1

....................................................................
............3

..................................................................
...........9
..................................................................
..........13
...................................................................
..........19

-................36
......................................................................
.........41

-................46
-.............. 48
..................................................................
.........50

3

-..........................57
-..................61
-................63
-.................65
-...............67
-...................69
-....................70
-...............71
..................................................................
............72

-..............81
-....................82
-..............83
-...............83
-..................85
-................86
-........................88
-.....................90
......................................................................
...........93
4

..................................................................
.........100

..............................................................104

-.................112
-................113
..............118
..................................................................
............120

-...............125

-...............127
-.............127
-..............131
-.........131

...................................................132

.....................................................................
.140
5

..................................................................
............142
....................................................................
.............143

...................................................................144
..............................................................
..............152
..............................................................
.............153

8 , 5
, , ,
. 99,8 %
.

.
( 74%
92% ), ( 24% 7 %
) ,
, , , , ,
, , , .
G2V. G2
5.500 C (5.780 K),
,
,
( )
.
.
,
.
,
. V ( 5)

.
.
,
85 %
, .

26-27.000
, .
8


225-250
( ).
22020 km/s,
251 km/s.
1194,5
7 .

( ), 2,
,
. "".
10 ,
5 ,
.
,
, . , ,
.

( ) .
3,8 x 1038
( ).

,

.
,
.
. ,
,
,


().
.
:
..1 392 000 km
1,9891 x 1030 kg
.1,411 g/cm3
...5780 K
2,2 x 108

.274 N/kg
:
73,46 %
24,58 %
..0,77 %
0,29 %
...0,16 %
...0,12 %
0,09 %
0,07 %
...0,05 %
..0,04 %

10




11 . , 8
15 . :





. ,
.
.
, 17. ,
.
,
.
.

-
,
.
. ,

.
,
,
.
-
,
, 15,6 K
1016 .
11


. 4 (
) (2
2 ),
-.
-

,
- .
-
1 mm ,

( ).

-


.


.
, .

.
-
.
6000 K.
,
() .
1000 km, (
) .
. 30 000 km
24 .
-
12


,
10 000 km.
.
.
,
.

.

.
()
. 150
000 km , .
20
000 K. ,

. 10 .

-
, ,
1 000 000 K.
.

.
-
( )
,
.
,

.

.
13




.
km/h,

. ,

(
). ,

.

-
.
,

. ,
.
,
.

14



0,387 57.910.000 km.
,
46 70 km. 4.880 km,
3,301023 kg.
10
45% . ,
,

.
,
, .

-
, 1012
.
. ,
.
:

,
.

................................31,7%
..............................24,9%
................9,5%
...................................7,0%
................................5,9%
........5,6%
......................................5,2%
15


-.....................3,6%
.....................................3,4%
................................3,2%

623 K

103 K

.
90 K

440

700 K

-
,
.
( )
(Caloris Basin) (Planitia Caloris),
1350 km.

. Caloris
:

.
,
.

. 2-3 km
.

.

16


-

( ).
70% 30% .
5430 kg/m3,
. ,
,

.
5.5% .
42% ( 17%).
600 km. .
-
46-70
km .
,
,
, .

.

..................0.387
.......................................57
910 000 km
................................................................0.205
63069
...........................................................87
23.3

............................................................115.88
17



...............................................47.8725 km/h

............................................7.004

-
.

( ).

- 1:1. ,
1965. . 3:2.

.
. ,

,
.
3:2
.

.
,
( ) .
, 2.
.

.
,
.
-
1% ,

18


.

,


.


.

.
0,72 108 200 000 km ,
12.103,60 km 4,8691024 kg.
, .
,
. ,

,

.

-
(96%) (3%). 1% , , -, , ,
, , .
9321,9
, 90 .
-
,
500C, 400C .
19


464C.
,

.
,

.

. 350 km/h
, .

. .

-
.
"": Ishtar Terra (
), Aphrodite Terra ( ) Beta
Regio ( ). Maxwell Montes
Lakshmi Planum.

( ): Atalanta Planitia, Guinevere Planitia
Lavinia Planitia.
,
3 km .
(
90% ) .
(
100 000), .

-
.

20


3000 km.
.
,

.
,

.
( ),
800 .

.

-
,
,
.
,
.
, ,

.
, , ,
.
(
). .

-

.........0.723
..............................108 208
930 km
21


.......................................................0.0067732
3
...................................................224.695

...................................................583.92

......................................35.0214
km/h
...................................3.39471

-
,
,
( ).
,
( )
. ,


.
,
.

1961............................... 7..........
1961...............................-1............

22


1962................................ 1..........
1962............................... 23........
1962...............................
2...................................
1967...............................4...................................
1967...............................
5...................................
1969...............................-5............
1969...............................-6............
1970...............................7...................................
1972...............................-8............
1973............................... 10........
1975...............................9...................................
1975...............................10.................................
1978...............................
............................
1978...............................-11..........
1978...............................-12..........
1981...............................13.................................
1981...............................-14..........
1983...............................-15..........
1983...............................-16..........
23


1984...............................
1........................................
1984...............................
2........................................
1989......................................................................

1990......................................................................

1998........................................................................

.

.

.
.
,
.
.

,
.
.

.
.

.
,
.


.
24



,
400C,
.

.

.
7 (1961),
, (1961:
1, 1962: 1 23).
(
) 2
(27.8.1962) . 35
000 km ,
.

-4 (1967).
.
5.
-7 17. 1970.
. -9 -10
1975,
. 9 -
.

,
455 C,

900 m.
, .
, ,
, .
,

25


15 km/h,
.

, ,
1978. . ,
, ,
1992.
4 .
,
.

.
,
. 11 km

.
25 .
.


.

-13. 1 2
1984.
,
. ,
, .
(1989 - 1994)

. 99% 300 /
.
- .

26



...................................152.097.701 km
...............................147.098.074 km
................................924.375.700 km
................7,029 754 4 1016 km
...................0,016 710 219

........................0,003 352 9
.................................6.372,797 km
.........6.378,137 km
...................6.356,752 km
.............................510.065.600 km
...................148.939.100 km (29,2 %)
.................361.126.400 km (70,8 %)
............................1,083 207 31012 km
.....................................5,97361024 kg
.................................5.515,3 kg/m

.........101,3 kPa (MSL)
............78,08% N2
............................................20,95% O2
............................................0,93%
............................................0,038% -
( )
27


.

.
, .
.

4,6
.
U238 4,51 x 109 , Th232
1,39 x 1010.

, ,
.

,
.
, ,
4,53 . ,
366,26
( 365,26
). 23,5

.

,
. 71 %
.

. 29 %
.
,
.
.
, ,
28


, ,
.

. ,

.

.

-

, , ,
.-

.

.
4,6
,
.
,
( )
.
.
,
10 % ,
.
,
.

. ,
, .

4 ,
29


,
.

.

.

.
,
.
, , 300
180 .
.

, ,

. 750 ,
, ,
, 600-540
,
, ,
180 .

20. ,
750
580 ,
.
" "

.
(
), .
65 ,

30


,
, , , .
65 ,
,
, .


. ,


,
.

-
.
,
, ,
,
. terra
.
, ,
, , ,
.
, , ,
.

-

. ,

,
- . 5,98
1024 kg.
31


,
43 km
.
(8.848
), (10.911 ).
, ,
1:584 0,17 %, 0,22 %
.
,
.

-
, ,
(32,1 %), (30,1 %), (15,1
%), (13,9 %), (2,9 %), (1,8 %),
(1,5 %) (1,4 %); 1,2
% .
,
(88,8 %), (5,8 %),
(4,5 %), 1 %
.

-
.


. ,
,
.
,
.
,
. 78% ,
32


21% , 0,93 % , 0,03% -,
.
:
( 12 km )

. .
.
( 50 km )
.
,
.
km/.
( 85 km )
.
( 500 km )
, .
.
, 400 km.
.
, 500 km
.

, .

.

() .
, , .
()
33



.

30
30 60 .
,
,

.

()
.
, ,
.
,
.
,

.


. ,

.

-
,
. .

3,5 .
() ,
,
.

34





. (C, , H, N .)
.

.
,
.
,
.

. 71 %
.
(97 %), (3 %).

: ,
, , ,
.

.
,
.

,
10 100 .

,
( )
.
.
35


,
.

. ,
.

.
10
, .

-
,
:

( )

()
.

-
, 5 35 km.
.
-,
36


.

.
100 ,
4,4 .

-

:
:
..47%
28%
..8%
..4,5%
..3,5%
..2,5%
.2,5%
..2,2%

-

, ;

.

.
, ,
.
37


,
. .

(,
, )
(, ).
.

,
. ,
.

- ()
, 2900 km .
,

. .
,

.

- .
.
1900 km

,
.

-
5515 kg/m,
3000 kg/m,
.
38


, 4,5
.
,
.
(80 %), .
,
1.250 km (
) 3.500 km.
,
. ,
(
)
.

.

-
,

,
: , ,
.
,
.
.

. :
(. ) .


: ,
.
() :
39

106 |106 mi
61.3...23,7...
.60.9....23,5...
....47.2...18,2...
..67.826,2

..75.9.29,3....................

43.616,8

.103.339,9

-
, ,
. 70,8 %
, .
, ,

, , ,
, .
29,2 %
, , , ,
.



.

, ,
. , (
40


),
.

, ,
23 , 56 4.091
(
) .
,
365.2564
150
(93.2 ) .

, ,
.
23.5, ,


. ,
,
,
.
,
.

-

, .
73 100
, ,
70
148 ,
41


- .

11.
,

.
,
.
.
.

.
65,000 km (40,000 )
,
.
, , ,
.
.
,
,
,

. ,

, ,
,
. ,
, ,
.

.

42




.
.

.

:
() -

;
-

;
-

.

300
.
,
, :
:
-
h -
, h=0 m :
(=0) : g=9,7803 m/s2
(=45) : g=9,8063 m/s2
(=90) : g=9,8322 m/s2

43


( )
.
.

.
, ,

.

, , ,
. ,
.

,
.[28]

.

, ( ) , ,
, , ()
.
,

.[29]
.
1993. ,
:
..13,13 %
..4,71 %
44


26 %
32 %
.1,5 %
..30 %
1993.
2.481.250 km.

, ,
.
, ,
, , ,
, , , ,
.

,
, ,
, , ,
, , .

.
,
, ,

.

............384.403 km
45


.........................................362.570 km
...........................................405.410 km
...................................0.0549

.........................1821.6 0.5 km
...................................................7.3477 1022 kg kg
...............................................3.3464 g/cm
........................................1.622 m/s
...........................................2.5 12.9
................................................0.136
(. Luna)
, 384.400
km, 1,25
.
1,02 km/s, 13
10 .
,
173 5
5 18 .
3473,3 km, 14 ,
50 , 80 .
6 .
27 , 7 11,5
( ).
,
,
:
..................( ,
)

46


....................( ,
)
......................( )
...........(
)
29 , 12 , 44 3 , .

.

-
,
.

,
.
(
). ,
( ),
, ""
3 .

,
.

-
4.5
, . ,

.
.
1609. .

47


. 1651. (Giovanni
Riccioli) (1598. - 1671.) ,
. ,
, ,
, ,
.
, (,
, , .).
(Leibniz),
, 9000 .
,
,
. (
), 7250 m.
( 300 km).
, .
(Josef Hopmann),
.
30 .
.

( ),

.

-


.
.
.
1959. / ( 3)

60 . ,

.
48


, ,
,
20 .

,
4 .
1995. .

........................................3 10-13 kP
......................................................25%
...........................................................25%
......................................................23%
..........................................................20%
, -

...........................43%
.........................21%
......................10%
..............................9%
...........................9%
........................5%
..........................2%
49


..................................0,6%
...........................0,3%
.................................0,2%
.............................0,1%
..............................0,1%
..............................0,1%
............................500 ( )
............................100
..................................100
............................50
.............................20

. .

.
1.52 227 940 000 km ,
6794 km 6.42191023 kg.

, .
,
, -, .
.

50


4 1965,
.

, ,
,

.
. ,
,
.

-

,
,
.
, .
. (III)
, .

- ( )

. ,
.
70 .
.
,

, ,
. ,
(27 Km)
(. Vallis Marineris), .
51


,
.
,


.

2960 Km
14-17% . -
,
.

.
50 Km, 125 Km,
3 .

-
,
(95.32%),
: (2.7%), (1.6%),
(0.13%) (0,00025%).
(0.03%), .
40-50
. 2 47
.
800 km,
400 km. (
),
CO2 ,
273 K (0C).
.
-

52



210 K (-63C), 293 K (20C)
130 K (-143C).


.
160 K (-133C),
120 K (-153C) CO2
. CO2

.

, ,
. , 10 m/s,
50 km
.
100 m/s,
, ,
,
.
-

,
,
.

-

,

.
.
53

-

, . 11 km
1,081016 kg, 6 km
1,801015 kg.
. ,
9.000 km , 23.000
km.

-
, (
) (
) .
, , .

. , -

. ,
.
("Great Galactic Ghoul")
-.

, ,
4, 1965.

.
54


-2 -3,
,
.
9
1971. .
1 2 ,
. 1
6 1976. 1982, 2
1976. 1979. .
.

,

.
1 2
1988.
(Mars Observer) 1992.
(Mars Global Surveyor) 1996,

2006, .
1996, (Mars Pathfinder)

. 2008.
(Phoenix Polar Lander)
25 2008.
.
2008.

2001. ,
, 2008.
,

55


. 2003.,
. 2
2004.
2003.,
(Opportunity) () .
2004. 2008. .

.2005.
(Mars Reconaissance Orbiter)
.
2006.

.
.

................................................................
...................................................18.
1877.

...........................9.377 km

........................................1737.5 0.1
km
...............................................................3.344 0.005
g/cm
56


..........................................................11.4 0.2
................................................................0.071 0.012
.
18. 1877. ,
.
()
(-) (-).

-
( )
, , .

, ,
, ,
. ,

, ,
.

-
27 21,6 18,8 km 1,08
1016kg
. ,
. (
7%).

.

,
.

-
57


.
7 40 ,
24 37 . ,
,
( 11 6
). 2.138 km/s.

. 5.981
km.
. ,
1,8 cm ,
. 99%
50-100

.

-
10 km.

.
.
(90 m) 700 m,
10 - 20 m
100 - 200 m.
.

58

..............................................................
..................................................12.
1877.

................................................23.460 km
..................................................0.000 2
..........................................1,262 44
(30,30 )
..........................1,35

.......................................6,2 km
..................................................................1,48 1015 kg
..............................................................1,471 g/cm
.......................................................0,0039 m/s

59


.........................................................12,4
..............................................................0,068
.
12. 1877. ,
.
()
(-) (-).

.
. 12,6
km (15 12,2 11) 1,8 1015 .

60



..778 412 027 km..
.5.20336301
...4.888 Tm...32.675

.....0.04839266
740 742 598 km
4.95155843
.816 081 455
km....5.45516759
4335.3545
...11.87
..398.86
...13.050 km/s
......1.30530
..63

142 984 km
.133 709 km
......0.064 87
..6.14 1010 km
.1.338 1015 km
1.899 1027 kg
1.326 g/cm3
23.12 m/s2 = 2.358 G
59.54 km/s
61


0.41351 (9 h 55.5
min)
12.6 km/s = 45 262.6
km/h
3.13
.0.52

110 K

152 K

NP

70 kPa
..~86%
...~14%

0.1%

0.1%
0.02%
...0.0002%
.0.0001%
.<0.0001%

.
, . 5.20
778.330.000 km , 142.984 km
1.90027 kg.
, ,
. 2.5
.

.
62


.
,
.
.
,
.
,
17. .
,
. 63
,
1610. ,
, .
.

,

.

2007.

,
.
,
, .

1 000 .
.

. -
63



.
.

75 %
23 % . , ,
.

.

12.000 x 25.000 km.
.
600 km/h.

.
.
500 km/h.

-


, 10 15
.
.
-
. , 2
1011 Pa, .


.
.
,
( ).
( ),
64


.
.
1996.
.


( ) (
).
. ,
, .
90% 10% (
), , .

.
,
20.000 K, 1,5
.
(
) 140 K,
160 K.
- (

).
1 mm .

. ,
.
80
.Temperatura 150c

65


11.87 .

4,95 5,5 .
-
9 50 .

.
.

-
1955. - ,
.

. 11
.
, 103 (4000
). 100
.
650 km ,
.
- 10
.
,
.

5 (5 ).

. ,

.
.

66


-
1979.
.
, .
, 20.000 km,
. 7.000 km
.
.
(
) ,
- -
(
) (
)
.

-
63
().
, :

(, , , )

.

,
67

-

. 1610.

: , , .

. 5 ,
.

10.
. 10

.
( 1 2)

,
1979. ,
,
:

,
,

200 km.

()

68


............................................................
...............................................1610.

.......................420.000 km

....................................1821.6 0.5 km
...........................................................3.528 0.006
g/cm
......................................................5.02 0.03
...........................................................0.63 0.02
.
1610. . 3630 km
8,93 10 22 kg, .
-
,
. :
420.000 km.
.

.
,
.

-
, ,
,
(, , , ),
.

( )
69


900 km
,
.

.

.
130 ,
2000 K. ,
.

.
.

-
17 km,
.
,
, - ,
.

, , , .
10 km

.
,
.

-


. 1 ,
70


, ,
.
, ,
.
,

.

. 1 2 ( 4
),
, .
.

.

,

.
" 1", " 2" "",
300 km .
1994. ""
.
.
,
50
100 km/s, .

( )
.
. (
) ,

.
,
,
71


.
100 m.

.

-
,
.

, 1
(1012) W.
(
), .

,
.
,
,
- .
""
,
- .

72

()

..........................................................
.............................................1610.

.....................670.900 km
....................................................664.862 km
......................................................676.938 km
.............................................0.009
.....................................3,551181

..................................1569 km
.....................................................3,09 107 km
..............................................................4,80 1022 kg
73


....................................................1,593 1010 km
.........................................................3,01 g/cm
..................................................1,314 m/s
.....................................................5,29
..........................................................0,67 0,03

. ,
.
, ,
,
.
,
, .
,
.
20-40 km.
75-100 km, ,
.

.
150C,

.
, ,
40 m .
.
,
, ,
.
5 km.
1565 km,
.
.
74


,
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.

()

...............................................................

.......................................................1609.

....................1,07106 km[1]
...........................................7 3
42,6

75


......................................................0,195 (
)
........................................

.............................................................5262 km
..................................................................1,4821023 kg
..............................................................1,936 g/cm3
.......................................................1,42 m/s2
( = 1).................................0,1449
..............................................7 3
42,6
..........................................................00.33
..............................................................0,43 0.02

.
1609. .
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.
.
.
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.
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2 59 530 km ,
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5 km .
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.
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.
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.

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.

()
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1610. .
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, .
4.800 km, 99% ,
1,08 1023 kg,
77


.
, 1.880.000 km.

,
, .
,
.

.

()

....................................................
.............................................3. 1904.

........................11.443.000 km
................................250,1
.......................................................4,5-51,9
..............................

78



.................................................170 km
.........................................................6,741018 kg
.....................................................2,6 g/cm3
..............................................0,062 m/s2
( = 1)........................0,00633
......................................0,324
.........................................?
...................................0,04
, , .

( ) .
1904. .
, , ,

( 28 ). 186
11.480.000 .

79

()

.......................................................
...............................................1951.

..........................21.048.000 km
..................................~629
80


.........................................................122,2-172,9
................................

...................................................30 km
...........................................................3,821016 kg
.......................................................2,7 g/cm3
................................................0,010 m/s2
........................................?
...........................................?
....................................0,04
, , .
, , , .
1951. . ,
,
. 30 km
21.200.000 km.

...................................................
...........................................1938.

......................23.280.000 km
..............................726,3
81


.....................................................140,6-172,4
............................

................................................46km
........................................................1,31017 kg
....................................................2,6 g/cm3
.............................................0,016 m/s2
.....................................?
........................................?
..................................0,04
, , .
, , ,
. 1938.
. , ,
(

). 40 km
22.600.000 km.

()

................................................
.........................................27. 1908.

....................23.624.000 km
..........................743,63
...................................................151,431
82


..........................

.............................................60km
.....................................................3,01017 kg
.................................................2,6 g/cm3
..........................................0,022 m/s2
..................................?
.....................................?
..............................0,04
, , .

. . 1908. .
, ,
( 150 ).
50 km,
23.500.000 km.

...........1.433.449.370
km..9,58201720
.........5.684.719.086 km
...........0,055723219
.........1.353.572.956 km.
.9,04807635
83


..........1.513.325.783
km.....10,11595804
....................................10.832,327
.................29,657296
................................378,09
................9,69 km/s
....................................................2,485240
......................61 (
200 )

..............................60.268 4 km
..................................54.364 10 km
........................................0,09796 0.00018
..............................................4,27 1010 km2
.............................................8,2713 1014 km3
......................................................5,6846 1026 kg
.....................................0,687 g/cm3
......8,96 m/s2 = 0,914 G
..........................35,5 km/s
....................................10 . 39 . 25 .
.....................................9,87 km/s = 35.500
km/h
.........................................26,73
...................................................0,342

( 1 bar)
84

134 K

..........................1,40105 Pa
..................................................96%
..................................................3%

.....................................................0,4%

..............................................0,01%
.............................................0,01%
........................................................0,0005%
.
9,54 1.429.400.000 km ,
120.536 km () 5,681026 kg.
.
7
, .

(, , , , ).
, . (
): , , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , .

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g/cm3
.
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25 .

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.
,
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,
.
.
,
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, 35
. 2000
km,

.
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86


,
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K .

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, .

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,
.

87

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,
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.

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.
1.000.000 km.
, ,
.

88


,
.

.
, .
, .
6.630 km 120.700 km .
.
1857.
, ,
.

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.
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100 km.
A, B C.
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,
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89


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1 (1980), 2 (1981) -.
1. 2004.
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, .
92


2005.
.

A ()

..
..1892.

181.400 km
...11h 57,4 min.
..0,388
..

166,9km
.7,431018 kg
1,8 g/cm3
0,066 m/s2
( = 1)0,00673
11h 57,4 min.

.0,05

93


.

. 9.
1892. -
36- (91 cm) .

( ).

- .
.

.

, .
,
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.
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189
181.000 .

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94


. O je 1980.
a Te a je a a je
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) A, .

()
.
1 1980. .
S/1980 S 27, (1985. )
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.
, 119 87 61
km.
, .

()
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.
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S 26, 1985. ,
.

95


-
,
.
- ,
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, .
141700 .
15 5 . 0,0042
.

-
103 80 64 km (
84 ). ,
30 km.
0,6 /3 0,6
.

96

()
, 200.000 km ,
-. 1789.
(Herschel).
22 37
5 , 3.841019kg
397,2 km. 1.17 g/cm
,
.
,
; 5 km ,
97


10 km
.

98


(Enceladus) .
504,2 km.
.

.

-
II, -
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1789. . ,
.
, ,
,
1847. "
" (. Results of
Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope).
2006.
.

-
238.029
. 32 53 .
0,0047
0,0202 .

99

()

.
. V.
577 .

-
100

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. ,
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2006. . 2008.
.

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, .
. 99 K (-174
C) 73 K (-200 C) 53 K (-220 C). .
.
.
.
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0,345 .
, , ,
.

101

()
VI
,
, ,
.
,
.

25. 1655.
.

102


.................................................1,221,870 Km
.................................................0.0288
............................................15.945
......................................................0.34854 (
)

..............................2576 2.00
Km (0.404 )
...........................................................8.3107 Km
....................................................................(1.3452
0.0002)1023 Kg (0.0225 )
.................................................1.8798
0.0044 g/cm
...............................1.352 m/s
(0.14 G)
.....................................2.639 Km/s
.............................................................

...........................................0
...............................................................0.22
.....................................................93.7 K (179.45
C)
........................................7.9

.......................................146.7 KPa

103


..........................................98.4% N (),
1.6% CH4 ()

104

105

..2.876.679.082 km.
.19,22941195 AJ

..0,044405586

106


..............2.748.938.461 km.
.18,37551863 AJ
.3.004.419.704
km..20,08330526 AJ
...30.799,095 .
...84,323326
..369,66
6,81 km/s
..0,772556
...27

.25,559 4 km
..24,973 20 km
..............0,0229 0.0008
...8,1156 109 km
..6,833 1013 km
.8,6810 13 1025kg
.1,27 g/cm3
.8,69 m/s2 = 0,8 G
.21,3 km/s
.17 . 14 . 24 .
..2,59 km/s = 9,320 km/h
..97,77
..0,3

107


( 1 bar)

49 K

53 K

57 K


.833%
.153%

.2,3%

,
.
, ()
().
.
,
.
13. 1781,

.
.

.

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, ,
.
,
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,
,
.
108


-,
( 13), 27 .

,
,
;
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,
.
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, ,
. , ,
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.

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150 K (-123C)
.
C.
2 .

, , .

-

(83%) (15%), (2%),
.

.
109


.
.
.
50 m/s,
.
,
, .
,
.
1998. 20
. .

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,
.
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2007, .

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17 14 .
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.

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98
.
.

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110


-
55
,
.
,

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.
,
,
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.

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27 .
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, ,
31 61
.
,

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:
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,

111


7 ,
1997. ,
: , , , ,
, , .

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1977.,
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9 .
, 1985.
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: 19862, 6, 5, 4, , , ,
, , ( 19861) .
2005.
.
.
,
.
,
.
, 19862
2500 km. 0.03
( 3% ). ,
,
.
10- . , ,
. -
.

.

112


-
.
,
, 13. 1781. .
. , ,
( ),
.
1690. 34 (34 ).
(1787.) 2
, 1851.
. , 5
, 1948. ().
: 2, 24.
1986. 81.500 km .
5 ,
10
(, , , , , ,
, , ). 2
.
(
)
. 1997.
(), 1999 :
(), ()
().

.............................4.503.443.661
km............30,10366151
.....................................28,142109 km
.................................0,011214269
113


.............................................4.452.940.833
km...........29,76607095
..................................................4.553.946.490
km............30,44125206
..................................60.190 ........164,79

..............................367,49
..............5,43 km/s
..................................................1,76917
....................13

.............................24.764 15 km
.................................24.341 30 km
......................................0,0171 0.0013
............................................7,6408 109 km
...........................................6,254 1013 km
....................................................1,0243 1026 kg
...................................1,638 g/cm3
....11,15 m/s2 = 0,8 G
.........................23,5 km/s
...................................16 . 6 . 36 .
....................................2,68 km/s = 9660 km/h
........................................28,32
..................................................0,41

114

72 K


( 1 bar)


.................................................803,2%
..................................................193,2%

....................................................1,50,5%

.........................................0,019 %
.......................................................0,00015 %
.
30,06 4.504.000.000 km ,
49.532 km () 1,02471026 kg.
, : ,
. ,
4: 1989N3R, 1989N2R, 1989N4R, 1989N1R.

.
28. 1612.
27. a 1613.
,
,
.
,
23. 1846.
.
.
13 .
, ,
. (
):
( 1989)

115


(1989)
(1989)
(1989)
(1981)
(1989)
(1846)
(1949)
-

0,0113, . ,
, 29,709 ,
, , 30,385 .
.
165 .
,
,
.
,
. 1979. 1999.
.
. ,
17,1
,

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.
11. 2009.
23.
1846.

116


-
16 ,
.
1,7 %. Somit ist der
1000 km .

28,32.
.

-
, , .
2
.
51 K (-222C),

140 K
. 2,7
.

-

, (15-20%)

.

; 2400 km/h.
-,
.
;
, ,
, .

117



.
, ,
.
(1989),
, .
, 300
. 1994.
.
2 482C
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100 .

.

-
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,
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, .
,
.
.
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.
50
(50 MW), 2000
: 100 (GW).
2
16 7
.

118

30 50
.
.
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, ),
.
, 4 ,
.

20.
.
-
(. Kenneth Edgeworth)
1943.
.

(. Gerard Kuiper) 1951.
,
. ,
1930. .


.

.
119




.

. ,
.
.

( ).


- .

1992 QB1,
.

,

. ,
,
,
.
(
m > 19)
. ,
2380 (
2010.).
,
,
1.000 km.
(136108) , (136472) (136199)
120


1.500 km, 1.600
km 2.400 km . 2.300
km.


. ,
(975 km)
.

.

,

,
. ,
24.
2006.
,
. 4
: , , (
).

,
.

: () , () , ()
() . ,

.

-
121

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3:2 , 39.4
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.

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, .
10 .

= 35 48

.

122


.
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.
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.


,

.

48 .
.

, .

10% ,
100

1000 .

.

,
, 48 ,

.

.



123


,
.

,

( )

.

.
.
.
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.
.

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,
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,
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;

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= 230 ,
12260 ,
= 531 . ,
(990 ),
.
124


, 74 ,
30 .

-
-

-
.

.

.


.
.

. ,

.

(

)
.

~104 ,
~105 (

).
125




.
(
)

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.


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,
,
.
,
107 108 .

,
, .

.
. 30
.
2060
.
( 5145 )
.
.

126


III
.

2 1989.
,
.

-
48.200
km, 7 6 .
4,74 .
,

,
.
966052
km. .

()
.
5.877 ,
2706 , 2.147x1022 kg.
3 g/cm ,
25%
.
354 760 km.
, ,
(5.877 ).
157, ,
30
127


. , ,
. 2,
.
1846.,
.

-

.
.
, .
, .
, ,
.
,
, .
,
.

128

129

130

131

()
. 1.
1949. (Gerard Kuiper).
() .
,
.
2

132


(Voyager 2),
.

.....................................................1 372 000 Km
(0.00917 )
.......................................................9 655 000 Km
(0.06454 )
- ...........................................5 513 400 Km
(0.03685 )
............................................0.7512 ()
.......................................360.1362
......................0.934 Km/s
5.07 ( )
32.55 ( )
7.232 ( )

().........................17025 Km
...............................................................3.1x1019 Kg
()
............................................1.5 g/cm3
()
...........................................0.48 (11 31
)
.........................................................0.155
................................................~50 K ()

133

( )
,
24. 2006
- .
39,5 5.913.520.000 km
2.274 km 1,271022 kg.
,
(, , , , ,
). 3 ,
19.640 km ,
1.172 km 1,901021 kg.
,

.
.
,

, .
.
,
.
,
.
.
134


,
, "" .
.

. ,
,
. ,
,
.

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70% 30% ,
.

,
, ,
,
.
38 63 K (-235
-210C).
( ).
, ,
, -.
,
.

,
.
135


,
- , : ,
- ,
.

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.
"",
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200 .

247 .
0,24
, (
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().
1979. 1999.,
. ,
.
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3 2
.

136


,
, .

(
)
6,3872 .
19.640 km, 8 .
-
,
.

31. 2005. 2
,
3.
.
, a = 19.640 km,

P = 6.3872

, a = 64700 850 km, P = 38.2 0,8

, a = 49400 600 km, P = 25.5 0,5

1930. . ,


.
137


.
,
, .


. ,
, , .
2,
,
.
1978. .


.
1985. 1990,
,
.
,
, ,
,
.

.
0,49 0,66, ,
0,36 0,39.
.

,
,

(
).
8% 16% . ,
,

138


,
.
,
1988. .

.
, -.

.

2002.
, 19. 20. .
,
, 14
.
10 30 C,
, ,
1988. .
(
).
,
.
, 2006,

.

.
90-
,
- , ,
, .
,

.
139


11. 2006.
, 2007,
,
14. 2015. .
, , ,
,

.

()
. 22. 1978.
,
,
, ,
, .
, ,
,
. 1985.
.
2005.
,
(/2005 1 /2005 2).

,

.
1205 km.
,
( ) .

.
19.640 km .
6,38725 ,
140


,
. ,
.
4.560.000 km
,
. 1,71 g/cm3.
(63%) (37%).
.
, ,
.
19. 2006.
5 .

- .

( )
141


( 136199 )
.

,
2006. ,
,
.
97 3.000 km.
29. 2005. .
.

( )
A
.....................................
...............................................1. 1801.
(B)..............A899 OF; 1943 XB
........................................ (
)
C
14. 2004. ( 2453200,5)
(e)

..........................0,080

(a)..........................413 949 Gm (2,767 )

(q)......................................380 890 Gm (2,546 )
(Q)..........................................447 008 Gm (2,988 )
(P).....................1681,243 (4,60
)
142


..............17,91 km/s
(i).................................10,581
()..........80,464
()..................73,947
(M)......................0,744

............................................959,2932,6 km
...................................................9,4451020 kg
...............................................2,05 g/cm
....................0,26 m/s
.......................0,51 km/s
.................................0,3781
............................... G-
...........................3,34
................................................0,113
......~167
( ,
)
.
1. 1801. ,
, .
950 km,
,
.
,
.

, .
143


.
,
.

.
6,7 9,3,

. 27. 2007.
,
.

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87. (

),
.
.
11.
1801, .
, ,
( ),
. ,

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.


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()
.
144

-

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,
, , , ,
313 .


.
, .
.
9,450,04 1020 kg,
4% .
,
.

.

13. 1984,
, .
2001. .
,
.
, ,
.
2004. .
, 50
km , .
145


2 ,
.
.
.
2007.
.
, 2015.
.

( )
,
. 17.
2008.

.


,
. ,
,

.

( )
( 136472 )


. .
750 km.
.
146

31. 2005.
, 11. 2008.

. 2008.
.
(30 ),
.

,
, .
.
, 20.
,

. (95%)
( ),

,
,
. 10
( , )
.
2009, 347 ,
,
. ,
1991. ,
, .
, , .
1995 ,
- 51 Pegasi, .

147


Gliese 581 e,
Gliese 581,
,
1,9 ,
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(COROT ).

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148



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(~8.000K)
149


1000 km/h
. UV
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.
.
.
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