358015

Title:
DETECTION
OF SALINE INTRUSIONS IN COASTAL AND
ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS
A thesis submitted in accordancewith the requirementsof the University of Wales for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
By: SAEED AHMED SOOMRO
University College of North Wales,

School of Ocean Sciences,
Menai Bridge, Gwynedd.
UK
LL59 5EY.
December, 1993.
DECLARATION
This woxk has not beenacceptedin substancefor any other degreeand is not
degree.
for
in
being
other
any
candidature
submitted
currently
?
signed ---- ----
-------- Candidate
Date:
Ibis is to certify that the work here submitted was carried out by the candidate
himself. Due acknowledgementshas been made of any assistance.
Z11-4
signed
/j ..,0,
Director of Studies
Headof School
<Candidate
----------Date:
\q I
-\:!::
11 m
no,11
In the name of ALLAH (GOD),
THE MOST BENEFICENT, THE
MOST MERCIFUL
(52) It is HE (ALLAH) Who has

let free the two bodiesof
flowing water: one palatable
and swee4and the other salt

He
bitter;
has
yet
and
water
made a barrier betweenthem.
A barrier that is forbidden
to be passed(Qura-angs.xxv. 52).
'I
_p_,
IG
(-I
p_, _
DEDICATION
Dedicated to my late father who always wanted
me to seekhigher education and to my loving

mother whose blessings I live on.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I diank ProfessorDenzil Taylor Smith who despitehis multifarious engagements

as head of School of Ocean Sciences,University of Wales, took time to supervise.His
positive and constant encouragementenabled me to finish this project.
My special thmiks are due to Mr. Roger Cratchley for his constant support,
encouragement
and enlighteningdiscussions.
I am thankful to Mr. Sinclair Buchan,Dr. Jim Bennell, Dr. Angela Davis, Dr.
J.Scourseand A J.Wrench who helped me at every stage of this work.
I would also like to diank'Ift
F.C.D. Dewes, A. Nield, David Boon and
especially Mr. G.Williams.

I arn grateful to Dr. David Laidinan and Mrs. Peggy Laidman for their constant
family's
in
Bangor
and
making
my
stay
a comfortable one.
encouragement
I am thankful to my colleapes and friends especially Lal Bakhsh Bozdar, Allah
Dino Memon, Mohammed Ali Baryar, Asif Ali Kazi, Dr. M. R. Ahmed, Abdul Rehman
Mughal, Khalil-ur-Rehman MughaL Ali Mohammed Jokhio and Sarfi-azSolangi at the
University of Sindh; and Mir Lutuf Ali ThIpur and Ahmed Saeed Abbassi at the
Cooperation Department, Government of Sindh, for their constant moral support.
I also thank Mrs. Rose & Mr. Joe Evans for their encouragementand making
my stay for the last few months at their home a comfortable one.
brother
Atta Mohammed Soomro for his
to
grateful
my
am extremely
continuous and unending encouragementthrough moral and material support.
In the last but not the least I arn highly indebted to my wife Hasina Soomro and
children Kashif, Faisal, Mehwish and Shafqat Soomro, who made me take up this
challengingtask: their continuedsilenceand undemandingsupport after returning to

Pakistanmadeit possibleto finish this project.
I acknowledgewith many dianks the special permission granted by the
CountrysideCouncil for Wales for the survey on Malltraeth beachand Newborough
forestarea.
I am grateful to the University of Sindh, Pakistan, for their
very valuable
financial support during this research.
SUMMARY
In the years 1991and 1992combined vertical electric (VES) and electromagnetic

(EM) soundings,complementedby chemical analysesof borehole water samples,were
interfaces
in
detecting
the
coastal and
water
mapping
saline-fresh
and
ahn of
made with
Bychan
Morfa
Two
at the northern edge of
at
one
areas,
coastal
estuarine sediments.
Cardigan Bay and another on the College Farm at Aber on the Menai Strait, and one
for
Cefiii
Malltraeth,
Mon
bank
the
at
were chosen
of
estuarine area on the northern
detailedstudy.
The VES and EM data show close agreement to themselves as well as to the
basis
On
by
determined
the
the
of these and
means.
chemical
groundwater
salinity of
borehole data it has been possible to define an aquifer at each site, boundaries of saline
intrusion into groundwater, and zones of mixing between the two. An aquifer filled
less
than
(chlorides
35
has
fresh
than
m
ohm.
a resistivity of more
groundwater
with
250 ppm), the zone of mixing water (transition zone) has resistivities ranging between
8 ohm.rn to 35 ohm.m (chlorides between 250 to 500 ppm), and saline water has a
doubt
These
data
less
(chlorides
500
7
cast some
pprn or more).
resistivity of ohm.m or
in
defining
Ghijben-Herzberg
Relationship
the position of
the
on the applicability of
the saline-fresh water interface.
In addition to these observations,pumping tests were carried out which not only
interface
but
the
the
also
showed
modification
saline
of
gave permeability values
in
both
in-situ
Permeabilities
the
by
and
were also measured
caused
pumping.
laboratory on collected samples using standard techniques; permeabilities were also
formation
factor
considerations. In general close similarities
estimated using electrical
from
The
between
techniques.
the
the
aquifers range
existed
permeabilities of
various
3.2 x 10' rn /sec to 1.3 x 10' m/sec which can be classified as moderate.
It is clear that in the sites examineda combination of permeability and an

land
(from
from
fresh
the
abundanceof
rainfall andrivers) preventany extensive
water
salineintrusion.Howeverthe intrusivezoneis extendedduring the period when spring
tides operate.
The overall conclusionis that VES andEM techniquesaredependablepractical
tools for the determinationand mappingof any salineintrusion. Importantly they can
also provide values of porosity and permeability which agree closely with those
by
hydrological
traditional
parametersobtained
methods.This opensa way forward for
the use of electrical techniquesas precursorsto any detailed investigation such as
pumping tests.They can also be usedin a monitoring mode for detectingchangesin
by
salinity
caused
abstractionof groundwaterallowing salineintrusionto occur.
aquifer
Sucha procedurecan be of considerablesignificancein Pakistanto assessthe severity
of the twin problemsof waterloggingand commensuratesalinity changes.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1.
R'SaMODUMON.
1.1 Aims of the thesis.
4
4
To achievetheseaims.
CHAPTER 2.
SALINE INTRUSION IN GROUNDWATER.
2.1 Nature and position of saline-freshwater

bodiesand Ghijben-HerzbergRelationship.
2.2 Structureof the fresh-saltwater interface.
8
8
2.2.1 Shapeof interface.

2.2.2 Length of the intruded wedge.
2.2.3 Trans-interfaceflow / mixing zone
2.3 Changein shapeand position of interface.
10
10
13
2.3.1 Due to tidal effect.
13
2.3.2 Due to pumping.
14
2.4 Sourcesof salinity in groundwater.

- 2.4.1 Recognitionof seawaterin groundwater.
15
2.5 Detectionof saline-freshwater interface.
18
17
CHAPTER 3.
METHODS OF DETECTION AND MAPPING OF
THE SALD4FFRESH RTMRFACE. *
i
25
25
3.1 Electrical resistivity method.

3.1.1 Wenner and Schlumberger arrays.,
26
3.1.2 Offset Wenner system.
28
3.1.3 ABEM's Terrameter SAS 300
29
MA
30
Observational Errors
3.1.4.1 Instrumental errors
30
3.1.4.2 Spacing errors (Wenner)
30
3.1.4.3 Offset effors
31
32
3.1.5 Interpretation
3.1.5.1 Ambiguity of interpretation
33
34
3.2 Electromagnetic Method

a) The receiver.
35
b) The transmitter.
35
c) The reference cable.
35
d) The procedure
36
3.2.1 Observational Errors (EM)
36
a) Errors due to loop spacing
36
b) Errors due to orientation
37
38
3.2.2 Interpretation.
3.2.2.1 Equivalence
38
3.3 Conductivity of groundwater
39
3.4 Determination of chloride ions in

by
chemical methods.
groundwater
40
CHAPTER 4.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION AND FLUID
FLOW ANALOGY IN POROUSMEDIA.
43
4.1 Permeabilityand formation factor relationship.
47
4.2 Permeabilityand methodsof its determination.
48
4.2.1 laboratory methods.
49
ii
4.2.1.1 Constant head method.
49
4.2.1.2 Permeability by grain size analyses.
50
4.2.2 Field permeability tests.
52
4.2.2.1 In-situ constant head test.
53
4.2.2.2 Guelph permeability test.
54
4.2.2.3 Field pumping test.
55
56
4.3 Porosity.
4.3.1 Method of determinationof porosity.
57
CHAPTER S.
CORRELATION OF FORMATION RESISTIVITIES
TO CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION.
58
CHAPTER 6.
CASE HISTORY 1. ABER COLLEGE FARM AREA.
61
6.1 Introduction and geology of the area.

a) The Holocene.
61
b) 7be Pleistocene.
61
62
6.2 Detection/mapping of the salinefresh water interface using

geophysical methods and hydrochemistry.
64
6.3 Effect of spring tides on interface.
71
6.4 Effect on interface due to the pumping.
74
6.5 Permeability of the sediments.
76
6.6 Porosity estimated from geoelectric data.
77
6.7 Deviation from the Ghijben-Herzberg

Relationship.
78
6.8 Discussion.
79
iii
CHAPTER 7.
CASE IRSTORY 2. MALLTRAETH AREA.
82
82

hydrochemistry.
geophysical methods and
84
7.3 Vertical resistivity versus electromagnetic

(dunes).
dry
soundings on
sand
90
7.4 Permeability of sediments and saline

intrusion.
90
7.5 Discussion.
91
CHAPTER 8.
CASE MSTORY 3. MORFA BYCHAN AREA.
93
93

hydrochemistry.
methods
and
geophysical
93
8.3 Permeability of sediments related

99
to intrusions.
8.4 Discussion.
100
CHAPTER 9.
GENERAL DISCUSSION.
101
1) General characteristics of the

three sites investigated.
101
2) Effects of rivers, dunes and min

recharge on saline intrusion.
102
3) Effects of glacial till on saline

intrusion.
103
iv
4) Possible effects of faulting on

saline intrusion.
104
5) The extent of saline intrusion as a

function of permeability.
104
6) The effect of tides and borehole pumping

on the position of the saline interface.
105
7) The deviation from the theoretical
Ghijben-HerzbergRelationship.
8) The usefulnessof geophysicalprobing.
9) The mixing water zone.
106
108
110
10) Application to salinity problems

in Pakistan.
ill
CHAPTER 10.
CONCLUSIONS.
112
REFERENCES.
APPENDICES.
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Salinewateris the mostcommonpollutant in freshgroundwater.The pollution can

occur in deepaquiferswith the upward advanceof saline watersof geologic origin, in
shallow aquifersfrom surfacewastedischarges,and in coastalaquifersfrom an invasion
of seawater.
Increasingdemandsare being made on the water resourcesof many countries

ParticularlyTbird World countriesbecauseof their expandingpopulation, especiallyin
coastalareas.Propermanagement,developmentand use of fresh water in such areasis
necessaryto prevent contamination of existing water supplies. Sound management
decisionscan be madewhen basedon availableinformation; therefore,it is desirableto
is
data
as
economicallyreasonableto supportthesedecisions.
much
gatheras
A typical inland groundwater salinity problem is that exhibited in Pakistan, which

beds
marine
with thick overlying alluvial deposits. Since
geologically comprises mostly
the introduction of canal irrigation systems,the canals have gradually silted up such that
their beds have been raised to the samelevel as the ground surface and, in some instances,
even higher. This causeda lot of seepageof canal water into the ground which raised the
level of the water table. Groundwater with dissolved Na, K, Mg, Ca, S04, or Cl, etc., is
layers;
in
lower
the
abundantly present
when this water, rich in S04 and/ or Cl, reaches
the ground surface it evaporates and leaves behind a thin cmst of salt on the surface
causing the twin problems of surface waterlogging and salinity.
In the seventiesalmost one hundred thousand acres of land went out of cultivation
in
large
because
installation
The
this
twin
tube
of
menace.
subsequent
of
wells
annually
numbers, reducedthis menaceto some extent. However the problem of extraction of saline
water and its use for watering agricultural lands on the one hand lowered the water table
but on the other hand aggravatedfin-ther the salinity on the surface. To overcome this new
A.
O.
D.
(U.
K)
donor
World
Bank
the
the
and
other
aid of
problem,
with
agencies,started
involving
drainage
in
late
the construction of many surface
the
a gigantic
project
eighties
drains to drain out highly saline water (initially pumped out by tube wells) into the sea.
Work on this project is still going on and the results are yet to be seen (Water and Power
Development AgencyPakistan. Water logging and salinity. Annual Reports, 1970; 1988;
and 1989).
Braithwaite (1855), which historically may be the first published reference on the
problem, illustrated the salinity problems caused by puinping in London and Liverpool.
He suggestedthat the infiltration of seawater was caused by lowering the groundwater
level below that of the sea. Herzberg (1901). Oscar Meinzer (1945), Wentworth (1951),
Schmorak and Mercado (1969), on the basis of various field observations, remarked that
pumping causeda continuous encroachmentof salt water. More than 90 years ago Badon
Ghijben (1889) in Holland and Herzberg (1901) in Germany, working independently,
found that fresh groundwater floats above salt water because of its lower density. Field
measurementsat Miami (Cooper et al., 1964) and experimental studies (Cahill, 1967;
Goswami, 1968) have confirmed a considerable amount of shift in the saline-fresh water
interface due to changing tidal patterns.
The most common method of monitoring salt water movement in coastal

areas is
by periodically measuring the chloride concentration in water from observation wells.

Properly-constructed observation wells are expensive and, thus, the number that can be
drilled is highly restricted. An alternative method of monitoring is to use geophysical
large
This
techniques.
area
method
allows
electrical resistivity surveying
monitoring of a
at a comparatively small. cost. In addition, surface resistivity measurementscan be used
to give supplemental water quality control in areasbetween observation wells.
As chloride is a dominantion of oceanwater, and usually plays only a minor role

in groundwater,an increasein chloride contentis the most reliable indicator of the first
(1988)
has
intrusion
into
Hagemeyer
shownthat water
stagesof salt water
groundwater.,
from
data
differentiate
to
are
essential
saline
water
mineralizedwater.
quality control
As early as 1937, Swartz (1937) used direct-current resistivity method to locate

fresh water lenses in salt water bodies. Since then, much resistivity work on the detection
of fresh-saline water interface has been continuously carried out in various parts of the
1974;
Gorhan,
1976;
(Flathe,
Zohdy
Since
1970;
Worthington,
1977).
the
al.,
et
and
world
late 1960's, numerous studiesin the United Stateshave been performed to locate and map
contan-dnatedwaters (Cartwright et al., 1968; Fretwell and Stewart, 1981; and Stewart et
al., 1982).
It follows from the abovethat it shouldbe possibleto developcombinedvertical

electric (VES) and electromagnetic(EM) soundingstogetherwith, chemical methodsto
detectand map the fresh-salinewater interfacein coastaland estuarinesediments.At the
sametime the separateeffectsof pumping and spring tides can be studiedon the saline-
fresh water interface.
1.1 Aims of the thesis:

To detect/ map the saline-fresh water interface in coastal and estuarine sedhnents;
to
in
Wales
North
different
compare
and
and
chemical
methods,
geophysical
using
sites
at
the characteristicsof thesesites,
(2) To investigate the movement of the interface due to tidal and pumping effects,
(3) To examine the effect of permeability and transmissivity on the saline intrusions,
from
derived
the
electrical
to
the
time
permeability
the
of
value
compare
same
while at
by
to
those
conventionalmeans.obtained
observations
To achieve these aims:
(1) Combinedvertical electric and electromagneticsoundingswere carried out in

three areas, where some sediment parameter data from previous investigations was
during
Morfa
Bychan
College
Farm.,
Malltraeth
Aber
the
These
years
and
were
available.
1991 and 1992. In addition, boreholes and auger holes were drilled to carry out field
hydro-chemical
(one
tests.
site only), permeability and
pumping
(2) Laboratorymeasurements
of somesedimentparametersfrom thesesites were
data
file)
(to
to examine the effect of porosity and
the
already
on
made
supplement
permeability, on saline intrusion.
4,
CHAPTER
2. SALINE INTRUSION IN GROUNDWATER
Intrusionof seawaterinto coastalaquifersis a naturalconsequence

of the density
contrast between fresh and saline water, the denser seawater often fonning a deep
kilornetres
inland
that
for
(Bear, 1972; Raudikivi and
wedge
can extend
many
CaHander,1976).
The first knownpublishedreferencein history may be that of Braithwaite(1855)

who illustrated the salinity problems causedby pumping in London and Liverpool. He
suggestedthat the infiltration of seawaterwas causedby lowering the groundwater level
below that of the sea. But according to our present knowledge, it is weR established
that salt water invasion may still take place even when the water table level is slightly
higher than that of the sea (Kashef, 1968a).
2.1
Nature and Position of saline-fresh water bodies and Ghij'ben-Herzberg
Relationship
More dm 90 years ago two investigators Badon Ghijben (1889) in HoUand and
Tja
(1901)
in
Germany,
independently
European
found
the
working
along
coast,
IlLerzberg
that fresh groundwaterfloats above salt water becauseof its lower density. Their
principle is now well known as the Ghijben-HerzbergRelationship.If the height of the
water table level is N abovethe meansealevel (MSL), then at the samesite the fresh
water shouldextendto a distancez below the MSL suchas shownin Figure 2.1. This
distribution was attributedto hydrostaticequilibrium existing betweenthe two fluids
different
densitiesneglectingthe fresh water movement.The hydrostatic balance
of
betweenfreshandsalinewatercanfurtherbe illustratedby the U-tube
5
shownin Figure
2.2. Pressureson each side of the tube must be equal; therefore,
p, gz=p. fg(z+h, f)
(2.1)
is
is
density
fresh
is
density
the
the
the
the
pf
g
the
of
water,
saline
water,
p,
of
where
k
and
and
z
accelerationof gravity,
Solving
for
2.2.
in
Figure
z yields
are as shown
pt
hr
(2.2)
let
For
Ghijben-Herzberg
is
tYPical.
seawater
conditions,
the
relationship.
which
p,=1.025 and p,=1.000,so that
z=40hf
(2.3)
Translating the U-tube to a coastalsituation shown in Figure 2.1., hi becomesthe

is
depth
fresh-saline
level
the
to
the
table
the
sea
and
z
water
above
water
elevationof
interface below sea level. Herzberg(1901) gave an approximatevalue for z as 37.
Wentworth(1939)stressedtherelationof groundandseatemperatures
to measurements
his
Ghijben-Herzberg
in
the
the
specific gravity
application of
of
relationship. He
favouredusing a value z= 38. Hubbert (1940)consideredthe dynamicrather than the
hydrostaticequilibrium of the fresh-saltwater interfacebecausefresh water is flowing
Ground lu(IKO
Watefuble
I
desityW*t
pj
---MSL
Irresh
ob water
ocuft
of
2.1
Idealized
of occurrence
rigure
sketch
in
an unconfined
fresh
groundwater
and saline
1980).
Todd,
(after
aquifer
coastal
rrosh
Saline
water
water
Figure
water
(after
2'. 2 Hydrosts: ti6 I; alanc

and saline
water illustrated
Todd, 1980)
Ietween" fresh
by a U-tube
toward the sea.Hubbert (1940) also showed that where the flow is nearly horizontal,
the Ghijben-Herzberg relationship gives satisfactory results. His analysesindicated that
the actual interface should be located below that determined by Ghijben- Herzberg
(Figure 2.3). For confined aquifers the above derivation can -also be applied by
replacing the water table by the piezometric surface. It is important to note from the
Ghijben-Herzberg relationship that fresh-salt water equilibrium requires that the water
table, or piezometric surface, (1) lies above sealevel, and (2) slopes downward toward
the ocean. Without these conditions, seawaterwill advance directly inland.
Starting from the work of Hubbert (1940), the Ghijben-Herzberg relationship has
been generalizedby Lusczynski, 1961; and Lusczynski et al., 1966, for situations where
the underlying saline water is in motion with heads above or below sea level.
Since the original studies,others have appearedbasedon observations of coastal

wells, which have been in agreement with the Ghijben-Herzberg relationship. These
in
by
further
Holland
Pennink (1905), in Belgium by
have
included
work
studies
D'Andrimont (1902), in Florida by Brown and Parker (1945), and in the Marianas
Islands by Ohrt (1947). It is manifest that sea water does not exist everywhere under
continental areas, so that the extent and continuity of the primary aquifers impose a
natural boundary upon the application of the principle (Brown, 1925; Notnitsu,
Toyoham and Kamimoto, 1927).
Krul and Liefrinck (1946) have recognized that the Ghijben-Herzberg

relationship is really a great simplifIcation of the actual ground-water picture.
Sympathetictidal fluctuationsin coastalaquifers (Brown, 1925; Isaacs

and Bascom,
1949) continuously shift the fresh-water interface. Diffusion introduces
the problem of
7
density changes.In beachzones this effect may be of sufficient magnitude to introduce

discrepanciesin identification of interfaces (Toyohara, 1935) or to obscure completely
the interface between fresh and salt water. Nevertheless, most observations have
confirmed the Ghijben-Herzberg relationship. However, where steeppotential gradients
frequently occur, as near coastal areas,pumping wells, rivers and canals, large errors
be
incurred.
may
Furtherrecentdevelopmentshave indicatedthat the actualtheoreticalinterface

shouldalwaysbe lower thanthe Ghijben-Herzberginterface.The differencein,location
is due to the effect of the 'seepageforces' produced by the water movements (Kashef,
1968b).
2.2 Structure of the Fresh-Salt water Interface

2.2.1 Shape of Interface
In deriving the Ghijben-Herzberg relationship, it was implicitly assumedthat the

fresh-salt water interface sloped downward from the coast. The interface shape and
slope can be inferred for the case where flow occurs in the fresh water zone only.
Denoting the water table slope,as shownin Figure 2.4, then hom Darcy's law
Sjnp=
dh- v
d, K
(2.4)
where V is velocity and k is the coefficient of permeability. Along this slope the water
table elevationdecreasesin the direction of flow, consequentlyaccordingto

equation
8
Ocan
10
111ti
40
-40Af
00
sI
x
T
San w3ter
Ffesh water
IrlWace
depth to
2.3. Discrepancy
between actual
rigure
by the Ghijbenwater and depth calculated
salt
1940).
(after
Hubbert,
Herzberg
relationship
(ftet
table
rrtsh water
D. _r
Inttdaco
San
rigure
water
2.4.
table
watif
Relation
and the
between
fresh-salt
slope*
of the
water interface.
2.2., the fresh-salt water boundary must rise. Its slope (Figure 2.4) is given by
Pf
sin a= Pg
-
(2.5)
PfK
Becauseof the convergingboundaries,V mustincreasewith distance.It Mows,

therefore that the magnitudeof the slopes increaseaccordingly. This results in a
A
interface
fresh
to
the
concave
water. more rigorous derivation of the
with respect
above reasoning is given by Hubbert (1940).
Recognizing the approximations inherent in the Ghijben-Herzberg relationship,
more exactsolutionsfor the shapeof the interfacehavebeendevelopedfrom potential

flow theory (Charmonman,1965;Cooperet al., 1964).The result (by Cooperet al.,
1964)hasthe form for the depthof the interfacebeneaththe shorelinez. occurs,where
)
(see
2.5
Figure
so that
x=0
pq
zo = ApK
(2.6)
where z and x are as shown in Figure 2.5., K is the hydraulic conductivity of the
aquifer, q is the fresh water flow per unit length of shorelineand A. = p. - pf.
Steady state solutions for the size and shape of the lens, assuming a fixed
boundaryand sharpinterfacehave beengiven by Henry, 1964;Toddq1980;

and Van
Der Veer, 1977.
2.2.2 Length of the Intruded Wedge
Reasoningfrom theGhijben-Herzberg
relationship,a saltwaterwedgemustexist
fresh
Assuming
intersection
the
that
water
the
ocean.
a
seaward
an
aquifer
with
of
at
flow q per foot of ocean front exists, then the approximate relation for a confined
be
derived
can
aq*er
(ps-pr)
1
q-2
Pf
kb2
L
(2.7)
Starting from Darcy's law, where pf and p, are fresh and salt water densities
k
is
2.6.,
defined
in
L
Figure
b
the coefficient of
and
respectively, and are as
indicates
fluid
for
2.7.
the
Equation
that
conditions
aquifer
and
uniform
permeability.
length of the intruded wedgeis inverselyproportional to the fresh water flow. The
by
b
by
be
to
the saturated
unconfined
aquifers
replacing
applied
equationcan also
thickness,providing the flow doesnot deviategreatly from the horizontal.
2.23 Trans-Interface FlowlMixing zone
Interfacesare generally treated as fluid boundaries.At actual ground water

interfaces, however, processes occur which introduce passage of fluids across the
interface. The most important of these are percolation and evaporation across the upper
interface and diffusion across the lower interface. Water percolating downward from
the ground surface flows.through partMy saturatedpores until reaching the fresh-water
(upper) interface. Here it combines with the fresh-water flow in completely saturated
10
G(ound suffice
2.5
Figure
unconfined
Ocean
N,
Flow pattern
of fresh
coastal
aquifer(after
water
Todd,
in an
1980).
......... .-ImDermeable
Freshwatef.
Saltwater,P'l
L
Imperme3ble
Figure
2.6.
Salt
water
wedge in
a confined
aquifer.
(1950)
Jacob
has pointed out this process causesground-water streamlines to
pores.
form very flat angles with the interface. This added water raises the interface in
proportion to the volume of surcharge,as is commonly observedafter periods of aboveaveragerainfall. The intensity and duration of rainfall, surface infiltration, stratigraphy,
and permeability of the overburden determine the amount of water joining the
flow.
beach
In
in
changes
noticeable
groundwater
areas
salinity may occur in
connection with the dilution provided by percolating water (Brown, 1925). Evaporation
from the upper interface has the opposite effect to that of percolation, but the quantity
of water transferred is ordinarily considerably smaller.
Diffusion, here defmed as the mixing or intermingling of fresh and salt waters
from
interface
their
resulting
molecular dispersion between the two fluids, is an
at
instance of a fluid interface not serving as a complete boundary. The rate of diffusion
between two fluids in a vertical column of uniform cross section is proportional to the
concentration of gradient (Glasstone, 1946; Longsworth et al., 1945). 11us freshwater
and saltwater initially in contact show relatively high diffusion rates, which become
progressively smalter as the diffusion zone (also caRedtransition zone), increasesand
the concentration gradient decreases.Laboratory experiments in this connection have
indicated the effect of diffusion to be small (D'Andrimont, 1905; Nomitsu, Toyohara,
and Kamimoto, 1927). Because diffusion rates are smaller thari usual groundwater
velocities, the diffusion zone*is limited to a narrow band. Field measurements of
diffusion zones by Brown (1925) and Swartz (1937) have confirmed this. However
Lusczynski and Swarzenski (1962) found occurrence of a broad zone of diffusion in
the Magothy Formation in Long Island, New York, which they attributed to opposing
flow directions in adjacent bodies of fresh and saline water, effects
of movement of
water within the aquifer having variable pore geometry and molecular diffusion.
11
Cooper (1959) advanced the hypothesis of Ghijben and Herzberg that under
dynamic conditions salt water is not static but flows perpetually in a cycle from the
floor of the sea into a zone of diffusion and back to the sea, and that this flow tends
to lessen the extent to which the salt water occupies the aquifer. Under the zone of
diffusion Cooper (1959) suggestedthat there is a zone of substantial thickness in which
fresh
Tbus,
from
is
to
that
that
the
of
water.
salt
there a gradation of
of
water
salinity
diluted seawater having becomeless densethan native seawater, rises along a seaward
into
fresh
introduced
the
Meanwhile,
the
that
water environment are
are
salts
path.
fresh
by
flow
back
the
the
to
the
water system.
sea
of
carried
Where inhomogeneitiesoccur in coastalaquifers, stratifications and irregularities

in the distribution of fresh and saline waters occur (Harris, 1967; and Perlmutter and
Geraghty, 1963). Considerableresearchhas been done on seawaterintrusion in layered
1971;
Harleman,
1963),
Rumer
Gelhar,
(Collins
and
and
and on unsteady
and
aquifers
(Bear
Pinder
1964;
Dagan,
Hantush,
1968;
transition
the
and
and
zone
movement of
and Cooper, 1970).
Figure 2.7 shows a transition zone in a highly permeable limestone aquifer in

Miami, Florida. Note the numbered lines are iso-chlors (water areashaving the same
base
this
the
the
approach
of
aquifer
perpendicularly
;
chloride or salinity value) which
base
flow
because
the
the
of the aquifer, thereby restricting vertical
results
parallels
mixing (Cooper et al., 1964). This is a case where the sharp interface approximation
is not justified. Figure 2.8, after Todd (1974), schematically illustrates the flow patterns
in the three subsurfacezones.
12
Bay
0
-S
10
Ix
ri
m . 31
-4(
Distance
1500
line,
shore
1000
bw
metres
2000
MO
355-00
from
through
2.7.
the transition
Cross
Figure
section
Florida.
near xi&mjI
aquifer
zone of the Biscayne
in mg /3L
lines
Numbered
are isochlors
1964).
(after
Cooper,
at al.
I
Ground surfaCC
W-ftef Ublf
Freshwater
Octan
Transition zont
Saline water
*,--b.
2.8
Figure
flow
pattern
an unconfined
Vertical
of fresh
coastal
cross
and
section
showing
in
water
saline
aquifer(after
Todd,
1974).
2.3 Change in shape and position of interface

2.3.1 Due to Tidal Effect
The hydrodynamic balance between saline and freshwater in a beach area is
fall
level,
broad
by
the principal and
the
and
of
sea
rise
of
principles
governed
important results of which are evident locally in the patterns of coastal erosion or beach
build up. It has also been observed that every year during winter in some regions, and
in summer and monsoon periods in other regions, the coastal beachesas well as shore
lines get eroded due to the action of large tidal waves causing a considerable change
in the morphology of the coastal area. Obviously, a study of the stability relationship
indicate
interval
interface
the areal
time
of
and space could materially
over an
of the
extent and depth of variation of the interface, vis-a-vis the activities of the sea.
Herzberg(1901)notedthatequation2.2 did not hold exactlyin all casesandthat

it is stronglyinfluencedby the finenessor coarseness
of the dunesandswhich werethe
media of his field tests.He also recognisedthe rise and fall of water levels due to the
lagged
four
hours behind the tides.
to
three
the
that
tidal effectsand
response
Field measurementsat Miami (Cooper et al., 1964) and experimental studies

(Cahill, 1967) have confirmed the landward movement of the saline water body. Where
tidal action is -the predominant mixing mechanism, fluctuations of groundwater, and
hence the thickness of the transition zone, ecome greatest near the shore line.
Goswami(1968)after studyof manycontinuousyearson coastalareas,observed

that spring tides causedlot of erosion of beachesand this resulted in considerable
amountof shift in salineand fresh water interface.He further observedthat the daily
tidal effect and groundwatervariationscausedminor movementof the salineand fresh
13
interface.
water
23.2 Due to Pumping
A sharp interfacial boundary between fresh and saline water does not occur
finite
brackish
Instead,
field
transition
thickness separates
zone
of
a
conditions.
under
the two fluids. This zone develops from dispersion by flow of the fresh water plus
influences
interface
by
displacements
the
external
such as tides, recharge
of
unsteady
(Wentworth,
195
1).
In
general the greatestthickness of transition
and pumping of wells
heavy
highly
in
found
to
aquifers
subjected
pumping.
permeable
coastal
zones are
Observedthicknessesvary from less than I'm to more d=
100 m. As an extreme case,
Harbour
has
Honolulu-Pearl
Hawaii
the
area
of
created
concentrated pumping'in
localized transition zones more than 300 ni thick.
Herzberg (1901) remarked that the salinity of the groundwater increased during
heavy
Pennink
(1905)
his
detailed
dry
through
of
pumping.
periods
a
season and
how,
be
indicated
drawings,
the
salt
may
water
sucked into a wen even
studies and
is
bottom
the
the
screen above the original salt water level, -a conclusion which
of
when
is presently accepted.OscarMeinzer (1945) warned of over pumping in coastal aquifers
basis
field
the
observationsand predicted a continuous encroachmentof
of various
on
salt water.
Pumping a well in a fresh water zone underlainby salt water causesthe salt
front
locally
below the well. This phenomenonis also known as
to
rise
water
'upconing' andis in responseto thepressuredepressionaroundthe well (Dierschet al.,
1984; Schmorakand Mercado, 1969). While working on the upconing
mechanism,
14
Schmorak and Mercado (1969) defined a certain elevation above the initial interface
(which they assumedhorizontal) and called it the 'critical rise', Figure 2.9. As pumping
increasesthe interface forms an expanding mound with a maximum height below the
axis of the partially penetrating wells. Once the maximum height reaches the critical
They
take
to
the
would
place.
well
rise, a suddenrise of salt water
prepared two graphs
from which the maximum permissible pumping and rise of interface may be obtained.
2.4 Sourcesof Salinity in Groundwater
As a result of chemical and biochemical interactions between groundwater and

the geological materials through which it flows, and to a lesser extent because of
bodies,
from
the
and
surface
atmosphere
water
groundwater contains a
contribution
inorganic
dissolved
chemical constituents in various concentrations
wide variety of
(Foster, M. D. 1942). The concentrationsof total dissolved solids (TDS) in groundwater
is determined by weighing the solid residue obtained by evaporating a measured
dryness.
The
invariably
filtered
to
solid
residue
almost
volume of
sample
consists of
inorganic constituents and very small amounts of organic matter. The IDS
concentrations in groundwater vary over many orders of magnitude. A simple but
based
for
categorising groundwater
widely used scheme
on TDS is presented in Table
2.1 (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). To put the concentration ranges in perspective, it may
be useful to note that water containing more dm 2000-3000 rng/I MS is generally too
salty to drink. ne TDS of seawateris approximately 35,000 mg/l. Milligrams per litre
is numerically equivalent to weight in parts per million (ppin).
Groundwatercan be viewed as an electrolyte solution because

nearly all its
major and minor dissolved ionic constituentscan be obtained by determining the
15
Groundsurface
0'00,
011'
4
1411111.4
Impermeable
lezornttric surface
Freshwater.
density pf
Interface reaching well
t-
Critkal
t-
t4
13
ri
to
1.00,000,
-.
i
IfIWI
Salinewater.
density p,
Initial ;ntef face
Figure 2.9 Diagram of upconing of underlying

Schmorak
saline water to a pumping well(after
and Mercado, 1969).
Category
Fresh
F
Brackish
Saline
0-
water
water
water
BE
water
rine
I---
Solids
9 /10)
Total
Dissolved
(mg /I
or
1000
1000
10,000
10,000
-
100,000
> 100fooo
Croundwater
Classification
Table 2.1 Sinple
Solids
Dissolved
named on Total
1979)
(After
Freeze aLnd Cherry,,
.
capability, of the water to conduct an applied electrical current. The electrical

conductanceor conductivity of a material is the ability of that substanceto conduct an
(EQ
is
The
the
specific electrical conductance of a substance
electric current.
conductanceof a body of unit length and unit cross section at a specified temperature.
17histerm is synonymous with volume conductivity and is the reciprocal of volume
be
A
determining
TDS
can
made by measuring the electrical
of
rapid
resistivity.
between
The
the various parameters
sample.
relationship
of
a
groundwater
conductivity
such as TDS and EC are worked out in order to expressthe groundwater quality. It is
formula
(Hem,
1970):
by
the
given
TDS = Ax
(2.8)
EC
is
in
in
1,
EC
A
is
is
TDS
pS/
cm
and
mg/
a conversion constant.
expressed
where
According to Hem (1970), the range of A is from 0.54 to 0.96 representing most types
in
Conductance
preference to resistance is used becauseit increases
of natural water.
known
(S)
(pS)
in
SI
its
the
siemens
are
as
or
microsiemens
units
with salt content,
have
been -known as millimhos and micromhos.
In
these
the
units
past
system.
Conductivity (microsiemens) and resistivity (ohm.m) of a fluid R,. could be
interchanged by the formula
Conductivity
104
-ii
(2.9)
As conductanceis a function of water temperaturehence a standard temperature

(usually 250C) must be specified in reporting conductivities. The
major constituents
16
in
ionic
form
in
to
as
referred
and
are
commonly
occur
groundwater
are
mainly
which
the major ions (Ne, MS', C2', Cr, HC03-, SO42-).The total concentration of these six
in
dissolved
90%
ions
the
the
total
than
solids
of
major
normally comprises more
is
dilute
has
the
or
salinity greater than seawater
water
regardless
of
whether
water,
(Davis and DeWiest, 1966).
2.4.1 Recognitionof Seawater in Groundwater
As chloride is a dominant ion of oceanwater and usually plays only a minor role
A-LO
in groundwater, an increasein chloride content is the most reliable indicator of the first
Bicarbonate
is
into
intrusion
usually the most
groundwater.
stages of salt water
is
large
between
difference
ion
in
there
such
a
groundwater, and as
abundant negative
the proportions of chloride-bicarbonate ratio in normal groundwater and in ocean
index
ions
is
between
two
these
the
a
useful
of the presence of seawater
ratio
water,
(Roger Revelle, 1941).
ribe concept of an equivalent salinity is frequently used in discussing the

is
The
defined
a
solution
equivalent
salinity
of
as the salinity
of
groundwater.
resistivity
have
the same resistivity as that of the
which
would
of a sodium chloride solution
is
being
for
the
equivalent
salinity
expressed.The equivalent
which
particular solution
salinity should be fairly close to the true salinity since mobilities of ions do not vary
has
The
the advantagethat only tables (or graphs) for
salinity
of
equivalent
widely.
use
a single salt are needed to determine the resistivity of a solution (Keller and
Frischknecht, 1966).
Goswami(1968)presentedfield studiesat Digha, India, and

niaking use of the
17
by
body
he
delineated
the
an
saline groundwater
chloride content of water samples,
isochlor of 500 ppm (IDS 1000 ppm) and chloride/bicarbonate ratio of 2.3; and the
diffusion.
isochlors
demarcated
by
300
500
bounded
the
the
of
and
zone
zone
Kwader (1986) worked out an equation relating Rwthe resistivity of groundwater
to chlorideconcentrationin ppm, while working on the Floridan Aquifer in areaswhere

the water was predominantlycalcium bicarbonaterich:
Chloride
3100)
Rw
(Ppm)
88
(2.10)
Hagemeyerand Stewart(1990).found that therewere two sourcesof salinity in

the groundwater. seawater intrusion (contributing chlorides), and deep mineralized
the
The
data
(contributing
and
available
resistivity
water
showed
quality
sulfates).
water
that three groundwater massesare present: fresh, saline and mineralized. They observed
that water-qpality control data are essentialto solve the problem of salinity equivalence
from
differentiate
mineralized water.
saline water
and
2.5 Detection of Saline-FreshWater Interface
Before moving to Chapter3, wheremethodsof detectionand mapping of the

saline-freshwater interfaceare described,it is worthwhile at this juncture to look at
somepreviouswork m this area,particularly geophysicalandhydrochernicalmethods.
Use" of direct-current resistivity methods is not new to water

resources
18
investigations. As early as 1937, Swartz(1937) used this technique for locating freshwater lenses in salt-water bodies on the Hawaiian Islands. Swartz (1939) also checked
by
found
Ghijben-Herzberg
the
and
valid
relationship applying resistivity measurements
in the same vicinity in 1938-1939. Since that time, little fresh-salt water interface
mapping based on resistivity has been done in United States until relatively recently
(Zohdy et al., 1969). However, much resistivity work on the detection of the fresh-salt
in
been
done
interface
has
1970;
(Flathe,
the
other
parts
of
continuously
world
water
Zohdy et al., 1974; GoAm, 1976; and Wofthington, 1977). Since the late 1960's,
been
in
United
States
have
locate
to
the
carried
out
studies
numerous
contaminated
(Cartwright
leachates,
landfill
drainage,
sewage
as
and
effluent
mine
waters, such
et al.,
1968; Markel, 1973; Kelly, 1976; Klefstad et al., 1976; and U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1978).
Given a low hydraulic gradient, and an aquifer of almost constant thickness and
composition, the apparent resistivities obtained by resistivity mapping will generally
for
delineating
invaded
information
by saline water.
the
coastal
zones
provide sufficient
Adams (1970) improved this mapping technique by introducing a correction procedure
in order to remove the 'elevation effect' from apparent resistivity observations and
called it the "modified resistivity profiling" method.
If the aquiferthicknessvariesover the wholeinvestigationareathentheprofiling

techniqueis betterreplacedby resistivity soundings.The field curvesthus obtainedare
manually interpretedby using masterand auxiliary curves in order to determinethe
resistivity and thicknessof the aquifer. Finally, a map of the transverseresistanceof
a particular aquifer can be produced(Astier, 1971;and Duprat, 1972)by multiplying
the aquifer thicknessby its specific resistivity at each soundingstation. Assuming
a
19
minimum thickness and a minimum resistivity, an aquifer should have to be of

be
interest,
transverse
the
calculated.
can
resistance
economic
correspondingminimum
Hence, the isoresistancecurve of a minimum value thus computed also representsthe
limits of a coastal aquifer which theoretically could be exploited. In order to distinguish
between saline water intrusions and other 'conductors' such as intercalated clay layers,
the method often used is to relate geoelectric soundings to existing borehole data or to
boreholes specially drilled for this purpose.
Schri3der (1970) presented a set of special 'master curves' for interpreting

from
have
been
coastal areas where the salinity
obtained
electrical soundings which
distribution below the surface can be assumedto be in agreement with the dispersion
theory. Given this condition, the 'master curves' enable a direct interpretation of the
depth.
the
content
with
chloride
variation of
Flathe (1963) produced five-layer master curves for the hydrogeological

in
facilitate
interpretation
He
to
the
curves
order
master
of
problems.
computed
from
a two layer aquifer i. e., an aquifer separatedby an
resistivity soundings obtained
intercalated clay layer of variable thickness. A further condition for application of fivelayer master curves is that the lower boundary of the aquifer must be a good electrical
'conductor', such as a saline water intrusion or a clay layer of infinite thickness.
Volker andDijkstra, 1955;Van Dam et al., 1967;and Ginzburg, 1974,working

independentlyin polder and delta regions aquifers of sufficiently homogeneous
geologicalcompositionproposedthe following geoelectricprocedurefor mappingsaline
water contaminations.Electrical soundingsarecarriedout nearall boreholesand wells
which exist in the investigationarea. Simultaneously,the conductivity and chloride
20
A
determined.
boreholes
from
the
graph can
are
content of groundwater samples
by
be
relating the chloride contents to the true aquifer
assembled
consequently
is
Once
from
the
such a graph established, more
soundings.
resistivities as obtained
Finally,
investigation
the
to
area.
cover
whole
geoelectrical soundings are carried out
from
be
distribution
the
the
can
of
groundwater
prepared
chloride
a map showing
directly
by
true aquifer resistivities to chloride concentrations.
converting
soundings,
RecentlyAl-Ruwaih (1992) useda surfacegeoelectricalmethod to detectthe

brackish-salinewater interfaceand delineatethe extensionof shallow water bearing
formationsin the Kuwait group.At the sametime, studiesof groundwaterchemistry
he
Accordingly
identify
type
made
andrangeof salinity.
water
werealsocarriedout to
The
Schlumberger
the
configuration.
using
various vertical electrical soundings,
interpretationof VES lines obtainedby curve matching(Orellanaand Mooney, 1966)
A
layers.
four
contour map of measured apparent resistivity
major
revealed
N-E
decrease
in
S-W
147m
to
of
a
gradual
resistivity
a
showed
values/(AB/2) =
direction.
The auxiliary point method for the approximate interpretation of resistivity

iterative
introduction
before
the
the
computing
of
used
soundings was extensively
branches
(1943).
Each
by
fust
Ebert
Ibis
the
of
of an
published
method was
method.
The
by
is
two-layer
apparent
resistivity
curve.
apparentresistivity curve approximated a
coordinatesof the cross of this two-layer curve are consideredto representthe thickness
fictitious
layer
the
that replaces the sequenceof shallower layers.
of
a
and
resistivity
Ebert (1943) gave four graphs that should be used, respectively, for bell-type, bowltype, ascending-type and descending type three layer cases. Orellana, and Mooney
(1966) published a modification of the Ebert method and combined the bowl type and
21
the ascendingtype into a common mathematical formulation. These days however, the
due
described
to the general
curve matching methods
above are not widely used
availability of more sophisticated forward and inverse iterative computer modelling
techniques (Patra and Mallick,, 1980).
The (MRI) microprocessor-controlledtraversing system is effectively a

designed
having
been
information
from which
to
provide
system,
resistivity imaging
the distribution of subsurfaceresistivity in cross section along a profile can be
determined.It is of particular value in areaswhere the strata show both lateral and
involves
field
in
The
technique
making repeated
vertical variation electricalproperties.
apparentresistivity traversesalong the chosenprofile, the spacing
constant-separation
being incrementedat eachpass.In this way an apparentresistivity spacesection,or
pseudosectionis built up, which when contouredprovidesa qualitative picture of the
distribution of subsurfaceresistivity. Where the subsurface structures are twodimensional(2D) and somecontrol is available,quantitativeinterpretationis possible.
The MRT systemremovesmany of the practical difficulties of resistivity profiling,
it
data
the
to
necessary
more easily and much faster thati by
collect
possible
making
conventionalmethods(Griffiths, Turnbull and Olayinka, 1990).
In recent years, tomographic inversion of resistivity data has become an

important topic, airrung to achieve more accurate delineation of subsurface structures
(Noel and Walker, 1990; Shima, 1990; Daily and Owen, 1991; Noel and Xu, 1991 and
Barker, 1992). However, data obtained during conventional Wemer pseudosection
surveys, for example, are too sparse for tomographic processing and therefore it is
necessary to develop a regime for collecting a larger set of data. The advent of
resistivity meters electronically multiplexed to large electrode arrays has been, a
22
significant recent development in the field of resistivity surveying (Griffiths and

Turnbull, 1985; Van Overmeeren and Ritsema, 1988; Noel and Walker, 1990). These
systemsexpand the choice of electrode configurations and the number of data that can
be collected in a realistic time although, hitherto, their main application has been to the
automation of conventional pseudosectionsurveys (Griffiths, Turnbull and Olayinka,
1990).
As the resistivity method is time consuming in that individual soundings may

take from several hours to several days depending upon surface conditions and the
required depth, inductive EM techniques have been developed in the last 20 years or
so. As inductive measurementsrequire no contact with the surface, while in resistivity
be
introduced
into
has
to
the ground by means of electrodes,
measurementscurrent
these techniques have certain advantages.
One of the most popular electromagnetic methods for groundwater exploration

is
frequency
detection
domain
intrusion
low induction number
the
and saline
conductivity mapping; this uses EM terrain conductivity meters (Fraser, 1984; and
McNeill, 1980), calibrated directly in groupd conductivity, such as the Geonics EM34.
The main drawback of the method is its limited exploration depth (<50m) and its
restriction to mapping low conductivities. Max-Min is the more traditional horizontal
loop EM measuring system which measure in-phase and out-of-phase EM field
responses.It is an effective system in obtaining the resistivity and thickness of the
subsurface layers. Interpretation is done by computer software curve matching.
More recentlYthe transient(or time domain)EM (TENI) soundingmethodhas

startedto be usedmore effectively and to a depth (>50m) for detectingthe fresh-salt
23
water interface in coastal aquifers (Gay, 1983; Stewart and Gay, 1986). Transient
soundings are typically made using a squaretransmitter loop with a small receiver coil
located at the center of the loop. The steady transmitter current produces a primary
magnetic field which is directed upward inside the loop and downward outside the
loop. When the transmitter current is abruptly turned off, current is induced in the
ground which tries to maintain the magnetic field which was present prior to turnoff.
The magnetic field produced by the induced current is called the secondary magnetic
field. In practice the voltage induced in a receiver coil by the secondarymagnetic field
is measured.Ibis voltage curve is called a transient. Interpretation of transient data is
accomplished by curve matching (Kaufinan and Keller, 1983) or computer inversion
(Anderson, 1982) in much the same way as is done for DC resistivity data. The TEM
fast
becoming
is
EM
its
the
method
up-and-coming
as
method
results particularly in
complicated areas such as in deserts for the discovery of groundwater or in coastal
areas for the delineation of the saline-fresh water interface, has proved to be fast and
more dependable.
24
3. METHODS
OF DETECTION
AND MAPPING
OF THE SALINE-FRESH
WATERINTERFACE
As seenin chapter2.5, over the yearsmany methodshave beenproposedand

interface.
intrusions
the
to
detect
saline-fresh
map
water
and
saline
employed to
detected
determination
directly
through
be
the
However,salinity of the groundwatercan
In
hydro-chemistry.
techniques
its
the
the
study
present
of electricalconductivity and
have beenlimited to the DC electricalresistivity method,the electromagneticmethod
have
in
field,
been
data,
the
obtained
geoelectrical
and chemicalmethod.-In addition
in
in
field
data-determined
the
logs
the
borehole
or
to
other
and
to
used compare
Laboratorysuchas permeability,porosity and etc.
3.1 Electrical Resistivity Method
The resistivity of a porous medium is largely a function of the water content as

its
The
in
the
conductivity
of
water,
volume
the mineral grains are general resistive.
in
determining
the
the
distribution
the
through
principal
parameters
are
medium
the
and
bulk electrical propetties of the medium.
When an electrical current is passedinto the ground by means of two electrodes
it
is
in
line
between
them,
drop
pair
placed
with
a second
measured
and a potential
from
knowledge
known
the
of
resistivity
a
to
apparent
as
possible calculatea quantity
the magnitudesof the currentand potentialdrop togetherwith the electrodegeometry.
If the ground is homogeneousthis is the true ground resistivity, but in generalit is a
the
resistivitiesof the formationsthroughwhich the currentpasses,
weightedaverageof
often referredto as 'apparentresistivity'. It is from an analysisof the variation of this
25
quantity with changes in electrode geometry and position that deductions about the
subsurfacecan be made.
3.1.1 Wenner and Schlumberger Arrays
A great variety of electrode arrangementsare available to measure earth

resistivities. The present study has been Ifinited to the Wenner and Schlumberger
arrays, although the Wenner at some sites has made use of the Offset system (Barker,
1981).
The Wenner array is one of the most commonly used electrode arrays for
determining resistivity. In it four electrodesare equally spacedalong a straight line, as
in
3.1.
distance
between
Figure
The
any two adjacent electrodes is called the
shown
(a).
A
is
between
I
the outer electrodes A, B and the
current
passed
spacing
affay
consequent potential drop AV measured between the two inner electrodes M, N.
Apparent resistivity p. is obtained by using the relationship:
P,s
AV
2 -n a
x
3.1
Many instrumentswhile measuringthe quantitiesAV and I separatelyusually combine

them to give a ground resistanceR.
The Schlumbergerarray also, is widely usedin measuringearthresistivities.In

this configurationthe distanceMN is smaUcomparedto the distanceAB,
generaUy
smaller d= AIB/ 5 (seeFigure 3.2). The potential gradient over the interval MN is
practically equal to the electric field strengthat the centreof the configuration, since
26
a ---J(
1(
3.1
I t- 2r --I
L-a
irigurle 3.2
the field is nearly unifonn in the neighbourhood of this point. Apparent resistivity p.
is measuredby using the relationship:
pa
2-. r2
2.r
3.2
distance
between
half
(a)
is
the
the current electrodes,
taken
the
as
spacingand
where
2r (NIN) is the distancebetweenthe potential measuringelectrodes,and R is the
resistance(AV/I).
The foRowingare the reasonsfor choosingSimple Wennerand Offset Wenner

in
arrays the present work:
for
Wenner
The
the
contours
array at depth are slightly
signal-contribution
a.
flatter dm those for the Schlumberger array; it has been suggestedby Milsom (1989)
that the Wenner will locate flat-lying interfaces more accurately.
b. Comparingthe two arraysfor the samecurrent electrodespacingthe voltage

differences in Wenner sounding measurementsis Luger as the distance between the
larger,
is
in
this
the measured
electrodes
any
generally
makes
reading
potential
error
potential difference a smaller percentagefor the Wenner comparedto the Schlumberger.
Indeed in some instances of low ground resistivity, Schlumberger becomes virtuaUy
unusable because of the frequency with which the potential electrodes have to be
moved.
c. There is often a difficulty indrawing the Schlumbergercurves.

d. The effects of near surfaceinhomogeneitymay be reducedusing off-setting
techniques.
27
3.12 OffsetWennersystem
During the first year of the present study the Offset Wenner system, developed
at the University of Birmingham, was used. 11iis has several advantagesover both the
Schlumbergerand the conventionalWennersystems.By this system,it is possibleto

detectable
lateral
by other methods.
the
are
not
which
resistivity variations,
overcome
Also the resistivity surveyingis lesstime consumingasa multicore cableandExedfive
for
The
diagram
be
below
configurations.
of
sorts
various
electrodesarray can used
is
idea
five
for
The
to
the
use
electrodesat a time and
such
readings.
shows setup used
by using a switching devicethe configurationcan be changed.The two measurements
(Rd, and Rd2)cancelthe effect of lateral variation (Barker, 1981). ,
Basic array -,
12345
Electrodes
vvvvv
VVVV)
Rd,
IRd
V- VVV
)Rd2
AR the Wennerresistances,howeverderived,may be convertedto apparentresistivity

p., using the relationshipas given in equation3.1. ABEM's battery operatedresistivity
meter,the TerrameterSAS 300, was usedin measurements
of all the vertical electric
soundings taken under different arrays.
28
3.13. ABEM's Terrameter SAS 300
The ABEM's SAS Terrameter system consists of a basic unit called the
Terrameter SAS 300 which is supplementedas desired with the SAS 2000 booster, for
Signal
for
be
increased.
SAS
to
stands
situations where the voltage and/or current need
Averaging System,a method whereby consecutivereadings are taken automatically and
the results are averaged at each stage; the updated running average is presented
automatically on the display. SAS results are more reliable than those obtained using
for
(basic
300
SAS
The
Terrameter
used
all the
unit) was
single-shot systems.
in
the present study.
surveys
resistivity
The Terrameter contains three main units, all housed in a single casing: the
five
following
has
It
the
the
the
controls:
transmitter,
microprocessor.
receiver and
(i) SAS selector (also called the Cycles Selector). This 4-position selector is used
to choose either the single reading mode or 4,16,
or 64 automatically averaged
readings.
(ii) Voltage/resistivity range selector (also called the Range Selector).
(iii) On/Off switch. Switches power on and off.
(iv) Current Selector.
(y) Measurepushbutton. When this control is depressed,the microprocessor runs
through its automatic diagnostics program and, if everything is satisfactory, starts the
Terrameter measurementprocedure automatically. When the measurementis complete,
it returns to the standby mode with the result provided by the digital display.
The following is the procedure used for carrying out the vertical electric
soundingstaken under Offset and Simple Wenner arrays with the Terrameter.The
instrumentis positionedbetweenthe potential electrodes(M and N) and terminalsPI
29
and P2 are connectedto terminals M and N respectively. The current electrodes(A and
B) are connectedto terminals CI and C2 respectively. The Range Selector is turned to
the I ohm position, the Cycles Selector to position 4 and the Current Selector to
position 20mA. The power is switched on and the Measure button is pressed.The four
display
that
the
are observed. If they are nearly equal,
readings
appear successivelyon
the noise level is low and the final reading is recorded. The instrument is then switched
battery
to
off
conserve
power. Some times there are negative resistancereadings which
could be causedby the following reasons:
, (a) The current or potential electrodes have been connected with reversed
polarities.
(b) The noise level may be much higher than the signal level (long distances
between A and B and low current).
3.1.4. Observational Errors

3.1.4.1. Instrumental errors
The accuracy of the Terrameter is clarified by stating that a reading of 2.42
shows higher precision than a reading of 2.4, but it is not necessarily any more
The
accurate.
overall system accuracy of the Terrameter (with or without the SAS
2000) is 2% of the reading.
3.1.4.2. Spacing errors (Wenner)
Any error in spacingwhile taking measurementof a soundingin a field

causes
erroneousreadingsof resistancethere also. In equation3.1, say there is an error of Aa
in spacing,a, which brings about an error of AR in resistace,R. Iberefore,
in
errors
spacing,a, and resistance,R, would be Aa/a and AM
30
respectively.The maximum
be:
in
in
terms
s
will
r.
m.
error product
SV/V = 4(Aa/a + (AM
(3.1a)
3.1.4.3.Offiet errors
(a.,ObservationalOffset errors:Errors of observationmay be computedusing

for
1956),
HabbexJam,
that
(Carpenter
states
any
which
and
the tripotentialrelationship
by
the
it
is
the
four
current and
of
roles
changing
only
possible,
electrodes
set of
1,2,4,
For
different
and
resistances. electrodes
potential electrodes,to measurethree
5 in figure below theseresistancesam referredto as RA,RB,and Rc.
Offset Wenner
VV
V'
Vc
Arrangements
VC
VP
VC
VC
V'
VP
-
VP
Rd,
Vc
Rd2
'VP
Vc
RA
VP
VP
RB
VC
VP
Rc
VC
VP
-
Electrodes
12345
Tile tripotential relationship, RA = RB + Rc, must then hold for any subsurfacegeology
however,
differences
due
Small
to observer error.
occur,
will
and any electrode spacing.
ribe percentage 'observational error' eb, (a) may be computed ftom:
RA
e,. (a)
(a) - [R. (a) +Rc (a) I
RA(a)
X100%
(3.3)
Thevalueof e, will normallyvarybetween 2%.If eb, is largean instrument

31
malfunction is indicated and the source of the error should be sought. Leakage of
current from damagedcablesand high contact resistancesat the electrodesoften causes
high observational errors. Calculation of ea. during the measurement of a sounding
helps to achieve data of consistently high quality. A single root-mean-square (rms)
observational value may be calculated for each sounding curve in a standard way and
used as a meansof classifying and comparing the soundings according to their quality.
(b) lateral resistivity effect: One important advantageof the Offset sounding
lateral
is
This
the
to
the
of
resistivity
ability
magnitude
effects.
system
estimate
(a),
is
'Offset
defined
by
by the
the
provided
at
any
error',
eff
spacing,
estimate
a,
foRowing expression:
e. ff (a)
Rd., (a) -Rd2 (a)

Rd(a)
100%
(3.4)
measuredwith eachof the normal Wennerarrays,the

where&I and &2are resistances
arithmeticmeanof thesetwo valuesproviding the Offset Wennerresistance,Rd.NearsurfacelateraleffectscauseOffseterrorswhich changerandomlyin magnitudeandsign
increasing
electrodespacing.The Offset techniquesubstantiallyreducesthese
with
(a)
is
If
e.
effects.
consistentlygreaterthan 20 percentand of the samesign, deeper
larger
and
scale lateral variations, such as dipping beds and faults, are likely to be
present.
3.15. Interpretation
The apparentresistivity/electrodeseparationcurve obtainedby vertical

electric
32
Offix
Bossix
by
interpreted
is
the
or
the use of
computer software
soundings
inverse
forward
in
fact
These
Ltd.
by
Interpex
modelling
and
are
produced
programmes
depth
from
techniques
interpreting
for
of
electrical
a
variety
soundings,
programmes
including Offset Wenrier soundings data. The forward modelling allows the creation of
layers
for
that
the
on
assumption
plane
of
a
number
curve
synthetic resistivity sounding
iterative
interactive
is
Inverse
homogeneous.
laterally
layer
is
an
modelling
each
from
data.
The
field
fit
the
least
best
the
to
results
the
to
squares
obtain
process
forward and/or inverse modelling are directed to a printer and/ or plotter for a print-out
3.3).
Figure
(for
its
see
an example
pammeters
of the model and
3.1.5.1. Ambiguity of Interpretation
As indicated above the resistivity technique for depth probing provides a curve
With
the
expansion
electrode
separation.
resistivity
with
variation of apparent
showing
into
fixed
deeper
base
the
the
the
current
penetrates
central
point
about a
current
of
loosely
be
determination
that
the
can
one
electrode separation at any
ground so
interpretative
depth.
The
procedure outlined above consists of matching
correlated with
field
layered
to
the
thicknesses
curve.
and
resistivities,
earth, of various
a model of a
However there is an ambiguity of interpretation, a lack of uniquenessin that the same
by
different
field
be
(to
the
a
of
produced
number
curve) can
match
synthetic curve
layered models. The problem is that what is being measured in the resistivity method
is transverse resistance T (the product of the resistivity and the thickness of a bed) and
longitudinal conductance S (the ratio of thickness to resistivity), and it is almost
impossible, unless there is some external control, to differentiate between thickness and
resistivity; it is highly manifested in beds whose thicknesses are small compared to
33
1000
xMit:
2.6 fl
1-I
lea
>
N..f,
:s
LU
cz
IE
w
c
a<t
le
SPACING (m)
Figure
3.3.
Equivalence
10
100
RESISIMTY(ohm-m)
100
cuxv
a along
side
the
field
curve.
1000
their depths.
This important ambiguity has been described in terms called 'the principle of
for
Equivalence
'the
a particulu
arises
when
suppression'.
principle of
equivalence' and
layer.
layer
to
the
overlying
sub-surface
compared
(a) the resistivity is higher (or lower) than the adjacentlayers.

(b) T (or S) is very large and
(c) S (or T) is very smaR.
On the field curve this layer cannot be distinguished from any other layer which has
(or
S
depending
T
but
different
the
the
thickness
ratio
product
where
resistivity and
a
be
As
larger)
has
is
the
the
seen, two types of equivalence can
can
same
value.
which
is
S
T
depending
the larger. S-equivalence when
the
or
on which of
parameters
occur
described
H
interbedded
between
lies
bed
the
type
thin
resistive
ones,
as
more
often
a
bed
lies
between
T-equivalence
thin
the
more conductive ones, often
when
curve; and
described as the type K curve. While Maillet (1947) provides a form of solution to the
problem by the construction of his 'Dar-Zarrouk' curves, in this particular exercise the
borehole
to
the
through
one chosen
range of equivalent models was reduced
infonnation (see Figure 3.3).
Suppression relates to a bed widi a resistivity intermediate between the bed
aboveand that below it. Sucha bed, again if thin, has virtually no effect on the field
curve.Even when its thicknessincreasesto have influence on the apparentresistivity
curve, this change appearsto be related to changes in transverseresistanceor
longitudinal conductanceof the enclosingbeds.
3.2 Electromagnetic Method
The electromagnetic survey was carried out with the MaxAlin 1-8 (commonly
34
known as Apex MaxMin) portableinstrument.Ibis instrumentis designedfor water,

It
permits the choice of eight
applications.
and
geoengineering
mineral exploration
i.
110,220,440,880,1760,3520,7040,
frequencies
and
e.
spaced
operating
octavely
14080 BZ. To arrive at the much neededparameters,the most commonly used
horizontal
loop
I
(also
known
MAX
the
as
mode)
transmitterpoweredoperatingmode,
is used; it is an effective mode in obtaining the resistivity and thickness of the
in
faster
has
layers.
It
and
advancednoiserejectionprocedurewhich results
subsurface
more accuratesurveys.
The following is the procedure and instrumentation (seePhotographic Plate 3.1)

used for the NfaxMin 1-8 electromagnetic method survey:
in
is
The
Receiver:
The
a
one
piece
unit
receiver
which there are two coils
a)
in
in
the upper end of the tubes on each
shape
and
are
mounted
which are solenoidal
is
basic
Inside
the
the
the
console
electronic circuitry of the system
side of
console.
mounted on printed circuit boards.The read out meters, control switches and connectors
is
It
four
by
9-volt transistor type alkaline
the
powered
are all mounted on
console.
batteries.
b) The Transmitter. It consists of three components, connected together by
battery
These
the
the
the
pack with
console
and
cables.
components
are
retractile
coil,
charger.The transmittingcoil is an oval shapedloop with a unit at one endcontaining
bubble
level,
a
a cable connectorand an electro-mechanicaltilt sensorfor ensuring
horizontality. The console contains all of the electronic circuitry, read out meters,
control switchesand connectors.The batterypack consistsof a set of rechargeablegel
cells mountedin a carrying belt.
c) rMe ReferenceCable: Mlis links the transmitter and receiver. It contains
teflon-insulatedconductorselectronically connectedto form a twisted pair within a
35
Wn
I-
A
l
-_-'. ' Receiving
sil
onsob
Photographic Plate 3.1
rj--, "'.
-.
teflon jacket. It has end connectors and safety diimbles. The cable also serves as the
intercom link between transmitter and receiver.
d) The Procedure:Before starting to take a sounding with MaxMin, it is checked
for zerooffset on the tilt meteras well ason the in-phaseand out-of-phasemeters; i
is correctedbeforehandotherwisea noticeablediscrepancyis causedbetweenthe two
its
the
i.
for
different
that
taken
end of a given scaleand repeat
near
scales e.
readings
horizontal
held
The
the
taking
using
are
readings
coils while
value on a coarserscale.
the bubble levels. To carry out a sounding50m and lOOrnreferencecablesare used
50m,
100m,
In
depth
the
cables
the
or
to
of
of penetration. either
alternatively change
the end of the cablewasheld over the samepoint at which a vertical electric sounding
was previously made.In mode MAX I the transmitteroperatorstandsoppositeand
facing the receiveroperatorwho recordsthe in-phaseand out-of-phasereadingsat a
fixed frequencyof 110IHZ.Thenby changingto otherfrequenciesin turn, readingsare
recordeduntil all the frequencieshave been used. To take a second sounding,the
transmitteroperatormoves to take the receiver operator'sposition and the receiver
length
100
(depending
farther
50
the
away
of
metres
upon
operatormoves metresor
the referencecableused),andthenthe whole procedureis repeated.In this way at least
4 soundingswere recordedin the caseof the 50m cable and 2 soundingsif the 100in
cablewas used.
3.2.1. ObservationalErrors(EM)
(a) Errors due to loop spacing:Errors in the measurementcausedby errors in

the loop spacingor orientationmust be considered.In the horizontal coil EM system,
for a primaryfield:
36
Hp = -nVU2
= c12
(3.5)
for
(a)
is
%
is
is
100
Hp
true
the
to
spacing,
coil
and
set
where nx/4x a constant c and
is
(true)
If
the
coil spacing.
nominal
coil spacing a., and the actual coil spacingis a.,
then the observationalerror due to coil spacingis found from the following equation:
(3.6)
Eiffor = (H - H.)fill.
(a2 - a2)1(a2) x 100 % (3.7)
(b) Errors due to orientation: Consider a case when one of the coils is
from
its
misoriented
proper position through an angle cc,the ratiometer measurement
in
(cosec)
%.
fairly
large
be
100
Usually,
orientation of one of the coils can
a
error
will
be tolerated; if the angle a is 8", the error in measurementwill be only about I percent.
Serious errors can occur, however, when traversing rugged terrain with the horizontal
coplanar or vertical coaxial loop arrangement.Consider the case in which both coils in
a horizontal coplanar arrangements are held level, but the line connecting the coils
makes an angle ccwith the horizontal. Equation (3.5) may be rewritten as
Hp = (-nVU2) (3 SOa - 1)
(3.8)
The error in the measurementis (3 SOcc - 1) 100percent.For a slopeof 8", the error
is 5.8 percent(Keller andFrichknecht,1966).When the horizontal coplanaror vertical
coaxial arrangements
areusedin hilly terrain,it is necessaryto orient the coils parallel
to the slope,or to makecorrectionsto the measurements
when the inphasecomponents
is consideredin interpretation.
37
322 Interpretation
EMDGVM is a forward and inverse modelling software computer progrannne,

preparedby Interpex Ltd., for interpreting electromagnetic sounding data taken with the
Apex MaxMin. EM sounding curves can be obtained as parametric soundings (with
increasing frequency) or as geometric soundings (with increasing spacing). Using its
forward modelling facility, the software can calculate synthetic curves for a model with
up to ten plane layers; these curves are obtained using the method described by Patra
and Mallick (1980). Results obtained are in terms of the in-phase and out-of-phase
components for each frequency and coil spacing value. nese data are presented as a
percentageof the free space response.Graphic displays are presented as in-phase and
quadratureresponseversus induction number or as Argand diagrams (Eadie, 1979). On
the Argand diagram the in-phase component is plotted along the abscissaand the outof-phase component of the same ratio plotted along the ordinate.
Inverse modelling produces a model which best fits the data in a least squares
sense.Now when a starting model is supplied the resistivity inversion takes place (in
a iterative manner) and parameters are adjusted by the use of ridge regression
(mathematical calculations) hunan, (1975); and a best fit model to the data, is obtained.
The results from the forward and/or inverse modelling are,directed to a printer and/or
for
plotter
a print-out of the accepted model Figure 3.3a.-
3.2.2.1.Equivalence
As with. VES techniques described

above, one of the difficulties of data
interpretationis the problem of equivalence.The,following treatment
on equivalence
38
44
"1
"0
40
30
20
Li
le
cr
0
-b
46
cm
-I ID
-20
3
-40
4
-50
0
eel
0 el
INDUCTIOtJ
Figure
based
0111
NLIMPER
3.3a.
Electromagnetic
data points.
on field
le
lee
RESISTIVIIN'
sounding
(Ohtf,
curve
i eez
r.. )
in electromagnetic sounding is based on studies of Mallick and Verma, (1979).

Several H-type' and K-Vype earth models have been considered for several
better
is
horizontal
loops
Ile
system
coplanar
source-receiversystemsand separations.
than other source-receiver orientations in the sense that the RMS difference between
the responsesof two equivalent models is greater for the horizontal coplanar loops
following
The
that
for
than
empirical relations
systems.
other source-receiver
system
for equivalence have been established.H-type earth section:
A/p
= constant
K-type earthsection:
I? p = constant
From
intermediate
layer
h
thickness
the
and
respectively.
resistivity
p
where and are
the above two relations, it is obvious that it is resistivity in the H-type model and
thickness in -the K-type model which play a dominant role in producing equivalence.
3.3. Conductivity of groundwater
As conductivity is preferred rather its reciprocal resistivity, becausethe former
increaseswith salt content,the conductivity of the groundwatersamplesis determined

for all the water samplesobtainedfrom most of the vertical electric sounding sites.
Conductivity and resistivity of water can easily be interchangedby the formula given
in Equation2.8. The conductivity of eachgroundwatersampleso obtainedis usedto
calculatetotal dissolvedsolids (TDS).
The following is the procedureand instrumentationused for the conductivity

determination of groundwater satnples: the conductivity of groundwater
samples
obtainedfrom the boreholes,is determinedby a conductivitymetercalled 'Aqua Lytic',
39
Figure 3.4, which automatically gives water conductivity in pSiemen/cm,at a reference

temperature of 25*C. The accuracy of the instrument is checked out by calibrating at
25"C prepared standard solutions of 10,100 and 1000 mg/I NaCl. A percentageerror
be
be
2%
to
negligible.
considered
of
was arrived at which can
First the actual temperatureof the groundwatersampleis taken and then this
instrument.
The
(2)
the
is
on
set on the temperaturecompensationscale
value
for the temperaturevariation of conductivity and gives
instrumentis now compensated
(5)
is
The
then
temperature.
cell
the
conductivity
reference
a conductivity value at
immersedin water but, before taking the reading, the cell is agitated thoroughly
ensuringthat all air bubblestrappedinsidethe cell haveescapedthrough the openings
in
body,
bubbles
in
the cell can causeerroneous
trapped
the
as any air
cell
provided
(3)
has
As
the
a wide rangeof values,the proper
conductivityrangeselector
readings.
high
deflection
is
the
on the meter
sufficiently
of
range
made
which
gives
a
selection
(middle of the scale)and this value is recorded.The scalehas two setsof maddngs:
lower
(0-3).
The
is
(0-10)
scale
usedwhen the testing rangeselected
and
upper
upper
is a multiple of 10. By multiplying the given multiples with the actual divisions
obtainedon upper or lower scalesgive the correctreadingof conductivity of water in
pSiemen/cm at the referencetemperature.
3.4 Determination of chloride ions in groundwater by chemical methods
Chloride in groundwatersampleis most convenientlydeterminedusing (AAS)

atomic absorptionspectroscopy.The fust step is to quantitatively precipitate silver
chlorideby the addition of a known amountof sUvernitrate.The amountof chloride in
the original smnpleis thenknown by the detenninationof excesssilver in the solution,
40
4P
---
--
--
I,
II
Ii
I
I,
II
I.
Fig. 3.4 Conductivity meter'Aqua Lytic'.
1. Meter mechanicalzero set screw.

2. Temperaturecompensation.
3. Conductivityrangeselector.
4. Pressbuttonfor readout.
S. Conductivitycell.
1970).
has
been
(Reichel,
1969;
Truscott,
the
removed
silver
chloride
precipitated
when
The principle of AAS is that atoms in a non-emitting ground state absorb light of a
increase
The
the
absorption
will
as the number of
extint of
characteristic wavelength.
it
is
increases.
light
The
that
emits only the atomic spectrum
source selected so
atoms
of the element to be determined.
The following is the procedure,usedin makingup the solutionsandcarrying out

the testsin the presentstudy:an aliquot of the groundwatersamplesolution containing
0.5 to 5 mg of chloride wasplacedin a 200 ml volumetric flask. Then 20 ml of 1000
mg/I silver solution and I ml chloride free nitric acid are then addedto the solution,
7be
1000
distilled
further
this
to
solution
cc
with
water.
was
made
up
a
volume
of
and
in
dark
is
100
Ag.
The
to
a
place to
stand
mixture allowed
overnight
contained
mg/I
by
Side
taking
side standard calibration
photochemical
reactions
place.
prevent
solutionsare alsopreparedcontaining0,1,2.5,5,7.5,10 mg/I Ag in separatestandard
following
day
bottles.
The
replicateabsorbance
readingsaretakenof the sample
plastic
and standardsolutionsusing the atomic absorptionspectrometer.Finally absorbances
are compared,the concentrationof excesssilver calculatedand the concentrationof
chloride in the sampleobtainedfrom:
Concentrationof silver (g/1)=

mg1l
Ag x dilutionfactor
Amount of chloride in samplesolutions(g) =
41
(3.9)
[Ag formed
(mgl 1) x 0.3 29x[

1000
sampl evol
(ml)
(3.10)
Concentrationof chloride W) =
(mg)
Amount of chloride
Vol of sample (litre)
42
(3.11)
CHAPTER 4. ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTION AND FLUID FLOW ANALOGY
IN POROUS MEDIA
An analogy can be explainedas an agreementor correspondencein certain

respectsbetweenthings otherwisedifferent. Electrical conductionin porous medium
is
fluid
flow
in
fluid
through
the
the
a porousmedium a
presentand
generallyoccurs
functionof the interconnectionof thepore spaces,which in an unconsolidatedsediment
distribution
dictated
by
themselves
the
of the particlespresent.It
are
shape,size and
appearstherefore that an analogy does exist betweenthe two things and hence a
relationshipbetweenelectricalformation factor and permeability may be expected.
Over the years this analogy has been used to predict the quantitative and
qualitativepropertiesof aquifersand other porousmedia. The qualitative studiesare
mostly related with the saline intrusions, lateral delineation of the water bearing
formations, etc. The quantitative analysesare concerned with the geophysically
like
formation
formation factor to estimate total porosity,
parameters
measured
permeability,chemicalcompositionof the groundwateror transmissivity,etc. (Heigold,
1979;Biella et al., 1983;Jacksonet al., 1978;Lovell, 1983; and Huntley, 1986).
Archie (1942) showeda correlationbetweenformation factor and porosity for

a fully brine-saturatedmedium with no other conductivematerial being present.This
relationship,can be describedas
43
FF
FF
=n
Ro
Rw
(4.1)
-m
(4.2)
formation,
bulk
is
the
k
factor,
formation
is
saturated
the
resistivity of
whereFF the
k
is
is
Mid,
intustitial
the
is the resistivity of the
porosity and m an empirical
n
index
Winsauer et al., 1952 later modified Archie's law to give

FF
an -10
(4.3)
For
to
the
study.
rock
particuliar
under
wbere a and m are empirical values peculiar
their Wne saturated sand data, this empirical equation produced a better fit. However
it violates the boundary condition of FF =I at n= 100 % for values of a=0.
Although they made no direct
keasurementof permeability, they did examim the
tortuosity of the samples,concluding that the values obtained for electrical conduction
flow
fluid
were not m agreementwith each other.
and
Ihe term formation factor can further be defined as inftinsic or true formation
factor and apparentformation factor. Sandgramshave a very high resistivity, so for
pore fluids of high salinity (low electrical resistivity) and clay free sediment or
sedimentof low clay content(in other wordsthe conductivematerialis almostabsent),
it is typically assumedthat all of the electricity is conductedby the fluid through the
pore spaceIn this caseformationfactor remainsconstant,andis known asthe intrinsic
or true formation factor. 11hisconceptof intrinsic formation factor has been examined
44
by many researchers(Pwnodeand Wyllie, 1950; Urish, 1981; WOrdlingtcm4

1973,1975,
1976).
The formation factor is called "apparenCif its value is calculated dmmgh ovamll
resistivity values without cotrection for matrix conduction. Thus (for clay rich
sediments or low' salinity pore, fluidD it is a property which is controlled only by
strucMW properties of the pore fluid matrix. The
between true and
apparent formation factor can be defined as follows (Huntley, 1986).
11+
TF-a
Ew77.
.j
Rm
(4.4)
intrinsic
formation
factor,
Fg,
FFj
R. and Rware the
the
where
and
are: apparentand
matrix and fluid resistivitiesrespectively.
So far two methods are known for the correction of apparent formation factor
for matrix conduction. One developedby Worthington (1973,1975,1976) and has only
been applied to sandstones,whereas its validity is yet to be applied in loose materials.
The other one has been applied in alluvium by Park:and Dicky (1989). and its validity
dependson a strict calibration of geophysical data with well data.
Smce the developmentof the concept of formation factor and its

relation to
porosity,changeshavebeenmadeto the original ideato takeinto accountthe tortuosity
of the sediment.Tortuosity is not only a functim of the porosity of the sedimentbut
it also dependsupon the geometryof the pores.Ideally the
value of tortuosity should
be measuredin the laboratoryfor every sediment,but because
of the lack of suitable
45
it
by
it
developed
have
been
to
'odier
rektipg
obtain
methods
experimental techniqLie,
formation
or
electrical
to measurablephysical properties such as porosity, i xmneability
factor.
Taking the simple capillary model and applying it to the flow of electric currents
in porousmedia,WyUie and Spaneer (1952)produced

FF
=1
L'
(4.5)
nL
length
is
L
the
the
is
length
sample.
L'
of
the
and
the
channel
pore
average
of
where
V is greater than 14 L/ L is the electric tortuosity. Combining this epation, with
Archie's kw produces
Ll
L
(4.6)
depends
the
the
tortuosity
porwity of
on
value
of
m,
and
the
that
electdc
suggesiling
(e.
A,
1981)
(Sen
both
be
It
theoreticallY
et
and
evapiricaUy
g.
the samPle. can
shown
Jackson et AL, 1978) dmt forimflon factor is dependentonly on porosity and tortuosity
in sediments.
From the defmition of tortuosity it is quite clear that if the effective path length
is
between
faces
distance
the sarnethen the tortuosity value equals
two
the
shortest
and
1.0, which puts a lower Ihnit to tortuosity values. Based upon
modelling
Dullien (1979) and Scheidegger (1974) showed dmt tortuosity values lie between 1.0
and 3.0.
46
The
wojrk of JAcksonet A, 1978; Lovell 1983; and BieHa et aL.
1983 woddng independently on

sandsshowed that the
and mixtures of artificial and natural
betweenformation factor and porosity is site specific
(Whkh
has
Natural
the
the
all
a
range.
sands
and
numerical values of
wide
constant,m
obey Archie's law) has values of m in the range 1.4 to 1.6 (Archie, 1942; Addns and
Smith, 1961; Taylor Smith, 1971; Windle and Wroth, 1975). In other words m depends
upon the shapeof the particles while variations in grain size and the spread of particle
sizes have little effect on formation factor. Figure 4.1.
4.1 Permeability and formation factor relationship
Considering that
between
formation
factor
--s
and porosity and
betweenporosity and permeability exist, both direct and inverse
(empirical
-L
eq=fions) bave been developed in the literature to relate formation factor and
permeability (see Figure 4.1a). Direct
between formation factor and
been
have
by
reported
permeability
many authors (eg. Crok
1971; Kelly, 1977;
Kosinski and Kelly, 1981; and Urish, 1981).
b FFc
(4.7)
k
is
the permeability, FF is the formation factor and b and c are constants.
where
On the other hand inverse relationshipsare possible and have been
shown to
ei&t by Iovell (1983); Barker and Worthington (1973) and Biella et al (1983).
47
101
%%
Spherical
40
V p1gey
64
IFFan
\\
2a
\\
\
\\<
\
Mean of A msults
EiTorenvelope
Archie's Law for d=c values of die exporientm\
10
40
%0
&0
MX%
10
@0
%0
=.
Porosity%
Fig. 4.1 Formationfactor Vs. porosityrelafionshipfor marine
sedimentsof different particlesizesandshapes.
(After Jacksonet al., 1978).
0
S
S
A
I.
4,
0
ars
Apparent
formation
factor
4.1a. Permeability
rigure
plotted
against
for natural
Iractor
Irormation
sand samples
(after
1983).
Lovell,,
Apparent
(4.8)
b FF-0
b
where and c we constants.
KeHy and Reiter (1984), using their theoretical model showed that a direct
between
be
if
the avenge
resistivity
can
obtained
relation
permeabilityand electrical
transverseresistivity ratherthanbulk resistivity is usedin the reMon. Sucha situation
is causedby layering in natural sedimentswhich producestransverseisotropy, thus
data scatterin field relations.
4.2 Permeability and methods of its determination
ne permeability of soil or a rock is a measure of its abiUity to ftwurnit fluid,

such as water under hydro-potential grAdient (Lohman, 1972). Henry Darcy. a French
problem of the mechanics of fluid
civil engineer while woffing on the
flow in sands, discovered that for sands of the sarne mture the flow of water was
proportional to the difference in hydraulic head and inversely proportional to the length
in
the
of
sand the direction of water flow. in
form Darcy's Iaw can be
expressedas
k=
qL
hA
(4.9)
where q is the rate of How, k is the coefficient of permeability in velocity units, A is

the areaof crosssection,h is the head loss and L is the lengdi of the sample.
Permeabilityis called intrinsic penneability if in a porous

permeablemedium,
48
it is function of the material properties only, and is in
of the nature or
fhiid
be
the
and can
propesties of
expressedas
+=
nv/pgi
is
is
is
is
inuinsic
the
the
the
the
p
il
viscosity, v
velocity,
where
permeability,
densityof the fluid, i the hydraulicgradientand g is the accelerationdue to gravity. It
has the units of area(darcy).
Permeability is known as hydmulic conductivity, when the fluid flow is not only
influenced by the material properties but also dependsupon the fluid properties and can
be expressedeither as equation 4.9 or simply as
k=v/i
(4.11)
where k has units of velocity m/ sec, since the hydraulic gradient is dimensionless, v
is the velocity of fluid and i is the hydraulic gmdient. Table 4.1 shows a table after
Lambe and VAiftnan, 1969;for permeabilityconversion.
Many methods of determining permeability in the laboratory or the field are in

prAcUce but during the present study the foRowing methods have been used : The
head
constant
penneameterandgrain sizeanalysmin the laboratory.The constanthead
test, pump test and Guelphpermeameterin the field.
42.1 Laboratory methods

42J J Constant head method
This method is found suitable for the determination the

of
permeability of
49
2-
i-.
2
10
2-,
r-
2-
2-
h-
1-
01-
1
-F-16
2-4
2-
2-
-.
---
.1
12.
2-
,
-
T
Ca
!
,
x
0.
- .
IL
1
2-
medium to coarsegrAinedsediment.The following is the procedure and apparatusused

for the tesL Figm-e 42.
1) Constantheadreservoircell.
2) A permeametercell.
3) Manometertubes.
4) Measuringcylinder.
5) Stop watcL
11hetest beginsby allowing disffled waw to rise grahWly in the cell and the
man)xneter,taking every precautionthat no air bubblesremain in the system.Iten
using a plastic conefilled with deahredwater, fine gravel are loaded into the cell, up
to the depthof about2 cm and a wire meshplacedon the top of it. The sampleis then
slowly loaded into the cell with constanttapping of the cell, to get rid of any air
trappedin the sample.A secondwire meshis now placedon the top of the sampleand
another gravel layer over the top of wire mesh. Ihe constanthead supply a now
connectedto the top of the cell nuking it ready for testing.When the hydraulic head
is appliedto the sample,it takessometime to reacha steadystatecondition. As soon
is
this
condition, achieved,the stop watch is startedand the volume of waterpassing
as
throughthe sampleduring a given time interval is collectedin.a separatecylinder. 1he
datacollectedEromthe test is usedto determinethe permeabilityk of the sample,using
Darcy's law.
4.2-1.2Permeabilityby grain size analyses
Over the years ancmpts by many researchershave been made to derive

a qaantitative
betweenthe pore geometricalpropertiesof the sediment

and PenneabiI4.
Ile
outcome bas been many empirical relationships between permeability and

so
Manometer
ing cyUnder
Fig. 4.2 Constantheadapparatus.
disuibution
and pore geometry.
size
Hazen's (1892) foxmula,has been a widely used method to obtain permeability

Erom effective grain size using equation
c d, 02
(4.12)
cm/s
is
10
the
djo
is
matexW of smaller grains. c
the grAin size at which
percent of
where
is a constant with a value ranging between 90-120 (Solymer and 110bachie,1986)-
for uniform sands
Slichter (1899) proposed another form of such a
771
d2
cm/ s
(4.13)
the parameter c in this equation being a function of the porosity of sediment.
to include non-uniform
Tcrzagbi (1925) extended Slichter's (1899)

by
shapes
using
sand of variable grain
N-0.13
VT1
20
I dj
(4.14)
Relating relafive resistanceto porosity through a parameterf(N), Rose (1950)

gave a formula for permeability determination,
1
f (N)
gd2
1000'q
51
cm/s
(4.15)
is
the vismity
iq
where
ftm
be
fM)
fluid,
obtained
can
and
of
the following
is
N
the sediments.
the
of
porosity
where
,
(I-N)2+0.018
f (lv)
i 15
(1 -lv)
(4.16)
N1.5
Cannan, 1939; Scheidegger,1974; DuEe32.1975;wOrking indePendenflYrelated

Mathematical
in
to
results.
am
)priate
more
to
get
order
geometry
pore
permeabffity
tortuosity.
into
take
to
account
geometry
pore
models which correlate penneability
(1927)
by
Kozcny
as an
The Kozeny-Carman equation was originally proposed
later
It
flow
fluid
for
tubes.
through
Poiseuille's
was
capillary
equation
extension of
it
has
been
to
(1939)
obtain
then
by
Cannan
used
widely
since
and
modified
0
in
sorts of porous medium
penneability
k=
IVr?
pC) / III (1-nf)
(4.17)
diameter,
is
D
in
is
k
the'mean
grain
the permeability coefficient velocity units,
where
is
fluid,
C
is
tortuosity
ftactional
is
the
the
shape
the
grain
of
porosity,
p
weight
unit
n
factor and -q is the fluid viscosity.
411 Field permeability tests
A critical review of most of the field methods is given by Bouwer (1978);

Lohman(1972)andSolymerandHoabachie(1986).For the presentstudyfield methods
limited
in-situ
head
Guelph
to
the
the
test,
the
use
of
constant
were
pertneameterand
the pumping test.
52
411.1 In-situ constant head test
less
be
been
found
has
head
in-situ
to
The
and
test
moze appimprit"Me,
constant
time
.g particularly in coarser sediments. In the present study, it has, been
fture
for
installed
tests.
borehole
such
a
screen
with
excavatedand
carriedout m the
4.3. It comp&es of 3 sections:
1) A boreholewith 100 mm dia casingpipe to have a flow of water in and out.
2) A bowser (water tanker) to supply water with 50 mm dia pipe into the borehole.
3) A water purnp attachedto a flow meter in order to record flow-out rate of water.,
In the in-situ constant head test, using the 50 nmn dia pipe the rate of inflow of
is
head
bore
hole
into
is
then
the
water
constant
achieved;
a
until
mam
adjusted
water
50
dia.
mm
pipe , and once an
pumped out using another
with flow of
is
flow
in,
borehole
the
the
the
therefore
rate of
reached,
readings
of
of
and
out,
water
borehole
The
level
Then
the
are
recorded.
constant
water
in
was
also
recorded.
water
fiom
the results of such tests,
are numerous methods of calculating permeability
however in the present casethe fonowing fonnuia (Hvorsiev, 1951) is used to calcuhde
it:
FHc
(4.18)
k
is
the peimeability, q is the rate of flow of water, F is in-take factor see,
where
(Frigure43), and E is the constanthead.
53
4.222 Guelph permeameter test
The Guelph penneameter is an in-hole recently developed constant head

involves
Ihe
measuring the steady-staterate of water recharge
method
peimeameter.
(head)
depth
in
hole,
from
of
which a constant
a cylindrical well
soil
into
4.4):
(Figure
four
1986.
It
Reynold
is
sections
comprises of
et al.,
water maintained
1) Tripod Assembly: This consistsof a Tripod Base with moveable Tripod Bushing and
3 detachable Tzipod legs; when united this section acts as the base for the whole
system-
2) Support Tube And Lower Air Tube Fittings: Through these fittings water is
hole
into
ftom
the
the
well
also maintaining a constant
assembly
reservoir
conducted
head in the well hole.
3) Reservoir Assembly: Mfls provides a means of storing water and measuring the outflow rate while the permeameter is in use.
4) Well Head Scale And Upper Air Tube Fittings: An air tube coupling connects the
upper aw tube to the middle air tube. The upper tube serves as an extension to facilitate
head
head
is
in
the
the
after
well
put
setting
well
scale
place.
As the Guelph permeameter test was carried out in medium to coarse grained
its assembly was set on its combination reservoir
the
permeameter
after
,
instructions.
The permearneter was filled with water and
its
as
per
system
worldng
in
placed the prepared well hole, and then the following standardized procedure was
followed. A5 cm well head was established by slowly raising the air inlet tube. The
rate of fall of the water level was also observed and recorded from the graduated
54
D'
6asing
Screen
%a
. .7.
'v- .-.
-.
-.
".
.
-.
4. Well headscale.
F
logo(
2,xL
(2 LID) + rl
(2 L) 'ID)
LI
3. Reservoiras!
Ay.
Fig. 4.3 In situ Constant head test.
1.
assembly.
tube.
da
..
..
g; Ch
Fig. 4AGuelph permeameter.
After
further
head
10
these
measurements,
a
well
of
cm was created and the
reservoir.
data
The
sheet
results were recorded on a prescribed
process repeated.
meas
following
formula.
by
the
the
using
permeability calculated
and
(0.0 04 1)
(X)
(R2) - (0- 00 54)
(X)
(Ri. )
cm/s
(4.19)
is
R,
35.39
having
the
is
cn3F,
the
of
a
value
constant
reservoir
combined
where x
flow
head
5cm
It2is
flow
the
the
of
at the
steady
state
rate
and
at
steadystaterate of
10 cm head.
4113
Field pumping test
Field pumping tests are appropriate to soils or rodcs with high permeabilifies.
These we generally carried out by pumping water out of a borehole at a known
constant rate and observing the drawdown of the water table in a series of other
boreholes known as observation wells (piezometers) set out radially from the pumped
hole. From these observations,the drawdown curve can be plotted and the permeability
calculated.
In the present study, the following procedure was adopted to conduct the
pumpingtesILA main borehole(dischargingwell) and 4 piezorneters;
maldng two lines
of wells pexpendiculuto each other were drilled to about 7m at the Aber College
Farm site (See pumping test Plan Figure 4.6.a and a Photographicplate 4.6.b.).
Piezometenwere locatedat varying distanceshorn the centrally-installed.well. Ihe
well and the piezornetersare casedwith 100 nun diameterpipe so that a
submersiblepump could be insertedeasily in the base.In the dischargingweR a3m
55
XXIO/22
--
9RIO/2D
Ui 0/i
1;
1
41
Salo/2jk
Figum 4.6.a Pumping test PIM.
. S'
:.
---
or--: T,
-1-
,4
Photograhic
Plate 4.6. b Showing a discharging
well
and piezometers.
D. W = Discharging
P= Piezometer.
well,
length of well screen at the bottom is instaUed, the lower part of dw pipe of the
C;Ipiezometers have been made slitted. in order to have easy to and firo movement of
avifer
immediately
formafion
Ihe
timugh
them.
material
SWrounding the screen
water
by
boles
replaced
and
artificially
and slifted. piq)es in Ail
is removed
graded coarser
material, a so-called gravel pacL
Using a pump anda powerunit, water is pumpedout fmm the iscbargingweH

11he
depth
in
discharging
by
flow
to
the
pipeline.
at a constant rate recorded
a
meter
the water level in all piezometers and in the i
well is recorded many times
during the course of the'test. As the water levels drop fast during the Ent hour of the
test, readings are taken at frequent intervals on a printed form, with the time between
readings being gradually increased as pumping continues. These tests are repeated a
few times on vanous days. For a confined aquifer, using the observed data the
permeability is calculated as
27ZD(SI-S2)
ln-L2
Z,
(4.20)
where Q is the well discharge in xn/ day, k is the hydraulic conductivity, D is the
thickness of the aqtifer. ri and r are the respective distances of the piezorneters ftm
the pumped well in meters and s, and s2are the respective elevations of the water
levels in the piezometcrs in metres.
43 Porosity
All porous media contain pores and spaceswhich

are surroundedby the solid
56
the
to
the
total
sample
The
of
these
the
volume
spaces
pore
of
of
volume
ratio
material.
is a dimensionless quantity known as porosity, which can be given as a percentage or
widely
range
1"he
may
fiaction.
sediments
naturally-occuxmg
of
porosity
as a
depending upon, the geological history, depositional pattems, and the unposed
conditions.
43.1 Method of determination of porosity
The choice of the method used for porosity
--
dependsluponthe
descnibed
been
have
text
Several
standard
m
many
the
methods
material.
nature of
books (Dullien, 1979; Scheidegger, 1974; Bourbie et aL, 1987).
The most convenient and widely used Laboratorymedkodis by putting the sampleAfter
drying
known
the
it
oven.
measuring the specific
into a mould of
in
volume and
following
is
determined
by
laboratory
the
in
the
the
the
using
porosity
grains
gravity of
equations.
G. y.
V, = Vt - V.
(4.22)
N =V, /V,
(4.23)
is
G.
is
V.
is
the specific
the
the
the
solids,Irw
unit weight of water,
volume of
where
is
V,,
is
is
V,
N
the
total
the
the
the
the
of
and
grams,
volume of
volume
gwity
voids,
porosity of the sediment
Ilis porosityis representativeof themaximumpadLingof the sedimentandmay

insita
be
to
the
equivalent
not
value.
57
CHAPTER
S. CORRELATION
OF FORMATION
RESISTIVITIES
TO
CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION
A measurement
of fluid conductivitycannotresolvethe type of dissolvedsolids.
It is, however, common to relate electrical conductivity to an equivalent chloride
concentration(Kwader, 1986). 111isrelation can be used as an indicator of total
dissolvedsolidsfor seawater,but it is not valid whena significantpart of the dissolved
solids are concentratedwith anionsother than chlorides.To derive more quantitative
information about concentrationof dissolved solids, an attempt has been made to
correlateformationresistivitiesmeasuredthroughdirect resistivity methodsto chloride
concentration.
First, water samples from 31 boreholes were collected and chemically analysed
for chloride anions. The electrical conductivity for all the sampleswere determined and
it ranged from 240 to about 10000 pmhos/cm. at 25* C. Table 5.1 enlists all the details
data
the
of
obtained from the boreholes and with analysis carried thereon. Generally,
the total dissolved solids in ground water increase as water moves towards the beach
area, where T.D. S range from 1082 to about 6387 mg/l.
The relation betweenchloride concentrationand water conductivity on samples

from boreholes was investigated.The data obtained from Aber College farm
,
Malltraeth area, and Morfa Bychan area, are summarizedin Figure 5.1. Each dot
representsonesample.The correlationcoefficientis equalto 0.998.Somescatterof the

datais dueto differencein the concentrationof chloridesin the groundwaterfrom
place
to place.Figure 5.1 has beenconstructedwith chloride values expressedin
rng/l and
conductivityin pmhos/cm.Figures5.2 and5.3 showa very little scatterobservedin the
58
Conducti.
vLty (JimhOR/cm)at
25' C
Borehole
No.
Zetimate.
Xeaour*d
d fluid
resistiv.
aquifer
resistiv.
ity
240
ChlorLde
conc&ntr.
&tLon
(PPS)
157
154
58
185
70
Lty
M-U)
AB. 10/2D
I T
Total
dissolve.
d solids
(PPU)
(n.a)
42
I
290
35
110
AB. 10/1.
T
500
20
54
320
131
AB. 10/1.
B
1180
8.5
31
755
330
MB. VESI
421
24
95
270
103
MB. VES2
502
20
85
322
129
MB. VES3
530
29
67
340
136
MB. VES4
518
19
86
332
129
MB. VES5
600
17
55
484
180
MBNESS
588
17
69
376
152
MB. VES9
582
is
360
146
MB. VESIO
584
is
78
361
138
MBVES6J"
1800
12
1152
468
MBVES61"
9980
6387
2870
MBVES6B
6200
1.8
;2
4
3968
1742
MBVES6A
5100
3264
1436
MT. 20B
350
29
84
224
66
MT. 20A
390
26
70
250
76
HT. 22C
600
16
60
385
150
MT. 20F
480
21
72
307
101
MT. 20E
422
24
99
270
81
MT. 22A
686
is
53
439
209
HT. 21C
660
15
54
KT. 23D
900
12
40
578
244
MT. 23B
950
10
35
608
252
MT. IB
3200
3.2
2048
880
MT. 9B
1690
6.4
14
1082
465
5480
3501
1402
4224
1820
3150
1450
6342
27112
584--
233
AB. 10/2.
T
AA
mT. 3B
HT. 6B
6600
14922
MT. 12C
9910
MT22B
914
Aber
College
1.5
2.1
1
Lll
Yarn ,
'76
45
MT= MaIltraeth
i423
200
M= Morf a Bychan.
Table5.1 Chemicalanalysesof groundwater

samples
for chlorideions.
Cl-
2500,
Equation
- 0.282
line
of beat fit
Conductivity
times
is
-
15.3
20009
1500-
&,
01
Equation
2.10
1000 2000 3000 4000 5WO 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Conductvity(m;cromhos/ crn)
Fig. 5.1. Relation measuredbetween Chloride

fluid
conductivity on water
and
concentration
samplesfrom different areas.
The
Morfa
Bychan
fi-orn
MaMwth
the
correlation
aqaifers.
and
ground water samples
Moxfa
Bychan
for
Alallfraeth
0.999
is
0.998
aqaifers respectively.
and
and
coefficient
fam
College
Aber
Morfa
Bydian
MaIltraeth,
fiom.
Seawatersamplescollected
the
and
26800
bboratory,
in
for
Ppm,
the
as
and gave results
cbIorides
area, were analysed
24545 ppm and 26169 ppm, respectively.
On the basisof Figures5.2 and5.3,500 ppm.chloride concentrationcorrespond

5
fluid
1900
fluid
resistivity of about obm-m,
or a
to a
pruhos/cm.
conductivityof about
950
fluid
to
250
conductivity of about
ppm chloride concentrationcorrespond a
and
ftoin.
far
is
10
Ibis
the
fluid
away
not
obm-m.
of
about
resistivity
or
a
pinhos/cru
information summarized by Kwader (1986), who has put 500 ppm, chloride
250
6
fluid
ppm.
to
resistivity value of ohm-m.and
concentrationcorresponding a
500
9
Here
fluid
to
ppm.
specially
resistivity of olim-in.
chloride concentration a
bor&oles/wells
because
been
has
that reach chloride
selected
chloride concentration
be
intruded
500
to
significantly
with seawater
ppm are considered
concentrationof
(GoswamL1968;Mills et al., 1988;Hoekstraet al., 1990),and is taken as a basisfor
the fivsh-salt water interface.In the presentstudy on the other side 250 ppm,chloride
bulk
35
to
also
correspond
a
measured
resistivity
of
concentration,which
value
ohin-ru.
(Table 5.1), is selectedas the basisof a mixing zone (p-ansitionzone).This value is in
(1980);
Mills
Ryder
(1977);
Jacob,
to
and
and Stewartet al., (1982)9
more agreement
have
lower
limit
the
put
of the mixing zone between200-250 ppm, chloride
who
GOsWami
(1968) who puts the lower limit at 300 ppm chloride
than
concentration
concentration.
in surfaceelectricalmethods,formationresistivitiesratherthan fluid resistivides

(see
Van Dam et aL, 1967).In the presentstudy to convIate formation
are measured
59
line
Equation
of best fit
0.288 times ConductivitY
Cl-
is
19.3
2500-
A.
2.10
Equation
.0
1000-
500.
1000 M
6000 7000 8000 90M 10000

3000 4000 M
Conducdvity(micromhos/cm)
Fig. 5.2 RelationmeasuredbetweenChloride

fluid
conductivity on water
concentrationand
Bychan
Morfa
from
arm
samples
Cl-
Equation
- 0.277
line
fit
of best
Conductivity
times
is
-
13
1500,
Equatlon
2.10
low
Soo
zo
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 50b0 6000 7000 86W 9(:bo 1looo
Conductvity(micromhos/cm)
Fig. 5.3 RelationmeasuredbetweenChloride

concentrationand fluid conductivity on water
samplesfrom Malltraeth area.
resistivities to chloride concentration the following approach has been made: Me

resistivity
were carried out in the vicinity of all the 31 boreholes at Aber
college Emn, MaUtraeth, and Morfa Bychan sites; where ground water samples were
also collectedLIhe results of thei
donof--
siret-P,
are compared with the
chloride concentration data of ground water samples obtained ftm
certain depths in
the boreholes. 11iis correlation is hindered by (1) the availability of a relatively limited
number of borcholes at which resistivity soundings have been made, and (2) the
inconsistent qaality of the interpreted formation resistivity obtained ftom the resistivity
sounding results. By carefidly selecting resistivity sounding results of good quality, and
hydrologic
d=
the
of
regionA
regime,
some
Mx.
points were available
ireresentative
for the blalltraeth aquifer. Item
data points we shown m, Irigure 5 4. This figure a
used for converting the aquifer resistivity into the chloride concentration of the ground
water in sand deposits at the location of
keasurementOn the basis of this figure, an
aquifer resistivity of about 7 ohm-m is expected to corriespond to a chloride

concentration of 500 ppm. This value is nearly in agreementwith the work of Mills et
al., (1988) and Hoekstra et al., (1990) who have shown it to correspond to a bulk
resistivity of 8 ohm-m And a value of 7 ohm-m would also be consistent with the data
of Guo (1986) for sand aquffers in China
60
E
E
(D
2r
500
2000
1500
1000
ChlorkJooonoentrabon(ppm)
2500
Fig. 5.4 Relation between Chloride concentration

and aquifer resistivity in selectedborewells.
3000
CHATTER 6. CASE HISTORY 1. ABER COLLEGE FARM AREA
6.1 Introduction and Geology of the Area
The site of investigation, the College Farm area at Aber, is situated on the coast
at the outfall point of the Aber river near Ilanfairfechan in Gwynedd (Fig. 6.1). This
area occurs between two known geological sections,the Glan-y-mor-isaf section which
lies to the southwest, and the Llanfairfechan section and is exposed on the A55 North
Wales Coast Road, which lies to the northeast. It is a generally flat area although there
fault
Aber-Dinlle,
The
few
passes some
of
gentle
undulations.
a
major
are a
places
distance away from the study area. The Aber river passes through the centre of the
study area.
Accordingto thepublisheddataregardingthe Glan-y-mor-isafsection(Hart and

POinton, 1982), from the interpreted Quaternary stratigraphy of the A55 North Wales
Jr V
Coast Road at Llanfairfechan (based on borehole logs collected for their construction,
in
boreholes
by
borehole
data
the manual
this
the
after
sinking
study
obtained
and
in
be
divided
lithOlOgical
in
the
the
the
units
percussion method
study area),
area can
into two major groups: (a) the Holocene (less than 10,000 years old); and (b) the
Pleistocene (more than 10,000 years old) Table 6.1.a.
a. The Holocene:
1. Surfacefill.
2. Sandand Gravel.The gravel is generallyclast-supportedwith interstitial fine
to coarsesand.Generallack of fines but occasionaloccurrenceof silt or silty, clay.
Pebblesand cobblesare rare. The depositionalenvirorunentis fluvial.
3. Clays and Silts. Bluish to grey coloured silts, clayey
silts, and silty clays.
61
In
Fig. 6.1. Map showing 10atiO of study area,
Aber CollegeFarm,Gwynedd
SWUN
Occasional sand and gravel beds. No cobbles or bouldm. Depositional environment is

2.
if
fluvial
associatedwith unit
marine, possibly
4. Peat.Brown to black in colour.The depositional--
is terrestrial.The
base of the peat foxms the Junction between the lower Holocene and the uppez
Pleistocene deposits.
b. 71e Pleistocene:
1. Sandand Gravels.In this unit thereis an abundanceof pebblesand cobbles

Depositional
foundL
lenses
Clays
found.
boulders
am
or clayey silt
are
and occasional
ient is fluviaL,
2. ,Irish Sea, Till. Red-brown dimnicton (poorly sorted, gravel-sand-mud

ne
intra-beds.
frequent,
thick
gravel
and occasional
admLxture) with
diamicton is
boulder
but
grade, and
contains abundantcoarseclasts of cobble and
matrix-supported
The
The
highly
typical[y
are
clast-supported.
gravels
associated
over consolidated.
is
dLamicton is most 111ely to be till deposited in contact with ice. Its depositional
Sea
Basin.
The
down
Irish
ice
is
the
moving southwards
environment associatedwith
gravels are glaciollavial m onM
depositedby meltwater streamseither in front of the
(subglacial)
beneath
(supraglacial)
(englaciai),
(proglacial),
or
above
or within
glacier
deposited
(proglacial),
diamicton
into
be
the
ice.
They
the
channelised
may
underlying
in isolated mounds (crevasse-Mings) or form sinuous upstanding ridges (eskers). 11fis
Wl cliaracteristically contains far less coarse material (sand, gravel, cobbles and
boulders) than the Welsh Till, it can therefore be classified as a 'typical' to "matrixdominated fill
3. Welsh Till. Grey diamicton (till) with fiequent and occasionallythidc gravel
intra-beds.Ile diamictonis matrix-supportedbut containsvery abundantcoarseclasts
62
highly
The
boulder
is
typically
associated
overconsolidatedL
grade,
and
of cobble and
in
fines,
depleted
and contain a greaw percentage of
gravels are clast-supported,
ftositional
Its
diamicton.
boul&n
the
than
cobbles and
is in a variety
from
but
the
out
we
northwards
moving
with
all
associated
subenvironments
of glacial
Snowdonian mountains. Very large boulders are more common in the Welsh Till than
in the Irish Sea Till because of the proximity of highly resistant bedrock as source
material.
The geological and hydrogeological
in the study area was obtained
fi-om anger boreholes which revealed the presence of a confined upper aquifer
fim
fine
to
gravel
extending
coarse-grAinedsand and
consisting of unconsolidated
Miis
is
lenses.
7
two
thin
and
peat
to
soft cky
meters, intercalated m4th one or
boulders.
bed
impenious
by
thicJmess
composedof
glacial till of varying
a
of
underlain
Geophysical
base
forms
the
the
of
upper aquffer.
cobbles, sand and mud admixture and
data provided
below
lying
lower
the
the
aquifer
of
a
regarding
presence
glacial till.
The results of
analysesof granular samplesobtained during sinkin
of the anger holes in the study area are tabulated (Table 6. Lb). it can be seenftom this
table that there is predominance of finer ftwflons of glacial outwash sedimentstowards
the top of the upper aquifer. Coarse material occupies the bottom of the aquifer.
Due to the presenceof 50 % granuLu material at the surface, the aquifer is

parda.Hy recharged from lprcolation of rain water falling on the surface of the ground.
As there is'a, heavy arinual rainfall in the area for example 878mm in 1991
and
1220mm in 1992, most of the rainfall infiltratm into the underlying
glacial outwash
63
Era
Epoch
/Age
Holocene
(< 10,000
Lithological
years
BP)
Surface
Fluvial
Gravel
Marine
silts
Peat
units
Fill
Sand
Clays
Quaternary
Pleistocene
(> 10,000
years
Table 6.1.a. Lithology'with
BP)
Fluvial
Irish
Welsh
Irish
geological age
of the sediments, Aber college farm.
Gravels
Sea Till
Till
Sea Till
&
&
Depth
Content
Size
0-1.5
Range
Minimjim
Max 4 MIm
Gravel
10 %
is
Sand
46 %
56%
26 %
44
Silt
& Clay
Depth
Size
Content
Range
Kini
1.6
7.2
a
Max 4=, lr&
mum
Gravel
15 %
55
Sand
44 %
84
1%
Silt
& Clay
Param
ter
Minimum
Rainfall
Maximum
23 %
Porosity
(mm)
878
37
(year
1991)
Table 6.1.b. General characteristics

of the alluvium.
96
1220
(199
is
in
The
the
table
area
water
gradient
sedimentsto replenish the groundwater storage.
towards the sea: Ile groundwater finm the aquifer moves out into the sea; widiin the
body
by
is
fi-esh
of saline water.
tidal zone the
groundwater underlain a
In glaciated regions, reports of studies in Illinois (Buffle and Brueckman, 1964;

Foster and Buble, 1951, McGinnis and Kempton, 1961), Missouri (Frohlich, 1973;
Frohlich, 1974; Meidav, 1960), and Rhode Island (Allen et al., 1963) indicate some of
the difficulties encounteredin glacial materials. For exwVle Liesch (1969) noted, based
on work in Minuesota, that
" Aquifers in gLwW deposits are characterisficaUy lenticular, sinuous and
discontinuous. Past experience has demonstratedthat the assumption cannot be made
that a well drilled in the vicinity of a successful producing well in such aquifers will
be equally successfal." We mi
therefore expect that the aquifer at College Farm is
laterdUy inhomogeneous.
6.2
Detection/Mapping
of the saline-fresh water interface using Geophysical
Methods and Hydrochemistry
Thirty-fourverticalelectric
soundingsweremadeat selectedsites (Figure6.1)
ABIEM
Terrameter
the
with
resistivity meter.SimpleWennerandOffsetWennerarrays
for
this study. Soundingswere made up to maximum electrodespacings
were used
from
40
ranging
m to 80 m for the simple Wenner array and 32 rn to 64 m for the
Offset Wenner may. Physical obstructionssuch as metal fences which divides the
farm
area into smaller units, made it impossible to utilize Urge electrode
whole
spacings.
64
Sixteen electromagnetic soundingswere also made at the selected centresof the

6.1),
MaxMin
(Fig.
were
made
using
soundings
previously
vertical
electric
sites where
1-8 portable equipment. Suitable survey sites are limited compared to the vertical
because
buried
of:
gas pipelines, railroad tradcs, and mostly the
soundings
electric
metal fences which cause erroneousreadings.
(such as layer
INearby wells often provide additional subsurface*thicknessandnatureof material).To imitate such*
the
of some
layers individually and'combinedly can be fixed in inversion and the

parameters
haspreviouslybeenobsaved
Parameter-resolutioni--
1988).
Jagel,
(Sandberg
this
technique
using
and
As all necessaryprecautions were taken while laying out any line for
a vertical electric sounding, whether for Simple Wenner array or Offset Wenner array,
the calculated maximum error comes out to be :E2.2 % for the Simple Wenner (using
Equation 3.1a); and for the OMPA array worked out to be 1.55 % (using Equatim
3.3). The observational error due to EM loop spacing worked out to be 3 %. The
magnitude of these errors seem to produce insignificant effect on the results of the
measurements.
Figm 6.2a shows an example of a comparision of field data to a
fitted curve at site 10B. Lithologic
from an adjacentborehole lOt2 was
layer
to
the
thicJmessin the VES
constrain
used
eqwetation.First the 3rd layer
consistingof sandand gravel (beingthe upperaquifer) wasfound to be conductiveand

5.2 metersthick. The higher resistivelayerseither sideof layer 3 meansthat ambiguity
intezpretafion
dueto equivalencewould be a problemunlesstherewas some
of
external
control. It was found convenient to divide this layer into two on the basis of the
65
borehole log, providing a more complex sevenlayer model which was not resolved by
thesounding curve. The inversion processthen kept the Imown layer thicimess constant
Sbest
fitting
To
to
the
the
curve.
solve
whilst
other parameterswere varied produce a
equivalenceproblem the equivalence option of the program was utilisedL TI& gave the
best possible model along with the other close fitting models which are shown
alongside the field curve (seeFigure 6.2a). The details of the minimum and
.-
bounds of the equivalence results obtained are listed in Appendix Table 6A. By ffis
processthe fit of the model curves to the VES data is iniproved considerably compared
to direct inversion of the sounding data. Table 6.2 shows all the interpreted and
adjusted results of all the soundings in the study area- Table 63 shows the comparision
of the geological drill log in borehole 10f2 and the interpreted results of the VFS and
IEM soundings done near the borehole at site 10B.
The complex model of seven layers thus obtained by using vertical electric
sounding at the same site was then fed into the computer software EMIX-MM
piogramme for further inversion calculations. As the curve model was found to be
producing equivalence, and moreover to solve the S-eqLtivalenceproblem the EMIX,
MM equivalenceprogram was also started which gave a model in good agreementwith
the VES model with the mininium percentage of fitting error (frig=
6.2b). The
equivalence models are given alongside the Figure 6.2b. And the details of the
and the maximum bounds of the equivalenceresults given in Appendix Table
6B.
Appendix Figures6C, 61D,6E, and 6F (seeappendices)are

the conqwision of field datato
more examplesof
hematicaIly-fittedcurvesand thesehave also been
by adjustmentsandmaldnguseof the boreholedata

obtainedin the vicinity
66
11
%F
a
0
a
I- I
vi
w
Iz
IL
IL
a
to
)as
SPACING (a)
io
1009
i0o
AMIM"
1000
(04-fft)
*a.
"S
4.44.
25
%x pjkox:
0.9
20
49
ILAO
4A
-5
-16
.t
03
031
INDV(. 11014 Numacp
10
so w
Sw It
bo
]rig.
6.2.
Vertical
electric
sounding
&nd electromagnetic
at site
IOB based
Curve
Ca)
Soun&n,;
curva
(b)
on field
data points.
30
sin
CAM
10A
IOA,
[3A
IOA
0A
00
100
00
BHlWI
H1
HI
10BI
IODC
0
0C
IOC
2.6
1400
3C
3
c
7A
7A
IA
JA
IB
B
sc
ID
IIA'
0.4
1
100
14
24
509
207
550
218
117
1100
120
oj
0.8
0.5
1.7
m
1.9
0.4
267
12.9
89
0.4
14
209
2090
Ij
43
2.8
is
1249
1.3
34
is
31
160
4.3
236
113
141
42
34
Ps
156
1.6
Im
11
1102
-is
2.4
614_
364
2A -
&9
94
19.7
oj
0.5
11614
1.7
139
1.7
301
111
0.9
270
12.3
156
19
35
795
2A
236
69
1.3
230
115
173
169
112
96
119.7
124
IIA
2TI
173
57
282
1"
23
30
161
36,6
33
475
'[ U
M7
0.2
0.2
74
ILA
2011
0.7
IIBI
0.9
89
1.5
I lic
208
1
15ii
142
1.5
I-.
I . -,
a"
AA
I..
I Ma
140
4A
FL3
Ia
140
1
3.7
117
1549
93 -
33
.
1"
12
1-
I---
4A'
A'
23
0.9
24
0.9
309
Ili
107
10.2
160
35
03
62
0.5
407
524
5.1
126.1
120
47
8220
131
2.1
0.5
219
0.6
203
50
2106
2726
0.6
11.9
0.7
0.3
1
0.7
3.7
140
4D
151
1024
160
4E
160
799
4.6
SAI
0.2
31
5A
100
03
270
5B
67
34
0.3
0.7
4B
4
B
Ap
4F
SC
6A
47
67
6B
L .....
0.7
0.4
837
172
1.4
90
21.6
44
141
8.2
217
133
2.4
443
11.4
83
13
0.4
38
121
36
19
31
4.4
130
37.9
19
34
32
33
10
125
33
41
GIs
9
117
149
22
52
52
15.7
I 22J
160
0.9
0.9
25
.
-
Xg
1.
154
904
is
39.3
03
0.4
0.3
117
116
1121
1109
175
449
RA
61
1117
2B
1.4
--17.9
35
.
160
2010
4A
33
41
462
46
1349
15056
21
0.7
24.3
0.3
31
99
145
260
112
3.6
1219
317
419
0.2
111
0.3
1.3
0.4
126
17.7
148
1111
164
11
247
li
1.1
20.3
31
1109
Ing
0.1
I"m
11
110
2.3
157
I"
jam
333
Im
al
03
Iw
1951
313
38
L2
LI
IS
LA
s
4.9
123.4
113
Table 6.2. Multilayer Sounding Results.

Stn = Station, LI = Layer Number,
fl. m = Resistivity, m= Thickness.
126
16.5
iss
144 -
14.6
I1-
is
37
VES
Sounding
Thickne-
EM
Sounding
Resisti-
as in
vity
Geological
Drill
Log
Layer
Nu-
VES
Sounding
Resisti-
mber
vity
ohm. m
(M)
ohm. m
(M)
100
0.5
101
0.5
Silty
and
clayey
soil
with fine
sand a
(lm
gravel
depth).
2090
1.5
1593
1.5
Coarse sand
and gravel
(1.9 m
depth).
45
2.8
40
2.8
Thin lenses
of peat &
clay. Sandy
with
silt
gravel
saturated
with water
(4.6m depth).
in
in
EM
Sounding
Thickne-
as in
4
_
15
2.4
15
2.4
sandy silt
with gravel
saturated
with
contaminated
(depth
water
7m). E. o. h.
614
550
10
Boulder3, gravel, sand

mud
admixture
(correlated
data)
ill
17
126
15.5
Gravel
sand
saturated
with water
(correalated
data)
is
20
Gravel
sand
saturated
with
contaminated
water
(correlated
data)
Table 6.3. Vertical

and electromagnetic
electric
data 10B with geologic
log near borehole
soundings
10/2,
Jkber college
farm.
of these soundings.
Ihe
pi
is
an ie
construction of geoelectric sections
stage in the
tration of various contour and isopach maps. A geoelectric section A-V drawn
perp,endiculm to the coast and across various sites of VIES and IEM soundings as well
6.1)
is
borehole
10/1
(map
BH
DH
I
Ot2D
in
Figure
the
as
area
sites
and
shown in Figure
6.7. The interpreted results of soundings is given in Table 6.2., and the comparision.of
the geological drill logs and the interpreted results of the soundings near boreholes is
given in Tables 63 & 6.4. Arrows at the top of the cross section show VES or VES
& IEM combined sounding locations. From correlation with nearby commercial borehole
logs to the North-East, the geoelectric section A-X shows that there are two aquifers
in the area, an upper aquifer and a lower aquifer, separatedby impervious glacial till
with resistivities ranging ftorn, 209 ohmni to 614 ohmm. In the upper and lower
aquifers a change in the salinity is easily detected through observation of the change
in the bulk resistivity of the aquffers. Variations in the surface layer
resistivity (4.6
ohm.m) along the coast indicate that the sediments are saturated with sane water
through to mixing zone sedimentscausedby wave and tidal action. The gradual
increaseof resistivitiesinland in the upper aquifer from 15 ohmm to 157
ohmm and
in the lower aquifer from 89 ohmm (with 1 ohnLm below it) to 148
ohmm (with 31
ohm-mbelow it) relatesto a gradualinland decreasein the concentrationof dissolved
solidsin the groundwater.In the upperaquifer the mixing zoneis separatedfrom fresh
by
water the bulk resistivity range from 31 ohmm (inland) to the 15 ohmm (coast)
with chloridesranging from 250 ppm to much higher values.In the lower aquifer, the
mixing zone is shown in the figure separatedby a dotted line with bulk resistivities
range from 31 Ohmm (inland) to 8 ohmm (coast) with chlorides between250-500
ppm. Ihe salinewater in the lower aqaifer Is shown with bu]k resistivities betweenI
67
co
I-
)
C.
to
WD
100
14
A
..........
2M 1248-*
*
--...
4oclrl
54
45
Is?
'So
mmm
Owpp-cll)
jS
31
10 12 -
614
209
267
364
2BG
go
141
cr
go
(appm cr
247
14 le
is
20
22
e
102
148
FrO*hWVw
24
26
28
w
32
11
0AI%
34
36 38 40 42 44 -
Sd, f* Water
KOM
zwe
Is
25
31
Fig. 6.7. Geoelectricsection A-X derived from vertical electric

and electromagneticsoundings.
Resistiviliesin ohm-m.
Scale: Hor: i: 1000, Vert: 1:200.
Layer
Number
VES
Sounding
Resistivity
in ohm. m
VES
Sounding
Thickness
in W
VES
Sounding
(Depthin m)
Geological
Log
Drill
24
0.5
0.5
Laminated
silty
clay
fine
with
sand
157
2.3
2.8
Fine
sand
&
gravel
cobbles.
98
4.2
Sand &
(with gravel
E. o. h.
water).
247
10
17
Boulders,
gravel,
sand
mud admixture
(correlated.data)
148
31
26
6.4.
Vertical
Table
electric
interpreted
data
soundings
bore
hole
10/2D,
Aber
near
43
with
Sand & gravel

(with
water)
correlateddata.
Sand &
(withgravel
contaminated
water)
correlateddata.
and electromagnetic
10C with
geologic
farm.
college
log
&
(coast)
less
II
(up
to
than
to 7 ohmm) hiland. with chlorides more than
ohman
ohnoLm
500 ppnL
A secondgeoelectric section B-B'Fgure 6.8, drawn acrossvarious sites of VES

is
in
borehole
location
VES
&
IEM
shown
area map
or
combined soundings and a
Figwre 6.1. Arrows at the top of the cross section show VES or VES & EM combined
field
6C
Figure
Appendix
locations.
a
comparision
of
an
example
of
shows
sounding
data to aI
hematicaUyfitted curve at site 3C The interpreted results of the soundings
is given in Table 6.2, and the comparision of the geological drill log and the inteqnrW
in
A-X
borehole
As
in
6.5.
Table
the
the
given
results of
soundings near
the
lower
B-D'
two
there
that
are
aquifers,
and
a
shows
an upper aquifer
geoelectric section
layer
impervious
by
of glacial till with bulk resistivities
aquifer separated an
fim
301 ohmm, to 467 olinun. The upper aquffer has a small mixing zone with bulk
resistivity of 34 ohnim and chlorides about 250 ppm. The bulk resistivities in the upper
increase
109
inland
from
ohmrn to 139 ohnun. The lower aquifer has a mixing
aquifer
bulk
from
21 ohmm (coast) to 33 obmm (irilarid) with
ranging
resistivities
zone with
250
than
more
chlorides
ppm. Bulk resistivities of the lower aquifer increase frorn 99
ohin.rn (with 21 ohnim. below it) to 118 ohmm. (with 61 ohinm. below it) which
relates to a gradual decreasein the concentration of dissolved solids in the groundwater
inland.
A third geoelectricsectionC-C Migure,6.9, parallel to the coast line is drawn

acrossthe Aber River (see area map ]Pigure6.1). Appendix Figure, GD shows an
exampleof a comparisionof field datato a mathematicallyfined curve at site 2B. The
interpretedresults of the soundingsare given in Table 62.1"his
cross section shows
two aquifersthe upperone andthe lower aquifer separatedagainby mipervious
Slacial
68
3A
2
4
38
..........
...
......
3C
jjo7'
580
4PPMCI
30
W
467
419
301
9
10
16
90
is
IS
ts
113
145
lie
rr"A
3D
WSW
%%
22
24
z%
%%
Uarv Zors
30
32
%
21
33
46
61
Fig 6 S. Geoelecific
section B-B' derived from

vertical electric
and elecIfOrnagnetic
soundings.
Resisfivitiesin
ohm.m.
-Scale:Hor. 1:1000,Vert.
1:200.
Layer
Number
VES
Sounding
Resistiv-
VES
Sounding
Thicknes-
in
ity
ohm. m
s in
207
0.7
(m)
EM
EM
Sounding
Resistivity in
ohm. m
Sounding
Thickness in (m)
210
0.6
Geological
Drill
Log
Sandy
silty
with
i gravel
soil
ill
1.3
114
1.3
Fine sand
silt
with
(withwater). W. T
at 0.8m
& E. o. h
3.2m.
419
3.6
409
3.6
Boulders,
sand
&
gravel
mud
admixture(
correlated
data).
145
24.3
138
22.4
Sand &
gravel
with water
(correlated data).
46
52
Gravel
&
sand with
contaminated wat
(correlated data)
.
Table 6.5. Vertical

electric
and electromagnetic
interpreted
data 3C with geologic
soundings
farm.
near bore hole 3C, Aber college
log
be
C IA
Alan Aber
lie
270
10 12 14
le
-E
20
e
Cb
22 24 -
.C
71
26 28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
36
35
76
Fig. 6.9. Geoelectricsection C-C derivedfrom vertical electric

Resistivitiesin ohm-m.
Scale: Hor: 1:6666, Vert: V200.
25
M with a bulk resistivities ranging from 270 obnun to 548 obmm. The upper aquffer
is saturatedwith fresh water with bulk resistivities from 124 obmm to 142 ohmxn and
has
lower
the
The
Aber
thUmess
the
near
the
greatest
aquifer
river.
spread around
in
is
Aber
thick
the
aquifer not encountered any other part
river and such a
vicinity of
in
that
the
old channel course perhaps was the north
of this study area which suggests
bulk
has
lower
Ihe
with
mbdng
zone
a
small
very
aquffer
of the present course.
is
250
35
there
also an absenceof saline
ppm;
resistivity
ohman and chlorides about
from
inflow
fresh
the
that
the
river
of
water
more
presumably
water which suggests
from
intrusion
the sea.
the
saline
prevented
A fourth geoelectric section D-DFigure 6.10, drawn perpendicular to the coast

Figure.
borehole
is
in
the
map
area
and
a
soundings
shown
of
and acrossvarious sites
6.1. Appendix FWure 6E shows an example of a comparision of field data to a
hernatically fitted curve at site 4C. The interpreted results of soundings are given
in Table 6.2., and a comparision between the geological drM log and the intaqxrW
6.6.
d3is
is
in
Table
In
cross section one of the two peculiar
of
soundings
given
results
features is the abrupt omission of gLwW till half way from the coast to inland along
the section line. 11iis omission of glacial till suggeststhat possibly this is becauseof
the faulting in the region. The other peculiar feature a the presence of two aquifers
upper and lower up to midway of the section separatedby glacial till and then, due to
the omission of glacial till there is a single aquifer inland The variation in surface layer
resistivity along the coast indicate sedimentssaturatedwith highly saline water through
to mixing zone sediments.The mixing zone's bulk resistivities in the small area of the
upper aquifer range ftm
24 ohmm to 35 ohman. The main aquifer has bulk
resistivities which range from 107 obnLm (with I olunm below it) near the coast to
147 ohmm (with 47 ohmm below it) inland The mixing zone in the
has
main
Npifer
69
4N
445
pME.
904
.........
4D
4C
48
100
IC94
2m
50
161
02
4
Gbow
To
a
300
8-
(42m" cl
407
7m
$24
--Z/
10 Fle4hwfw
12
,4
16
Is
11L
8
156
go
in
20
22
24
26
28
30
W. ro W104f
lAwV 2omd
166hVVNW
32
4?
34
Fig 6.10. Geoelectric section D-V derived from vertical electric

and electromagnetic 3oundings.
Resistivities in ohm-m
Scale: Hor: U50. Vert 1:200.
44
CY
Layer
Number
VES
Sounding
Resistivin
ity
ohm. m
VES
Sounding
Thickness in (m)
EM
Sounding
Resistivity
in
ohm. m
EM
Sounding
Thicknes(m)
s in
Geological
Drill
Log
1024
0.6
771
0.8
Sandy
soil
silt
with
gravel.
203
0.7
986
0.4
Sand with
some
gravel
2106
1.9
3581
2.2
Coarse
sand &
172
47
26.1
93
24.8
65
_gravel.
Sand &
gravel.
Water
4. Om
after
(E. o. h at
4.5m).
Sand &
gravel
with
contaminated water
(correlated data).
--JI
6.6.
Table
soundings
bore
near
Vertical
electric
and electromagnetic
interpreted
data
4C with
geologic
hole
4C, Aber
farm.
college
log
250Erom
35
8
bulk resistivities rangmg fiom ohmm to
ohmm with chlorides ranzm
500ppm lie
18
less
I
from
than
to
ohm-m
bulk
has
obmm
resistivities
saline water
(up to 7 obmm) with dblorides more dm 500 ppnL
A fifth and the final geoelectric section E-V Figure 6.11, is perpendicular to the
Figurie
(see
borehole
map
area
line
a
plus
sites
soundings
various
crosses
and
coast
6.1). Appendix Figure 6F shows an ex=Vle
data
field
to
a
of
of a compaxision
hematically fitted curve at site 5B. The interpreted results of soundings given in
Table 62., and a comparision of geological drill log and interpreted results of
features.
6.7.
In
three
there
in
Table
is
peculiar
this
am
section
cross
given
soundings
its
fill
is
to
the
omission
The first feature the presenceof glacial
coast, with
only up
Dis
to
further inbnd suggestingthat as this part of the area adjacent geologic section
is
feature
in
Ilie
faulting
due
the region.
second
to the same
D', it possibly suffered
forming
layer
thus
an
saturatedwith water,
the continued presenceof clay as an upper
little
bulk
behaviour
of
resistivittes showing
aquitard. Us presenceis evidenthrom the
by
is
layer,
its
the
the
geological
throughout
confurned,
also
presence
change
modest
or
drill log. ne third feature is the presenceof a single aquffer only with bulk resistivities
bulk
bottom
149
has
83
It
from
the
to
with
a mixing zone at
ohmm.
ohmrn
ranging
250-500
ftom
35
from
8
to
ranging
obaun
obnLm with chlorides
resistivities ranging
19
less
than
fiom
1
has
bulk
to
Ihe
obmm
zesistivities,ranging
saline waW
ppm.
500
(up
7
than
to
ppm.
ohm-m)
with
chlorides
more
olunm
The last stage of the detection of saUne-freshwater interface is the construction

interface
detect
to
the extent to which saline
order
saline-firsh
water
contour
maps
in
of
inland.
All
has
discussed
been
have
intruded
the
sections
geoelectric
previously
water
in
Ihe
these
the
the
of
maps
of
study
used
construction
area.
maps Figures 6.12 and
70
W
vv
3
SA
31
30
so
31
(47ppm Cl ')
5c
6A
44
32
125
117
6B V
33
012ew
T
43i3m,
12
21
83
121
Fto&hVVSW
133
24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 -
Fig 6.11. GeoelecLrir.section E-E' derived from vertical electric

and electromagnetic soundings.
Resistivities in ohm-m.
Scale: Hor: 1:1000. Vert 1:300.
149
Layer
Number
VES
sounding
Resistivity
in
ohm. m
VES
Sounding
Thicknes(m)
s in
EM
Sounding
Resistivity
in
ohm. m
EM
Sounding
Thicknes(m)
s in
Geological
Drill
Log
67
0.3
67
0.3
Silty
sandy clay
with
pebbles.
31
4.4
31
4.4
Silty
clay
with
water
at 1.0m &
E. o. h
3.5m.
130
37.9
116
36.3
Sand &
gravel
water
with
(correlated data).
19
29
6.7.
Table
Vertical
electric
and electromagnetic
interpreted
data
5B with
soundings
geologic
hole
5B, Aber
near bore
farm.
college
Sand &
gravel
with
contaminated water
(correlated data)
.
log
5301,f N
Fig. 6.12.Depthto a bulk resistivityof less than 35 ohm-meters

(or.morethan 250ppmchloride concentration)
Upperaquifer,Aber College Farm.
6.13 show the exient of the
35
dm
less
bulk
resistirvides
zones with
definition
(for
500
250
these
values
of
approximation
an
ppm
chlorides
ohnim and
that
6.12
further
Figure
Contour
5).
the
shows
map
see chapter
na
of fresh
100
in
to
m wide
the
a
occur
along
appears
upper aquifer
water with saline water
is
found
inland
it
0.5
depth
it
is
found
Near
the coast
of
rn, whereas
at a
coastal stdp.
6.13
Figure
depth
3nL
Contour
shows that the
map
at a
of
of fresh water
it
lower
and
appears
aquifer is comparatively quite widespread
with saline water in the
20
depth
it
is
found
Near
300
the
of
to occur along a
at a
coast
m wide coastal strip.
50
The
depth
it
is
found
inland
deeper
saline groundwater
rn.
at
a
of
about
in, whereas
(see
500
by
defined
7
than
is -A-&irnately
chapter
ppm
ohm-m and chlorides more
-5). Figure 6.14, is a contour map drawn showing the zone of saline water. Saline
line
it
is
100
Near
the
to
coast
m wide coastal strip.
groundwater appears occur along
found at a depth of 22 m and inland at the greater depth of 34 m. The source of the
saline water appearsto be sea water. The wave and tidal
are thought to
in
However
heavy
the area
the
mixing
of
withfresh
cause
sea water
water.
rainfall
infiltrates
inland
from
deep
the
underground prevents
which
sea water
penetration
-
6.3 Effect of Spring Tides on Interface
Figure 6.15A-A hasbeendrawn alonggeoelectricsectionline AW and shows

looks
like
high
the
area
what
at
water springtide , after tWdn into accountthe ground
levelling
surface
at the site. The new sectionX-A hasalso beenexte:
ndedtowardsthe
meanlow waterlevel. Mean high water (MJLW. ), sealevel (SJL), water table (W.1).
upper aquifer, lower aquifer along with mixing zones (MX) and fresh-salinewater
interfacehavealsobeenshownin the section.71beimperviousglacial tin layer hasbeen
shownto separatethe two aquifers.It is evident from Figurt 6.15 that the fresh water
71
53014 N
Fig. 6.13.Depthto a bulk resistivityof less than 35 ohm-meters

(or morethan 250ppmchlorideconcentration)
Aber CollegeFarm.
53*14 N
Fig. 6.14.
Depthto a bulk resistivityof less than 7 ohm-meters

(or morethan 500ppmchlorideconcentration)
Aber CollegeFarm
....
--
A-
dAld
4"
4 ftA
IGK 3A
6
4
2
0
.2
4
42
I
I
-14
-22
-16
-18
-20
-24
-26
.29
-30
-32
-34
-M
-3$
Fig 6.15.
Saline and fresh water interfacealong line A-N.

Scale: Hor: 1:1000,Vert: 1:200.
gradient is towards the sea.In the lower aquifer, the mixing zone separatesfiesh water
fi-om saline water. As the section has been extended further and interface representsin
figure through broken-dotted line it has been shown that how the picture of the area
,
would look like towards the mean low water level such as beyond the limit of section
X-A.
To observethe actualeffect of spring tide on the groundwater level, a portable

Water 1,evel.Recorder(Model 11189/103),
PhotographPlate6.1, was installedover the
borehole10/1 with an arrangem
to record on a chart drum the effect of the spring
tide on groundwater level over a twenty-fourhour period. Simultaneouslyit was also

arrangedto take water sampleseveryhour from the depthof boreholestartingat 0800
to 1600hours;thesewereanalysedin the laboratoryandthe resultsshownin Table 6.8.
Figure 6.16. is a xeroxedcopy of the recordedchart showing the tidal effect causing
in the groundwaterlevel for 24 hours.Subsequentlya graph,Figure 6.17.,
wasdrawntalcinginto accountthe chartdataandthe actualgroundwatertable rise and
fall datarecordedduring day.time high-tide cycle (Table 6.9).
The study of Figures 6.16 & 6.17 show that the maximum groundwater level
does not reach the spring tide maximum (at 11.58 hours) s-
with it: there is
a time lag of about one quarter of an hour. Further the water level remains high for
about an hour and then falls rapidly to the original level. Overall it takes three and half
hours from rise to fall of water level due to the tidal effect. It further
appears that the
low spring tide has no effect on water level. Herzberg (1901)
recognized rise and fidl
of water levels due to tidal effects and further found that the response lagged three to
four hours behind the tide.
72
Photographic
Water
Level
borehole.
6.1 Showing
Plate
portable
Recorder
a
at work
over
(Hours)
Time
Table
8. o
325
9.0
327
10.0
326
11.0
330
12.0
351
13.0
355
14.0
355
15.0
347
16.0
334
6.8.
Summary of salinity
change in
. water due to the tidal
effect.
(hours)
Time
(Cl-
Salinity
Rise
ppm)
ground
of Water Table
Ef fect)
(Tidal
01
8.00
.
9.00
10.15
12.00
12.25
12.75
13.00
13.45
15.00
6.9.
005
11.00
Table
01
235
385
.
.
.
.
.
39
39
31
01
01
Summary of rise
of water
and fall
level
due to the tidal
effect.
(m)
0.4
0.351..............................................
3.
0
E . ........
0 0.25-
............................
............................
0 2. ................
.
V
9
..........................
%
6 0.15. .......................................
.....................................
.8
cc 0.1 .................................
.......................
.......................................
...........................
fo
6.17
1rigure
groundwater
12
11
Timemrs)
340r --------------
'To
--------
--------------------------
--
-----------------------
V&.................................
-------------------
Figure
change
to the
of
........
----------
is
14
13
r----------m
E
M 345... -. -o ..................
I .....................
craph
and fall
showing
rise
due to the tidal
level
effect.
-------------------------
:r3
o.................
...........................
10
11
f2
f3
The &urs)
i4
is
6.19
Graph showing a salinity
in groundwater.
every hour due
tidal
effect.
-
A comparision between rise and fall of water level shown on Figure 6.17. with
6.18.
is
Figure
It
the
is
that
salinity
in
evident
on
shown
water
ground
salinity change
but
high
the
to
tide
becomes
the
returns
)
(CI 325 ppm. of ground water
with
greater
fall
lag
to
the
of
water
time
and
rise
compared
as
original state with a considerable
hours,
12.15
high
the
level
its
at
level. For instance when water
value
reaches Peak
level
355
(Cr
the
starts
its
high
is
when
ppm),
value
concentration
salinity still short of
level
When
its
the
water
Wing: at 13.00 hours salinity Wears to reach
Peak valueits
hours,
13-45
to
level
at
peak
low
remain
its
still
appears
salinity
at
reaches original
its
for
hour
to
have
it
reach
to
take
salinity
another
value. It further seamsthat would
original state.
The results show that the effect of rise and fall of spring tide on the water table
is a1mosts-
but on the salinity there is a greater time lag, salinity almost
talcing double the time from rise to fall to its original state as compared to the effect
levels.
the
ground
water
on
A final test was carried out using a geophysical method to assessthe tidal effect
Five
interface.
level
the
vertical electric
and saline-ftesh water
ground water
on
80
Wenner
to
up
m, were made near the
array with spacing
mdings using a simple
day
10/1
borehole
the
on
of a spring tide
site of
Ihese soundings were
1030
hours,
10/1
S,
interval
hour,
at
closed
as
sounding
a
of
one
such
measured at
10/1S2closed at 1130 hours, 10/1 S3at 12.30 hours, 10/1 S4at 13.30 hours and 10/1
Ss at 14.30 hours. Spring high tide was at 11.58 hours.
It is evident from the inteipreted results of VES soundings,Table 6.10, diat

of upper aquifer (fresh water and mixing zone) show a trend
resistivities/thicknesses
73
Resistivity
** Thickness
VES10/1
Time
10.30
hours
S,
M.
S2
VES10/1
Time
11.30
hours
VES10/1
Time
12.30
hours
S3
VES10/'S4
VESlO/lS5
Time
Time
13.30
14.30
hours
hours
M.
M.
M.
fl. M.
1267-
2.4
1495-
2.2
1742-
2.1
1245-2.4
59-
1.5
78-
1.8
91-
57-
2.1
55-
1.8
31-
2.8
34-
2.8
25-
2.9
30-
2.6
32-
2.6
364-
9.9
230-
9.9
438-
9.9
286-
10
230-
10
1098-2.5
1
113-
26.2
16857-
48Table
6.20.
26.4
13218-
26.2
165-26.1
181-26.3
41-
51-
Sunmary
in Resistivities/
of change
Thicknesses
layers
of different
due to fluctuations
in water
level
by tidal
caused
effect.
fidl
fall
timings
the
of
rise
and
of groundwater level dueto the tidal
around
of rise and
effecL
Figure 6.20, showing models based on the interpreted five soundings, gives a
/
fluctuations
thicknessof both aquiferswith
of
resistivity
clearcomparativepicture of
the Changein groundWaterleveL SoundingModel 10/1SP Madeat Closingtime 12.30
hours,showsnearly an agreementwith the peak water level which was at 12.15hours
(seeIrigure6.17).Total thicknessof upperaquifer (freshwaterandmixing zone)Table
6.10 clearly shows
ons with the changeof water level and it also tallies with
changesin high water level. The bulk resistivity of lower layer (inixing zone) which
alsofluctuateeveryhour andreaches18 ohmni its lowestvalue at 12.30hours,further
because
intrusion
the
change
agreeswith
of saline
of tides.Thus this test confirms that
tides do affect the saline-freshwater interface and geophysicalmethodsprovide a
suitabletool to obtain
aboutany changesin the developmentor alteration
of an interfacewith time.
6.4 Effect on Interface due to the Pumping
Pumpingtestswerecaffied out at the Aber coUegefarm site using a

well and four piezometerswhich were installed for this purpose(seechapter4). Ilie
screenof the pumped well was installed over the three metres of the water bearing
layer (upperaquifer) and piezometersat distancesof 2.4,4.94,9.95, and 20.4 metres
depth
a
of about 7 metres.
with
For a pumpingtestthe following assumptionsandconditionsshouldbe

satisfied:
(i) 11heaquifcr is confined.
74
VIO 10/1 33
At 11.30
3l
VZS 10/1
At 10.30
VES 10/1
33
At 12.30
0%
x
E
%0
%OF
9.
wo
CL
40
40
C
51
444
to
too
tese
lie
RESISTIVITY
(Ohm-m)
RESISTIVITY
VES
tee
is
10/1
At
Isee
is
(Ohm-m)
94
At
10/1
14.30
I see
RESISTIVITY
VES
13.30
tee
le
(Ohm-m)
95
x
F.
N.f
%01
... "4 44 -54

1068 le
tee
is
RESISTIVITY (Otm-m)
rigure
6.20.
lee
RESISTIVITY
is
lees
18
(Ohm-m)
Comparative
models showing
change in
P.esistivities/Thicknesoes
of different
layers
due to fluctuations
in water
level
caused by tidal
effect.
Flow to the well is in steadystate.
Thiern (1906) was one of the first to utilize two or more piezometers to
determine the hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer. Ihe Thiern method will be used to
6.1
La.
drawdown
Table
data
Erorn
test.
the
the
after
gives
pumping
analyze
for nearly 30 minutes with a constant discharge rate Q= 120.96 m?Jday and the flow
had reached a steady state. The numerical values of the respective steady state
drawdown (s) 0.25m.and (s2)0.16m in the piezorneters (r) 2.4m.and (r2) 4.94 metres;
(see
4.20).
into
Erom.
Thiern
the
the
equation
equation
away
pumped well are substituted
Ibe same procedure is followed using other
one of the piezometers,is used as a second
of piezometers. In addition
ff well for further tests. Tbe
in
6.11.
b.
Table
tests
are given
results of pump
Before carrying out the pump test, water samples from the depth of the pumped
wells and piezornetcrs were also collected for salinity testing. The sameprocedure was
repeated immediately after the the test. The results are given in Table 6.1 I. c.
It is evident fiom the salinity test carried out on the samplesfiom. the pumped
wells andpiezometers,that the pumpingcausesa considerableincreaseof salinity. The
resultsfurther showthat a pumpingwell particularly neara coastcould causeupconing
as is evidentfrom the suddenjump in salinity to Cr 367 ppm.fian an original Cr 328
ppm.,a value which is comparativelyevenhigher than what the spring tide water could
cause(07 355 ppni, seeFigure 6.18).
75
Piezometer
10/2A
Drawdown
in metres
0.25
6.1l.
Table
(m)
r2
a.
10/2B
10/1
0.16
0.05
(m)
sI
(M)
S2
(M)
4.94
0.25
0.16
9.95
20.4
0.11
0.05
6.1l.
0.11
b.
Transmissivity
Aber
aquifer
the
of
college
Pumped well
Piezometer
(P. W)
Salinity
(Cl- ppm)
Before
test
10 /1
(Nearest
(P. W & P)
to coast)
328
Transmissivity
KD m2 /day
154
228( Mean 191
upperfarm.
Salinity
After
_
(Cl' ppm)
test
367
10
2 (P. W)
75
95
10
2A (P)
72
83
10
2B (P)
76
82
10
2D (P)
61
63
Table
6.1l.
Drawdown in the piezometers

7 metres
below ground
surface
30 min. pumpingr
test
pumping
Aber college
farm.
2.4
Table
10/2D
c.
Results
of salinity
change
before
and after
pumping
test
Aber college
farm.
6.5 PermeabRity of the sedhnents
11hepumping test was also used to anive, at the
of pertneability
of the upper aquifer sediments. Other methods such as the constant head test in the
field and grain sac and constant head permeameter tests in the laboratory, were also
used to calculate the permeability of the sediments Erom the same aquifer. Table 6.12
. es permeability values measured or calcub"d by the different methods.
The analogy between electrical conduction and fluid flow in porous media has
been used to quantitatively predict transmissivity, porosity and penneability finm
electrical formation factor (Heigold, 1979; Biella et al., 1983; Jkkson et al., 1978;
Lovell, 1983; and Huntley, 1986). The hammissivity mean value of 191 mydayTable
6.1l. b., when it is divided by the electrical aquifer thidJmess (4-4 metres) gives a
permeability value of 5x 1W m/sec (see Table 6.13). The value of permeability thus
obtained is nearer to the measuredvalues rather than the calculated values.
At borehole 10/1 the value of the resistivity of the porous

medium., (R. ) = 54
ohm-M and that of the resistivity of the fluid, (R,, ) = 20 ohm-m, was used to determine
the value of the electrical formation factor. II&
permeability log-log plot (Lovell,
value was used in the formation factor-
1983) to estimate the value of the permeability
in
Table 6.12. All the permeability
given
as
values obtained by the different methods
Crable 6.12) are the mean average values. For the LAxwatoxy-determined
values the
range of variation was limited to within a quarter of a magnitude, whereas the fielddetermined values bad a slighdy higher variation
range of about half of a magnitude.
76
directly to
An approach has been made to relate electrical meas
transimssivity. By definition then,we should expect a relation between transmissivity

formation
factor,
fluid
the
an
resistivity, and
average
apparent
aquifer
and
product of
be
11is
thicimess.
may
considered a
product
aquffer
Wansverseresistance
(Kosinsid et al., 1981). It is closely related to the aquifer transverse resistance.Table

6.13 gives a value of normalized transverse resistance of 171 Qm
for the upper
aquffer.
The transmissivityandpermeabilityvaluesobtainedfor the upperaquiferprove

to be moderatevalues and do not come in the categoryof high values as definedby
Howard (1987). Water bearing sedimentswith such transmissivityand ixmneability
landward
in
be
the
advance
a
category
which
minimizes
of
valuescould classed
rate
of the salineintrusion.
6.6 Porosity Esthnated f1rom Geoelectric data
An approachto estimating porosity fiom geoelectric data for the upper setfiments
comPosedof smds and gravel. involves the use of the well ]mown Archie eqaafim for
(Atkins
sands
unconsolidated
andSmith, 1961; Taylor Smith, 1971;Windle andWroth,
1975;and Doveton, 1986).
Using the equation FF = Rjk
(already
in
n'
given
=
chapter4),whereFF is
do formation factor, n is the porosity, k is the bulk fonnation resistivity derived from
vertical electric sounding field curves, and k
is the fluid resistivity estimated fim
borehole water samplesand taldng m equal to 1.2 for natural sand and gravel (the
value
by
(1986)
Doveton,
for the simila type of sediment) it is
used
possible to obtain a
77
1.
test
pumping
head
2. - Constant
3.
4.
S.
6.
head
Constant
Grain
size
formula)
Grain
size
By using
formation
Fresh
Mixed
(Field
(Lab.
test)
7.4
10,4
7.6
10-4
10-3
10-3
10-4
10-3
1.7
test)
(Hazen's-
2.7
(Kozeny-Carman)
7.7
electrical
factor
Table
water
water
6.12.
(upper
(upper
1.6
Shows a list
of the permeability
measured
values
or calculated
different
methods.
Aquifer
Thickness
(m)
54*
1.5*
31**
2.9**
6.13.
by
aquifer)
aquifer)
Resistivity
of Aquifer
M)
Table
(. m/9)
Permeability
Methods
Estimated
Permeability
(m/sec)
5x
10"
Estimated
value of permeability
transverse
and the Normalized
by relating
resistance
with
electrical
measurements.
Estimated
Normalized
Transverse
Resistance
M. MI)
171
value for porosity ftm
electrical data. Applying do equation to the results of the
pretation,for geoelectric stations boreholes 10/1,10f2, and 10f2D and the resistivity
fiom
boreholes
fluid
(which were 20,35, and 42 ohmm)
of
obtained
yield porosity values which range fix)m 0.33 to 0.43. The lower end of the range (0.33
was obtained for borehole 10/2D) probably represents porosity of a relatively clean
clastic unit. These values are slightly higher than the values 0.23 to 037 determined
in the laboratory on the actual sediment (see Table 6. Lb).
The porosity esumatesobtainedfim
geoelectric data faU widiin a range of
valuesreasonablefor a sandand gravel aquifer. nese estimatesalso agreeand fall

within the rangeof 0.25 to 0.43 determinedby Ayers (1988)using seismicdataandan
between bulk density and compressional.velocity. The
.
geophysicaUy-dcrived
porositiesare generallyhigher dmmvaluesobtainedduring the
empirical
courseof otherhydrogeologicstudiesof the lower PlatteValley (Marlette, 1952;Perris,

1967;and GM% 1987).
6.7 Deviation from the Ghijben-Herzberg Relationship
The fireshwaterheadat divree

placessuchas VES IOX,, VES 4X, and VES 5X,
ranged ft=
3.65 to 4.35 metres above mean sea level. Ile
Ghijben-Herzberg
calls for a 40 to 1 ratio of the depth of interface to the height of water

table abovesealevel. If the headin the fi-eshwaterbody (between3.65 to 4.35 metres)
were m balancewith a stabilized salt water body then the fiesh saline water contact
would occurbetween146-174metresbelow meansealevel. But at Aber collegefarm
coastareathis contactzone was found to occur within 17.45 to 21.45 metresbelow
mean sm level. Ihe value thus obtainedshowsdeviation from the Ghijben-Herzberg
I
78
in.
6.8 ' Discussion
lhe contour maps Figures 6.12 and 6.13 show the exicnt of the contamination
-salinity
250-500 ppm chlorides in upper and lower aquifers. In the upper
zones with
is restricted to a 100 metres wide coastal strip and bag spread
aquifer the ' tammn
to a deptb of 3 metres inland, whereasin the lower aquifer it has spreadto about a 300
metres wide strip and to a depth of 50 metres iniandL
The saline water (Figure 6.14) with salinity of more than 500 ppm cblorides has
spread to a 100 metrm wide coastal strip and a depth of 34 metres inland- Looking at
the strip around the Aber river in Figures 6.12,6.13 and 6.14, it is evident that the area
the river is least affected either by
or extensive salinity as
compared to other areasalong the coastal area. Ilds suggeststhat probably continuous
fresh water inffitration from the Aber river prevented the saline intrusion in this section
of the area. As there is heavy rainfall in the area, and most of the rain water infiltrates
underground, with little or no withdrawal of gmundwater, this has kept the gradient of
fresh water towards the sea and in turn has restricted the saline water to a considerable
depth.
The moderatevalues of measuredpermeability and hmsmissivity is important

an
reason for
the rate of landward advance of the intruding saline watcr, as
Howard (1987) has shown.
'lle, Umsmissivity of aquifer sedimentsobtained dmugh pum ing test

, vhen
p
79
divided by electrical aquifer thidmess gives an estimated value of permeability Crables

6.11.b and 6.13) this value'appears to be, quite near to that obtained, by direct
measurement.ibis shows that a geophysically-measuredparameterof a formation could
be a reliable source in deteimining permeability from trw=issivity.
in
been
has
furdier
It
that
fides
do
the
study
observed
am
affect the
spring
,
is
brought
by
but
the
shnila
effect
pumping
more
salinity of groundwater
about
injurious than tides: the salinity increase in groundwater brought about by pumping
reachesa chlorides value of 367 ppm. which is slightly higher than the value brought
),
by
(chlorides
355
tides
about
ppm. particularly when pumping has taken,place nea a
coast.
Vertical electric soundings made every hour near the coast has clearly
(Figure 6.20 and Table 6.10) that the geophysical method has proved to
be a good tool to record
in groundwater level caused by the rise and fall
of tides.
Geoelectric data formed the basis for estimating the bulk porosity of the aquifer
by applying the well. known Archie equation. A range of porosity values acceptablefor
fluvial sand and gravel was obtained.
A deviation from the theoretical 'Ghijben-Hetzberg
.'
has been
observedat the Aber college coastalarea.Jacoband Schmorak,(1960) observedthat

any deviation in 'Ghijben Herzbergrelationship' is due to the following facts:
(1) Ihe contactbetweenthe fresh-salinewater is not abrupt but is in the form
of a
zone of mixing (zone of braddsh water) with a gradationfrom fi-eshto salt water.
80
(2) Both the fresh and saline water bodies are not stagnantas assumedby the GhijbcnHerzberg
.A
downward - component (caused by recharge through
precipitafion) exist in the fresh.water zone. Ihe Emshwater is in continuous state of

motion as is evidenced by the seepagesurfaces above sea level in the beach area- The
existence of such surfaces is not considered in the Ghijben-Herzberg
q.
nor
is there any provision for the escapeof Ereshwater below the sea level (W-lest, 1965).
81
CHAPTER 7. CASE HISTORY 2. MALLTRAETH AREA
7.1. Introduction and Geology of the area
Marsh and sands,translatedas the 'soddensands', form a large flat bottomed

Geological
7.1).
Figure
(location
Anglesey
in
map
the southernportion of
valley
formationsranging from Precambrianto Recent in age are found on the island and
formations
is
the
the
an astonishing structural
great age range of
coupled with
complexity.
The oldest rocks are micaschists of the Precambrian in age, which lie on the
fault
forms
depression
Berw
the
the
containing
which
edge
one
of
south easternside of
Malltraeth marsh and sands (Edwards, W., 1904; Embleton, C., 1964; Greenly, E.,
1919). Lying against this fault and underlying the floor of the marsh are limestones,
Carboniferous
beds,
and coal measures of
age. Lying unconformably
sandstones,red
beneath the Carboniferous rocks are green schists and some minor tuffs of the
Precambrian.The harder Precambrianmetamorphosedrocks have proved more resistant
to erosion, forming the higher ground on either side of the valley. While the softer
Carboniferous formations have been weathered down to form the valley floor.
The Quaternarydepositsof Angleseyare mostly seencovering the floor of the

depressionfortning Malltraeth marshand sands.While boulderclay is on both sidesof
the valley, it is not clearwhetherit existsbeneaththe alluvium or if it waserodedprior
to the depositionof the alluvium.
82
z
b
1:9000
\. I
Bangor
,P
'W
Maltraeth
Track
21(
A
12A ----0
wl
.----641
208
44
.0
12C 128
BGSjh,
0%
Dung3
Dun
Drain
t)rain
t%%
0%0M
QCSS9A A
Track
%%
0
23c
IV
0- --v
Berw Faut
w- 88 M%i#0
20c
do
Newborough Forest
Mean High
Water
22B
tl
1238%
j; A
SC'46
!&
238
B
6A
.
65
D7
6
11
.,
'P
Track
t*
40
.0 39
A
A% 22A
3B
40
3&23
2 Combhed VES & EM sounding ske

and Identificationnufter.
A Borehole ske and identifcation
number.
VES sfteand Identification

number.
0
It
Ne
2c
If
#1
2A
28
A-N Lineof Sedk>n

IA
MeanLow
Water
Ro Owh
Crat
4024'W
Fig. 7.1. Map shoWnglocationof the study area,

Malltraeth.
The Newborough forest site which forms a part of the Malltraeth area is
beach
by
high
broadly
from
Malltraeth
and
very
spread dune sands, lying
separated
parallel to the Malltraeth beach Figure 7.1. This site comprises a sand body of some
20 metres in thickness overlying boulder clay with bedrock at about 30 metres depth.
Extensive in-situ testing has been carried out in the past to correlate the geophysical
by
has
The
been
the
the
and geotechnical properties of
site.
geology of
revealed
area
by
this
(Table
7.1.
boreholes
drilled
the British
the
a), at
site
pond
many
near
Geological Survey (Cratchley et al 1982; Davis, 1982; Al-Azzawi, 1986). The sand
body is composed of fme to medium grained sand which has a medium to high
sphericity (Davis, 1975).
The geological and hydrogeological information in the study area was obtained
from hand auger boreholes and British Geological Survey boreholes which revealed the
presenceof an unconfined aquffer consisting of unconsolidated fine to medium grained
sand, extending from the surface down to depths of about 20 metres in the Newborough
forest area and about 55 metres in the Malltraeth beach dunes area. This is underlain
by a bed of boulder clay forming the base of the aquifer. Ilis
aquifer is in direct
contact with the sea all along the beach.
The resultsof mechanicalanalysesof granularsamplesobtainedduring sinking

of the hand augerboreholesin the study areaare tabulatedbelow Table 7. I. b. It can
be seenfrom this tablethat thereis predominanceof finer fi-actions;
of sandtowardsthe
top of the aquiferand graduallythe sandgetscoarsertowardsgreaterdepth.Due to the
predominanceof granularmaterial at the surface,the aquifer is rechargedfrom direct
percolationof rainwaterfalling on the sanddunes.It could be wen understoodthat the
most of the rainwater infiltrates into the underlying alluvial sand to replenish the
83
FSand,,
Depth
LithologY
d
Dry
a
n
sand
ry
0.8
t urr,a t e
Saturated
a tu
15.5
sand
g
gravel
sBoulder
oIr
22.5
and cobbles
clay
(m)
interpreted
30 -60 (resistivity
findings)
Bed rocks
Bed
roc
rock
Table
7.1. a.
drill
log (British
Geological
Geological
Survey)
Newborough
forest,
near VES M. MaIltrasth.
minimum value
a. Parameter
1.
0.39%
Porosity
2. Rainfall
b. Crain
(m. m)
content
Percentage
of
(2m depth)
sand
Percentage
of
(2m
and clay
depth)
silt
Table
7.1. b.
725 (year
maximum value
0.43%
1991)
XiMmum value
98
0.1
Creneral characteristics
alluvium.
952 (1992)
Maxisoum value
100
2
of the
groundwater storage. The water table gradient in the area is towards the sea Le. the
groundwater from the phreatic aquifer moves out into the sea and within the tidal zone
in the beach area the fresh groundwater is underlain by a body of saline water.
7.2. Detection/Mapping of the Saline-fresh water Interface using Geophysical
Thirty seven vertical electric soundings were made at selected sites (Figure 7.1)
with the ABEM Terrameter.Simple Wennerand Offset Wennerarrayswere usedfor

this area.Soundingsweremadeup to maximum electrodespacingsrangingfrom 80 to
150metresfor the simple Wennerarray and 64 to 128 metresfor the Offset Wenner
array. In the Newboroughforest sectionof the Malltraeth area,physical obstructions
such as the concentrationof trees and various zig-zag tracks made it impossibleto
large
electrode spacings.
utilize
Twenty four electromagnetic soundings were also made at the selected centres;
of the sites where previously vertical electric soundings were made, using MaxMin 1-8
portable equipment (Figure 7.1). Suitable survey sites are limited compared to the
vertical electric soundings becauseregularly standing bull-dozers, trucks, trollies and
many other metallic objects lying in the Newborough forest section of the study area
cause erroneous readings.
In Malltraeth,particularly over the dunes,the EM observationalerror dueto
coil
misorientation,usingEquation3.8, wasworked out to be only 0.1 W. The maximum

possible error for the Simple Wenner array was calculated to be 2.6 %. r1be
multilayer soundingresultsfor all the soundingscarried in the areaare given in Table
84
7.2. Figure 7.2 shows an example of VES and EM field data (obtained at site 3C)
interpreted with computer software together with the range of equivalence models
has
(7.2.
VES
data.
The
for
the
good
a)
the same
sounding
model of
available
DC
bounds
(7.2.
b).
The
EM
of
equivalence
sounding
agreement with the model of
7G
Table
Appendix
in
3C
EM
are given
sounding results at site
resistivity sounding or
log
in
drill
the
7.3
Table
the
the
7H
geological
comparision
of
shows
respectively.
and
hand-augeredhole at site 3C with the B. G.S drilled log in the area same compared to
3C.
EM
VES
the
interpreted
site
soundings carried out near
and
the
results of the
The construction of geoelectric sections is an intermediate stage in the

A-X
(Figure
isopach
A
section
maps. geoelectric
preparation of various contour and
7.3), drawn perpendicular to the coast line and acrossvarious sites of the VES and EM
holes
(see
3A,
3B,
3C
hand-augered
23A,
22A,
area
and
as well as
soundings such as
is
AW
Fig.
7.1).
From
that
there
the
the
a
shows
geoelectric
section
correlation,
map
phreatic aquifer with impervious boulder clay below it having resistivities from 2 ohmbed
bottom
(inland),
10
(coast)
the
to
and
rock
at
with resistivities ranging
ohm-rn
rn
from 142 ohm-rn to 295 ohm-m. The phreatic aquifer has saline water with resistivities
from 1.4 ohm-rn (coast) to 7 ohm-rn (inland) with more than 500 pprn chloride
interface
(the
water
shown through a curved line separates
saline-fresh
concentration
The
increase
from
gradual
mixed water).
of resistivities inland relates to
saline water
dissolved
decrease
in
the
concentration of
solids in the ground water inland.
a gradual
An important feature in the section (Figure 7.3) is evident that the mixing zone with
from
8
35
(or
to
ohm-rn
resistivities
ohm-rn
chloride concentration between 250-500
pprn) starts immediately below site 3A and then abruptly ends as the thickness of sand
in the aquifer layer below the sand dune increases.This indicates that as the sand dune
at the top intercepts almost all the considerably high rainfall (see Table 7.1) diluting
85
FVES
number
Layer
number2
R
Th
Layer
numberl
R
Th
Layer
numbsO
R
Th
Layer
number4
R
Th
Layer
numberS
R
Th
(In.M) M (c).M) M (C).

M)M M.M)M 01.M)M
1.8
25
.5
2.5
63
1
5.3
700
4.6
246
.6
1.9
6.4
29
9.2
2C
1.2
3.4
3A
79
3B
28
3C
1.4
4A
82
6A
IA
248
IB
60
ic
1.2
2B
35
2A
.6
.3
3.3
5.7
1.6
131
1.4
7.5
587
5.7
30
3.7 11.4
29
150
11.8
28
9.1
55
10.5
25
13
20.1
12
14.5
Is
12
6.5
32
12
12
14
.6
7.2
43
5.4
33
13.5
31.7
112
.94.4
8
6.8
2.5
5.17
10.7
142
386
.8
1
47
6B
36
4-8
6C
23
.4
1.2
9A
93
.2
1859
9B
236
9c
1.6
.7
7.6
12A
467
1.4
35
12.9
13
22
12B
652
11.4
5.4
18
12C
.8
2.5
19
4
13.5
23A
1300 1.7
257
4.3
64
51
10
23B
850
391
1.5
35
38.9
15
23C
1785
628
5.4
63
26.7
23
23D
2575
16
12.4
42
22A
.9
2054 1.1
40
53
25.6
295
22B
625
1.2
45
33.4
61
22C
653
32.5
15
20A
.6
1350 1.1
60
70
29.2
19
20B
812
1.6
84
21.4
20
56
20C
1205
19
19
20D
.7
2016 1.4
59
141
21
79
20E
1430 1.6
99
20.4
31
20F
1"196 1.5
72
20
32
21A
1826
3150 2.2
1210
Table
R=
30
2
.9
.1
.7
54
3.8
27.8
118
20
16
6.2
35.6
29
177
-
7.2.
Multilayer
sounding
results
Th = Thickness.
Resistivity,
11
-
0
i
XPJ=:
2.4
%.0
.C
CL
.................
..........
.......................
<Z
(1-
.4,
..................
100
-100
RESISTMTY(ohm-m)
SPACING (m)
4.
.
c1m,
50
. l%
a
tx
cz
"
-I
Mao"
INDUCTION
NUMBER
b.
Fig. 7.2. Vertical

electric
sounding curve
electromagnetic
sounding curve (b) at site
on field
data
points,
alongside
their
(a) and
(3C) based
equivalence
curves.
1000
Layer
Noe
-
VES sounding
R (ohm-M) Th (m)
EH sounding
ohm-m
M
Geological
10 g
drill
1.4
3.3
4.4
Fine to medium
sand. Depth 0.5m.
W. T 0.2m.
10.7
11.4
Saturated
sand,,
B. G. S. logs.
Refer Table
7.1. a.
142
Table
7.3.
142
Vertical
soundings
geologic
electric
and
3C interpreted
log,
Ralltraeth.
electromagnetic
data
with
22A
Dam
23A
3A
36
0
3
12
Is
is
21
24
27
3:
31
4
4
I
Fig. 7.3. Geoelectric;

sectionA-K dedvedfromverlic-alelectric
Resisfivitiesin ohm-m.
Scale:Hcw-.
1:500, Vert 1:300.
3C
A:
it
halts
inland
further
flow
boulder
The
the
the
saline
water,
of
saline
rapidly
water.
is
indicated
by
increase
in
from
below
layer
the
a
slight
apffer
resistivities
coast
clay
to inland. Figure 7.3.a has been drawn along geoelectric section line A-A and shows
what the area looks like at high water spring tide, after taking into account the ground
low
has
levelling
The
been
towards
the
site.
section
mean
water
surface
at
extended
level. Sea level (S.L), water table (W.T), saline interface with saline-water, mixing
have
been
is
from
Figure
fresh
It
zone
clearly
shown.
evident
water zone and
water
7.3.a that the fresh water gradient is towards the sea.
Another very typical feature in the section (Figure 7.3) is shown by the
behaviour of resistivities inland from the coast in the lowest bedrock layer. near to the
coast the resistivity of bed rock has a high value of 142 ohm-m, decreasesabruptly
inland and then suddenly increasesto 295 ohm-m. This is clearly suggestive that the
beds are not horizontal the decreasein the middle order resistivities being caused by
dip with particularly soft rocks being sandwiched by hard rocks at the two extreme
ends. Tbis is further suggestive of faulting in the area. Figure 7.4.a, a sketch section
drawn across marsh and sands showing the solid geology greatly exaggeratedin the
,
(from
Greenly, 1919), and Figure 7.4.b solid geology map of the area agrees
vertical
well with this suggestion.The boulder clay layer is seento be missing below VES site
22A, which suggeststhat it was eroded prior to the deposition of the alluvium.
A secondgeoelectricsection B-B' (Figure 7.5) drawn acrossvarious sites of

VES or VES and EM soundingsand hand-augeredholes is shown in areamap Figure
7.1. Arrows at the top of the cross section show VES or VES and EM combined
soundinglocations.The interpretedresults of all the soundingsalong this sectionis
given in Table 7.2. Figure 7.6 showsan exampleof a VES curve (a) andEM sounding
86
23
12
3
0
-3
-12
E
-15
-18
-21
-24
-27
-30
-33
-36
39
.
44
-41
-41
41
.54
.57
%".
Fig. 7.3.a.
Salineand fresh water interfacealong line A-N
a..
-
ww
Ralltraeth
Rarsh
0.
Red Beds
Coal Measures
Sandstone
Limestone
Schist...
and sands
1.4sw,
.
IV*rw
Irault
U/C
rigure
7.4.
Sketch
and
section
Sands
creatly
showing
exaggerated
(from
1 Im
Ralltraoth
across
Cre"Iye
the
solid
in
tha
1919).
Marsh
geolOgry.
vertical
0--.
P. L.
..;:
2g?dii"di
Bei
-...
Tpii
.
, op
a--.-.
7
39
38
7.4. b.
41
1: 50000
25'
rigure
40
Solid
geology
map,, Malltraeth.
Note:
There in some confusion
about
the name of Berw fault.
Berw is the
real
nano of the fault
D&zed after
a
in the area,
place
and Bern is an
old misprint
needs correction.
Dur"
i25
235
6A
es
0
3
12
is
Is
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
si
Fig 7.5. GeoelectricsectionB-B'derived from verlical electric

Scale:Hor 1:2000,Vert 1:300.
OC
15'
E
C
0
>
I.-
ii
I
LLI
(x
6.Z
w
0(t
to
SPACING (m)
RMSTM
i0o
1000
(Wn-on)
50
4 13
10".
11too
WWR:
4.2
30
20
<1
10
tx
-. %
X,
a0
le
Lai-20
C
-30
-40
0111
0 01
0 001
INDUCTION
]rig.
'7.6.
NUMBER
Vertical
electric
100
10
RESISTIVITY
sounding
cuAv
(a)
and electromagnetic
(b)
sounding curv
data points.
at &its (SA) based on field
(Ohff. -m)
11?1?0
interpreted
log.
6A;
Table
7.4
(b)
the
shows
soundings
at
site
with
a
geologic
curve
This section shows that there is one aquifer consisting of a sand layer. Its saline water
1.2
inland
(with
than
500
from
7
to
the
at
coast
ppm
ohmm
ohm.m
more
zone ranges
interface
(shown
line
in
the
through
separates
a
curved
chloride concentration) and
is
from
The
7.5)
Figure
the
the
saline water
mixed water zone
section
mixing zone.
separated(through another curved line in the samesection) from fresh water and ranges
from 8 ohm.m to 35 ohm.m (chloride concentration between 250-500 ppm). It is
evident in the section that rainfall on the extensive sand dunes is the possible causeof
inland
flow
fresh
halting
the
the
thus
of the
recharging
aquifer with excessive
water
saline intrusion. The sand aquifer has a boulder clay layer below it showing a gradual
increase in resistivities from 9 ohm.rn at the coast to 15 ohm.rn inland. This layer
appearsto be missing well inland (below sites 22A and 21A), presumably being eroded
before the deposition of alluvium. Solid rock forms the lowest layer in the section; the
abrupt lowering of resistivities in the middle of the section repeats the evidence that
soft dipping rocks are sandwiched in the middle by hard rock lying at the extreme ends.
A third geoelectric section C-CFigure 7.7, drawn perpendicular to the coast and
across various sites of soundings and hand-augered holes is shown in the area map
Figure 7.1. The interpreted results of all soundings are given in Table 7.2. Figure 7.8
shows an example of a VES curve (a) and EM sounding curve (b) at site 9B. Table 7.5
gives the interpreted VES and EM soundings for site 9B in comparision with the
geologic log. This section shows that there is one aquifer consisting of a sand layer. Its
saline water zone ranges from 1.6 olun.rn at the coast to 7 olun.rn inland (with more
than 500 ppm chloride concentration) and interface separates(shown through
a curved
line in section Fig. 7.7) the saline water from mixed water zone. The
mixed water zone
ranges between 8 olun.rn to 35 ohm-m (with chloride concentration between 250-500
87
Layer
No.
VES sounding
Th (m)
R (ohm-m)
EH sounding
ohm-m
m
Geologic
log
Fine to medium
sand. Depth
2.4m. W. T
0.9m.
386
381
30
3.8
32
4.3
13
10.1
19
11.1
Table
Saturated
sandi B. G. S
logs.
Refer
Table 7.1. a.
1-
7.4.
Vertical
soundings
geologic
electric
and
CA interpreted
logo Xalltraeth.
drill
electromagnetic
data with
C 22C
0
Durm
23C
9A
913
44
9c
C,
noter
3
6
9
12
15
21
24 27 -
CD
30 33 -
36 39
72
42
45
48
51
Fig 7.7. GeoelectricsectionC-C derivedfrom vertical electric

Resistivitiesin otwn-m.
Scale: Hor 1:750, Vert: 1:300.
la,
T2
LAJ
cir
pZ
w
ir
41
CL
100
is
SPACING (m)
10
mwmw
1003
loco
i0o
(Ohm-fn)
. at
A-
"
4-
40
30
20
10
C
cr
LCA
9-10
20
<1 -30
-50
Ir
-60
0 93
0 001
Fig.
a13
INDUCTIC01 NUMBER
7.8.
to
le
RES3STIV11%,
Vertical
(a)
electric
soun=uxvo
(b)
and electromagnetic
soun
9 curvs
(03) based *A field
data points.
at site
Wo
Cohff. -r. 1)
I eet
Layer
No.
VES soundings
R (ohm-M) Th (m)
EH soundings
ohm-m
m
Geologic
log
drill
236
0.7
237
0.8
Fine to medium
sand. depth I. Im.
W. T. 0.5m.
14
7.2
Is
8.9
Saturated
sand,
B. G. S. logo.
Refer Table
5.4
33
32
13.5
Table
7.5.
14
Vertical
founding$
geologic
electric
and electromagpetic
9B interpreted
data with
logo Malltraeth.
line
from
fresh
It
is
separates
mixed
water
zone
second
curved
water.
evident
ppm); a
in the section that sand dunes are the barrier for further inland inflow of the saline
intrusion becausethe dunesprovide lot of fresh water recharge to the groundwater and
thus maintain the fresh water gradient towards the sea. finpervious boulder clay forms
the next lower layer to the aquifer. The dipping bed rocks form the lowest layer, soft
hard
by
being
the
rocks at the extreme ends, as in the previous
rocks
sandwiched
section.
IA fourth and the final geoelectricsectionD-D' (Fig 7.9) is the longestsection

inside
drawn
from
deep
interpreted
Newborough
forest.
The
to
the
the
coast
and
results
of all soundingsaregiven in Table 7-2.Figure 7.10 showsthe exampleof a VES curve
(a) and an EM sounding curve (b) at site 12A. Table 7.6 gives the VES and EM
soundingsfor site 12A comparedto the geologiclog. This sectionshowsthat thereis
one aquifer consistingof a sandlayer. This sectionhas beendrawn with a horizontal
scaleof 1:7500. It is evident in the sectionthat the saline zone has a resistivity range
from 1 ohm.m at the coast (with more than 500 ppm chloride concentration)to 7
ohm.m inland and interface (shown through a curved line in the sectionFigure 7.9)
separatessaline water from n-dxedwater zone. The mixed water zone has range of
resistivitiesfrom 8 ohm.m to 35 ohm.m inland (with chloride concentrationbetween
250-500ppm). It appearsyet againthat the sanddunesplay a major role in preventing
saline water from penetratingfurther inland, absorbingalmost all the rainwater and
providing rechargeto the groundwaterto maintain a fresh water gradienttowardsthe
sea.Boulderclay with resistivitiesrangingfrom 4 ohm-m to 20 ohm-m is immediately
below the sandaquifer. At the bottom lies bed rock with resistivities ranging from 6
ohm-mto 56 ohm-m;presumablyrepresentingdipping soft rocks to hard rocks.A very
interestingfeatureis also observedin this section.As this section
coversa greatlength
88
Layer
No.
VES sounding
R(ohm-m) Th(m)
EM sounding
ohm-m
m
Geologic
log
drill
467
1.4
459
1.3
Fine to medium
sand. Depth
1.1m. W. T 1.3m.
35
12.9
37
12.4
Saturated
san d,,
B. G. S logs.
Refer Table
7.1. a.
13
22
11
16.2
Table
7.6.
Vertical
soundings
geologic
electric'
and electromagnetic
12A interpreted
data with
logo Malltraeth.
D 205
20A
drm
21C
2301
V0
44 44
e- 9- D'
0 ry-
WatGr
6
9
12
15
LS Is
21
C 24
'61
ts 27
30
33
36
42
Fig. 7.9. Geoelectricsection D-V derivedfromvertical electric

Scale:Hor. 1:7500, Vert: 1:3W.
I ON
%,0
w
cr
bZ
4
ic
100
WOO
ACSSTMW(0own-on) ,
100
to
SPACING (m)
. A. 4.4-
0
40
40
3020-
tLi
C5
cc
9:2
a
PI
9z
cr.
L" -20
colp
<r
C
-4()
-50
0 el
0 eel
INDUCTM4
to
01
RESISTIVIIS'
NUMBER
-b]rig.
7.10.
Vertical
electric
cuxve (a)
(b)
SOUn
u dy ng curve
data points.
on field
soundIn
and electromagnetic
(12A) based
at site
too
(Ohm-re.
MOO
in the Newborough forest behind the coastal dunes, it appearsthat the thickness of the
sand layer, particularly below VES sites 20A and 21C, enlargesbehind the dunes with
the clay layer thinning down. A very narrow drain also passesin the area near the site
20A in the section. This suggeststhe possibility that this area might be an old route of
the Cefiii River which presently flows further west of this site.
The last stage in the mapping of the saline-fresh water interface is the
constructionof interfacecontourmapsin order to detectthe extentto which the saline
waterhasintrudedinland. All the geoelectric:sectionspertainingto the Malltraeth area
have beenusedin the constructionof thesemapsof the study area.The map, Figure
7.11 shows the extent of the mixed water zone with bulk resistivities less than 35
ohm.m and chloride concentrationbetween250-500ppm. Figure 7.11 further shows
that the contaminationof fresh water with salinewater in the aquifer appearsto occur
along a 70-150metreswide coastalstrip. Near the coastit is found at a depth of 5m,
deep
inland it is found at a depth of about 10-40metres.
whereas
The saline water is approximately defined by 7 ohm.m with chlorides more than
500 ppm. Figure 7.12, is a contour map drawn showing the zone of saline
Saline
water.
groundwater appearsto occur along a 30-60 metres wide coastal strip. Near the coast
line it is found at a depth of 2-12 metres and inland at the depth of 6-8 metres.
The sourceof the salinewater appearsto be seawater.The wave

action and the
tides in the sea water is thought to causerm*xm*gof sea water with fresh water.
Howevertheheavyrainfall in the areawhich infiltrates underground
preventsseawater
from deeppenetrationinland.
89
>Bangor
1:9000
Maltraeth
Depth in Meters
40
20
----
10
51
%%
20A
MAL
21C
An
%
i2A
m* Am
12C'324
208
0 A,
0 20D
23D
SWA6M
20E*
k9A
sc,
Koo
:!A4
A
mm
23C
2OF
22C
A
20C,
xvs
SA
Newborough
Mean High
Water
22B
Forest
21A
6CA61
w
6B
V..
I %
%
...
Combined VIES& EM sounding site

and identificationnumber.
A, Borehole site and identifcation
number.
%.it
22A
3c
3k"
10 VIESsite and identircation

number.
2A
2c
IA
IC IE
,
Mean Low
Wrater
Ro Bach
y IR4
_]craig
44"24'W
Fig. 7.11.Depthto the bulk resistivityof less than 35 ohm-meters

(or morethan 250ppmchloride concentration),
Malltraeth.
Depth in Meters I
1..9000
Bangor
12
Malftraeth
io
...........
8
6
4
2
20B
20A
NA
21C
AN
12A
23D
%12B
20E
2OF
SCOBOAA
22C
AN
20C
8B M
NewboroughForest
Mean Hwg..
'Water
21A
0
2213
EA.
23B
CombinedVES & EM sounding ste

and identrcation number.
Boreholeske and identff-cabon
number.
z0)
a
0
AL 22A
MILO,
A &
VES sle and identirce6on

number.
2A
28
2C %
Mean
BrLm
Water
0
io
iA
IE
C.aIIS
RoBach
Crag
yR
024'W
Fig. 7.12. Depth to the bulk resistivity of less than 7 ohm-meters
(or more than 500ppm chloride concentration),
Malltraeth.
7.3. VES versus EM soundings on dry sand (Dunes)
During the field study in the Malltraeth sand dunes, it was observedthat the EM
depth
layer,
fail
the
the
to
such as the
of
conductive
pin-point exactly
soundings
saturatedsand layer (aquifer), as compared to the vertical electric soundings.Table 7.7
gives comparative intexpreted results of VES and EM soundings carried out at sites
23A, 23B, and 23C, all in the sand dunes. Actual water table levels were also found
out at the time of measuring the soundings.However by inserting the actual water table
and borehole log data into the intexpretive computer program and constraining the
program through the known thicknesses of dry upper layers a good fit was obtained
Table 7.7a.
7.4 Permeability of sediments and saline intrusion
Permeability of sedimentsat various sites in the MaUtraeth area were determined

in the field using the Guelph permeameter and by grain size and constant head
permeametertests in the laboratory. At the auger borehole and VES site 20E, using the
value of the resistivity of the porous medium, (R. ) = 99 ohm-m, and that of the
resistivity of the fluid, (PQ = 24 ohm-m, the value of the electrical formation factor
determined.
This
was
value was used in the formation factor-permeability log-log plot
(Lovell, 1983) to estimate the value of the permeability as given in Table 7.8. The
Table 7.8 also summarizes permeability values measured or calculated by different
methods. There is very good agreement between the various methods of assessing
permeability.
The permeabilityvaluesobtainedfor the aquifer in the MaIltraeth

areaprove to
90
23A
Site
Layer
No.
VES
R/
Th
1
Site
EM
R/Th
VES
R/Th
EM
R/Th
850/2
1300/1.7
257/4.3
64/51
VES
R/Th
921/3.3
391/1.5
325/6.7
3
Site
EM
R/Th
1748/3.5
628/5.4
41513.7
87/44
23C
1785/0.9
1395/2.8
2
23B
35/38.9
56/41
712/8
63/26.7
89/25.5
1 10/
15/
15/11
18/12
85/
W. T. 'at
Table
7.7.
23/
76/
5.4m.
W. T at
4.2m.
20/13.8
88/
W. T at
5.8m.
interpreted
Comparative
results
of
the VES and EN soundings
shown with
to the actual
respect
water table
depth in sand dunes, Malltraeth.
23B
VEB
oh=-M/m
23A
zu
ohm-m/a
vics
oh=-m/m
Ex
ohm--m/sit
VEB
ohm-m/m
23C
zu
ohz&-m/m
1276/1.7
1467/2.4
892/2
2539/2.2
1664/1
2002/2
296/3.7
386/3
293/2.2
3064/2
643/4.8
7050/3.8
63/74
87/48
55/48
56/74
12/-
25/8
12/-
24/12
98/-
142/-
Site
Site
7.7&.
Table
Comparative
the
EN soundingsr
when
inverse
while
modelling
Site
85/16
17
27/-
91/16
21/22
62/-
re-interpreted
results
of the VES and
depth
fixed
watertable
parameters
are
is allowed.
program
on computer
Xethods
Perm ability
min.
(m/sec)
RUL
ZI
1. By Guelph permeameter
(field
test)
1.1
x 10-1
5.6
x 10-1
2.
1.8
x 10-1
4.1
x 10-4
3.7
5.2
2.2
x 10-4
head permeameter
Constant
(laboratory
test)
3.
Grain
size
(Hazen's
4.
Grain
size
(Kozeny-Carman)
5. 'By using
formation
Table
formula)
electrical
factor.
7.8.
shows a list
measured
or
methods.
10-4
10-4
5.1, x 10-1
2.2'x
10-4
I
of 'the
calculated
permeability
by different
Ilues
va
be moderate values and do not come in the category of high values. Water bearing
be
in
a category which
could
classed
values
permeability
such
sediments with
intrusion.
landward
the
the
of
saline
advance
rate of
minimizes
7.5 Discussion ,
The contourmap Figure 7.11 showsthe extent of the mixed water zone with
Malltraeth
between
250-500
in
the
unconfmed
pprn
concentration
salinity of chlorides
70-150
is
In
to
the
the
metres wide
a
contamination
aquifer
restricted
sandaquifer.
is
1040
It
it
is
found
depth
Near
the
also
metres.
coast
at
a
of
about
coastalstrip.
(estuarine
towards
the
that
sediments)of the studyareathe contamination
north
evident
Figure
direction.
The
less
to
the
saline
spread
as
compared
opposite
water,
seems wide
7.12, with salinity of chloridesconcentrationof more than 500 ppm appearsto occur
along a 30-60 metreswide coastalstrip. Near the coastline it is found at a depthof 212 metresand inland at a depthof 6-8 metres.The saline water also seemsto be less
(estuarine
the
towards
north
sediments)of the study areaas comparedto
wide spread
the opposite direction. This is presumablybecausethe sedimentsare getting finer
towardsthe estuaryas the silt/clay contentincreases.As a consequence
permeability
decreaseswhich resultsin the decreaseof the saline intrusion.
It is shown in the area that the wide-spread and highly elevated sand dunes act
as a catchment area for most of the heavy rainfall and allows infiltration to replenish
the groundwater. Ibis continuous recharge of fresh water maintains a fresh water
gradient towards the sea and consequently halts the inflow of sea water inland.
D'Andrimont (1903) observed that water flows in a dune aquifer toward the searapidly
enough to prevent sea water infiltration. Hubbert (1940) concluded that the continuous
91
flo Iw of fresh water to the ocean must be balanced by sufficient recharge to maintain
a state of equilibrium between the fresh-salt water bodies. In this study area both
conditions are met as there is a continuous flow of fresh water towards the sea and a
from
to
the
sufficient recharge
aquifer
continuous rainfall in the surroundings and
dunes.
tops
the
the
particularly on
of
The permeability values obtained for the sedimentsin the area are of such
moderate values that this feature is anodier important reason in
iii19
the rate of
landwardadvanceof the intruding saline water, as Howard (1987) has shown.
It has also been observed that the water table depth and borehole log data are
essential in the interpretation of EM soundings as comparable to VES soundings,
particululy for the data over the dunes in order to get the best possible computer fit
to the data.
In this areathe geophysicalmethodshave also demonstratedthe provision of

information about dipping bed rocks, as weR as giving data regarding soft rock
sandwiched between hard rock at two ends. This observation in the study area is well
supportedby Greenly (1919).
It is also shown that the Cefni River possibly had a channelin the past behind
the dunesand paraHelto the drain shown in the area map, Figure 7.1. The Cefni
River's presentroute is finther westward.
92
CHAPTER 8. CASE HISTORY 3. MORFA BYCHAN AREA
8.1. Introduction and Geology of the area
Morfa Bychan is a small coastal town about 2.5 miles away from Porthmadog,
between Criccieth and Porthmadog, and on the northern extremity of Cardigan Bay
4.50
is
flat,
+
8.1).
The
Figure
(location map
site relatively
with an averageelevation of
Glaslyn
Mon
dunes
by
bounded
the
O.
is
D
the
to
of
east and south
sand
and
metres
lying
low
by
bounded
is
further
The
to
the
relatively
north and west
site
estuary.
North
Geology,
ditches.
Regional
by
As
British
drained
open
per
marshy ground and
Wales, the site consists of granular material mostly sand, gravels, etc., with intrusive
igneous rocks at the base; ground water levels are thought to be high.
The geologicaland hydrogeologicalinformation in the Morfa Bychan areahas

been obtainedfrom hand-augeredboreholesand particularly from the Welsh Water
Authority (WWA) borehole logs (Table 8.1.a); these reveal the presenceof an
unconfinedaquifer consistingof unconsolidatedfine to mediurn-grainedsand.This is
underlainby a layer of boulderclay and then bed rock forming the baseof the aquifer,
but at someplaces it is underlain directly by the bed rock. The aquffer is in direct
contactwith the seaall along the coast.
The resultsof the mechanicalanalysesof granularsamplesobtainedduring the

sinking of the hand auger holes in the Morfa Bychan area are tabulated(seeTable
8.1.b). The table showsthat there is a predominanceof fine to medium grainedsand
in the aquifer. Due to the dominanceof granular material at the ground surface,the
aquifer getsrechargedfrom direct percolationof rain water Wing on the surfaceand
93
52*55!N
Fig. 8.1. Map shoWnglocation of the study area,

Morfa Bychan.
FHediumsand
b (2)
Litbol*
14itIbol
Litbology
---
0.5
Medium sand
Medium
11"n with
Medium
M
edium
--
.some gravel
2.7
22
$and
sand
-I
Table
Borehole
No. 7f
(Walsh Water
I. l. a.
drill
Geological
SLze Content
Percentage
of sand
(depth 1.2m)
Irine sand snore
than medium sand.
Percentage
of silt
and clay
(depth 2.2 m)
Uble
Water-
maximumvalue
0.45
u1nimum value
Maximum
98.1
Value
99.6
0.3
I. I. b. Crenerol characteristics
IOISMM (1992)
832mm (1991)
Ika in faII
Grsin
Wnimum value
0.40
Poro3ity
(Welsh
Horfs. Dycban area.
Authority)#
Parametor
log
Morfa
Bychan
Authority).
1.3
of the
alluvium.
infiltrates
in
As
dunes.
the
rain
water
areas,
most
of
seen other
particularly on the sand
into the underlying alluvial sand and recharges the aquifer. The water table gradient in
from
i.
is
the phreatic aquifer moves out
the
the
towards
groundwater
the area
sea e.
into the sea and within the tidal zone in the beach area fresh groundwater is underlain
by saline water.
8.2 Detection/Mapping of the Saline-Freshwater Interface using the Geophysical

Thirty-one vertical electric soundings (VES) were made at selectedsites (Figure

8.1) using the ADEM Terrameter. Simple Wenner and Offset Wenner arrays were used
for this study. Readings were made up to maximum electrode spacings ranging from
80 to 150 metres, using the simple Wenner array, and from 64 to 128 metres for the
Offset Wenner.
Twenty-three electromagnetic soundings were also made at selected centres,of

the sites where previously vertical resistivity soundings were made, using NL%xMin1-8
portable equipment (Figure 8.1). Suitable survey sites were limited, compared to the
because
fences,
of
metallic
soundings
resistivity
electric poles, etc., which cause
erroneous readings.
The interpretiveresultsfor all the soundingscarried out in the areaare given in

Table 8.2. Figure 8.2 showsan exampleof the field data obtainedfrom VES and EM
6f
togetherwith mathematicallyfitted curvesvia the softwaremodels
at
site
soundings
alongsidetheir equivalence.The shapeof the curvesindicatethat the currenthaspassed
through three geoelectric-layers. The model of VES sounding (8.2a) has good
94
Layer
number3
Th
R
Layer
numberl
Th
R
Layer
number2
Th
R
AM) M
((I.M) M
VES 1
950
95
13.7
36
VES 2
211
76
19.6
35
VES 3
250
89
21
33
86
20.4
32
55
17.6
11
69
10.8
132
76
21.3
400
VES
number
-VESA
VES 5
254
1079
.5
.4
.7
.3
.5
M) M
5.9
Layer
number5
R
Th
(Q.M) M
P. M) M
147
-
VES 8
758
VES 9
895
.5
1.5
VESIO
836
1.2
78
8.9
114
61
1.2
32
15
149
611
1.9
12
7.5
55
61"
4.9
3.5
55
6A,
2.6
56
11.7
52
6A
4.6
35
6.7
49
6A"
5.3
14.7
5.7
49
6B"
1.2
40
10.4
55
6B
3.7
29
10.5
48
6B"
2.9
8.5
6.1
47
6L
529
6V
.2
4.2
2.5
6p
35
Layer
number4
R
Th
49
6.7
44
5.1
25.1
12
4.6
22
3.7
27.3
10
92
5.5
20
18.7
22
a-
6p,
11
1.2
90
2.3
17.7
6j,
2026
29.6
23.2
39
6j"
12
.4
3.7
41
36
12.3
1.6
27.2
34
6j
7.2
11
16.2
1.4
34.4
30
6M
610
0.6
33
16
6MI
214
0.2
63
6M"
2.5
12
6N
1154 2.3
6NI
402
6N"
1.6
3.4
3
59
17
1.4
217 21.4
14
61
57
le
13.4
8.2.
Table
Multilayer
R 2-* PAsistivitY,
27.3
30.4
25
52
Sour-Carij results.
Th = Thickness,
6
-
11-
too
XMR
a 2.4 %
0-4
E
1
je
I
le
w
CL
a
-'i i-.
Pq.III
IDO
10
RESISIMW (ohm-rn)
SPACING (M)
(4j
4-
: a,
1.4.
0
25-10-%
LAJ
cz
a
4tx
cc
C:j -25
4a
C31
C=
z
CX
-50
w
3
-100
-i..
.I
1-1
of.,
...
-141--I
03
INDUCTION
14UMBER
ie
-so
-JU-1
RESIF-TIVITY
-1-
(Ohm-ml
4bI
8.2.
Vertical
]rig.
(a)
electric
sounding
currv
and
(b)
electromagnetic
souncUzg
(61f)
based
cury
at
site
data
their
on field
points,
alongside
equivalence
curves.
agreement with the model of EM sounding (8-2b). The equivalence bounds of DC

81
61'
in
Appendix
EM
Table
sounding results at site
are given
resistivity sounding or
in
8.3
drill
log
Table
8J
the
the
the
shows
comparision,
geological
of
and respectively.
hand augeredhole at site 6f and the Welsh Water Authority drilled log in the area (see
area map Figure 8.1) with the interpreted results of the VES and EM soundings carried
out at the same site.
Ihe construction of geoelectric sections is an intermediate stage in the

A
preparation of various contour maps. geoelectric section A-X, drawn perpendicular
to the coast line and acrossvarious sites of VES and EM soundings such as VES 9,61,
6-f and 6r, as well as hand augeredholes is shown in Figure 8.3 (see area map Figure
8.1). Arrows at top of the cross section shows VES or VES and EM combined
sounding locations. Section A-X
shows that there is a unconfined aquifer with
resistivities,ranging from 2 obm.m (and 7 ohm.m below it) at the coast to 895 ohm.m
(and 76 ohm.rn below it) inland. The bedrock below the aquifer layer has resistivities
ranging from 55 ohm-rn (coast) to 400 ohm-rn (inland). The unconfined aquifer has
saline water (demarcated by curved line) with resistivities ranging from 2 ohm-m
(coast) to 7 ohm-m (inland) with chloride concentration more than 500 ppm. In the
beach area, the saline water (in the topmost layer), presumably formed by tidal and
wave action appears to rest on the nu*xm*gzone. The saline fresh water interface
separatessaline water from the mixing zone. Ibe mixing zone has resistivities ranging
from 8 ohm-m to 35 ohm-m with chlorides concentration between 250-500
ppm.
Another curved line drawn in the Figure 8.3., shows the
mixing zone separatedfrom
fresh water. The saline water zone and the mixing zone abruptly
end at the seaward
foot of the sand dunes, which suggeststhat the large amount
of fresh water regularly
received by the aquifer from rainwater prevents the saline water from penetrating
95
Layer
No.
VZS Sounding
R (ohm. m) Th (m)
RH Sounding
Geological
R (ohm. M) Th (a)
Drill
Log
1.9
2.4
Fine to medium
sand. W. T 0.3m.
Depth 0.5m.
12
7.5
10
Saturated
sand
some gravel,
WWA borehole
log,
Table
8.1a.
155
Table
618
8.3.
Vertical
electric
and electromagnetic
61' interpreted
data with
soundings
logj Morfa Bychan area.
geological
A9
61
er
14
1
16 -
20
22
Fig. 8.3. Geoelectric section A-X derived from verlical electric

Scale: Hor: 050, Vert: 1:200.
Gr
IK
further inland. Figure 8.3.a shows the section A-A: has been drawn after incorporating
from
is
8.3.
It
in
Figure
the
levelling
the
evident
the surface
values of
measurements
Figure 8.3.a that the fresh water gradient is towards the sea.
Figure 8.5 showsa secondgeoelectric:sectionB-I drawnperpendicularto the

holes
hand
VES
VES
EM
augered
or
and
soundingsand
coastacrossvarious sitesof
(seeFigure 8.1). The arrowsat the top of the crosssectionshowVES or VES andEM
this
interpreted
locations.
The
the
along
soundings
results of all
combinedsounding
(b)
EM
8.4
(a)
VES
8.2.
Figure
is
in
Table
the
sounding
and
shows
curve
section given
VES
interpreted
EM
1.
8.4
VES
Table
VES
the
at
soundings
gives
and
curve at site
I comparedto eachother and to the geologiclog. This sectionshowsthat there is one
layer.
The
lying
the
at the top, andpresumably
of
sand
saline
water
aquifer consisting
formed becauseof tidal and wave action, has resistivitiesranging from 2.5 ohm.m to
3 ohm.m with chlorideconcentrationmorethan 500ppm. The interfaceseparatessaline
water from the mixing zone.The mixing zonehasresistivitiesrangingfrom 22 olun.m
to 35 ohm.rn with chloride concentration250 ppm,or much higher values.A broken
line drawn in the section shows the mixing zone separatedfrom fresh water. It is
evident in Figure 8.5 that fresh water begins right at the seawardfoot of the dune,
showingclearly again that the precipitation on the dune sandis playing an important
role in preventingthe salinewater from intruding deepinland. A layer of boulder clay
lies below the aquifer with resistivitieschangingslightly from 3 ohm-m (coast)to 36
ohm.rn (inland). The base of this section appearsto be bedrock with resistivities
ranging from 10 ohm-m (coast)to 147 ohm-m (inland).
A third geoelectricsection C-C(Figure 8.7) drawn perpendicularto the coast

and acrosstwo soundings6P and 6V and hand-augeredholes (see Figure 8.1). The
96
Din"
Cb
A4
-16
-18
Fig. 8.3.a.
Salineand fresh water interfacealong line A-N
19
a
ie
U
.1
4
to
SPACING
lee
10
100
1000
t
a
25
r .RROR
2.9 lk
^ 20
LL)
CC
15
OR
<r
cr
9:3
z
cr
w
,,,
C
m
0I
00
-5
et ot
i ei
INDUCTION
NUMBER.
tee
PESISTIVITY
41Irigure
0.4.
Vertical
(a)
electric
sountn
curve
dy. 9 curve
and electromagnetic
(b)
so
VZ3 I based
data
at site
on field
points.
I eee
(Ohn. -vs)
91
SL
WV
$L:
0
2
4
nng
>lw
_E 12
14
Is
Is
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
12
Fig. B.S. GeoelectricsectionB-D'derivedfrom vertical electric

Scale: Hor: 1:2000, Vert 1:200.
io
Layer No.
VZS Bounding
R (ohm. m)
Th (m)
950
0.5
95
13.7
ZU Bounding
R (ohm. m) Th (m)
-1041
99
Geological
Drill
Log
0.2
Medium to fine
sand. W. T 1.2m.
Depth 1.5m.
11
Saturated
sand
some gravel,
.WWAborehole
log.
Table
8.1a.
3
36
147
Table
8.4.
5.9
45
4.2
200
Vertical
soundings
geological
electric
and electromagnetic
VXS I interpreted
data with
logo Morfa Bycban area.
101
a
1
3
i
SPACING
1000
(m)lee
1N>Wlmw %0
100
C-04
#a,
30
a
at
20
CL
cz
z-
10
<1
<1
m -20
-30
-40
011
INDUCT I ON NUMBER
0 01
rigure
9.6.
Vertical
electric
and electromagnetic
6P based
at site
to
10
RESISTIVIIN'
(a)
s6unding
curve
(b)
sounding
curve
data points.
an field
1013
(Ohm-m)
1000
interpreted results of soundings are given in Table 8.2. Figure 8.6 shows (a) the VES
(b)
EM
the
sounding curve at site 6P. Table 8.5 gives the
and
sounding curve
interpreted comparative VES and EM soundings 6P with the geologic log. As before
this section shows that there is one aquifer consisting of a sand layer. However there
is a peculiar feature in this section in that very fresh water, with resistivities 90 ohnim
and greater, is found in the surface layer at sounding site 6P whereas at sounding site
6V the fresh water is sandwiched between two mixing zones. As this site is at the end
point of Mon Glaslyn it is possible that a lot of fresh water is regularly infiltrated into
the aquifer at this site. The mixing zone in the top layer at site 6V is presumably
formed by tidal and wave action. The second mixing zone below the fresh water has
resistivities between 9 to 20 ohm.m, with the chloride concentration having values
higher than 250 ppm. Below this is a boulder clay layer with a resistivity 3 ohm.m.
Bedrock with resistivities ranging from 6 to 8 ohm.rn defines the base of the section.
It is worthwhile mentioning here that from the Welsh Water Authority drill logs, sand
down to a depth of 22 metres is found. However in this study the interpreted results of
the VES and EM soundings measured near the coast would seem to indicate that
boulder clay lies between the sand and bedrock. It may well be that as the WWA
borehole is well inland the clay is a transient feature.
A fourth and final geoelectricsection D-lY (Figure 8.8) is the longest in the
studyarea,drawnparallel to the coastand acrosssoundingsites6P, 6P%6M" and 6W.
Ibis section shows a single aquifer consisting of a sand layer. It is
evident in the
sectionthat salinewater with resistivity 2.5 ohm.rn and chloridesmore than 500 ppm,
presumablyformed by tidal and wave action, is overlying a mbdng zone.At sounding
site 6V very freshwater (morethan 2 metresof aquifer thickness)in the southof Mon
Glaslyn lie below mixmig zone. 71iis showsan hydraulicly
unstablesituation where
97
op
c
0
UP
t
il
Phsona
Zom
12
Is
21
W
3
24
e
27
3C
33
36
39
42
45
48
si
Fig. 8.7. Geoelectricsection C-C derived from vertical electric

Scale: Hor: 1:400, Vert: 1:300.
No.
Layer
VzS sounding
R (ohm. va) Th (m)
MI Sounding
R (ohm. im) Th (m)
ceological
Drill
Log
92
5.5
114
5.5
Fine to medium
sand. W. T 0.8m.
Depth 1.0m.
20
18.7
15
16.9
sand
saturated
some gravel,
WWAborehole
log.
Table
8.1a.
22
23.9
Table
S. S.
vertical
soundings
geological
electric
and electromagnetic
6P interpreted
data with
logo Morfa Bychan, area.
Or
Mon-Glaslyn
w
6w
ly
21
24
Cb
27
33
36
39
42
4!
io
4
41
Fig. 8.8. Geoelectric section D-U derived from vertical electric

Scale: Hor 110000, Vert: 1:300.
further
fresh
Consequently
the
the
overlies
saline water
water.
mixing zone or
either
fresh
below
is
be
The
the
to
water
expected.
mixing zone
encroachmentof seawater
250-500
between
35
from
9
has
to
ppm.
ohm-rn
and
chlorides
resistivities ranging
zone
The other very important feature appears to be that the Mon Glaslyn in its present
from
its
Below
have
deviated
the nuxm*g zone
to
original
coarse.
coarse seems not
Finally
3
from
1.4
boulder
there
be
to
to
ohm-m.
resistivities
ranging
clay
with
appears
is the bedrock with resistivities from 6 to 34 ohm-m.
The last stage of the definition of the saline-fresh water interface is the
has
interface
detect
the
to
to
the
saline
water
contourmaps
constructionof
extent which
intrudedinland.All the geoelectricsectionshavebeenusedin the constructionof these
bulk
8.9
The
Figure
the
the
shows
with
maps.
map
extent of
mixing water zone
resistivity less than 35 ohm-m and chloridesbetween250-500ppm. The map further
fresh
that
the
shows
contaminationof
water with salinewater in the aquifer appearsto
occur along a 50-150metreswide coastalstrip. Near the coastit is found at a depthof
5 metres,whereasinland it is found at a depthof 20 metresexceptingat one site south
of Afon Glaslyn where it is found at the greaterdepth of 25 metres.The reasonquite
obviously is the regular infiltration of fresh water undergroundwhich in turn pushes
down any intrusion of seawater.
Salinewater is approximatelydefinedby 7 ohm-ni with chloridesmore than500

ppm. Figure 8.10 is a contour map drawn showing the zone of saline water, this
appearsto occur along a 40-100 metres wide coastal strip. Near the coast line it is
found at a depthof 2 metresand inland 8 to 16 metres.It is
evident from the map that
southof the Mon Glaslyn the salinewaterzone is very narrow andpushedtowardsthe
coastas comparedto other coastalpartsclearly relatedto the infiltration of fresh water
98
3:
52055'N
Fig. 8.9. Depth to the bulk resistivityof les than 35 ohm-meters

(or more than 250ppmchlorideconcentration),
Morfa Bychan.
I0
C
0
52055!N
Fig. 8.10.Depthto a bulk resistivity of less than 7 ohm-meters

(or morethan 500ppmchloride concentration)
Morfa Bychan.
dunes
Sand
intrusion
inland.
the
the
of
saline
advancement
undergroundwhich prevents
behind the beach simultaneously act as barriers also, while behaving as a catchment
infiltrates
interception
for
the
rapidly to the aquifer and
of
rain
water
which
area
inland.
intrusion
in
fresh
the
the
the
of
saline
advance
restricting
water
assisting
8.3 Permeability of sedimentsand saline intrusions
The permeability of sediments at various sites in the Morfa Bychan area were
determined in the field using the Guelph permeameter and in the laboratory by grain
1,
VES
At
head
borehole
tests.
site
using the
and
permeameter
auger
size and constant
value of the resistivity of the porous medium, (R,) = 95 olun-m, and that of the
fluid,
(P,,,
)
24
formation
factor
the
the
the
ohm-m,
of
of
electrical
resistivity
value
=
in
log-log
determined.
This
formation
factor-permeability
the
used
value
was
plot
was
(Lovell, 1983) to estimate the value of the permeability as given in Table 8.6. This
table also summarizespermeability values measuredor calculated by different methods.
There is some considerable consistency between the methods. Another Table 8.6a
in-situ
the
permeability tests carried further inland (see Map 8.1) by the Welsh
shows
Water Authorty. These results were obtained at different depths and it is clear that there
is a difference of two magnitudes even at the same depth when the method of testing
changes.
ne permeabilityvaluesobtainedfor the aquifer in the Morfa Bychanareaprove

to be more moderatevaluesand do not come into the categoryof high values.Water
bearingsedimentswith suchpermeabilityvaluescould be classedin a categorywhich
mmunizesthe rate of landwardadvanceof the saline intrusion.
99
Ustbods
Permeability
(M/Sec)
min.
MAXI
1. By Guelph permeameter
(field
test)
7.5
x 10-3
1.0
x 10-4
2. Constant
head permeameter
(laboratory
test)
1.0
x 10-4
3.2
x 10-4
3. Grain
size
(Hazen's
1.1
x 10-4
3.6
x 10-4
4.
size
(Kozeny-Carman)
1.2
x 10-4
2.9
x 10-4
Grain
5. By using
formation
electrical
factor.
Table
Borehole
No.
formula)
S. 6.
Test
Shows a list
measured or
methods.
x
.4
10-4
of the pemeability
values
by different
calculated
Falling/Rising
Head Test
M/sec
Depth
(M)
7
1.61
8.0
8.0
i
Table S. 6a. In-situ
Kater Authority.
Falling
Falling
Rising
parzaaability
tests
by
1.0
1.2
2.0
x 10-1
x 10-1
x 10-1
the
Walsh
8.4 Discussion
It is observed that the continuous supply of fresh water in Mon Glaslyn, from
upstream, restricts the saline intrusion to a greater depth as well as to the narrowest
strip as compared to the coastal area surrounding the Mon Glaslyn. Sand dunes in the
area also prevent the inland advance of the saline intrusion as the heavy rainfall is
fresh
helps
in
infiltrated
the
towards
the
sea,
water gradient
which
maintaining
quickly
towards the sea, as D'Andrimont (1903) and Hubbert (1940) have shown.
Thepermeabilityvaluesaremoreof moderatemagnitudeandthusthis is another

importantreasonin minimizing the rate of landwardadvanceof intruding salinewater,
as Howard (1987) has shown.
It is also observedthat the Afon Glaslyn's presentcoursestill lies along its old
route and there has been no deviation with the passageof time.
100
CHAPTER 9. GENERAL DISCUSSION
r1be principal aims of this project were to consider the use of geophysical
detect
intrusions
into
techniques
to
and
map
saline
groundwater and to
electrical
the
being
to use such
the
aim
parameters
such
examine
various
-affecting
ultimate
use,
techniques to examine similar problems in Pakistan. To achieve these aims dm
coastal/estuarinesites were chosen: the College Farm at Aber, the Cefi-A estuary at
Malltraeth on the Isle of Anglesey; and the beach-area at Morfa Bychan authe
northernly edge of Tremadog Bay. Several features emerged Erom this investigation:
1) General characteristics of the three sites investigated
The CoRege Farm area at Aber, is situated on the coast at the outfall point of
the Aber river near Llanfairfechan in Gwynedd (Figure 6.1). 71beAber river passes
through the centre of the study area. The lithology comprises -S-urfacefill, sand and
gravel, silts and clays, peat, Irish sea till and Welsh till. There is a major fault scarp
passing some distance away from the study area. The investigation identifies two
aquifers upper and lower in the area separatedby glacial till and they are both in direct
contact with the sea all along the coast. Ilie bed-rock seems to lie quite deep in the
area as the soundings could not pinpoint them even down to the depth of about 45
Average
metres.
rainfall per year in years 1991 and 1992 was 1050mm. Using Cooper
et al (1964) Equation, an approximate rate of flow of the fresh water to the coast is
estimated to be 50 nNdayim.
The MaIltraeth area forms a large flat bottomed Hey in the
va.
southern portion
of Anglesey (Figure 7.1). The study,area lies at the mouth of the Cefni river. The
101
from
is
Malltraeth
forms
the
area separated
a part of
Newborough forest site which
lying
the
dune
to
broadly
high
parallel
by
sands,
beach
spread
Malltraeth
and
very
in
"Some
20
thickness
body
metres
This
beach.
of
Malitraeth
site consists of a sand
dislocation
A
depth.
15-30
bed-rock
major
boulder
metres
about
at
with
clay
overlying
data
The
unconfined
single
a
shows
fault
the
'Berw'
experimental
area.
across
the
runs
Average
the
in
direct
is
coast.
the
all
along
sea
in
contact
with
the
area which
aquifer
flow
An
850mm.
of
1992
of
rate
1991
in
approximate
was
and
rainfall per year years
be
12
to
fresh
tn/day/m.
the
to
out
coast comes
the
water
Pordunadog
lying
2.5
the
to
is
of
west
Morfa Bychan a coastal area
miles
about
is
bounded
8.1).
The
to
the
(Figure
Cardigan
Bay
area
andon the northernextremity of
lying
low
by
dunes
relatively
by
to
the
and
west
and
north
sand
coastal
south
eastand
flows
Glaslyn
Mon
through
ditches.
The
by
drained
river
small
open
marshyground
boulder
clay
The
gravel,
the area.
site consistsof granularmaterialmostly sand,minor
is
base.
Bychan
As
Morfa
there
igneous
intrusive
the
a single
at
rocks at
with
is
in
direct
the
in
the
along
the
all
sea
area
which
contact
with
aquifer
unconfined
An
925mm.
in
1991
1992
Average
approximate
and
was
rainfall per year years
coast.
/day/in.
be
5
fresh
flow
to
to
the
the
rr?
coast
out
comes
of
water
rate of
The saline intrusion in all 3 sites was identified as a seawater intrusion on the
basisof chloridelbicarbonateratio.
2) Effects of rivers, dunes and rain recharge on saline intrusion
From the data of the three casestudies(chapters6,7 and 8) it is observedthat

the high rainfall in theseareaskeep the natural flow in the rivers continuouslygoing
and these,along with the dunesin the area receiving abundantrainfall, maintain the
gradientof fresh water towardsseawater (seeFigures 6.15,7.3a, and 8.3a). Refer to
102
(above).
The
flow
the
three
areas
these
of
maps
sites
contour
at
estimated rates of
drawn, show that the regions surrounding rivers in these areas are the least affected
from saline intrusion as compared to other regions in the same areas. This effect is
Cross
-on
(1988)
the
by
Hagemeyer
described
who, while working
similar to that
Florida Barge Canal, has shown the effect of canal fresh water preventing the intrusion
8.7
(Figures
Bychan
Morfa
in
is
11iis
and
the
area
particularly exemplified
of seawater.
8.8) where recharge from the Mon Glaslyn has prevented seawaterintruding very deep
inland, particularly the area surrounding the river bed, and has created a mixing zone
almost 20 metres in thickness.
3) Effects of Glacial till on saline intrusion
The Aber College Farm site has two aquifers separatedby glacial till. The
by
density
layer
fresh
from
till
the
protects
currents.
glacial
water underneath
exchange
The Holocene fonnations above this glacial till layer consist of sand saturated with
contarninated water and a top layer of fresh groundwater. This situation agrees well
with the geophysical survey carried south-west of the polder, west of Alkmnaar,
Netherlands as shown by Van Dam and Meulenkamp, (1967).
Ibe role of glacial till is quite evident in the area shown in Figm-es,6.10 and
6.11 where glacial till is missing in the most of the area.Thesedata further elaborate
that the glacial till's existencenear the coastacts as a barrier to prevent the intrusion
of seawaterinland which resultsin a very thick fresh water zone inland safe from the
effects of saline intrusion. Such a natural barrier indicates a way forward-by
constructingartificial barriers-topreventinvasionof seawatersin coastaland estuarine
103
intrusion
faulting
4) Possible effects of
on saline
At the Aber site it has been observed that the glacial till separatestwo aquifers
6.11).
6.10
(Figures
and
but this glacial till is found missing in some parts of the area
in
the
faulting
Aber-DinUe
be
the
attributed to
11iis omission of the glacial till could
is
it
that
possible
the
to
area;
fault
study
Quaternary
near
quite
passes
scarp
area, as a
in
the
into
that
of
part
one
this faulting could be the cause of merging two aquifers
study area.
V-type
7.5
7.3
typical
structurewhich
Figures
In the Mdltraeth area,
showa
and
has
fault
Berw
there
the
plane,
because
along
or
erosion
that,
movement
of
suggests
line
It
the
of the
beenan unevendepositionof sedimentsat that point. possibly marks
fault 'Berw'.
P
5) The extent of saline intrusion as a function of permeability
An aquifer is a geologicalfonnation containingwater and which has a struchm

for
both
it,
through
to
abstraction and recharge
move
permitting appreciable water
purposes.
Coastal aquifers come in contact with the ocean at or seaward of the coastline
into
is
discharged
fresh
the
here,
ocean.
groundwater
conditions,
and
under natural
.f
Salineintrusionresultswhen with increaseddemandsfor groundwaterin many coastal
areas,where the seawardflow of groundwaterhas been decreasedor even reversed,
seawaterenters the aquifer and penetratesinland. By lowering the water table in
unconfm4 aquifers,or thepiezometricsurfacein confinedaquifers,the naturalgradient
sloping downward toward the ocean is reduced or, reversed.Becausetwo fluids of
different densitieg'areinvolved, a boundary surface,or interface, is formed wherever
104
the fluids are in contact.

is
17his
invariably
is
its
in
movement
Groundwater
moving.
natural state
been
has
It
the
that
hydraulic
of
rate
by
shown
principles.
established
governed
hydraulic
the
by
the
is
and
the
aquifer
of
permeability
governed
movement
groundwater
high
10-2
2.3-x
low
is
permeability
lCr6
as
4.72
m/sec
taken
and
as
m/sec
x
gradient.
by
flows
steeper
water
or
Natural
1980).
wells,
(Todd,
pumping
modified,
are
values
tables or drains to produce higher velocities.
10'
3.2
between
(ranging
m/sec
x
Transmissivity(191rre/day)andpermeability
laboratory
in
field
in
the
determined
prove
the
as
lOr'
as well
to 1.3 x
m/sec)values
from
front
intrusion
the
be
saline
to moderateand thesegreatly add towardsretarding
low
has
to
(1987)
inland.
the
further
Howard
that
with
sediment
shown
moving
landward
the
movementof saline
transmissivity
minimizes
moderatepermeability or
intrusions.Ibis studyat Aber Collegefarm, MaRtmethandMorfa Bychansubstantiates
thesefindings.
In the Malltraeth area,it was further observedthat the saline water also seemed
to havebeenlesswide spreadtowardsthe north (estuarinesediments)of the study area
because
is
direction.
This
the sedimentsare
to
the
presumably
opposite
as compared
getting finer towardsthe estuaryas silt/clay contentis increasingas comparedto sand;
this resultsin permeability decreasingand a consequentdecreaseof saline intrusion.
6) The effect of tides and borehole pumping on the position of the saline interface
Field measurementsat Miami (Cooper et al., 1964) and experimentalstudies

(Cahill, 1967)haveshownthe landwardmovementof the salinewater body wheretidal
action is the predominantmixing mechanism.Goswami (1968) observedthat because
of tides,particularly springtides.-a considembleshift of the saline/freshwater interface
105
occurs.
Meinzer (1945)warnedof over pumping in coastalaquiferson the basis

field
of
observationsand predicted a continuousencroachmentof salt water. Hem
(1959) observedthat pumping inland will reduce the head of the fresh water and,
becausehead changesare transmittedmpidly through the system,the flow of fresh
water seawardwill be decreased;in fact the headmay decline enoughto stop entirely
the seawardflow of freshwaterpastthe interface.With the decreasedfresh water flow
the systemwill be unstableand salt water will invade the aquifer. Diersch et al.,
(1984), and Schmorak& Mercado,(1969) have shown that pumping a well in fresh
water underlainby salt water can causethe salt water front to rise locally below the
well (also called upconing)in responseto the pressuredepressionaround the well.
The geophysically-measured
observationsat Aber during spring tides clearly
demonstrated
that tides do affect the interface(seeFigure 6.20). Resultsof the various
VES soundingsmade on the site showedthat the resistivity and thicknessof the two
aquifersin the areachangedas the groundwaterlevel, along with its resistivity, altered
with the simultaneousrise and fall of the spring tide. Salinity changes in the
groundwaterbeforeand after the rise of the spring tide further confmned that tides do
affect the interface.
Pumpingtestscarried out at the Aber (seeTable 6.11c) showedthat the salinity
of groundwaternearthe coastchangedsignificantly after pumping.The salinity change
causedby pumping was found to be greaterthan that createdby the spring tides.
7) The deviation from the theoretical "Ghijben-Herzberg Relationship"
Ile Ghijben-HerzbergRelationshipcalls for 40 to I

a
ratio betweenthe depth
of the interfaceand the height of water table above mean sea level. But Aber this
at
106
contact zone was found to occur within 17.45 to 21.45 metres below mean sea level,
which if the Ghijben-Hexzberg Relationship held should be at 146-174 metres.
A deviation from the theoretical "Ghijben-HexzbergRelationship" has been

observed(Jacoband Schmorak, 1960) and seemsto have been causedby the foRowing:
a) The contact between the fresh and saline water is not abrupt but is in the fonn
of a zone of mixing (transitionzone) with a gradationfrom fresh to salt water.

b) Both the fresh and saline water body are not stagnantas assumedby the
Ghi ben-HerzbergRelationship.A downwardcomponent(causedby rechargethrough
precipitation)exists in the fresh water zone.The fresh water is in continuousstateof
motion as is evidencedby seepagesurfacesabovethe sealevel in the beacharea.The
existenceof suchsurfacesis not consideredin the Ghijben-HerzbergRelationship,nor
thereis any provision for th6 escapeof fresh water below the sealevel (Wiest, 1965).
Such a situationexists at Aber Farm.
The reasonsgiven by Lusczynski and Swarzenski, (1962), for the occurrence of
Magothy
broad
diffusion
in
fonnation in Long Island, New York, also
the
a
zone of
holds good at Aber. The irregular shape and thickness of the zone of mixing might
have been caused as a result of the combination of several factors:
i) Opposing flow directions in adjacent bodies of fresh and saline
groundwater.
ii) Effects of movementsof water within the aquifer having variable pore
geometry(this has also been observedby Rumer and Harleman, 1963).
iii) Fluctuationsin fresh water dischargeto the seawaterdue to the
changesin
the groundwaterrechargethrough precipitation and the variations of gradient in fresh
and saline groundwatercausedby oceanictides.
iv) Molecular diffusion.
The observationsmadeat Aber indicate that

107
all thesefactors are involved in the
in
ideal
Ghijben-Herzberg
the
to
the
occurrence and shapeof
zone of mixing
contrast
Relationship.
8) The usefulness of geophysical probing
interface
fresh-saline
has
detection
Much
the
the
water
resistivity work on
of
,
beencarriedout in different parts of the world (Flathe, 1970;Kelly, 1976;Zohdy et al
1974;Gorhan,1976;Klefstad et al 1976;and Worthington, 1977).Someinvestigators
have used frequency domain, low induction number conductivity mapping for
groundwaterexplorationand the detectionof saline intrusionsusing EM conductivity
meters(Fraser,,1984;andMcNeill, 1980a).ElsewhereVolker andDi kstra (1955),Van
Darn and Meulenkamp,(1967) and Ginzburg (1974) working independentlyin polder
and delta regions followed standardgeoelectricproceduresfor mapping saline water
contamination:electricalsoundingsarecardedout nearall boreholesandwells existing
in the investigationareaand simultaneouslythe conductivity and chloride content of
groundwatersamplesfrom the boreholesdetermined.A graph can then be assembled
by relating the chloride,contentsto the true aquifer resistivities as obtained from the
soundings.Finally a map showing the chloride distribution of groundwater can be
prepared,by convertingdirectly true aquifer resistivities to chloride concentrations.
In the present study, an attempt has been made to combine resistivity and
electromagnetictechniques for each of the three areas to compare these to the
geologicallog data determinedfrom drill holes and augerholes. It was observedthat
out of the two methodsusedthe EM soundingsfailed to pinpoint exactly in the sand
dunes the correct depth of the conductive saturated layer (aquifer). However by
inserting the actual water table depth parametersand borehole log data into
the
interpretive computer program and constraining the
program through the known
108
thicknesses(dry upper layers) a good fit was obtained (Chapter 7). The Offset Wenner
system which, although it has many advantagesover the simple Wenner, when it is
used on the beach, simultaneously working on dry sand sites and near to mean high
water sites, it usually gave erroneousreadingspresumably due to the contact resistance.
In the Malltraeth area, the electrical methods have also demonstrated the
provisionof information aboutdipping bed rocks,as well as giving dataregardingsoft

in
Ibis
between
hard
two
observation the study area
rock sandwiched
ends.
rock at
supports the conclusion of Greenly (1919). Clearly, then, geophysical electrical
observationsnot only can define boundariesbetweensaline and fresh water but the
resistivitiesdeterminedin the interpretationprocedurecan also give someindication of
the level of contamination,of someimportancein potabilityrufigation considerations
(seebelow). finportantly, if any wells or boreholesexist, and samplesof water are
it is then possibleto calculatethe electrical
availablefor direct salinity measurements,
formation factor of the aquifer.The observationsmadeat Aber, Malltraeth and Morfa
Bychanillustratethat the formationfactor, throughthe useof empirical curves(Jackson
et al., 1978;Lovell, 1983 and Barker & Worthington, 1973). can be used to give a
good measureof of both porosity and permeability of the aquifer (seeTables 7.8 and
8.6). In particular the permeability calculated through formation factor
considerations
fit well within a range of values obtained by various methods and varies by
no more
than half a magnitude from the most extremes. This is of considerable significance in
calculating the hydrological characteristics of any water bearing medium without
recourse to expensive pumping tests which need only, then, to be carried out as a last
resort.
109
9) The mixing water zone
Wentworth (195 1) has shown that a sharp interfacial boundary between fresh and
in
field
instead
brackish
does
transition zone
conditions:
a
occur
saline water
not
separatesthe two fluids developed by unsteady displacements of the interface by
external influences such as tides and pumping wells. Cooper (1959) described how the
diffusion
fresh
to
tend
a
produce
along
a
contact
zone
and salt water
movements of
interface.
than
a
sharp
of
mixing
rather
zone
In an area where no other source of saline contamination exists, high chloride
concentrationsin groundwatercan be consideredrather definite proof of seawater

A
(Hem,
1959).
contamination
measurement
of fluid conductivity alonecannotresolve
the type of dissolvedsolids.It is, however,commonto relate electricalconductivity to
an equivalentchloride concentration(Kwader, 1986).
To derivemorequantitativeinformationaboutconcentrationof dissolvedsolids,
an attempt has been made to correlate formation resistivities measured through direct
resistivity methods to chloride concentrations (chapter 5). An aquifer with a nu*xm*g
water zone has been defined to correspond to bulk resistivities ranging from 8 ohm-m
to 35 ohm-m and with chlorides from 250 ppm. to 500 ppm. 7be lower limit here
agrees more with Mills and Ryder, (1977); Jacob, (1980); and Stewart et al., (1982),
have
it
who
put between 200 - 250 ppm, than that of Goswami who has put the lower
limit at 300 pprn chloride concentration. Further Goswarni puts the mixing
zone range
between 300 to 500 ppm, chloride concentration.
Mixing zones in general result in suppressed'layers' in resistivitY interpretation.
In the Aber area where fresh water slumps in resistivity values from high to
low
as
as
I ohm-m in the lower aquifer region along the coast (see Figures 6.7,6.10
6.11).
and
In contrast in the Morfa Bychan area where recharge from Afon Glaslyn
occurs and
110
diick
20
mixing zone.
metres,
gives a
in
boundaries
lithological.
as seen the
Saline and mixing zones seem to cross
low
bed
resistivities
Bychan
Morfa
variable
rocks show
Malltraeth and the
areaswhere
becausetheir pore spacesseem filled with saline water.
bulk
defined
been
to
has
to
resistivity
a
correspond
An aquifer with saline water
T'his
500
value
more.
or
ppm
less
7
concentration
chloride
and with a
of ohm-m or
(1990),
Hoekstra
(1988);
Mills
al.,
et
the
and
less
al.,
et
of
work
agreeswith
more or
500
(and
8
bulk
ppm
widi
rn
it
ohm.
to
of
have
resistivity
a
to
correspond
shown
who
data
be
the
7
of
A
with
consistent
also
m
would
ohm.
of
value
chloride concentration).
Guo (1986) for sandaquifersin China.
10) Application to salinity problems in Pakistan
The generalimportanceof this investigationto a study of the salinity build-up

in irrigated areas of Pakistan cannot be over-emphasized. Permanent monitoring by
in
the
salinity of groundwater
alteration
electrical equipment could give a picture of
build-up
for
formulating
the
lead
the
salinity
of
to
eradication
a
policy
which could
(such as by the use of fresh water recharge).
For example in areas where saline water (upper aquifer) is already being
if
data
fresh
survey
could
provide
an
additional
and
extractedan extensivegeophysical
lower
depths)
(at
be
those
are
present,
could
also
extractedalongsidethe
wateraquifers
in
joint
that
their
use would preventthe spreadof salinity on
upper salinewater order
the ground surfaceside by side lowering the water table level.
ill
CHAPTER 10. CONCLUSIONS
The intrusion of saline water into fresh groundwater is the most common cause
intrusion
in
Such
from
invasion
the
can
occur
a
variety
of
ways
of pollution.
of sea
water in coastal and estuarine zones to evaporation in enclosed water areas and the
effects of irrigation in semi-arid zones, such as in regions of Pakistan. 11iis study has
been directed towards the examination of geophysical electrical techniques for
determining the extent of saline intrusion and other hydrological parametersof the subsurface medium with the ultimate aim of transferring such techniques to a Pakistan
situation. The conclusions are:
1) Electrical resistivity depth probing (VES), electromagnetic soundings (EM)

and chemical tests on groundwater samples obtained from boreholes indicate the
existence of a saline-fresh water interface and a zone of mixing
at three
coastal/estuarinestudy areas.
2) The extent of saline intrusion is a function of permeability and the volume

of fresh water (either from rainfall or river flow or both) available to prevent inland
movement;it is also a function of the availability of any naturalbarrierssuchasglacial
till and bed rocL
3) 7be position of the saline interfaceis considerably

affected by spring tides
but it is alsomodified by boreholepumpingwhich can
createupconingof salinewater.
4) In the areaschosenthere is a wide deviation from

the theoretical "OhijbenHerzberg Relationship",the depth of the saline interface being
much less than that
112
ftesh
This
is
largely
because
between
from
the
the
and
relationship.
calculated
contact
fresh
both
being
is
abrupt
there
and saline
and
a
mixing
zone
saline waters not
-
by
the relationship.
as
required
watersare mobile, not stagnant
5) Geophysical observations provide a dependablemeans for the detection and

mapping of a saline intrusion. They also provide acceptable values of porosity and
interrelation
between
information
the
concerning
permeability as well as valuable
penneability and transmissivity of an aquffer.
6) A bulk resistivity of 7 olun.m or lessand chloride concentrationof 500 ppm

or moredefinedsalinegroundwater,andthe zoneof mixing water (transitionzone)was
definedby resistivitiesrangingbetween8 ohm.m,to 35 ohm.rn with chloridesbetween
250pprn to 500ppm. As indicatedin (3) the boundariesvary considerablywith the tide
(particularly spring tides), including an unsteadyfresh water flow pattern and the
permeabilityof the aquifer.
7) In Pakistan's severe waterlogging and salinity conditions, the geophysical

methods could play a pivotal role in the detection of the severity of the problem
beforehand in order to take precautions in halting the twin menace.
113
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APPENDICES
DATA
SET:
UCNW
CLIENT:
ABER
LOCATION:
COUNTY: GWYNEDD
PROJECT: GROUNDWATER
0.0
ELEVATION:
X:
SOUNDING COORDINATES:
DATE:
SOUNDING:
AZIMUTH:
EQUIPMENT:
0.0
Wenner
FITTING
ABER10B
3.6.92
10B
//BEACH
T-METER
0.0
Y:
Configuration
3.5
ERROR
PERCENT
RESISTIVITY
(ohm-m)
THICKNESS
(meters)
ELEVATION
(meters)
LONG. COND. TRANS. RES.

(Siemens)
(ohm-M2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
100.0
2090.0
45.00
15.00*
614.30
111.30
15.00
0.500*
1.50
2.80
2.40
8.10
17.00
-0.500
-2.00
-4.80
-7.20
-15.30
-32.30
0.005
6.470E-04
0.0622
0.160
0.0113
0.1350
"*'
INDICATES
FIXED
PARAMETER
PARAMETER BOUNDS FROM EQUIVALENCE
RHO
LAYER
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
MINIMUM
82.00
1182.90
40.00
15.00
64.55
101.00
11.21
BEST
100.00
2090.00
45.00
15.00
614.30
111.00
15.00
ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM
111.00
4961.80
52.00
15.00
3210.00
121.01
18.05
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.500
1.500
2.800
2.400
4.360
15.941
0.500
1.500
2.800
2.400
8.100
17.000
0.500
1.500
2.800
2.400
10.50
17.85
DEPTH 1
2
3
4
5
6
0.500
2.000
4.800
7.200
11.560
27.501
0.500
2.000
4.800
7.200
15.300
32.300
0.500
2.000
4.800
7.200
17.70
35.55
THICK
Appendix
Table
(DC resistivity)
Aber 108.
site
6A. Xquivalence
bounds
sounding
results
at
50.00
3477.50
126.00
36.00
7412.90
1671.70
DATA SET:
CLIENT:
UCNW
LOCATION: ABER
COUNTY: GWYNEDD
0.0
ELEVATION:
SOUNDING COORDINATES: X:
COIL
Y: 0.0
0.0
Horizontal
FITTING
ABER10B
Coplanar
0.90
ERROR
RESISTIVITY
(ohm-m)
THICKNESS
(meters)
ELEVATION
(meters)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
101.4
1593.0
40.00
15.00*
550.10
126.00
20.00
0.500*
1.50
2.80
2.40
9.90
15.50
-0.500
-2.00
-4.80
-7.20
-17.10
-32.60
'*'
INDICATES
FIXED
RHO
THICK
MINIMUM
90.00
159.36
35.00
15.00
135.01
116.00
11.21
BEST
101.40
1593.60
40.00
15.00
550.10
126.00
20.00
3.6.92
10B
//BEACH
MAXMIN
50.00
m
Loops
PERCENT
CONDUCTANCE RESISTANCE
(Siemens)
(ohm)
0.0049
0.0018
0.0700
0.160
0.0178
0.2530
PARAMETER

LAYER
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
DATE:
SOUNDING:
AZIMUTH:
EQUIPMENT:
SEPARATION:
ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM
104.340
15936.560
45.00
15.00
5501.890
141.01
40.05
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.500
1.500
2.800
2.400
8.90
14.20
0.500
1.500
2.800
2.400
9.900
15.50
0.500
1.500
2.800
2.400
10.840
20.20
DEPTH 1
2
3'
4
5
6
0.500
2.000
4.800
7.200
16.10
30.30
0.500
2.000
4.800
7.200
17.100
32.60
0.500
2.000
4.800
7.200
18.040
38.240
Appendix
6B. Zquivalence
Table
(EM) sounding
results
at site
bounds
Aber 10B.
50.74
4769.60
112.00
36.99
5391.70
4022.40
%0
fS
0- 1
Ub
ii
I-
w
0
0
too
to
SPACING (m)
ICAmm
1000
lea
(soft-04
a.
4,
0
25
-20
1
0-1
m
15
b
4.
C:.
(1
-c
011
INDUCTICII
Ift
is
NUMBER
100
RESI. STIVITY
A
appendix Irigure
6C. Vortical
electric
sounding cuzv
(a)
and electromagnetic
sounding curve (b)
at site 3C based on f Leld data points.
0
% ERROR: 1.9
E
I
E
.C
0
9-4
z
ui
Ix
C
OL
a-
11
io
01
Appendix
Figure
I
SPACING
le
(m)
100
D. Vertical
electric
sounding
cuzv
at
2B based on field
data points.
site
i0o
RESISUM
1000
(Ohrn-tn)
10
ti
10
SPACING
1000
RCSWWY (Own-on)
100
to
100
10
. t.
0
25
20
<r
D
C3
I
d-.
Im
15
10
41
w
C
o
5
0 001
011
0 01
INDUCTION
NUMBER
to
tee
RESISTIvIV-0
b.
APPOnd:Lx IrIclurs
0
M. VOrtiCal
(a)
electric
sounding curv
and electromagnetic
sounding curve (b)
data points.
at site 4C based on field
I eee
30
p.
i
I
0in
w
11
ZL
is
okcsimm
SPACING W
100
(o--)
late
too
le
a.
.
++
"I
"0
3e
0
lk Y.RR03t. - 0.9
20
10
IK
cz
7
,a
LLJ
0'
-20
e 01
0.1
INDUCTIM4
10
300
NUMBER
A
J4ppandix Irigure
Vertical
electric
sounding curve (a)
and electromagnetic
sounding curve (b)
data points.
at site 5B based on field
1eeO
DATA SET:
CLIENT:
UCNW
LOCATION:
MALLTRAETH
COUNTY: GWYNEDD
0.0
ELEVATION:
MTRTH3C
DATE:
SOUNDING:
AZIMUTH:
EQUIPMENT:
0.0
1.4.92
3C
//BEACH
TERRA-MR
0.0
Y:
Wenner Configuration
FITTING
L
1
2
3
RESISTIVITY
(ohm-m),
3.29
10.71
INDICATES
ELEVATION
(meters)
THICKNESS
(meters)
1.440
1.97
142.03
FIXED
-3.29
14.00
RHO

(ohm-m2)
(Siemens)
2.28
5.74
MINIMUM
1.370
1.551
67.233
BEST
1.444
1.970
142-030
MAXIMUM
1.523
2.266
887.05
2.131
10.001
3.291
10.711
4.957
12.826
DEPTH 1
2
2.131
12.132
3.298
14.002
4.957
17.783
Anmndix
sounding
Table
results
U.
4.76
20.25
ANALYSIS
1
2
THICK
PERCENT
PARAMETER

LAYER
1
2
3
2.6
ERROR
Xquivalence
bounds
(DC resistivity)
Ifalltraeth
&t site
3C.
DATA SET:
UCNw
CLIENT:
MALLTRAETH
LOCATION:
COUNTY: GWYNEDD
PROJECT: GROUVDWATER
0.0
ELEVATION:
4.40
11.41
1.11
2.26
142.00
1
2
3
1*1 INDICATES
Coplanar
ELEVATION
(meters)
-4.40
-15.81
RHO
LAYER
1
2
3
THICK
2
DEPTH
Appendix
results
PERCENT
CONDUCTANCE RESISTANCE
(Siemens)
(ohm)
4.62
6.87
12.09
10.98
FIXED PARAMETER

MINIMUM
0.939
1.551
135.34
BEST
1.11
2.26
142.002
ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM
2.37
7.58
250.02
4.31
11.20
4.400
4.45
11.411
12.01
4.31
15.51
4.40
15.811
4.45
16.46
Table
at site
1.4.92
3C
//BEACH
MAXMIN
50.00 m
Loops
3.90
ERROR
THICKNESS
(meters)
RESISTIVITY
(ohm-m)
DATE:
SOUNDING:
AZIMUTH:
EQUIPMENT:
SEPARATION:
COIL
Y: 0.0
0.0
Horizontal
FITTING
MTRTH3C
7R. Xquivalence
bounds
Malltraeth
3C.
(EM) sounding
DATA SET: MBYCN6II
DATE:
SOUNDING:
AZIMUTH:
EQUIPMENT:
UCNW
-CLIENT:
LOCATION: MORFABYCHN
COUNTY: PROJECT: GROUNDWATER
0.0
ELEVATION:
0.0
Y:
7.4.92
61"
//BEACH
TERRA-MR
0.0
Wenner, Configuration
FITTING
L
RESISTIVITY
(ohm-m)
THICKNESS
(meters)
1
2
3
4.00
12.01
54.90
1.91
7.50
",
INDICATES
PARAMETER
RHO
FIXED
BOUNDS
LAYER
1
2
3
2.43
ERROR
ELEVATION
(meters)

(ohm-M2)
(Siemens)
-1.91
-9.41
0.418
0.652
FROM EQUIVALENCE
MINIMUM
3.64
8.08
49.44
BEST
4.00
12.01
54.90
ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM
4.11
13.26
63.51
1.31
5.23
1.91
7.50
2.12
8.74
DEPTH 1
2
1.31
6.54
1.91
9.41
2.12
10.86
App4mdix
sounding
Table
results
6.21
64.94
PARAMETER
1
2
THICK
PERCENT
81. Zquivalence
Morfa
at site
bounds
Bycham
(Dc resistivity)
6IF.

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Title:

OF SALINE INTRUSIONS IN COASTAL AND

A thesis submitted in accordancewith the requirementsof the University of Wales for

By: SAEED AHMED SOOMRO

University College of North Wales,

(52) It is HE (ALLAH) Who has

and swee4and the other salt

me to seekhigher education and to my loving

I diank ProfessorDenzil Taylor Smith who despitehis multifarious engagements

I would also like to diank'Ift

F.C.D. Dewes, A. Nield, David Boon and

especially Mr. G.Williams.

challengingtask: their continuedsilenceand undemandingsupport after returning to

In the years 1991and 1992combined vertical electric (VES) and electromagnetic

It is clear that in the sites examineda combination of permeability and an

1.1 Aims of the thesis.

SALINE INTRUSION IN GROUNDWATER.

2.1 Nature and position of saline-freshwater

2.2 Structureof the fresh-saltwater interface.

2.2.1 Shapeof interface.

2.3.1 Due to tidal effect.

2.3.2 Due to pumping.

2.4 Sourcesof salinity in groundwater.

2.5 Detectionof saline-freshwater interface.

3.1 Electrical resistivity method.

3.1.2 Offset Wenner system.

3.1.3 ABEM's Terrameter SAS 300

3.1.4.2 Spacing errors (Wenner)

3.1.4.3 Offset effors

3.2 Electromagnetic Method

c) The reference cable.

3.2.1 Observational Errors (EM)

a) Errors due to loop spacing

b) Errors due to orientation

3.3 Conductivity of groundwater

3.4 Determination of chloride ions in

FLOW ANALOGY IN POROUSMEDIA.

4.1 Permeabilityand formation factor relationship.

4.2 Permeabilityand methodsof its determination.

4.2.1 laboratory methods.

4.2.1.1 Constant head method.

4.2.1.2 Permeability by grain size analyses.

4.2.2 Field permeability tests.

4.2.2.1 In-situ constant head test.

4.2.2.2 Guelph permeability test.

4.2.2.3 Field pumping test.

6.1 Introduction and geology of the area.

6.2 Detection/mapping of the salinefresh water interface using

6.3 Effect of spring tides on interface.

6.4 Effect on interface due to the pumping.

6.5 Permeability of the sediments.

6.6 Porosity estimated from geoelectric data.

6.7 Deviation from the Ghijben-Herzberg

7.1 Introduction and geology of the area.

7.2 Detection/mapping of the salinefresh water interface using

7.3 Vertical resistivity versus electromagnetic

7.4 Permeability of sediments and saline

8.1 Introduction and geology of the area.

8.2 Detection/mapping of the salinefresh water interface using

8.3 Permeability of sediments related

1) General characteristics of the

2) Effects of rivers, dunes and min

3) Effects of glacial till on saline

4) Possible effects of faulting on