the space.
A thermostat compares the dry-bulb
temperature in the conditioned space to
a set point. It then modulates cooling
capacity until the space temperature
matches the set point.
constant supply-air quantity
variable supply-air temperature
part-load operation
Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) System
A VAV terminal unit is added to the airside loop. Each conditioned space, or
group of similar spaces (called a zone), has a separate VAV terminal unit that
varies the quantity of supply air delivered to that space or zone. The VAV terminal
unit contains an airflow modulation device, typically a rotating-blade damper.
Fan-Coil Unit
A simple example of the airside loop is a fan-coil unit. Return air from the space
is drawn into the unit at the base and can be mixed with outdoor air that enters
through a separate damper in the back of the unit.
This mixed air passes through a filter, a supply fan, and a cooling coil before
being discharged from the top of the unit directly into the conditioned space.
A central air handler is typically installed outside of the conditioned space, possibly
on the roof or in a dedicated mechanical room. Return air from the space is drawn
into the unit through the return-air dampers and mixes with outdoor air that enters
through another set of dampers. This mixed air passes through the filters, the supply
fan, and the cooling coil before being discharged from the air handler.
The central air handler needs a method for delivering the supply air to the
conditioned space(s).
Chilled-Water Loop
In the airside loop, a cooling coil is used to
cool and dehumidify the supply air.
As mentioned, the cold fluid flowing through the
tubes of the coil may be either water or liquid
refrigerant. Systems that use water flowing
through the cooling coil also contain a chilled
water loop.
Heat energy flows from a higher-temperature
substance to a lower-temperature substance.
Therefore, in order for heat to be transferred
from the air, the fluid flowing through the tubes
of the cooling coil must be colder than the air
passing over the tubes and fins.
Chilled water at 42F (5.6C) flows through the
coil, absorbing heat from the air. The water
leaves the coil at a warmer temperature57F
(13.9C).
Evaporator
A heat exchanger is used to cool the water that returns from the coilat 57F
(13.9C)back to the desired supply-water temperature of 42F (5.6C).
This heat exchanger, called an evaporator, is one component of the
refrigeration (cooling) equipment.
Shell-and-Tube Evaporator
Similar to the airside loop, the chilled-water loop responds to changing cooling loads
by varying either the temperature or the quantity of water delivered to the cooling
coil.The most common method, however, is to vary the quantity of water flowing
through the cooling coil by using a control valve. As the cooling load decreases,
the modulating control valve reduces the rate of chilled-water flow through the
coil, decreasing its cooling capacity.
At part-load conditions, a two-way control valve reduces the rate of chilled-water flow
through the coil.
A three-way control valve also reduces the rate of flow through the coil, but it
bypasses the excess water to mix downstream with the water that flows through the
coil.
Refrigeration Loop
The third loop is the refrigeration loop.In the chilled-water loop, the evaporator
allows heat to transfer from the water to cold liquid refrigerant.
Liquid refrigerant at 38F (3.3C) enters the tubes of the shell-and-tube evaporator.
As heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant, the liquid refrigerant boils.
The resulting refrigerant vapor is further warmed (superheated) to 50F (10C)
inside the evaporator before being drawn to the compressor.
Compressor
The compressor is used to pump the low-pressure refrigerant vapor from the
evaporator and compress it to a higher pressure. This increase in pressure also
raises the temperature of the refrigerant vapor120F (48.9C) .
Common types of compressors used in HVAC systems include reciprocating,
scroll, helical-rotary (screw), and centrifugal.
Condenser
After being discharged from the compressor, the hot, high-pressure refrigerant
vapor enters a condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger that transfers
heat from the hot refrigerant vapor to air, water, or some other fluid that is at a
colder temperature. As heat is removed from the refrigerant, it condenses and
returns to the liquid phase.
Types of Condensers
Expansion Device
The liquid refrigerant that leaves the condenser is still at a relatively high
temperature-110F (43.3C) .The final step of the refrigeration cycle is for this
hot liquid refrigerant to pass through an expansion device. This device creates a
large pressure drop that reduces the pressure, and correspondingly the
temperature, of the refrigerant. where it is again cold enough to absorb heat inside
the evaporator.
Not all HVAC systems use all five loops. So far, we have looked at the airside loop,
the chilled-water loop, and the refrigeration loop.
Instead of chilled water flowing through the tubes of the cooling coil, some systems
have cold liquid refrigerant flowing through the tubes. In this case, the finned-tube
cooling coil is also the evaporator of the refrigeration loop. As air passes through the
coil, heat is transferred from the air to the refrigerant. This heat transfer causes the
refrigerant to boil and leave the evaporator as vapor.
No Chilled-Water Loop
A system that does not use the chilled-water loop is one that uses a
packaged rooftop air conditioner. It combines several components of the airside loop
with all the components of the refrigeration loop.
Similar to the central air handler shown earlier, return air from the space is drawn
into the unit and is mixed with outdoor air that enters through a separate damper.
This mixed air passes through the filters, the cooling coil (which is also the
evaporator), and the supply fan before it is discharged from the unit. Packaged
inside this same piece of equipment are one or more compressors, an air-cooled
condenser complete with propeller-type fans, and expansion devices.
Heat-Rejection Loop
The fourth loop is the heat-rejection loop. In the refrigeration loop, the condenser transfers heat
from the hot refrigerant to air, water, or some other fluid. In a water-cooled condenser, water
flows through the tubes while the hot refrigerant vapor enters the shell space surrounding the
tubes. Heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water, warming the water.water enters the
condenser at 85F (29.4C), absorbs heat from the hot refrigerant, and leaves at 100F (37.8C).
The water flowing through the condenser must be colder than the hot refrigerant vapor. A heat
exchanger is required to cool the water that returns from the condenserat 100F (37.8C)back
to the desired temperature of 85F (29.4C) before it is pumped back to the condenser. When a
water-cooled condenser is used, this heat exchanger is typically either a cooling tower or a fluid
cooler (also known as a dry cooler).
Cooling Tower
Fan
motor
Air out
95F
water
Load
85F
water
45F
Condenser
Pump
Evaporator
55F
Pump
Water to pump
Valve
Slats on all
four sides of
the tower
Make-up
water
DRY/WET MODE
Fluid to be cooled is fed first to the dry
finned coil
Fluid then fed to the prime surface coil
Fluid then leaves tower
Water in the tower flows over the prime
surface coil and wet deck surface
Air is drawn through the prime surface coil
and wet deck surface
ADIABATIC MODE
Condenser water is cooled by evaporating
the tower water
No heat is added or removed during from
the process
Fluid to be cooled passes only through
finned coil
Spray water is used to help cool the air
passing through the tower
Plume is the saturated discharge air
DRY MODE
Fluid to be cooled passes through the
finned coil and the primed surface
coil
No spray water is used
No plume results
Fluid is cooled by air passing over the
coil
FIRE PROTECTION
The off season can create a fire
hazard
Tower components may be flammable
A tower wetting system may be
required
Some towers are kept wet whenever
the temperature is above freezing
FILL MATERIAL
Designed to slow the flow of trickling water
through the tower
Splash method
Uses wood slats, PVC pipe, or FRP plastic
Tower has framework to support slats at the
correct angle
FLOW PATTERNS
Crossflow
Air enters from the side and is discharged from
the top or the other side
Counterflow
Air enters from the bottom and is exhausted at
the top
The water flows down as the air moves up
TOWER MATERIALS
Must withstand the environment
Must withstand fan and drive mechanism
vibrations
Usually made of galvanized steel,
fiberglass, or FRP
Larger towers may have a concrete base
The sides of the tower can be made of
wood, fiberglass, corrugated FRP
FAN SECTION
Belt-driven fan
Primarily found on smaller towers
TOWER ACCESS
Tower fill must be accessible for cleaning or
replacement
Sludge needs to be cleaned from the tower basin
Garbage, bird features, and other pollutants
accumulate in the sump
There is a strainer to prevent garbage from
entering the pump and water circuit
Stairs or ladders provide access to fans and
drive mechanisms on tall towers
TOWER SUMP
Thermostatically
controlled heater
Valve
Slats on all
four sides of
the tower
Make-up
water
Water to pump
MAKE-UP WATER
Water continuously evaporates from the
system
Fresh water must be supplied to the
system as needed
Float valve
Electrodes
Water level
Make up
water
Float valve
Strainer
To pump
Float
switch
Float ball
Water level
Make up
water
Strainer
To pump
Sensors
Solenoid
Strainer
To pump
BLOWDOWN
Process of bleeding off a portion of the
system water
This water is replaced with fresh water
Designed to reduce the amount of solid
materials in the water
Blowdown reduces head pressure and
approach temperature
Must be done correctly
The third component of the heat-rejection loop moves the condensing media
around the loop. In the case of a water-cooled condenser, a pump is needed to
move the water through the tubes of the condenser, the piping, the cooling tower,
and any other accessories installed in the heat-rejection loop.
The heat-rejection capacity of this loop can be varied in response to changing
heat-rejection requirements. In the case of a water-cooled condenser, this is
commonly accomplished by varying the temperature of water delivered to the
condenser.
Varying the temperature of the entering condenser water may be accomplished
by using variable-speed fans in the cooling tower or by cycling the fans on and
off.
One method of varying the quantity of water flowing through the water-cooled
condenser is to use a modulating control valve.
As the heat-rejection requirement decreases, the modulating control valve
directs less water through the condenser. If a three-way valve is used, the
excess water bypasses the condenser and mixes downstream with the water
that flows through the condenser.
WATER PUMPS
Responsible for moving water through
the condenser and cooling tower
circuit
Usually a centrifugal pump
Close coupled pump
Impeller is mounted to the motor shaft
Used in small applications
Shaft seal prevents water leakage
WATER PUMPS
Base mounted pump
Motor and pump are connected by a
flexible coupling
Can have a single- or double-sided
impeller
Motor and pump are mounted on a base
Base is usually cemented to the floor
Motor and pump are factor aligned
WATER PUMPS
Pump must have a shaft seal
Most pumps are made from cast iron
Most centrifugal pump impellers are made of
bronze
The eye of the impeller must be under water
during startup
If the pump is located higher than the sump, the
pump must be filled with water before starting
Whirlpool action in the pump is called vortexing
WATER PUMPS
Strainers are located between the sump and
pump
Tower bypass valve
Helps to maintain correct water pressure during
start-up and low-ambient conditions
Water from the pump outlet is recirculated to the
pump inlet
Finally, a modulating, three-way control valve is used to vary the water flow through
the condenser in response to a changing heat-rejection requirement. This valve
modulates the water flow through the condenser by diverting some of the water
around the condenser through the bypass pipe, directly back to the cooling tower.
In the case of an air-cooled condenser, heat is transferred from the hot refrigerant
vapor directly to the outdoor air without the need for a separate condenser-water
loop.
As the heat-rejection requirement decreases, the quantity of air passing through the
condenser coil(s) is reduced. This is accomplished by cycling the condenser fans on
and off, or by modulating a damper or variable-speed drive on one or more of the
fans.
Controls Loop
The fifth, and final, loop of the HVAC system is the controls loop. Each of
the previous four loops contains several components. Each component must
be controlled in a particular way to ensure proper operation.
Typically, each piece of equipment (which may be comprised of one or
more components of a loop) is equipped with a unit-level, automatic
controller.
In order to provide intelligent, coordinated control so that the individual
pieces of equipment operate together as an efficient system, these individual
unit-level controllers are often connected to a central, system-level
controller.
Finally, many building operators want to monitor the system, receive alarms
and diagnostics at a central location, and integrate the HVAC system with
other systems in the building.
These are some of the functions provided by a building automation
system (BAS).
In addition, each VAV terminal unit is equipped with a unit-level controller that
directs its response to space conditions.
The system-level controller coordinates the operation of the VAV terminal units and
the rooftop unit during the various modes of operation, such as occupied,
unoccupied, and morning warm up.
Air-Cooled DX System
Chilled-Water Loop
Alternatively, the components of the refrigeration loop may be split apart. While
water-cooled chillers are rarely installed as separate components, some air-cooled
chillers offer the flexibility of separating the components for installation in different
locations.
This flexibility allows the system design engineer to place the components where
they best serve the space, acoustic, and maintenance requirements of the building
owner.
The other components of the refrigeration loop (evaporator and expansion device)
are installed inside the building. These components are connected to the
condensing unit with field-installed refrigerant piping. This configuration places the
part of the system that is susceptible to freezing (evaporator and water piping)
indoors, and the primary noise-generating components of the refrigeration loop
(compressors and condenser fans) outdoors.
This usually eliminates any requirement to protect the chilled-water loop from
freezing during cold weather.
A drawback of splitting the components is the requirement for field-installed
refrigerant piping. The possibility of system contamination and leaks increases
when field-installed piping and brazing are required.
Additionally, the components must be properly selected to work together over the
desired range of operating conditions. With a packaged water chiller, the selection
of the components, and the design and installation of the refrigerant piping, is
handled by the manufacturer in the factory.
Installed Cost
In the DX system, the chilled-water pumps, the control valves, the piping, and related
accessories are eliminated.
Packaged DX equipment generally requires less field labor and materials to install.
Also, many of the system-level control functions can be packaged along with the
unit-level control functions in the same piece of control hardware. This can reduce
the amount of time it takes to design, install, and commission the control system.
If a split DX system is used, there is an added cost for designing and installing the
refrigerant piping and controls.
Energy Consumption
Decisions based solely or primarily on installed cost often ignore ongoing costs,
such as energy, maintenance, and replacement costs. Life-cycle cost includes the
total cost of owning and operating the HVAC system over a specified period of
years.
A DX system does not have the added energy use of the pumps, but the larger
compressor on the water chiller is often more efficient than the compressor in the
DX unit.
Space Requirements
Another common reason for selecting a DX system is limited space available for
indoor equipment rooms. Water-cooled, chilled-water systems frequently require
indoor equipment rooms to house the chillers and pumps.
Air-cooled, chilled-water systems require less space indoors, but may still need
space for the evaporator and/or pumps. Indoor equipment rooms reduce the
amount of usable or rentable floor space.
Freeze Prevention
In many climates, the outdoor temperatures drop below 32F (0C) at some point
during the year.
Systems that contain water are at risk of freezing when the piping or other
components of the chilled-water loop are exposed to these cold ambient
temperatures, or if the refrigeration equipment cools the water to a temperature
below 32F (0C).
Air-cooled DX systems, however, use refrigerant as the heat-transfer media and
are not at risk for freezing under these conditions.
System Capacity
Packaged water chillers are typically available in sizes ranging from 7.5 to
approximately 4,000 tons (25 to 14,000 kW). Direct-expansion equipment is
typically available in sizes ranging from 1 to 200 tons (3.5 to 704 kW).
In large buildings, a chilled-water system generally consists of fewer pieces of
refrigeration equipment than a DX system.
System Categories
If the zone is comprised of multiple conditioned spaces, the space in which the
thermostat is located dictates the operation of the HVAC system. All other spaces
must accept the resulting level of comfort based on the space containing the
thermostat. If the thermostat calls for more cooling, all spaces get more cooling.
Therefore, in a building with this type of system, it is common to use several singlezone systems to satisfy the different thermal requirements of the building.
Single-zone, constant-volume systems may also use chilled water as the cooling
media. In the case of this chilled-water terminal system, chilled water and hot
water are produced at a central location and pumped throughout the building to
individual terminal units that are installed in or near each zone.
multizone system, uses a central air handler that contains both a cooling coil
and a heating coil, and several pairs of dampers located at the discharge of the
air handler. Each pair of "cooling" and "heating" zone dampers is controlled by a
thermostat in the zone served by the damper pair. After passing through this pair of
dampers, the supply air is delivered to the individual zones through separate,
dedicated supply ducts.
Many smaller buildings, however, cannot afford to install a large number of singlezone units or a more-advanced multiple-zone system. An economical alternative
may be to use a changeoverbypass system, which uses traditional, single-zone
HVAC equipment, but allows independent control for multiple zones.
A changeoverbypass system includes an airflow modulation device, typically a
rotating blade damper, for each individually controlled zone.
A multiple-zone,
variable-volume system
is the packaged
rooftop VAV system.
A large, packaged DX
rooftop unit is located
outdoors and
contains several
components of the
airside loop, as well as
all the components of
the refrigeration and
heat-rejection loops. A
building may use a
single rooftop unit or
several units,
depending on its size,
load characteristics,
and function.
Inside the "heating" air handler, the remainder of the re-circulated return air is
heated, and delivered as warm primary airflow through the "hot" supply-duct
system to the other airflow modulation device in each dual-duct VAV terminal unit.
The flow rate through two chillers is fixed, this time at 3000
GPM. The new secondary load is say 875 tons, which
corresponds to demand rate of 2100 GPM at10 F delta -T
across the cooling coils. There will be excess flow of 900
GPM in de-coupler as 2100 GPM circulates in the
secondary loop and 3000 GPM is being pumped into the
primary loop.
Advantages
Disadvantages
primary pumps
CONSTANT FLOW CHILLED WATER SYSTEM
Tandem pumps
Headered pump
Advantages
VPF systems are not prone to low T
syndrome
VPF provides enhanced capacity
Capital Investment
Lower Operating and Energy Costs
Requires Less Plant Space
P1
FLOW
P1>P0
P0
Conservation of mass
Conservation of mass simply states that an
air mass is neither created nor destroyed.
From this principle it follows that the
amount of air mass coming into a junction
in a ductwork system is equal to the amount
of air mass leaving the junction
V2 = (V1 * A1)/A2
Conservation of momentum
Types of Flow
Laminar Flow
Flow parallel to a boundary layer
Turbulent Flow
Flow which is perpendicular and near the
center of the duct and parallel near the outer
edges of the duct.
Static pressure
Static pressure is the measure of the potential
energy of a unit of air in the particular cross
section of a duct. Air pressure on the duct wall is
considered static. Imagine a fan blowing into a
completely closed duct; it will create only static
pressure because there is no air flow through the
duct. A balloon blown up with air is a similar case
in which there is only static pressure.
Total Pressure
PT = PV + PS
PT = Total Pressure
PV = Velocity Pressure
PS = Static Pressure
Component Pressure
Due to physical items with known pressure
drops, such as hoods, filters, louvers or
dampers.
Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic losses are the result of changes in
direction and velocity of air flow. Dynamic losses
occur whenever an air stream makes turns,
diverges, converges, narrows, widens, enters, exits,
or passes dampers, gates, orifices, coils, filters, or
sound attenuators. .
Frictional Pressure
Frictional losses in duct sections are result
from air viscosity and momentum exchange
among particles moving with different
velocities. These losses also contribute
negligible losses or gains in air systems
unless there are extremely long duct runs
Sections in Series
For sections or components in series simply
sum up all the sections. A single duct that
has the same shape, cross section, and mass
flow is called a duct section or just a
section.
Sections in Parallel
System