(/mulphic)

(/mulphic)
GNRAL
FAoware(/mulphic/feaoware)
MehRenement(/mulphic/mehrenement)
HighPerformanceCompung(HPC)(/mulphic/highperformancecompung)
FinitelementMethod(/mulphic/niteelementmethod)
LCTRICAL
MCHANICAL
FLUID
CHMICAL

TheFinitelementMethod(FM)
(/mulphic)GeneralFinitelementMethod

AnIntroducontotheFinitelementMethod
Thedecriptionofthelawofphicforpace-andtime-dependent
prolemareuuallexpreedintermofpartialdifferentialequation
(PD).Forthevatmajoritofgeometrieandprolem,theePDcannot
eolvedwithanalticalmethod.Intead,anapproximationofthe

equationcanecontructed,tpicallaedupondifferenttpeof
dicretization.TheedicretizationmethodapproximatethePDwith
numericalmodelequation,whichcaneolveduingnumericalmethod.
Theolutiontothenumericalmodelequationare,inturn,anapproximation
oftherealolutiontothePD.Thefiniteelementmethod(FM)iuedto
computeuchapproximation.
Take,forexample,afunctionuthatmaethedependentvarialeinaPD
(i.e.,temperature,electricpotential,preure,etc.)Thefunctionucane
approximatedafunctionuhuinglinearcominationofaifunction
accordingtothefollowingexpreion:

(1)

and
(2)

Here,idenotetheaifunctionanduidenotethecoefficientofthe
functionthatapproximateuwithuh.Thefigureelowillutratethi
principlefora1Dprolem.ucould,forintance,repreentthetemperature
alongthelength(x)ofarodthatinonuniformlheated.Here,thelinear
aifunctionhaveavalueof1attheirrepectivenodeand0atother
node.Inthicae,thereareevenelementalongtheportionofthex-axi,
wherethefunctionuidefined(i.e.,thelengthoftherod).

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/plotuinglinear
cominaon.en_IN.png)

Thefunctionu(olidlueline)iapproximatedwithuh(dahedredline),whichialinear
cominationoflinearaifunction(iirepreentedtheolidlackline).The
coefficientaredenotedu0throughu7.

Oneoftheenefitofuingthefiniteelementmethodithatitoffergreat
freedomintheelectionofdicretization,othintheelementthatmae
uedtodicretizepaceandtheaifunction.Inthefigureaove,for
example,theelementareuniformlditriutedoverthex-axi,althoughthi
doenothavetoethecae.mallerelementinaregionwherethegradient
ofuilargecouldalohaveeenapplied,ahighlightedelow.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/plotuing
dicrezaon.en_IN.png)

Thefunctionu(olidlueline)iapproximatedwithuh(dahedredline),whichialinear
cominationoflinearaifunction(iirepreentedtheolidlackline).The
coefficientaredenotedu0throughu7.

othoftheefigurehowthattheelectedlinearaifunctioninclude
verlimitedupport(nonzeroonloveranarrowinterval)andoverlapalong
thex-axi.Dependingontheprolemathand,otherfunctionmaechoen
inteadoflinearfunction.
Anotherenefitofthefiniteelementmethodithatthetheoriwell
developed.Thereaonforthiithecloerelationhipetweenthe
numericalformulationandtheweakformulationofthePDprolem(eethe
ectionelow).Forintance,thetheorprovideuefulerroretimate,or
oundfortheerror,whenthenumericalmodelequationareolvedona
computer(http://www.amazon.com/Numerical-olution-Differentialquation-Mathematic/dp/048646900X).

LookingackatthehitorofFM,theuefulneofthemethodwafirt
recognizedatthetartofthe1940RichardCourant,aGerman-American
mathematician.WhileCourantrecognizeditapplicationtoarangeof
prolem,ittookeveraldecadeeforetheapproachwaappliedgenerall
infieldoutideoftructuralmechanic,ecomingwhatititoda.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/analiofwheelrim.en_IN.png)

Finiteelementdicrezaon,tree,anddeformaonofawheelriminatructuralanali.

Algeraicquaon,OrdinarDierenalquaon,Paral
Dierenalquaon,andtheLawofPhic

Thelawofphicareoftenexpreedinthelanguageofmathematic.For
example,conervationlawuchathelawofconervationofenerg,
conervationofma,andconervationofmomentumcanalleexpreeda
partialdifferentialequation
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation)(PD).
Contitutiverelationmaaloeuedtoexpretheelawintermof
varialeliketemperature,denit,velocit,electricpotential,andother
dependentvariale.
Differentialequationincludeexpreionthatdetermineamallchangeina
dependentvarialewithrepecttoachangeinanindependentvariale(x,,
z,t).Thimallchangeialoreferredtoathederivativeofthedependent
varialewithrepecttotheindependentvariale.
athereiaolidwithtime-varingtemperatureutnegligilevariationin
pace.Inthicae,theequationforconervationofinternal(thermal)energ
mareultinanequationforthechangeoftemperature,withavermall
changeintime,duetoaheatourceg:
(3)

Here, denotethedenitandCpdenotetheheatcapacit.Temperature,T,
ithedependentvarialeandtime,t,itheindependentvariale.The
function madecrieaheatourcethatvariewithtemperatureandtime.
q.(3)tatethatifthereiachangeintemperatureintime,thenthihato
ealanced(orcaued)theheatource .Theequationiadifferential
equationexpreedintermofthederivativeofoneindependentvariale
(t).uchdifferentialequationareknownaordinardifferentialequation
(OD).
Inomeituation,knowingthetemperatureatatimet0,calledaninitial
condition,allowforananalticalolutionofq.(3)thatiexpreeda:
(4)

Thetemperatureintheolidithereforeexpreedthroughanalgeraic
equation(4),wheregivingavalueoftime,t1,returnthevalueofthe
temperature,T1,atthattime.
Oftentime,therearevariationintimeandpace.Thetemperatureinthe
olidatthepoitioncloertoaheatourcema,forintance,elightl
higherthanelewhere.uchvariationfurthergiverietoaheatflux
etweenthedifferentpartwithintheolid.Inuchcae,theconervation
ofenergcanreultinaheattranferequationthatexpreethechangein
othtimeandpatialvariale(x),ucha:
(5)

Aefore,Tithedependentvariale,whilex(x=(x,,z))andtarethe
independentvariale.Theheatfluxvectorintheolididenotedq=(qx,
q,qz)whilethedivergenceofqdecriethechangeinheatfluxalongthe
patialcoordinate.ForaCarteiancoordinatetem,thedivergenceofqi
defineda:
(6)

q.(5)thutatethatifthereiachangeinnetfluxwhenchangeareadded
inalldirectionothatthedivergence(umofthechange)ofqinotzero,
thenthihatoealanced(orcaued)aheatourceand/orachangein
temperatureintime(accumulationofthermalenerg).
Theheatfluxinaolidcanedecriedthecontitutiverelationforheat
fluxconduction,aloreferredtoaFourierlaw:
(7)

Intheaoveequation,kdenotethethermalconductivit.q.(7)tatethat
theheatfluxiproportionaltothegradientintemperature,withthethermal
conductivitaproportionalitcontant.q.(7)in(5)givethefollowing
differentialequation:
(8)

Here,thederivativeareexpreedintermoft,x,,andz.Whena
differentialequationiexpreedintermofthederivativeofmorethan
oneindependentvariale,itireferredtoaapartialdifferentialequation
(PD),inceeachderivativemarepreentachangeinonedirectionoutof
everalpoiledirection.FurthernotethatthederivativeinODare
expreeduingd,whilepartialderivativeareexpreeduingthemore
curl.
Inadditiontoq.(8),thetemperatureatatimet0andtemperatureorheat
fluxatomepoitionx0couldeknownawell.uchknowledgecane
appliedintheinitialconditionandoundarconditionforq.(8).Inman
ituation,PDcannotereolvedwithanalticalmethodtogivethevalue
ofthedependentvarialeatdifferenttimeandpoition.Itma,for
example,everdifficultorimpoiletootainananalticexpreionuch
a:
(9)

fromq.(8).
RatherthanolvingPDanalticall,analternativeoptionitoearchfor
approximatenumericalolutiontoolvethenumericalmodelequation.The
finiteelementmethodiexactlthitpeofmethodanumericalmethodfor
theolutionofPD.

imilartothethermalenergconervationreferencedaove,itipoileto
derivetheequationfortheconervationofmomentumandmathatform
theaiforfluiddnamic.Further,theequationforelectromagneticfield
andfluxecanederivedforpace-andtime-dependentprolem,forming
temofPD.
Continuingthidicuion,let'eehowtheo-calledweakformulation
(/log/tag/weak-form/)canederivedfromthePD.

TheFinitelementMethodfromtheWeakFormulaon:ai
FunconandTetFuncon
Aumethatthetemperatureditriutioninaheatinkieingtudied,
givenq.(8),utnowatteadtate,meaningthatthetimederivativeof
thetemperaturefieldizeroinq.(8).Thedomainequationforthemodel
domain,,ithefollowing:
(10)

Further,aumethatthetemperaturealongaoundar(1)iknown,in
additiontotheexpreionfortheheatfluxnormaltoomeotheroundarie
(2).Ontheremainingoundarie,theheatfluxizerointheoutward
direction(3).Theoundarconditionattheeoundariethenecome:
(11)

(12)

(13)

wherehdenotetheheattranfercoefficientandTamdenotetheamient
temperature.Theoutwardunitnormalvectortotheoundarurfacei
denotedn.quation(10)to(13)decriethemathematicalmodelforthe
heatink,ahownelow.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/heatinkmodel.en_IN.png)

Thedomainequationandoundarconditionforamathematicalmodelofaheatink
(/model/forced-air-cooling-with-heat-ink-22041).

Thenexttepitomultiplothideofq.(10)atetfunctionand
integrateoverthedomain:
(14)

ThetetfunctionandtheolutionTareaumedtoelongtoHilertpace
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilert_pace).AHilertpaceianinfinitedimenionalfunctionpacewithfunctionofpecificpropertie.Itcane
viewedaacollectionoffunctionwithcertainnicepropertie,uchthat
theefunctioncaneconvenientlmanipulatedintheamewaaordinar
vectorinavectorpace.Forexample,oucanformlinearcominationof

functioninthicollection(thefunctionhaveawell-definedlengthreferred
toanorm)andoucanmeauretheangleetweenthefunction,jutlike
uclideanvector.
Indeed,afterapplingthefiniteelementmethodontheefunction,theare
implconvertedtoordinarvector.Thefiniteelementmethodia
tematicwatoconvertthefunctioninaninfinitedimenionalfunction
pacetofirtfunctioninafinitedimenionalfunctionpaceandthenfinall
ordinarvector(inavectorpace)thataretractalewithnumerical
method.
Theweakformulationiotainedrequiring(14)toholdforalltet
functioninthetetfunctionpaceinteadofq.(10)forallpointin.A
prolemformulationaedonq.(10)ithuometimereferredtoathe
pointwieformulation.Intheo-calledGalerkinmethod,itiaumedthatthe
olutionTelongtotheameHilertpaceathetetfunction.Thii
uuallwrittenaHandTH,whereHdenotetheHilertpace.
UingGreenfirtidentit(eentiallintegrationpart),thefollowing
equationcanederivedfrom(14):
(15)

Theweakformulation,orvariationalformulation,ofq.(10)iotained
requiringthiequalittoholdforalltetfunctionintheHilertpace.Iti
calledweakecaueitrelaxetherequirement(10),whereallthetermof
thePDmutewelldefinedinallpoint.Therelationin(14)and(15
(weak2))inteadonlrequireequalitinanintegralene.Forexample,a
dicontinuitofafirtderivativefortheolutioniperfectlallowedthe
weakformulationinceitdoenothinderintegration.Itdoe,however,
introduceaditriutionfortheecondderivativethatinotafunctioninthe
ordinarene.Auch,therequirement(10)doenotmakeeneatthe
pointofthedicontinuit.

Aditriutioncanometimeeintegrated,making(14)welldefined.Iti
poiletohowthattheweakformulation,togetherwithoundar
condition(11)through(13),idirectlrelatedtotheolutionfromthe
pointwieformulation.And,forcaewheretheolutionidifferentiale
enough(i.e.,whenecondderivativearewelldefined),theeolutionare
theame.Theformulationareequivalent,incederiving(15)from(10)relie
onGreenfirtidentit,whichonlholdifThacontinuouecond
derivative.
Thiithefirttepinthefiniteelementformulation.Withtheweak
formulation,itipoiletodicretizethemathematicalmodelequationto
otainthenumericalmodelequation.TheGalerkinmethodoneofthe
manpoilefiniteelementmethodformulationcaneuedfor
dicretization.
Firt,thedicretizationimplielookingforanapproximateolutiontoq.
(15)inafinite-dimenionalupacetotheHilertpaceHothatTTh.Thi
impliethattheapproximateolutioniexpreedaalinearcominationof
aetofaifunctionithatelongtotheupace:
(16)

Thedicretizedverionofq.(15)forevertetfunctionjtherefore
ecome:
(17)

TheunknownherearethecoefficientTiintheapproximationofthe
functionT(x).q.(17)thenformatemofequationoftheame
dimenionathefinite-dimenionalfunctionpace.Ifnnumeroftet
functionjareuedothatjgoefrom1ton,atemofnnumerof
equationiotainedaccordingto(17).Fromq.(16),therearealon
unknowncoefficient(Ti).

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/dicrezaonheatink
model.en_IN.png)

Finiteelementdicrezaonoftheheatinkmodelfromtheearliergure.

Oncethetemidicretizedandtheoundarconditionareimpoed,a
temofequationiotainedaccordingtothefollowingexpreion:
(18)

whereTithevectorofunknown,Th={T1,..,Ti,,Tn},andAiannxn
matrixcontainingthecoefficientofTiineachequationjwithinit
componentAji.Theright-handideiavectorofthedimenion1ton.Ai
thetemmatrix,oftenreferredtoathe(eliminated)tiffnematrix,
harkeningacktothefiniteelementmethodfirtapplicationawellait
ueintructuralmechanic.

Iftheourcefunctioninonlinearwithrepecttotemperatureoriftheheat
tranfercoefficientdependontemperature,thentheequationtemialo
nonlinearandthevectorecomeanonlinearfunctionoftheunknown
coefficientTi.
Oneoftheenefitofthefiniteelementmethodiitailittoelecttetand
aifunction.Itipoiletoelecttetandaifunctionthatare
upportedoveravermallgeometricalregion.Thiimpliethatthe
integralinq.(17)arezeroeverwhere,exceptinverlimitedregion
wherethefunctionjandioverlap,aalloftheaoveintegralinclude
productofthefunctionorgradientofthefunctioniandj.Theupportof
thetetandaifunctionidifficulttodepictin3D,utthe2Danalogcan
eviualized.
Aumethatthereia2Dgeometricaldomainandthatlinearfunctionofx
andareelected,eachwithavalueof1atapointi,utzeroatotherpoint
k.Thenexttepitodicretizethe2Ddomainuingtriangleanddepicthow
twoaifunction(tetorhapefunction)couldappearfortwo
neighoringnodeiandjinatriangularmeh.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/aefuncon
overlap.en_IN.png)

Tenthapedlinearaifunconthathaveavalueof1atthecorrepondingnodeandzeroonallothernode.
Twoaefunconthathareanelementhaveaaifunconoverlap.

Twoneighoringaifunctionharetwotriangularelement.Auch,
thereiomeoverlapetweenthetwoaifunction,ahownaove.
Further,notethatifi=j,thenthereiacompleteoverlapetweenthe
function.TheecontriutionformthecoefficientfortheunknownvectorT
thatcorrepondtothediagonalcomponentofthetemmatrixAjj.
athetwoaifunctionarenowalittlefurtherapart.Theefunctiondo
nothareelementutthehaveoneelementvertexincommon.Athe
figureelowindicate,thedonotoverlap.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/aefunconno
overlap.en_IN.png)

Twoaifunconthathareoneelementvertexutdonotoverlapina2Ddomain.

Whentheaifunctionoverlap,theintegralinq.(17)haveanonzero
valueandthecontriutiontothetemmatrixarenonzero.Whentherei
nooverlap,theintegralarezeroandthecontriutiontothetemmatrixi
thereforezeroawell.
Thimeanthateachequationinthetemofequationfor(17)forthe
node1tononlgetafewnonzerotermfromneighoringnodethathare
theameelement.ThetemmatrixAinq.(18(dicret2))ecomepare,
withnonzerotermonlforthematrixcomponentthatcorrepondto
overlappingij:.Theolutionofthetemofalgeraicequationgivean
approximationoftheolutiontothePD.Thedenerthemeh,thecloerthe
approximateolutiongettotheactualolution.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/temperatureeldheatink
model.en_IN.png)

Theniteelementapproximaonofthetemperatureeldintheheatink.

TimeDependentProlem
Thethermalenergalanceintheheatinkcanefurtherdefinedfortimedependentcae.Thedicretizedweakformulationforevertetfunctionj,
uingtheGalerkinmethod,canthenewrittena:

(19)

Here,thecoefficientTiaretime-dependentfunctionwhiletheaiand
tetfunctiondependjutonpatialcoordinate.Further,thetimederivative
inotdicretizedinthetimedomain.

OneapproachwouldetoueFMforthetimedomainawell,utthican
erathercomputationallexpenive.Alternativel,anindependent
dicretizationofthetimedomainioftenapplieduingthemethodofline
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_line).Forexample,itipoileto
uethefinitedifferencemethod.Initimpletform,thicaneexpreed
withthefollowingdifferenceapproximation:
(20)

Twopotentialfinitedifferenceapproximationoftheproleminq.(19)are
given.ThefirtformulationiwhentheunknowncoefficientTi,tare
expreedintermoft+t:

(21)

Iftheprolemilinear,alineartemofequationneedtoeolvedfor
eachtimetep.Iftheproleminonlinear,acorrepondingnonlineartem
ofequationmuteolvedineachtimetep.Thetime-marchingchemei
referredtoaanimplicitmethod,atheolutionatt+tiimplicitlgiven
q.(21).
Theecondformulationiintermoftheolutionatt:

(22)

Thiformulationimpliethatoncetheolution(Ti,t)iknownatagiven
time,thenq.(22)explicitlgivetheolutionatt+t(Ti,t+t).Inother
word,foranexplicittime-marchingcheme,thereinoneedtoolvean
equationtemateachtimetep.Thedrawackwithexplicittime-marching
chemeithatthecomewithatailittime-teppingretriction.Forheat
prolem,likethecaehighlightedhere,anexplicitmethodrequirever
malltimetep.Theimplicitchemeallowforlargertimetep,cuttingthe
cotforequationlike(22)thathavetoeolvedineachtimetep.

Inpractice,moderntime-teppingalgorithmautomaticallwitchetween
explicitandimplicittepdependingontheprolem.Further,thedifference
equationinq.(20)ireplacedwithapolnomialexpreionthatmavar
inorderandteplengthdependingontheprolemandtheevolutionofthe
olutionwithtime.Amoderntime-marchingchemehaautomaticcontrolof
thepolnomialorderandtheteplengthforthetimeevolutionofthe
numericalolution.
Whenitcometothemotcommonmethodthatareued,hereareafew
example:
ackwarddifferentiationformula(DF)method
Generalizedalphamethod
DifferentRunge-Kuttamethod

Dierentlement
Amentionedaove,theGalerkinmethodutilizetheameetoffunction
fortheaifunctionandthetetfunction.Yet,evenforthimethod,there
aremanwa(infinitelman,intheor)ofdefiningtheaifunction
(i.e.,theelementinaGalerkinfiniteelementformulation).Let'reviewome
ofthemotcommonelement.
Forlinearfunctionin2Dand3D,themotcommonelementareillutrated
inthefigureelow.Thelinearaifunction,adefinedinatriangular
mehthatformtriangularlinearelement,aredepictedinthifigureand
thifigureaove.Theaifunctionareexpreedafunctionofthe
poitionofthenode(xandin2Dandx,,andzin3D).
In2D,rectangularelementareoftenappliedtotructuralmechanic
anale.ThecanaloeuedforoundarlaermehinginCFDandheat
tranfermodeling.Their3Danalogiknownathehexahedralelement,
andthearecommonlappliedtotructuralmechanicandoundarlaer

mehingawell.Inthetranitionfromhexahedraloundarlaerelement
totetrahedralelement,pramidalelementareuuallplacedontopofthe
oundarlaerelement.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/geometrandnodelinear
element.en_IN.png)

Nodeplacementandgeometrfor2Dand3Dlinearelement.

Thecorrepondingecond-orderelement(quadraticelement)arehownin
thefigureelow.Here,theedgeandurfacefacingadomainoundarare
frequentlcurved,whiletheedgeandurfacefacingtheinternalportionof
thedomainarelineorflaturface.Note,however,thatthereialothe
optiontodefinealledgeandurfaceacurved.Lagrangiananderendipit
elementarethemotcommonelementtpein2Dand3D.TheLagrangian
elementueallofthenodeelow(lack,white,andgra),whilethe
erendipitelementomitthegranode.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/geometrandnodeecond
orderelement.en_IN.png)

econdorderelement.Ifthegranodeareremoved,wegetthecorrepondingerendipitelement.Thelack,
white,andgranodeareallpreentintheLagrangianelement.

eautifulplotof2Decond-order(quadratic)Lagrangianelementcane
foundinthelogpot"KeepingTrackoflementOrderinMultiphic
Model(/log/keeping-track-of-element-order-in-multiphic-model/)".Iti
difficulttodepicttheaiofthequadraticaifunctionin3Dinidethe
elementaove,utcolorfieldcaneuedtoplotfunctionvalueonthe
elementurface.
WhendicuingFM,animportantelementtoconideritheerroretimate.
Thiiecauewhenanetimatederrortoleranceireached,convergence
occur.Notethatthedicuionhereimoregeneralinnatureratherthan
pecifictoFM.

Thefiniteelementmethodgiveanapproximateolutiontothemathematical
modelequation.Thedifferenceetweentheolutiontothenumerical
equationandtheexactolutiontothemathematicalmodelequationithe
error:e=u-uh}.
Inmancae,theerrorcaneetimatedeforethenumericalequationare
olved(i.e.,anapriorierroretimate).Apriorietimateareoftenuedolel
topredicttheconvergenceorderoftheappliedfiniteelementmethod.For
intance,iftheprolemiwellpoedandthenumericalmethodconverge,
thenormoftheerrordecreaewiththetpicalelementizehaccordingto
O(h),wheredenotetheorderofconvergence.Thiimplindicatehow
fatthenormoftheerroriexpectedtodecreaeathemehimadedener.
Anapriorietimatecanonlefoundforimpleprolem.Furthermore,the
etimatefrequentlcontaindifferentunknowncontant,making
quantitativepredictionimpoile.Anapoteriorietimateuethe
approximateolution,incominationwithotherapproximationtorelated
prolem,inordertoetimatethenormoftheerror.

MethodofManufacturedoluon
Averimple,utgeneral,methodforetimatingtheerrorforanumerical
methodandPDprolemitomodiftheprolemlightl,aeeninthi
logpot(/log/verif-imulation-with-the-method-of-manufacturedolution/),othatapredefinedanalticalexpreionithetrueolutionto
themodifiedprolem.Theadvantagehereithattherearenoaumption
maderegardingthenumericalmethodortheunderlingmathematical
prolem.Additionall,incetheolutioniknown,theerrorcaneaile
evaluated.electingtheanalticalexpreionwithcare,differentapect
ofthemethodandprolemcanetudied.
Let'takealookatanexampletoclarifthi.Aumethatthereia
numericalmethodthatolvePoionequationonaunitquare()with
homogeneououndarcondition

(23)

(24)

Thimethodcaneuedtoolveamodifiedprolem
(25)

(26)

where
(27)

Here,

iananalticalexpreionthatcaneelectedfreel.Ifalo
(28)

then itheexactolutiontothemodifiedprolemandtheerrorcane
directlevaluated:
(29)

Theerroranditnormcannowecomputedfordifferentchoiceof
dicretizationanddifferentchoiceof .Theerrortothemodifiedprolem
caneuedtoapproximatetheerrorfortheunmodifiedprolemifthe
characteroftheolutiontothemodifiedprolemreemletheolutionto
theunmodifiedprolem.Inpractice,itmaedifficulttoknowifthiithe
caeadrawackofthetechnique.Thetrengthoftheapproachlieinit
implicitandgeneralit.Itcaneuedfornonlinearandtime-dependent
prolem,anditcaneuedforannumericalmethod.

GoalOrientedmate
Ifafunction,orfunctional,ielectedaanimportantquantittoetimate
fromtheapproximateolution,thenanalticalmethodcaneuedtoderive
harperroretimate,oround,forthecomputationalerrormadeforthi

quantit.uchetimaterelonapoteriorievaluationofaPDreidualand
computationoftheapproximationtoao-calleddualprolem.Thedual
prolemidirectlrelatedto(anddefined)theelectedfunction.
Thedrawackofthimethodithatithingeontheaccuratecomputationof
thedualprolemandonlgiveanetimateoftheerrorfortheelected
function,notforotherquantitie.Ittrengthlieinthefactthatitirather
generallapplicaleandtheerroricomputalewithreaonaleeffort.

MehConvergence
Mehconvergenceiaimplemethodthatcompareapproximateolution
otainedfordifferentmehe.Ideall,averfinemehapproximation
olutioncanetakenaanapproximationtotheactualolution.Theerror
forapproximationonthecoarermehecanthenedirectlevaluateda
(30)

Inpractice,computinganapproximationforavermuchfinermehthan
thoeofinteretcanedifficult.Therefore,iticutomartouethefinet
mehapproximationforthipurpoe.Itialopoiletoetimatethe
convergencefromthechangeintheolutionforeachmehrefinement.The
changeintheolutionhouldecomemallerforeachmehrefinementifthe
approximateolutioniinaconvergingarea,othatitmovecloerand
cloertotherealolution.
Thefigureelowhowatructuralmechanicenchmarkmodelforan
ellipticmemranewhereonlonefourthofthememraneitreatedthank
tommetr.Theloadiappliedontheouteredgeofthegeometrwhile
mmetriaumedattheoundariealongthex-and-axi.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/ellipcmemrance.en_IN.png)

enchmarkmodelofanellipticmemrane(/model/tre-anali-of-an-ellipticmemrane-14377).Theloadiappliedattheouteredgewhilemmetriaumedatthe
edgepoitionedalongthex-and-axi(rollerupport).

Thenumericalmodelequationareolvedfordifferentmehtpeand
elementize(/log/mehing-our-geometr-variou-element-tpe/).For
example,thefigureelowdepicttherectangularLagrangeelementuedfor
thequadraticaifunctionaccordingthiprevioufigure.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/lagrangeelement.en_IN.png)

Rectangularelementuedforthequadracaefuncon.

Thetreeandtrainareevaluatedinthepointaccordingtothiearlier
figure.Therelativevalueotainedforxatthipointarehowninthechart
elow.Thivaluehouldezeroandandeviationfromzeroithereforean
error.Togetarelativeerror,thecomputedxidividedthecomputedin
ordertogetthecorrectorderofmagnitudeforarelativeerroretimate.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/relaveerror.en_IN.png)

Relaveerrorinxattheevaluaonpointinthepreviougurefordierentelementandelementize(element
ize=h).Quadrefertorectangularelement,whichcanelinearorwithquadracaifuncon.

Theaoveplothowthattherelativeerrordecreaewithdecreaing
elementize(h)forallelement.Inthicae,theconvergencecurveecome
teeperatheorderoftheaifunction(elementorder)ecomehigher.
Note,however,thatthenumerofunknowninthenumericalmodel
increaewiththeelementorderforagivenelementize.Thimeanthat
whenweincreaetheorderoftheelement,wepathepriceforhigher
accuracintheformofincreaedcomputationaltime.Analternativetouing
higher-orderelementithereforetoimplementafinermehforthelowerorderelement.

MehAdaptaon

Aftercomputingaolutiontothenumericalequation,uh,apoteriorilocal
erroretimatecaneuedtocreateadenermehwheretheerrorilarge.
Aecondapproximateolutionmathenecomputeduingtherefinedmeh
(http://www.comol.com/multiphic/meh-refinement).
Thefigureelowdepictthetemperaturefieldaroundaheatedclinder
ujecttofluidflowatteadtate.Thetationarprolemiolvedtwice:
oncewiththeaicmehandoncewitharefinedmehcontrolledthe
erroretimationthaticomputedfromtheaicmeh.Therefinedmeh
providehigheraccuracintemperatureandheatflux,whichmae
requiredinthipecificcae.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/temperatureeldheated
clinder.en_IN.png)

Temperatureeldaroundaheatedclinderthatiujectedtoaowcomputedwithoutmehrenement(top)
andwithmehrenement(oom).

Forconvectivetime-dependentprolem,thereialotheoptiontoconvect
therefinementofthemehviatheolutioninaprevioutimetep.For
intance,inthefigureelow,thephaefieldiuedtocomputetheinterface
etweenaninkdropletandairinaninkjet.Theinterfaceigiventhe
iourfaceofthephaefieldfunction,whereitvalueiequalto0.5.Atthi

interface,thephaefieldfunctiongoefrom1to0verrapidl.Wecanue
theerroretimatetoautomaticallrefinethemeharoundtheeteep
gradientofthephaefieldfunction,andtheflowfieldcaneuedtoconvect
themehrefinementtoueafinermehjutinfrontofthephaefield
iourface.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/mehrenementinkjet
model.en_IN.png)

Themehrenementfollowthetrainofdropletfromaninkjetinamedependent,twophaeowprolem.

AddionalFinitelementFormulaon
Intheexampleaove,wehaveformulatedthedicretizationofthemodel
equationuingtheameetoffunctionfortheaiandtetfunction.One
finiteelementformulationwherethetetfunctionaredifferentfromthe
aifunctionicalledaPetrov-Galerkinmethod.Thimethodicommon,
forexample,intheolutionofconvection-diffuion
(http://www.comol.com/multiphic/convection-diffuion-equation)
prolemtoimplementtailizationonltothetreamlinedirection.Itialo
referredtoathetreamlineupwind/Petrov-Galerkin(UPG)method.
Intheolutionofcoupledtemofequation,differentaifunctionma
euedfordifferentdependentvariale.Atpicalexampleitheolutionof
theNavier-tokeequation(http://www.comol.com/multiphic/naviertoke-equation),wherethepreureioftenmoremoothandeato
approximatethanthevelocit.Methodwheretheai(andtet)function
fordifferentdependentvarialeinacoupledtemelongtodifferent
functionpacearecalledmixedfiniteelementmethod.

(hp://cdn.comol.com/cclopedia/niteelementmethod/engcomol
mulphic.en_IN.png)

engforamixedelementmethodforuidowinCOMOLMulphicoware,wherequadrachape
funcon(aifuncon)areuedforvelocitandlinearhapefunconareuedforpreure.

RLATD

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