A General Overview of Air Drilling

and Deviation Control

G.E. Wilson, SPE, Sii Drilco

Summary
What is the most economical way to drill a well? It
may be by using air, drilling fluids (other than air or
gas), or a combination of both as the circulating
medium. This decision requires a thorough study of
an area before drilling. Regardless of the circulating
medium used, crooked holes can be a problem.
Similar methods are used to prevent crooked holes in
air and fluid drilling, but some of the techniques
differ. Selection of the proper bottomhole assembly
will determine the economical success of drilling a
well with either air or fluid, but this choice is
sometimes very difficult and demands special
considerations.

Introduction
Considerable thought and preplanning are necessary
before a well is drilled to determine the most
economical drilling method. One option not always
considered is drilling with air as the circulating
medium. When conditions permit the use of air, the
economic advantages are very significant.

What Makes Air Drilling Practical?

Hard formations that are relatively free from water
are most desirable for drilling with air, because water
intrusion into the well bore is the greatest deterrent.
Small quantities of water usually can be dried up or
sealed off by various techniques, but a large water
flow generally necessitates converting to another type
of drilling fluid (other than air or gas).

Why Drill With Air?

It has been shown by past experience that air drilling

usually increases the penetration rate by three or four

times over that when drilling with mud, and only
01492136/81/00129529$00.25
Copyright 1981 Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME

DECEMBER 1981

one-half to one-fourth the number of bits are

required.
Another big advantage is being able to detect the
presence of hydrocarbons almost immediately and
then continuously as the producing formations are
penetrated.
Wells cannot be drilled economically with fluid in
some areas, so air or gas must be used. Use of natural
gas as the circulating medium is not as prevalent as in
the past because of a limited gas supply and high
prices. A few conditions that necessitate drilling with
air, and prohibit the use of fluids, include (1) severe
lost-circulation areas, (2) sensitive producing formations that can be blocked or permanently
damaged by drilling fluids, and (3) hard formations
on or near the surface that require the use of an air
hammer to drill.

Why Not Air Drill All Wells?

Not all wells can be drilled with air. A large majority
of wells are drilled with some type of fluid, because
drilling with air would not be practical. Some
conditions that make drilling with fluid more
favorable include (1) formations that contain large
volumes of water, (2) high-pressure, highpermeability formations that require heavy mud
hydrostatic pressure to prevent blowouts, (3) unconsolidated formations that require wall cake and
mud in the hole to prevent sloughing, and (4) airsensitive formations that will erode, causing a large
overgauge hole.
Some wells could be drilled with either air or fluid.
In this case, economics will be the deciding factor.
The question is: will the increased penetration rate
and the savings on bits. offset the additional cost per
day of the compressors and other special equipment
needed for air drilling?
2307

PENDULUM

Gravity

PACKED HOLE

Drill Bushings

Fig. 1 - Controlling hole deviation.

Drilling With Both Air and Fluid

In some areas it may be more economical to drill with
both air and fluid. Some formations are drilled more
efficiently with air, and some may require a drilling
fluid.
In many air-drilling areas, drilling will start with
air and continue until downhole conditions make it
necessary to change to a fluid. Mist or foam is used
when water is encountered. When the hole dries up,
air drilling will continue, but if the hole loads up with
water, it may be necessary to switch to a fluid until
casing is set.
In the geothermal area of northern California, the
upper interval of hole is drilled with mud, and then
air is used while the well is drilled into the steam
reservoir.
In some west Texas areas, mist and foam are used
to drill water sands at the surface, and then air is used
to total depth.
Some gas storage wells drilled in Maryland use air
or mud down to the storage reservoir, and then
drilling continues with gas into the productive interval. This technique helps to prevent explosions or
downhole fires and prevents damage to the fractured
formation.

Disadvantages in Drilling With Air

Air drilling requires constant monitoring of the air
2308

Slick

One Stabilizer

Two Stabilizers

Fig. 2- Pendulum assemblies.

circulating pressure and the return flow at the blooie

line. This information gives the driller some indication as to what may be happening downhole so
immediate action can be taken if a problem should
arise. Timing is of the utmost importance in air
drilling.
As previously mentioned, the most significant
problem in drilling with air is formations containing
large volumes of free water.
Other disadvantages are downhole explosions,
fires, and sloughing of formations.

Crooked Hole Problems

Regardless of the circulating medium, crooked hole
problems can develop, but many people believe the
problems are more severe in air holes. Some of the
reasons given for this are as follows.
1. The bit is more effective in making hole while
drilling with air; thus, it also will drill crooked faster.
2. Doglegs are created faster because the bit is
drilling faster.
3. Erosion of some formations by turbulent air
flow allows the bit room to drill crooked.
4. Greater shock loads and deflection at the bit are
experienced because there is no liquid in the hole to
cushion the drill collars.
For these reasons, special consideration must be
given to the selection of the proper bottomhole
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

assembly for air drilling. First, a study should be

made of the area to determine formation drillability
characteristics and severity of crooked hole tendencies. Once this has been completed, each interval
of hole size will be classified as having mild, medium,
or severe crooked hole tendencies, and the hardness
and abrasiveness of the formations in each section
can be determined.

TABLE 1 - FULCRUM POINTS

Hole Size
(in.)
13% and larger
9% to 12%
7% to9%
6% and smaller

Fulcrum Point
(tt)
120 to
90 to
60 to
30 to

140
100
70
40

Controlling Hole Deviation

There are two basic techniques for preventing
crooked holes - the pendulum and the packed hole
(Fig. 1). The pendulum assembly makes use of
gravity to control hole angle, whereas the packed
hole assembly uses drill bushings (stabilizers) to force
the bit straight ahead in the same direction as the hole
already drilled.

Selecting the Proper Assembly

for an Air Hole
Pendulum Assembly
The pendulum technique was introduced to the
drilling industry by Arthur Lubinski (research
engineer with Amoco Production Co.) and Henry
Woods (chief engineer with Hughes Tool Co.) in the
early 1950's. A pendulum assembly is composed of
the bit and several large-diameter drill collars (a slick
assembly), or it may have one or more stabilizers
positioned in the drill collars at a predetermined
distance above the bit. A fulcrum is created where the
drill collars touch the wall of the hole or at the first
stabilizer placement above the bit. The weight of the
drill collars between the fulcrum point and the bit
works like a pendulum to pull the bit back toward
vertical when lighter weight is applied to the bit. As
can be seen in Fig. 2, the fulcrum point is at a greater
distance above the bit with a stabilizer in the drill
collar string than with a slick assembly. This increases the pendulum force and allows more weight
to be applied to the bit without causing deviation. It
is recommended that a second stabilizer be
positioned one drill collar length above the fulcrum
stabilizer. This relieves some of the side thrust load
on the fulcrum stabilizer' and, thus, makes it more
effective.
Lubinski and Woods made mathematical
calculations to find the proper placement of the first,
or fulcrum, stabilizer as related to hole size, drill
collar size, formation drillability, and formation dip.
This information later was compiled into tables and
is readily available. When the tables are not close at
hand, the approximations in Table 1 may be used.
These approximations are averages taken from the
Woods and Lubinski tables for normal drilling
conditions.
Because the pendulum force is the result of gravity,
the weight of the drill collars used in the pendulum is
an important factor. Drill collars increase in weight
by the square of an increase in the diameter, so a
slight increase in size can make a significant difference in the pendulum force. This can be seen in
Table 2. For this reason, the largest size drill collars
that can be run safely should be used in a pendulum
assembly. Pendulums are slightly more effective in
DECEMBER 1981

TABLE 2 - DRILL COLLAR WEIGHTS

Collar 00
(in.)

Collar 10
(in.)

5
6%
6%
6%
7
8
9
10
11

2%
2%
2%
2%
213/16
2 13/16
213/16

3
3

Drill Collar Weights

(Ibm/tt)

(lbm/31 tt)

53
91
99
108
110
150
195
243
299

1,650
2,814
3,078
3,352
3,401
4,643
6,050
7,532
9,270

sta bilizer

""
,...

collars

V
/

....
~

percu ssion tool

I"""'"

V~"
""

bit

Fig. 3 - Pendulum assembly with percussion tool.

2309

TABLE 3 - MINIMUM DRILL COLLAR SIZES

Bit Size

~
6%
6%
6%

T%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
10%
11
12'/4
12%
13%
14%
17%
20
24
26

Casing To Be Run
Size
Coupling OD
(in.)
(in.)
5.000
4V2
4%
5.000
4%
5.000
4%
5.000
5V2
6.050
5%
6.050
6%
7.390
6%
7.390
7
7.656
6%
7.390
7
7.656
7.656
7
7%
8.500
7
7.656
7%
8.500
7%
8.500
9.625
8%
8%
9.625
10.625
9%
10%
11.750
10%
11.750
11 %
12.750
14.375
13%
17.000
16
18 %
19.750
21.000
20

Minimum Drill
Collar Diameter (in.)
3.875'
3.750'
3.250'
2.125'
4.225
3.725'
6.405
6.280
6.812
6.030
6.562
5.812
7.500
5.437
7.125
6.375
8.625
8.250
9.000
11.250
9.750
10.750
11.250
14.000
15.500
16.000

'Minimum drill collar size satisfies the equation, but a largersize drill
collar would be recommended.

air holes than they are in a drilling fluid, because

there is no drill collar weight loss due to the buoyant
effect of fluids.
The pendulum assembly was developed for the
purpose of drilling a useful hole (free from doglegs),
but it also is used to drop angle or to build angle by
varying the weight on the bit. A decrease in weight on
the bit usually will cause a drop in hole angle,
whereas increased weight on the bit normally will
build angle. To drill a straight hole, an equilibrium
condition is required where the pendulum force and
the formation force are equal. When the correct
amount of weight is applied to the bit, it will drill
straight ahead in the same direction as the hole
already drilled.
Pendulum Drilling With an Air Percussion Tool
In some air-drilled areas, very hard formations are
encountered on or near the surface, making it difficult for the bit to penetrate the rock because of
insufficient drill collar weight. The combination of
an air percussion hammer and a pendulum assembly
has been very effective when this condition exists,
because only 1,000 to 10,000 Ibm of weight is needed
to make the bit drill (Fig. 3). This light weight on the
bit also makes the pendulum work more effectively in
keeping the hole straight and near vertical. When
excessive deviation does develop, this assembly has
been very successful in dropping hole angle without
sacrificing penetration rate.
Disadvantages of the Pendulum Assembly
There is no guarantee that a hole will not go crooked
while drilling with a pendulum assembly. The bit is
2310

free to move in any direction until the drill collars

come in contact with the hole above. Lubinski
pointed out that doglegs and undersized holes could
develop when small collars are used in drilling large
holes. Therefore, he advocated the use of largediameter drill collars near the bit. Lubinski
developed the following equation to show what the
drift diameter of a well would be, based on drill
collar size:
Drift
Diameter

bit OD + drill collar OD

2

...... (1)

Robert S. Hoch (a research engineer with Phillips

Petroleum Co.) later rewrote this equation to
determine the minimum size drill collar to use near
the bit so the drift diameter would be large enough to
run the desired size of casing. His equation follows.
Minimum drill collar OD = 2 (casing
coupling OD) - bit OD. . ............... (2)
See Table for recommended minimum drill collar
sizes for pendulum drilling, using popular hole and
casing size combinations.
Alternatives
It is not always possible to run drill collars as large as
the minimum size recommended in Table 3. One
alternative would be to drill a pilot hole with the
recommended combination of drill collar and hole
sizes, and open the hole up to the desired diameter
with a hole opener (see Fig. 4 for hole opening
assembly).
Another alternative would be to start the big hole
with a pendulum, using light weight on the bit, and
drill only deep enough to bury a packed hole
assembly, which would be used to drill the remaining
hole. Note that it may be possible to get by with
smaller drill collars than the minimum shown when
drilling in very soft, unconsolidated formations or
areas where crooked holes are not a problem.
Packed Hole Assembly
The second method of controlling hole deviation is
the use of a packed hole assembly. It has been shown
that a stiff bottomhole assembly will overpower the
formation forces and force the bit to drill straight
ahead in the same direction as the hole already
drilled.
A packed hole assembly is composed of a
minimum of three stabilizers, a short large-diameter
drill collar, and a full-length large-diameter drill
collar. The first stabilizer is placed directly on top of
the bit, followed by a short drill collar. A second
stabilizer is positioned above the short collar, and the
third is run on top of a full-length drill collar connected to the second stabilizer (Fig. 5). As crooked
hole tendencies increase, additional stabilizers are
added to Zone I and sometimes to Zone II to
counteract the formation forces on the bit. In small
holes with severe crooked hole tendencies, a second
short drill collar is run in place of the full-length drill
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

TABLE 4 - DRILL COLLAR STIFFNESS

~ollarOD

(in.)

5
6%
6'12
6%
7

ColiarlD
(in.)

9'12
10

2%
2%
2%
2%
213/16
213/16
213/16
3
3

86
100
115
198
318
395
486

11

713

8
9

stabilizer

30 f t. drill collar

29

74

rest of string
rest of
string
___--stabilizer
stabilizer

Zone III

stabilizer
drill collar

30-ft
drill collar

vibration
dampener

vibration
dampener
(when used)

vibration
dampener
(when used)

""""
l-

stabilizer
stabilizer

Zone II

short
drill collar

V \
.A.

__

--

h ole opener

stabilizer

stabilizer
or reamer

stabilizer
or reamer
bit

bit

pilot bit

Fig. 4 - Holeopening assembly.

collar between Zones II and III. When a double short

collar hookup is used, an additional stabilizer is
recommended in a fourth zone above a full-length
drill collar. A rule of thumb for the short drill collar
length is for it to be the same length in feet as the hole
diameter in inches, plus or minus 2 feet. This
technique has been learned from experience and
agrees with the idea that drill collars increase in
stiffness as their diameter increases. Therefore, the
reverse is true, that stiffness will decrease with a
decrease in diameter. As the hole becomes smaller,
requiring smaller drill collars, the short drill collar
should become shorter to compensate for the loss in
stiffness.
Drill Collar Size
Drill collar size plays an important part in packed
hole assemblies, as it does in pendulums. The difference is that stiffness, not weight, is the most
important factor with respect to a packed hole
assembly. The more severe the crooked hole tenDECEMBER 1981

Zone I

drill collar

Mild

Medium

Severe

CROOKED HOLE TENDENCIES

Fig. 5 - Packed hole assembly.

dencies, the stiffer the packed hole assembly should

be. Drill collars increase in stiffness by the fourth
power of an increase in diameter, so a slight increase
in diameter means a very significant increase in
stiffness. Thus, if the diameter of a bar is doubled,
the stiffness is increased 16 times. For example, if a
4-in.-diameter bar is deflected 16 in. under a certain
load, an 8-in.-diameter bar will deflect 1 in. under the
same load. Table 4 lists the moments of inertia (1),
which represent stiffness, for popular drill collar
sizes. As can be seen in the table, a 9.S-in. drill collar
is almost four times stiffer than a 7-in. drill collar
and approximately two times stiffer than an 8-in.
drill collar, yet all three sizes commonly are used to
drill a 12.2S-in. hole. Because of the stiffness factor,
the largest size drill collars that safely can be run
should be used in a packed hole assembly.
How Large Should Drill Collars Be?
Drill collars the same size as the bit would be ideal
but would not be practical for several reasons. A
2311

good circulation area in the annulus is necessary to

circulate drilled cuttings out of the hole. More
clearance probably is needed in air drilling than in a
fluid-drilled hole, because air expands as it moves up
the annulus toward the surface, producing a high
velocity. This high-velocity turbulent air can be
detrimental to the wall of the hole, causing erosion
and sloughing, and can cause erosion damage to the
drillstem and drilling tools. In an air hole, there is
danger of the cuttings packing off around the drill
collars, which may cause sticking problems and/or a
downhole explosion and fire when certain conditions
exist.
Another important consideration for selecting a
drill collar size is fishing. There is always a possibility
of having to fish drill collars out of the hole. Fishing
presents more of a problem in air-drilled holes than it
does in fluid drilled holes; therefore, sidetracking
without fishing is common.
If fishing is a possibility, a study should be made
of the availability of washpipe and overshots in the
area where a well is to be drilled. This can be a
significant factor in selecting drill collars.
Table 5 illustrates the maximum drill collar size
that can be caught with an overshot and/or washed
over in each hole size. As noted in the table, some of
the overshots are not full-strength and, therefore,
have limitations with regard to pulling, torquing, and
jarring. If full-strength overshots are preferred, drill
collar diameters should be reduced or fishing necks
turned on the ends. Often, some sizes of washpipe
are not available, so smaller drill collars may be
necessary if fishing is a possibility.
By combining information from Tables 3 and 5, an
ideal range for drill collar sizes can be established
(Table 6). For best results, use the largest practical
size drill collars.
Another important factor in drill collar size
selection is the drilling rig's ability to handle largediameter drill collars. On some rigs it may be impossible to pick up and lay down large collars
without renting special equipment. When drill collars
exceed 9.5-in. diameter, special rotary table
bushings, insert bowls, and slips are required. The
economic benefits of using large collars may be lost
because of the additional handling time required.
Makeup torque can be another problem in using
large drill collars, since the recommended makeup
torque increases proportionally with an increase in
drill collar diameter. For safety, the first item to
check before making up large-diameter drill collars is
the capacity of the tongs. Special high-strength tongs
are required to make up large collars to the
recommended torque (Table 7).
After selecting a tong of sufficient strength, line
pull or cathead power must be considered. Many rigs
cannot pull more than 5,000 to 6,000 Ibm with their
cathead, depending on its condition. With a 4-ft tong
arm, only 20,000 to 24,000 Ibf-ft of torque could be
applied to the drill collars. If, for example, a drill
collar connection requires 60,000 Ibf-ft of makeup
torque, a line pull of 15,000 Ibm would be needed. To
apply proper torque using the rig cathead, it will be
necessary to string up three lines (Fig. 6).
2312

An alternative method would be to use some form

of auxiliary hydraulic cathead to provide the correct
line pull. This type of unit is available through some
manufacturing companies.
Making up and breaking out large drill collars is a
very dangerous operation, even when proper
equipment is used. Special care must be taken to
ensure safe working conditions on the rig.

Tapered Drill Collar Stems

When large drill collars are run, it becomes necessary
to taper the string. This prevents fatigue damage to
the drillpipe or smaller drill collars used above. A
rule of thumb is never to reduce drill collar size more
than 2 in. on the diameter at any crossover and/or
reduce more than one connection size at a time. For
example: 10- to 8- to 6-in. OD, etc., or 8Ys- to 7Ys- to
6Ys-in. API Regular connections, etc. Experience has
shown that failures will occur when these limits are
exceeded. Always run at least three collars (one
stand) of the next smaller size in each size reduction.
Small drill collars and/or heavy wall drillpipe have
been used successfully as a transition between the
drillpipe and the large drill collars. It has been shown
that this practice will help prevent fatigue damage to
the drill pipe.

Stabilizer Selection for Pendulum

and Packed Hole
The type of stabilizers to use in a packed hole or
pendulum assembly depends on crooked hole
conditions and formation firmness. The objective is
to select a stabilizer that will not dig into the wall,
since its effectiveness in stabilizing the drill collars
and bit is reduced. In hard formations, stabilizers
with small wall contact area usually will perform
satisfactorily, but larger wall contact area is needed
in softer formations. Wall contact area can be increased by selecting longer and wider blades and/or
by adding additional stabilizers. The need for additional wall contact area increases in Zones I and II
as crooked hole tendencies become more severe (Fig.
5).

Caution: Increasing the blade area decreases the

circulation area in the annulus around the stabilizers.
In an air hole, too much restriction could cause
sticking (if cuttings pack off around the stabilizers)
or may cause hole erosion in certain types of formations. In areas where hole erosion is severe, one or
two square drill collars may be required to prevent
drilling a crooked hole. Sometimes the addition of
more stabilizers or the use of square drill collars will
produce too much torque. When this happens,
rolling cutter reamers will be used in place of
stabilizers or in conjunction with the square drill
collars.

Reamers
When bits start coming out of the hole undergauge, a
reamer should be used to keep the hole out to gauge.
Because of very limited wall contact area, an unstabilized reamer allows the bit to deviate while
drilling with high weights. Therefore, it is recomJOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

TABLE 5 - MAXIMUM DRILL COLLAR SIZE

(based on fishing)

Hole Size
(in.)

Size
(in.)

Overshot
Maximum Catch
(in.)

6%
6%
6%
7%
8%
8'12
8%
9'12
9%
10%
11
12%
13%
14%
17'12
20
24
26

5%*
5%*
6%*
7%*
7%*
8*
8%*
9*
9%'
9%*
10'12
11 %
12%
13%
15%
16%
20%
24%

5%
5%
5%
6%
6 3;"
6%
7%
7%
8
8%
8%
10%
11 %
12
13%
14%
16%
22

Size
(in.)
5'12
5%
6
7%
7%
7%
8%
9
9
9%
10%
11 %
12%
13%
16
18%
21
21

Maximum Fish
ODTo Catch
and/or Washover
(in.)
4 3;"
4%
5%
6%
6 3;"
6 3;"
7%
7%
8
8'12
8%

Washpipe
Maximum Fish
OD(in.)
4%
4%
5%
6'12
6%
6%
7%
8
8
8'12
9%
10'12
11'/2
12
14 '12
17%
19'12
19'12

10Va
11 %
12
13%
14%
16%

19V2

Note: Some sizes of overs hots and washpipe may not be available.
'Overshots are not full strength and are limited in pulling. torsional, and jarring strain.

TABLE 6 -IDEAL RANGE FOR DRILL COLLAR SIZES

Hole Size
(in.)
6%
6%
6%
7%

Casing Size
To Be Run
(in.)

Ideal Drill
Collar Range (in.)

4'12
4'12

3.875
3.750
3.250
2.125

Maximum
4.750
4.875
5.125
6.250

5'12
5'12

4.225
3.725

6.250
6.750

4%,5,6,6%
4%,5,6,6%
4%,4%,5,6,6%,
6'/2,6%

6%
6%
7

6.750

6V2,6%

6.750
6.750
7.125
7.125
7.625
7.875
8.000

6'12,6%
6%
6%,6'12,6%,7
6 3;",7

9%

6%
7
7
7%
7

6.405
6.280
6.812*
6.030
6.562
6.812
7.500
5.437

10%

7%
7%

7.125
6.375

8.000
8.500

8%
8%
9%
10%
10%
11 %
13%
16
18%
20

8.625*
8.250
9.000
11.250*
9.750
10.750
11.250
14.000
15.500
16.000

8.500
8.875
10.125
10.125
11.250
12.000
13.375
14.750
16.750
19.500

8%

8'/2
8%
9'12

11
12%
13%
14%
17'12
20
24
26

4'12

4V2

Minimum

API Drill Collar Sizes

in the Ideal
Range (in.)

4%,4%
4%,4%
3'12,4%,4%,5

3%,3'12,4Va,

6,6%,6'12,6%,7,7%
7%
6,6%, 6V2, 6%, 7,
7%,7%,8
7%,7 3;",8
6'12,6 3;",7,7%,7%
8,8%
8%
8%
9,9'12,9%,10
10
9%,10,11
11,12**
12*'
14"
16-16**

'The minimumsize drill collar calculated from the Lubinski and Hoch equation, with the specific
sizes of hole and caSing combination, is too large for conventional fishing tools. When the minimum
drill collar diameter is too large to wash over and/or catch with an overshot, other steps should be
taken. Some of the possibilities are (1) use turneddown casing couplings, (2) use integral jOints on
casings, (3) underream the hole, (4) run smaller size casing, or (5) use a packed hole assembly in
stead of a pendulum.
"Not API standardsize drill collar.

DECEMBER 1981

2313

TABLE 7 - RIG TONGS

Company
B.J. Hughes
B.J. Hughes
B.J. Hughes
B.J. Hughes
B.J. Hughes
B.J. Hughes
Joy-Web Wilson
Joy-Web Wilson
Joy-Web Wilson
Joy-Web Wilson
Joy-Web Wilson
Woolley

Tong
Type
SXD
SOD
DB
B
C

F
ST-160
ST-60
H
AAX
B
Super A
Super B
SuperC

Jaw
Sizes (in.)
8to 16
4 to 12
3112 to 11 '14
31f2to9
2% to 10%
2% to 10%
7112 to 12
4to9%
3112 to 10%
2% to 7'14
2% to8%
3112 to 17
2% to 13%
2-1/6 to 10%

Applicable API Drill

Collar Sizes (in.)

200,000
100,000
65,000
55,000
35,000
25,000
160,000
60,000
80,000
55,000
35,000
100,000
65,000
40,000

8 to 11
4%to10
3112 to 8'14
3112 to 8
3% to 6%
3% to 6%
7% to 11
4% to 8
3112 to 9
3% to 7'14
3% to 6%
3112 to 10
3% to 8'14
3% to 7'14

usually will help in deciding when a vibration

dampener is needed.
From the standpoint of absorbing shock and
protecting the drillstem and bit, the ideal position for
a shock absorber is directly above the bit. In severe
crooked hole conditions, the dampener should be run
above the fulcrum stabilizer in a pendulum, or above
Zone III in a packed hole assembly, because the tool
lacks the necessary stiffness of a large-diameter drill
collar. In normal drilling conditions, as a compromise, the vibration dampener usually is run above
Zone II. In very mild crooked hole conditions, it can
be used as a short drill collar between Zones I and II
in a packed hole or directly above the bit in a pendulum assembly.
The lack of fluid cushioning in an air-drilled hole
usually increases the need for a vibration dampener.

snub line

1-----

Capacity
(ft-Ibm)

4'---~~

Doglegs and Keyseats

5000 lb.
cathead pull

Fig. 6 - Sufficient torque.

mended that one or more stabilizers be run directly

above the reamer so maximum weight can be applied
to the bit without causing a crooked hole.
For best results, reamers and stabilizers should be
maintained to a diameter as near bit size as possible,
especially in Zones I and II.

Vibration Dampeners
While the upper portion of a hole is drilled, the need
for a vibration dampener is obvious because the
bounce and vibration are transmitted to the surface.
When the well gets deeper, bounce and vibration
usually are not visible at the surface but still are
taking their toll on the bit and drillstem. Inspection
of dull bits and routine inspections of the drill stem
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Both pendulum and packed hole assemblies are used

to prevent crooked holes, which result in doglegs and
keyseats. A dogleg is formed when there is a
significant change in hole inclination and/ or
direction. A keyseat sometimes is formed after part
of the drill pipe string has passed through the dogleg.
Since the drillpipe is in tension, it tries to straighten
while passing around the bow of the dogleg, thus
creating a lateral force that causes the drill pipe to cut
into the center of the bow as it rotates. A keyseat is
formed in this bow if the formation is soft enough
and the lateral force is great enough to allow
penetration of the drill pipe into the wall. It is called a
keys eat because the offset hole will be the size of
driUpipe tool joints, which is smaller than the drilled
hole.
Lubinski pointed out in the early 1960's that
drill pipe would suffer permanent fatigue damage
while rotating through doglegs if certain conditions
existed. Tensile load in the pipe at the dogleg,
severity of the dogleg, mechanical dimension and
physical properties of the pipe, and number of
rotating cycles experienced in the dogleg are factors
affecting the amount of fatigue damage to the
drillpipe.
Since that time, tables have been published to
calculate dogleg severity, and guidelines are available
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

to show maximum safe dogleg limits for various

grades of drillpipe.

Conclusions
Through the years it has been learned that it is virtually impossible to drill a perfectly vertical hole,
regardless of whether it is drilled with fluid or air.
Therefore, the objective is to drill a usable hole, free
from doglegs and keyseats, that can be completed
and produced with a minimum of problems.
Two methods have been discussed for accomplishing this - the pendulum and the packed
hole. If these two techniques are used correctly, there
will be a minimum rate of hole angle change, and
doglegs and keyseats should not develop.
The economic success of drilling and completing a
well may be determined by the decisions made with
respect to selecting the bottomhole drilling assembly
and the circulating medium.

References
1. Smith, F.W. and Rollins, H.M.: "Air Drilling Practices in the
Permian Basin," Pet. Eng. (Dec. 1956).
2. Cooper, L.W., Hook, R.A., and Payne, B.R.: "Air Drilling
Techniques," paper SPE 6435 presented at the SPE Deep
Drilling and Production Symposium, Amarillo, TX, April 1719,1977.
3. Wilson, G.E.: "Factors to Consider for Selecting the Proper
Bottom Hole Drilling Assembly," Trans., IADC, Houston
(1979) 19-44.
4. Smith, F.W.: "A New Technique in Air and Gas Drilling,"
Pet. Eng. (Oct. 1958).
5. Holder, L.E. Jr. and McGhee, Ed: "Air-Mist Cuts Cost of

DECEMBER 1981

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Deepening, Cleaning Out, and Completion," Oil and Gas J.

(June 17,1963).
Down, H.F.: "How to Evaluate Cuttings in Air and Gas
Drilling," World Oil (Oct. 1959).
Sufall, C.K. and McGhee, Ed: "Water-Shutoff Treatments
for Air and Gas Drilling - How Successful Are They?" Oil
and Gas J. (Dec. 7, 1959) 57, No. 50.
Vail, C.O. and Smith, Verne: "New Developments In Air-Gas
Drilling and Completions," World Oil (Nov. 1963) Part 1.
Wilson, G.E.: "How to Drill a Usable Hole," World Oil (four
parts: Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov. 1976).
Kiester, D.T.: "Percussion Drilling and Button Bits Pay Off
in Dense Formations," World Oil (Jan. 1964).
Garrett, W.R. and Wilson, G.E.: "Proper Field Practices for
Drill Collar Strings," paper SPE 5124 presented at the SPE
49th Annual Meeting, Houston, Oct. 6-9, 1974.
Bates, R.E.: "Percussion Drilling Gaining Acceptance,"
World Oil (Feb. 1, 1964).
Vail, C.O. and Smith, Verne: "New Developments in Air-Gas
Drilling and Completions," World Oil (Dec. 1963) Part 2.
Scott, J.O.: "How to Figure How Much Air to Put Down the
Hole ... in Air Drilling," Oil and Gas J. (Dec. 16, 1957).
Chambers, Kinder: "Mud Misting Helps Control WaterSensitive Shales," Oil and Gas J. (March 6, 1967).
Rehm, Bill: "Don't Overlook Aerated Mud," Oil and Gas J.
(Dec. 2,1963).

SI Metric Conversion Factors

ft

in.
lbf
Ibm

x
x
x
x

"'Conversion factor is exact.

3.048*
E-Ol
2.54*
E+OO
4.448 222 E + 00
4.535 924 E-Ol

m
cm
N
kg
JPT

Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office Sept. 5,

1980. Paper accepted for publication Sept. 14, 1981. Revised manuscript
received Oct. 29, 1981. Paper (SPE 9529) first presented at the SPE Eastern
Regional Meeting held in Morgantown, WV, Nov. 57, 1980.

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