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ABSTRACT
This article addresses the bioarchaeological evidence for Inca warfare through an analysis of 454
adult skeletons from 11 sites in the Inca capital region of
Cuzco, Peru. These 11 sites span almost 1000 years (AD
6001532), which allows for a comparison of the evidence
for warfare before the Inca came to power (Middle Horizon AD 6001000), during the time of Inca ascendency
in the Late Intermediate Period (AD 10001400), and after the Inca came to power and expanded throughout
the Cuzco region and beyond (Inca Imperial Period, AD
14001532). The results indicate that 100 of 454 adults
(22.0%) showed evidence of cranial trauma. Of these, 23
individuals had major cranial injuries suggestive of warfare, consisting of large, complete, and/or perimortem
fractures. There was scant evidence for major injuries
during the Middle Horizon (2.8%, 1/36) and Late Intermediate Period (2.5%, 5/199), suggesting that warfare
was not prevalent in the Cuzco region before and during
the Inca rise to power. Only in the Inca Imperial Period
was there a signicant rise in major injuries suggestive
of warfare (7.8%, 17/219). Despite the signicant
increase in Inca times, the evidence for major cranial
injuries was only sporadically distributed at Cuzco periphery sites and was entirely absent at Cuzco core sites.
These ndings suggest that while the Inca used warfare
as a mechanism for expansion in the Cuzco region, it
was only one part of a complex expansion strategy that
included economic, political, and ideological means to
gain and maintain control. Am J Phys Anthropol
146:361372, 2011. V 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The Inca Empire (AD 14001532) reached unparalleled heights in South America, establishing the largest
empire in the New World by conquering an area that
encompasses modern-day Peru and parts of Ecuador,
Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The heart of the empire
lay in the Cuzco region of Peru, where the Inca rose to
power and established their capital in the early part of
the 15th century. Researchers have long sought to determine how the Inca achieved such remarkable success,
rst by defeating their competitors in the Cuzco region
and then by conquering throughout the Andes in a short
period of time (Rowe, 1946; Bauer, 1992; Moseley, 2001;
DAltroy, 2001, 2002; Covey, 2006; McEwan, 2006a,b).
Much of our understanding about Inca imperial success has been gleaned from the Spanish chronicles, a collection of transcribed accounts of Inca oral history and
customs, as well as eyewitness accounts during and after
conquest, written by conquistadors, explorers, priests,
and appointees of the Spanish government in the 16th
and 17th centuries (Rowe, 1946; Julien, 2000; Pease,
2008). Within these documents, Inca success in empire
building is attributed, in varying degrees, to their use of
warfare (Urteaga, 1919; Guaman Poma de Ayala, 1936
[1615]; Bram, 1941; Rowe, 1946:274282; Hemming,
1970; Murra, 1986; Cobo, 1990 [1653]; Betanzos, 1996
[1557]; Sarmiento de Gamboa, 2007 [1572]). According to
certain chronicles, warfare predominated for hundreds of
years in the Cuzco region of Peru. These chronicles
describe the time before the Inca rose to power as a period of constant warfare and chaos among neighboring
polities in the Cuzco region (Rowe, 1946:203; Jimenez de
la Espada, 1965 [1881]; Bauer, 1992:3; Sarmiento de
Gamboa, 2007 [1572]:99). Inca emergence as a dominant
polity is often linked in the chronicles to a single event,
the Chanca War, in which the Inca successfully defended
C 2011
V
WILEY-LISS, INC.
362
363
Region
Central Cuzco
Site
Kusicancha
Sacsahuaman
Qotakalli
Qhataqasapatallacta
Subtotal
Choquepukio
Cotocotuyoc
Aqnapampa
Subtotal
Akawillay
Colmay
Machu Picchu
Subtotal
Kanamarca
Distance (km)
from center
of Cuzco city
Time period
0.2
0.4
4.5
10
30
46
110
25
35
80
Middle Horizon
Inca Imperial Period
Inca Imperial Period
147.5
Sample
size
17
36
195
20
268
68
33
11
112
5
54
2
61
13
454
364
Site
Location
Sample size
Qotakalli
Akawillay
Choquepukio
Cotocotuyoc
Subtotal
Kusicancha
Qotakalli
Choquepukio
Cotocotuyoc
Aqnapampa
Subtotal
Kusicancha
Sacsahuaman
Qotakalli
Qhataqasapatallacta
Choquepukio
Colmay
Machu Picchu
Aqnapampa
Kanamarca
Subtotal
Cuzco
Xaquixaguana Plain
Lucre Basin
Huaro Valley
3
5
2
26
36
1
181
5
7
5
199
16
36
11
20
61
54
2
6
13
219
454
Total Individuals
Methods
From the 11 Cuzco sites, 454 burials were examined
for data on age, sex, and trauma, following the standAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology
Cuzco
Cuzco
Lucre Basin
Huaro Valley
Quiquijana Valley
Cuzco
Cuzco
Cuzco
Cuzco
Lucre Basin
Anta
Urubamba
Quiquijana Valley
Espinar
365
RESULTS
Major and minor cranial fractures were observed in
100 of 454 adults examined (22.0% of sample) (Table 3).
Among these 100 individuals, 32 had more than one cranial injury, for 152 injuries. Major and minor cranial
fractures were found in individuals from all three time
periods: three individuals in the Middle Horizon (8.3%,
3/36), 47 in the Late Intermediate Period (23.6%, 47/
199), and 50 in the Inca Imperial Period (22.8%, 50/219).
366
TABLE 3. Summary of all cranial trauma frequencies (minor and major injuries combined) among males and females in the Cuzco
sample by time period
Time period
Males affected/
males observed
Females affected/
females observed
Indeterminate
sex affected/
indeterminate
sex observed
Middle Horizon
Late Intermediate Period
Inca Imperial Period
Total
3/16
30/77
22/80
55/173
18.8%
39%
27.5%
31.8%
0/16
8/62
24/118
32/196
0%
12.9%
20.3%
16.3%
0/4
9/60
4/21
13/85
Total
0
15%
19.0%
15.3%
3/36 (8.3%)
47/199 (23.6)
50/219 (22.8%)
100/454 (22.0%)
Age
Sex
Time period
Cranial trauma
Perimortem linear fractures (2) on posterior parietals along
with scalping and deeshing cutmarks (trophy head)
Perimortem complete linear fracture accompanied by a
radiating fracture line on posterior left parietal; Perimortem
cutmarks (6) on mid-frontal near bregma
Healed depressed linear cranial fracture that abuts the margin
of one healed trepanation; healed complete fracture abuts
margin of second trepanation
Healed deep cranial fracture (6.8 mm in depth) on lateral
frontal
Healed large linear fracture on frontal
Healed complete fracture extending from lateral margin of
healed trepanation on frontal
Perimortem large complete fracture on left parietal
Perimortem large complete fracture adjacent to trepanation on
mid-frontal
Perimortem radiating fracture line extending from perimortem
trepanation on posterior right parietal
Healed complete rectangular fracture on mid-frontal with
compression to superior left orbit
Perimortem scrapemarks/cutmarks (3) on anterior right
parietal; most medial scrapemark perforates the endocranial
surface
Perimortem cutmarks (6) clustered on left parietal and left
frontal
Perimortem massive fractures to cranial vault, face, and
mandible with radiating fracture lines
Perimortem massive fractures to cranial vault and face with
radiating and concentric fracture lines
Perimortem massive fractures to cranial vault, face, and
mandible with radiating and concentric fracture lines
Perimortem fracture to frontal above left orbit with radiating
fracture line
Healed large complete fracture to right maxilla with nonunion
of fractured surfaces
Perimortem large complete fracture adjacent to perimortem
trepanation on left parietal and frontal
Healed large complete fracture to right and left nasals and
right and left maxillae with nonunion of fractured surfaces
Healed complete fracture to right maxilla and right nasal with
destruction of right nasal aperture margin and healed
fracture lines
Perimortem large complete fracture adjacent to trepanation on
posterior left parietal
Healed large complete fracture with healed fracture line on left
temporal and left parietal
Perimortem radiating fracture line adjacent to perimortem
trepanation on left parietal
CC 48
2645 years
MH
CC 60
1718 years
LIP
CC 61
461 years
LIP
QT 28-4
2645 years
LIP
QT 38-4
QT 44-2
461 years
36461 years
M
M
LIP
LIP
CH 25
CH 84
1825 years
2645 years
I
M
Inca
Inca
CH 85
1617 years
Inca
CH 101
3645 years
Inca
CH 104
2645 years
Inca
CH 145
3645 years
Inca
CH 178
2635 years
Inca
CH 181
2645 years
Inca
CH 201
2635 years
Inca
CH 214
2645 years
Inca
CM 3231
2645 years
Inca
CM 3233
1825 years
Inca
CM 3240
461 years
Inca
CM 3251
2645 years
Inca
CM 3269
1825 years
Inca
CM 3272
2645 years
Inca
KN 8
461 years
Inca
CC, Cotocotuyoc; CH, Choquepukio; QT, Qotakalli; CM, Colmay; KN, Kanamarca.
nine individuals had healed injuries (2.0% of total sample, 9/454). Within this group, there were 16 males, 5
females, and 2 individuals of indeterminate sex. Males
were overrepresented in the major injury group (76.2%,
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
16/21)
given
exact,
major
Fig. 2. Perimortem major cranial trauma with fragmentation and radiating/concentric fracture lines (CH 201). [Color gure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
367
368
Fig. 5. Perimortem cranial fracture located adjacent to perimortem rectangular trepanation; fracture is evident as an
unhealed fracture line radiating from the anterior margin of the
trepanation above the squamosal suture (KN 8). [Color gure
can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at wiley
onlinelibrary.com.]
Twenty-one individuals had more than one minor cranial injury, for 106 minor injuries. There were 87 healed
depressed cranial fractures, 12 healed nasal fractures,
and 7 healed non-nasal facial fractures. The healed
depressed cranial fractures were small on average but
varied in size (mean area 5 1.93 cm2, S.D. 5 2.21). Variation was also seen in wound location across the cranial
vault: 28 on the anterior section (32.2%), 32 posterior
(36.8%), 11 right lateral (12.6%), 11 left lateral (12.6%),
and 5 on the superior section (5.7%). Finally, variation
was also seen in injury shape for the depressed cranial
fractures: 57 circular (65.5%), 29 oval (33.3%), and one
irregular (1.2%).
DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicate that major cranial
injuries suggestive of warfare were rare during the Late
Intermediate Period (2.5%, 5/199) and increased signicantly in the Inca Imperial Period (7.8%, 17/219). Despite the signicant increase in Inca times, the evidence
for injuries suggestive of warfare was only sporadically
distributed at Cuzco periphery sites and was entirely
absent at Cuzco core sites. These results have distinct
implications for how the Inca built their empire in the
capital region.
To fully assess the role of warfare in the rise and
expansion of the Inca Empire, it is important to rst
examineas a baselinethe evidence for warfare in
Cuzco prior to these time periods in the Middle Horizon
Middle Horizon
Late Intermediate
Period
Inca Imperial Period
Total
Core
Core
0/3
(0%)
3/182
(1.6%)
0/83
(0%)
3/268
(1.1%)
Peri phery
1/33
(3%)
2/17
(11.8%)
17/136
(12.5%)
20/186
(10.6%)
Total
1/36
(2.8%)
5/199
(2.5%)
17/219
(7.8%)
23/454
(5.1%)
0/3
(0%)
40/182
(22.0%)
6/83
(7.2%)
46/268
(17.2%)
Periphery
2/33
(6.1%)
2/17
(11.8%)
27/136
(19.9%)
31/186
(16.7%)
Total
2/36
(5.6%)
42/199
(21.1%)
33/219
(15.1%)
77/454
(17.0%)
Periphery
3/33
(9.1%)
4/17
(23.5%)
44/136
(32.4%)
51/186
(27.4%)
Total
3/36
(8.3%)
47/199
(23.6%)
50/219
(22.8%)
100/454
(22.0%)
369
370
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
VA would like to thank Melissa Murphy and Tifny Tung
for many stimulating conversations on the topic of trauma
analysis in the prehistoric Andes, Choquepukio directors
Arminda Gibaja and Gordon McEwan, and the Bernard
Selz Foundation, whose funding has made possible all excavations and artifact analyses at Choquepukio. The authors
gratefully acknowledge the AJPA editors and anonymous
reviewers for their extremely insightful comments. Additional thanks to Katharina Schreiber, Viviana Bellifemine,
Veronique Belisle, Melissa Chateld, Christina TorresRouff, and Bethany Turner. Deborah Andrushko provided
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
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