Contents

1 Introduction

2 Magnetism and Magnetic Fields

8
9
9
10

2.1 Magnetic Compass

2.2 Classical Origin of Magnetism
2.3 Quantum Mechanical Origin of Magnetism
a. Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment
b. Spin Magnetic Dipole Moment
c. Total Magnetic Moment of Electron
2.4 Stellar Magnetic Fields
2.5 Magnetic Field in Earth
2.6 Magnetic Field in Sun
2.7 Planetary Magnetic Fields
a. Jupiter
b. Saturn
c. Mercury
d. Venus
e. Mars
f. Uranus
g.
Neptune

12
12
14
15

3 Diagnostics of Magnetic Field

18
18
20

3.1 Zeeman Effect

3.2 Anomalous Zeeman Effect
a. Weak-Field Zeeman Effect
b. Strong-Field Zeeman Effect
c. Extremely Strong Field
3.3 Faradays Rotation Method
3.4 Magnetometer Carried by Space Probes

23
25

4 Origin of Magnetic Field in Stars and Planets

4.1 Dynamo Theory
4.2 The Mechanical Dynamo
4.3 Dynamo Action in Stars and Planets
4.4 Dynamo Action in Earth
4.5 Dynamo Action in Sun
4.6 Dynamo Action in Neutron Stars
4.7 Derivation of Induction Equation

27
27
28
28
30
32
33
34
1

a. Magnetic Reynolds Number

Rm
b. Minimum
for Growing Dynamo Actions
i. Childress Bound
ii. Backus Bound
c. Rossby Number
d. High and Low Conductivity
e. Magnetic Diffusion Time
4.8 Convection Zones
4.9 Biermann Battery

5 Fossil Fields Hypothesis

5.1 Magnetic Flux Conservation Theory
5.2 Application of Flux Conservation Theory
5.3 Collapsing Stars
5.4 Problems with Fossil Field Hypothesis

6 Neutron Stars and Pulsars as Giant Permanent Magnets

6.1 Average Field of a Sphere
6.2 Aligned Magnetic Moments of Neutrons in Neutron Stars
6.3 Pulsars
a. Moment Inertia of Pulsars
b. Period Derivatives
c. Gyration

39
40
43
44
46
47
48

49
51
53
53

Summary and Conclusions

57

Appendix A

59

Appendix B

60

References

62

Figure Captions
Fig. 1 Hubble Space Telescope image of Sirius A, along with Sirius B.

Fig. 2 A natural magnet on a hillside!

Fig. 3 A working model of the first instrument known to be a compass.

Fig. 4 Larmor precession.

10

Fig. 5 The electron as a quantum particle rather than classical sphere.

11

Fig. 6 LS coupling.

12

Fig. 7 Schematic illustration of Earths magnetic field.

13

Fig. 8 Solar flares plasma emerging from the solar surface along magnetic field lines.

14

Fig. 9 Tilts of planetary magnetic fields w. r.t. their rotation axes.

16

Fig. 10 Zeeman Effect: Zeeman splittings in energy levels of electrons.

19

Fig. 11 Faradays rotation.

23

Fig. 12 Helium Vector Magnetometer (HVM) of the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft.

25

Fig. 13 Faradays disc dynamo.

28

Fig. 14 A cartoon of the dynamo process.

29

Fig. 15 Measured angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment of Sun and planets. 30
Fig. 16 A cartoon on dynamo action.

31

Fig. 17 Three stages in the regeneration of magnetic field in dynamo.

32

Fig. 18 The Sun's self-exciting dynamo.

33

Fig. 19 A neutron star with solid crust and fluid core.

34

Fig. 20 Growth rate of the field with increase in magnetic Reynolds number.

38

Fig. 21 Magnetic lines diffusion.

39

Fig. 22 Convective zones in stars.

40

Fig. 23 Life cycle of a star.

43

Fig. 24 Flux freezing phenomena.

45
3

Fig. 25 Shearing of a flux tube by a velocity field.

46

Fig. 26 Neutron star with strong magnetic field.

49

Fig. 27 Magnetic moment of neutron.

50

Fig. 28 A charged sphere with magnetic moment.

51

Fig. 29 A highly magnetized pulsar.

53

Fig. 30 Helicoidal ion orbit in a uniform magnetic field.

56

Fig. 31 Magnetic field due to current carrying loop.

59

Chapter 1
Introduction
Beautiful are the hills that are far from us
As said, beautiful are the hills that are far from us; from thousand years human beings were
familiar with the astrophysical objects but not in the details as we know them now. They knew
very little about the rules and laws followed by these twinkling stars and somehow big sun and
moon. Early mans observation was limited to view the fascinating bright stars, planets with
silvery glowing light. For them there were three main types of astrophysical objects floating in
the vast sky having enough space to move around. These three were
a. Stars: all stars were just stars to them, only with different size and brightness
b. Moon: bigger than stars and
c. Sun: the biggest
As we read in the Holy Quran, Hazrat Ibrahim (Abraham) describes the feeling of a natureworshipper of his time in the following words:
When the night covered him over with darkness he saw a star, he said: "This is my lord." But
when it set, he said: "I like not those that set." When he saw the moon rising up, he said: "This is
my lord." But when it set, he said: "Unless my Lord guides me, I shall surely be among the erring
people." When he saw the sun rising up, he said: "This is my lord. This is greater." But when it
set, he said: "O my people! I am indeed free from all that you join as partners in worship with
Allah."
(Surah Al-Ana am Ayats 76, 77, 78)
In the Holy Quran, Allah has described Sun, moon and stars frequently. In the time of Ignorance
Quraish used to worship stars also. There are approximately more than 40 ayats where we read
the astronomical objects discussed like
And that He (Allah) is the lord of Sirius

(Al-Quran, Surah An-Najam Ayat 49)

A star was a sign of beauty, fortune and fate for the human beings as mentioned in Bible:
We saw his star in the east and have come to worship him
(Matthew 2 Chapter; The visit of Magi))))
With the passage of time, humankind developed the habit of curiosity for truth and taste of
research. Due to this, old myths were destroyed and it became known that all the stars were not
similar. There were simple stars rotating in the universe at different stages of their evolution.
There were super giants, giants, white dwarfs, pulsars, neutron stars, magnetars, moons, galaxies,
black holes and even quark stars. All these astrophysical objects are not just dormant and silent
5

huge balls rotating and spinning in the space. There are activities going on in these astrophysical
objects at larger and smaller scales, inside and outside and even in their outer atmosphere.
Fig. 1 illustrates the brightest star in the night sky Sirius A, as seen from Earth, with a tiny and
faint stellar companion Sirius B as a tiny dot at the lower left. This is one example of systems of
binary stars. Some of the stars have planets around them. Even some planets can have smaller
natural objects rotating around them, such as moons. Stars exist in groups; these groups form
stellar neighborhoods within a galaxy. Galaxies are present in clusters which further group into
super-clusters.

Fig. 1 Hubble Space Telescope image of Sirius A, along with Sirius B. Credit: H. Bond (STScI) and M. Barstow [1].

One of the interesting features related to the Astor objects is their magnetic field. Magnetism has
been fundamental for travelling and exploring, with the Earths magnetic field guiding birds,
bees and compass needles. Furthermore, the influence of the Earths magnetic field on charged
particles from the Sun has not only shielded us from the harmful effects of cosmic rays but has
also entranced us with the fascinating aurorae that light up the northern and southern skies
around the geographical poles.
Magnetic fields drive the non-thermal output of many cosmic objects, in particular that of the
Sun and other such stars. They are amongst the agents responsible for spectral atmospheric
activity that in turn governs star-planet interactions. The existence of stellar and planetary
magnetic fields is a decisive factor in the initiation and evolution of life on planets, as magnetic
fields are shields against high-energy cosmic radiation. Their presence ensures further evolution
and survival of civilizations like ours. Yet the magnetic fields in the Astor objects are still among
the least studied unknowns of the universe.
Magnetic fields are key actors in the evolution of most of the stellar objects themselves. One of
the reasons why physics of magnetism is so attractive but poorly understood probably is that
magnetic fields are invisible. Both, the detection of magnetic fields and the interpretation of field
6

measurements connect a variety of research fields because magnetic effects are manifold and
measurement processes involve a number of sophisticated techniques and unknowns. In the
stellar context, magnetic fields are believed to be the reason why young stars can accrete material
from their surrounding disk. Magnetic phenomena rule the evolution of angular momentum, and
the stellar dynamo converts kinetic energy into thermal energy that appears in the many facets of
stellar activity.
As mentioned earlier, the origin and nature of stellar magnetic fields is not mostly understood, as
yet. However, there are several explanations available in literature. Our main focus in this project
is the study of relatively stronger stellar magnetic fields, their nature, behavior and origin. We
start in Chap. 2 with a bit of history regarding discovery and the progress in understanding as
well as applying magnetic phenomena to some of the Astor objects in our relatively near
neighborhood. In Chap. 3 we consider various mechanisms involved in the diagnosis of magnetic
effects in relation to astrophysics. Chapter 4 is based on more accepted theories and the
underlying physical concepts that help in understanding the origin of magnetism in planets and
stars. The idea of fossil fields in larger stars is more convincing and is, therefore, given in Chap.
5 in separately. Chapter 6 is based on some of the aspects of the stars with very high magnetic
fields, such as neutron stars and pulsars.

Chapter 2
Magnetism and Magnetic Field
It was the lodestone which revealed the Earths magnetic field
Our knowledge of magnetism and magnetic field started with the discovery of lodestone several
hundred years before the birth of Jesus. According to a popular legend an elderly Cretan
shepherd named Magnes was herding his sheep in an area of Northern Greece called Magnesia,
about 4,000 years ago. He found lodestone buried in a black rock when his shoe nails and the
metal tip of his staff firmly stuck to the large, black rock on which he was standing. A sketch on
this legend is shown in Fig. 2. Varieties of reasons for the peculiar behavior of lodestones were
suggested. It was suggested at one point that lodestone might even have a soul! [2]. Lodestone
actually contains magnetite (Fe3O4) ore, a natural magnetic material.

Fig. 2 A natural magnet on a hillside! [3].

Ancient Greek Philosophers Thales of Miletus and Socrates observed the behavior of lodestone
that aligned itself with the poles of Earth. It was clearly indicated that Earth behaves as giant bar
magnet. Seafarers contented to follow weather guidelines by experts of that time. They adhered
to these guidelines until the early 14th century, when the magnetic compass made its first
appearance in the Mediterranean.

2.1 Magnetic Compass

After magnetic compass was discovered the mariners were not completely dependent on
landmarks, they could now find their position relative to Earths magnetic field. The navigation
quest of man attracted his attentions towards the studies of magnetism of Earth called GeoMagnetism.

Fig. 3 A working model of the first instrument known to be a compass [4].

The idea of using lodestone as a compass was first put forward by Chinese. The magnetic
compass was invented in China between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD in the era of Han
Dynasty in China [5]. The manuscript Wu Ching Yao written in 1040 mentions about suspension
of an iron flash in water that pointed towards the Earths south pole. The earliest reference to
magnetic compass was given in a Song Dynasty book during 1040-1044. This primitive form of
compass is illustrated in Fig. 3. In Europe, the magnetic compass first appeared in Italy, around
the turn of the 14th century. The trade and defense of Europeans were deeply linked with the
oceans, so they were more zealous to promote the technology for magnetic compass than the
Chinese.

2.2 Classical Origin of Magnetism

Magnetism is now understood as the phenomenon of attraction or repulsion of a magnet due to
the arrangement in its atoms, particularly its electrons. It is experienced by other magnets or
magnetic materials when they are brought into its vicinity. The region of space near a magnetized
body within which magnetic force can be detected is known as magnetic field.
When charges are static, we observe only attraction or repulsion. If charges are in motion, as they
are inside every atom and in a wire carrying a current, then we can measure the phenomenon of
magnetic field generation. Therefore, magnetism is the result of moving charged particles.
Sometimes the motion of charged particles is clear, as in the coils of electromagnet. At other
times it is more subtle, as in the kind of magnet commonly available, in which many of electrons
inside the atoms are spinning in roughly the same direction. It is the alignment of their motion

that causes the material to become magnetic. Classically, if q is the charge, m the mass, S
spin, the magnetic moment

is given by

the

= (q 2 m S .

2.3 Quantum Mechanical Origin of Magnetism

Electrons in an atom behave as magnets due to two types of magnetic dipole moments: the
orbital and spin magnetic moments. These are briefly describes as:
a. Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment

The orbital magnetic moment is usually considered to be caused due to the revolution of
electron about the nucleus. However, the reverse can be true also since one can choose the
reference frame of electron to be at rest with nucleus revolving around it. For a static
magnetic moment or a classical current loop, this torque tends to line up with the magnetic
moment with the magnetic field B, so this represents its lowest energy configuration. Since
an electrons charge is negative, its orbit is like a current loop in the opposite direction. By
the right hand rule, the angular momentum vector, as shown in Fig. 5, would point down and
orb
the orbital magnetic dipole moment,
, points up. An orbiting electron behaves like a
tiny electromagnet with its north pole in the direction of

orb

The torque exerted by the angular momentum of the electron then produces a change which
is perpendicular to that angular momentum, causing the magnetic moment to precess around
the direction of the magnetic field rather than settle down along the direction of the magnetic
field. This is the idea of Larmor precession. The relationship for a finite current loop extends
to the magnetic dipoles of electron orbits and to the intrinsic magnetic moment associated
with electron spin. If L is the total angular momentum, the relation for orbital angular
momentum of the electron is given by

orb =

e
L
. There is also a characteristic Larmor
2m e

frequency associated with nuclear spins.

10

Fig. 4 Larmor precession [6].

b. Spin Magnetic Dipole Moment

Spin magnetic moment is due to the spinning rotation of an electron about its axis
proportional to its spin angular momentum; S. The electron spin theory defines the electron
as a quantum particle rather than the simple sphere described by the classical theory. This
idea is illustrated in Fig. 5. The spin of an electron has two possibilities: it can be up or down.
By means of relativistic quantum theory; electrons magnetic moment is given as twice the
classical value
spin =

e
S
.
2 me

The extra factor of 2 can be explained by Diracs relativistic theory of electrons [7].

11

Fig. 5 The electron as a quantum particle rather than a classical sphere [8].

c. Total Magnetic Moment of Electron

Total magnetic moment of an electron is the combined effect of spin and orbital
contributions. Therefore, the total effect comes from the sum of spin magnetic moment and
orbital moment of electron
tot =orb + spin =
where

e
(L+2 S )
,
2 me

J =L+ S ,

with their magnitudes

L=

l(l+1)

and
S=

s (s +1)

Fig. 6 gives an illustration on the L and S precessions and their combined effect in the form
of LS coupling. The idea of magnetic moments helps in understanding the magnetic
scenarios in astrophysical objects.

Fig. 6 LS coupling [9].

2.4 Stellar Magnetic

Fields

Magnetic fields play an

important role in many
objects in the universe, from
the Earth with dazzling
Auroras and Sun with its
spots and the magnetically
heated corona visible during
a solar eclipse, to pulsars
with beacon and the
spectacular jets from black
holes and proto-stars. The
knowledge of magnetism
in stars, from the beginning
of history to the modern
era was developed very slowly. But due to technological advancements during last few centuries,
we were able to study magnetism in stars more efficiently after 1600 AD. Astrophysical objects
in our universe from the scale of planets to the size of galaxy show the evidences of large-scale
magnetic fields. The behavior of the magnetic field in these objects, however, is very different
from our daily experience, since in astrophysical objects magnetic field lines are 'tied' to an
ionized gas [10].

12

Through decades of astrophysical research it is established that magnetism is inevitable aspect of

our Universe. Planets, interstellar gas, stars and galaxies all show the presence of magnetic
fields. Generating magnetic fields on such large physical scales in stars and planets cannot be
achieved through permanent magnets like those commonly available to us, but instead requires
turbulent motion of highly conducting fluids within the cores of these objects. Let us start this
overview from the presence of magnetism in Earth.

2.5 Magnetic Field in Earth

It was Gilbert who wrote a book De Magnete in 1600 and explained on experimental basis that
The Earth itself is a big magnet. More systematic observation of Earths magnetic field began
around 1840 when Gauss published a mathematical approach to explain the magnetism of Earth.
The Earth's magnetic field is similar to that of a bar magnet tilted 11.5 from the spin axis of the
Earth. Unlike a bar magnet, however, Earth's magnetic field changes over time because it is
generated by a geo-dynamo.
The north and south poles of Earths magnet wander independent from each other and are
therefore, not directly opposite one another on the globe. They can even sometimes migrate
rapidly: movements 40 km/yr have been detected for north magnetic pole. Over the last 180
yrs, the north magnetic pole has been observed to be migrating northwestward. Moreover, at
random intervals averaged over 105 years, the Earth's magnetic field reverses and the north and
south poles switch their places. These reversals of the geomagnetic poles are recorded in rocks
and helps in calculating past motions of continents and ocean floors, as a result of plate tectonics.
These reversals also facilitate in dating rocks and sediments.

13

Fig. 7 Schematic illustration of Earth's magnetic field. Credit: Peter Reid, University of Edinburgh [11].

Magnetic fields are known to surround electric currents, so the circulating electric currents in the
molten metallic core of Earth are surmised to originate the magnetic field. The reason is the
motion of molten iron alloys present in its outer core. A current loop gives a field similar to that
of the Earth. The magnitude of the magnetic field may vary over the Earths surface and can be
in a range from 0.3 to 0.6 G.
Interactions between the terrestrial magnetic field and the particles impinging the Earth from the
solar wind set up the conditions for the auroral phenomena near its poles. The north pole of a
compass needle is a magnetic north pole. However, it is attracted to the Earths geographic north
pole, which is a magnetic south pole since the opposite magnetic poles attract each other.

14

2.6 Magnetic Field in Sun

The sunspots and subsequently the solar cycle revealed solar magnetism. The first detection of
magnetic field in a star was in our Sun in 1908. Hale was the first person who explained the solar
cycle on physical basis and showed that sunspots were strongly magnetized. In 1919, Hale
showed that sunspots represent magnetic poles. Hale observed and correctly interpreted the
magnetic polarization of spectral lines in sunspots and attributed it to magnetic fields of nearly 3
kG. This was the first astrophysical application of the Zeeman Effect, discovered by Zeeman
only 12 years before the pioneering work of Hale. Searching for magnetic stars other than the
Sun to investigate how normal the Sun is, Horace W. Babcock discovered in 1947 the simple
large scale fields of chemically peculiar stars [12] and quickly realized that these magnetic fields
are in fact fairly different in nature than that of the Sun.

Fig. 8 Solar flares plasma emerging from the solar surface along magnetic field lines [13].

The Solar Magnetic activity cycle is the periodic change in the Suns activity and appearance.
For centuries, changes in the Suns appearances i.e., the changes in the number of sunspots,
flares and changes seen from Earth such as auroras were observed and it was deducted that Solar
Cycles have an average duration of 11 years. In 1961, Babcock proposed a model which
describes this activity as The sunspots result from the strong local magnetic fields in the solar
surface that exclude the light-emitting solar plasma and appear as darkened spots on the solar
surface [12]. He also showed that the solar surface is magnetized even outside of sunspots.
Pulsars fall in the category of regularly pulsating stars. Hewish et al. in 1968 [14] detected them
for the first time via their radio emission. The same year, these were identified with rotating
neutron stars by Gold. The pulsars possess tremendously intense fields of TG (1012 G)
strengths. This intensity is about 108 times stronger than those found at the heart of sunspots.
Shortly afterwards, magnetic fields of 108 G were reported to exist at the surfaces of some
white dwarfs [15]. Magnetic fields on cool solar-type stars, besides the Sun, were speculated for
a long time. The solar analogy in fact suggested that the Sun-like activity observed on basically
15

all low-mass stars is due to magnetic fields. Searching for at least 3 decades, after Babcocks
initial discovery, the first direct detections were obtained in 1980 [16].

2.7 Planetary Magnetic Fields

Some other planets besides Earth have a magnetic field that acts as if there is a giant bar magnet
in the center of a planet. The intrinsic magnetic field is found virtually strong enough in all the
Solar System objects, except for Mercury and Venus. The larger planets including Jupiter, Saturn,
and Uranus possess intense sources of radio waves. This intermittent radiation is derived from
charged particles trapped and accelerated in the magnetic environment of these planets. These
radiations generate power that is several orders of magnitude greater than man-made radio
broadcast transmitters. These waves cannot penetrate the protective layer of Earth's atmosphere.
As already mentioned, this preventive layer, along with the atmosphere of the Earth protects us
from solar wind and other harmful cosmic radiations coming from the Solar as well as the
Galactic environments.
The solar objects that are magnetized have their own corresponding terrestrial dipole magnetic
field. The solar planets with intrinsic magnetic field include: Earth, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. Their magnetic field can be aligned differently than their rotational axis, as
shown in Fig. 9. We now briefly overview the magnetic effects in the planets within our Solar
System.
a. Jupiter
In the late 1950s, radio-astronomers Ken Franklin and Bernie Burke were working with a
cross-shaped array. One night when they were standing next to the array, Jupiter was
overhead. They discovered that Jupiter was a source of non-thermal radio waves [17], which
gained more intensity at longer wavelength. Such radiations are emitted when high speed
electrons are accelerated by a magnetic field. It was manifesting clue that Jupiter must have a
strong magnetic field. In 1973, the spacecraft Pioneer 10 passed by Jupiter and detected an
enormous magnetic field and very intense radiation belt.

16

Fig 9. Tilts of planetary magnetic fields w. r.t. their rotation axes; Credit: Fran Bagenal & Steve Bartlett [19].

b. Saturn
The only direct evidence for the existence of magnetism in Saturn is a source of radio
emission. The magnetic field in Saturn was probed during pioneer 11 flybys. There was a
close alignment of its magnetic dipole and rotational axis. Its dipole moment was
3
RS
approximated to 0.20 G RS [18], where
is the radius of Saturn.
c. Mercury
In 1974-75, the space probes Pioneer 10 passed by Jupiter thrice. The first and last of these
flybys were within about 700 km of the Mercurys atmosphere. The maximum field
observed in these two visits was 0.001 G and 0.004 G. Its magnetic field is weak and
probably does not extend far enough to trap many particles [18].
Venus
Seven Mission carrying magnetometers between 1962 and 1978 were within only
40,000 kilometers. It was found that Venus is nearly un-magnetized although
the solar wind trapped in its upper atmosphere creates a kind of magnetic atmosphere [18].
d.

17

e. Mars
There are permanently magnetized patched rocks on the surface of Mars which suggest that
there might have been some magnetic field generation in the past. Presently we can assume
on the basis of probe mission by the MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR (MGS) that Mars has a
very weak magnetic field

5 nT). Mariner 4 spacecraft was sent in 1965 and then

subsequent missions MARS 2, 3 and 5 were sent in 1970 but they failed to detect any field in
Mars atmosphere [18].
f. Uranus
Voyager 2 was the space probe which provided the first measurement of the magnetic field of
Uranus. Voyager 2 was launched by NASA in 1977 to study the Solar system. Presence of
field was unknown before the arrival of Voyager 2 because it is a relatively weak radio
source and emits radiation of very low frequency and radio astronomers were unable to
detect its field from surface of Earth [17, 18].
g. Neptune
It was August 25, 1989 when Voyager 2 encountered Neptune very closely. Voyager 2
received radio emissions from Neptune and revealed a magnetic field of internal origin. The
magnetic field on the surface of planet ranges from 0.1 G to 0.9 G at different locations [17,
18].

18

Chapter 3
Diagnostics of Magnetic Field
So spacing of spectral lines predicts the strength of magnetic field
Magnetic fields are key players in the evolution of all stellar objects. One of the reasons why the
physics of magnetic fields are so attractive but poorly understood probably is that magnetic fields
are invisible. Both, the detection of magnetic fields and the interpretation of field measurements
connect a variety of research fields because magnetic effects are manifold and measurement
processes involve a number of sophisticated techniques and unknowns. In the stellar context,
magnetic fields are believed to be the reason why young stars can accrete material from their
surrounding disk, they rule the evolution of angular momentum, and the stellar dynamo converts
kinetic energy into thermal energy that appears in the many facets of stellar activity.
The observation of stellar magnetic fields is difficult because we have only a very limited idea
about the nature of the fields that may exist in stars other than the Sun. Because no measurement
technique is capable of capturing the entire complexity of a stellar magnetic field, observations
always reveal merely that contribution of magnetism for which the observational strategy is
planned. In most of the cases it is not entirely clear what factually is the magnetic scenario.
The science of Astronomy is actually about analyzing radiations and their spectra from distant
stars to understand what they are and how they behave. The stars are very far from us and even
the light travels more than four years to reach us from our nearest star [18]. Different techniques
may be used to measure magnetic field strength of stars. Astronomers depend on the techniques
which help them to analyze the stars from a distance. A wide range of information is coded into
the light and other different kind of radiations like radio waves and thermal waves etc. This
coded information tells us about the size, rotation, chemical composition, atmosphere and
magnetic field strength of stars. Deciphering this cosmic code helps to read the messages it
contains without leaving the surface of the Earth. So these are the radiations which disclose the
secrets of stars, from where they reach us. These radiations are generated in stars at microscopic
level or at atomic level. Atoms behave differently in different atmospheres and different
conditions. There are two techniques that are mainly used to study magnetic fields in stars: the
Zeeman Effect and the Anomalous Zeeman Effect. We now present the two methods in some
detail.

19

3.1 Zeeman Effect

The most favorite method to measure magnetic field in stars is analyzing the radiations coming
from stars via Zeeman Effect. When atoms or molecules are exposed to a magnetic field,
absorption lines in atomic spectra are displaced. This is so because the magnetic field alters
atomic energy levels, subsequently the polarization properties of emitted radiation also change.
The Hamiltonian of a particle of mass m and charge q moving in a central potential V(r), under
the influence of a uniform magnetic field B is generally represented by [20]
=

2 2
q
q2
2
2 2
+V ( r ) +
B . L+
[
B r ( B .r ) ] .
2
2m
2 mc
8mc

3.1

When even simplest atom of hydrogen is placed in an external uniform magnetic field, its energy
levels lose degeneracy. In the presence of magnetic field, atomic energy levels and the spectral
lines associated with them split into multiple lines. This splitting of spectral lines is called
Zeeman Effect.

Fig. 10 Zeeman Effect: Zeeman splittings in energy levels of electrons [21].

In the presence of magnetic field, the energy of a specific atom depends on the value of magnetic
m
quantum number l and principal quantum number n. As already discussed in Sec. 2.3, when

20

a specific moving charged particle like an orbiting electron is placed in an external magnetic
field its energy changes as
E= . B .
3.2
This is actually the work done by B which appears in the form of potential energy of charged
particle.
e
L
,
2 me

3.3

e
B. L
.
2 me

3.4

Here

E=

so that

Suppose z-axis is along the direction of the applied field B then the energy shift in Eq. (3.4) can
be written as follows:
e
E=
B Lz
.
3.5
2 me
The possible values of

Lz

are

ml

where

ml

can have 2l +1 (+l, +l 1, . , 0, l 1,

l) values. In the presence of magnetic field, these 2l +1 states are the degenerate energy levels.
Now in such magnetic field, a state of principal quantum number n breaks up into several substates. The spacing between the spectral lines depends on the strength of magnetic field [22, 23].
For example, if Helium atom with one of its electrons in s state (l = 0) and other in d state (l = 2)
is kept in a magnetic field, we will observe five energy level because for l = 2, ml can have
values +2, +1, 0, 1, 2.

3.2 Anomalous Zeeman Effect

When we ignore the spin of electron, the spectral splitting is caused by normal Zeeman Effect.
But when we also take the spin into account, the Zeeman Effect is called Anomalous Zeeman
Effect. This results in unequal spacing between the split levels. For simplicity if we take field
along z-direction in Eq. (3.1) and replace q by e, we get
2

2
e
e B
( x 2+ y 2) .
+V ( r ) +
B Lz+
2
2m
2 me c
8 me c

21

The first two terms represent the Hamiltonian of atom in the absence of magnetic field. This
Hamiltonian is written with a major omission; we ignored the spin of electron.
Now we consider the interaction of magnetic field with the orbital as well as the spin magnetic
moment of electron. This interaction gives rise to two energy terms in the Zeeman effect
Hamiltonian:
Z = L . B S . B=

e
eB
( L+2 S ) . B=
(L +2 S z)
.
2 me c
2 me c z

3.6

Now when an atom is placed in an external magnetic field, its Hamiltonian is written as;
= 0 + fs + Z

fs = s + R=

with

where

3.7

e2
4
S
.
L
2 me2 c 2 r 3
8 m e3 c 2
R

is the spin contribution while

is the relativistic effect in the Hamiltonian.

2

0=

Since

2
+V ( r ) ,
2m

we get
2

= 0 + fs + Z =

2
e

e
( L+ 2 S ) . B
+V ( r )=
S . L
+
2 2 3
3 2
.
2m
2 me c r
8 m e c 2 me c

3.8
Anomalous Zeeman Effect can be further sub-categorized according to the strength of the
magnetic field as follows:
a. Weak-Field Zeeman Effect
We consider all the terms in the Hamiltonian with fine structure, in which
dominant term. When B is weak, that is, when
dominates and

B ext

is the

, fine structure

can be treated as a small perturbation. In Eq. (3.8), if we take

L+2 S=J + S ,
22

the total angular momentum is constant. Hamiltonian of Zeeman energy is then

z=

eB
( L+2 S)
.
2 me c

In first order perturbation theory, the Zeeman correction to energy is given by

1

EZ =

where

B =

e
2 me c

eB
g m = g m
2 me c j j B j j ,

is the Bohr magneton for the electron and

gj

is the Land factor or

the
gyromagnetic ratio:
g j =1+

J ( J + 1 )+ S ( S+1 ) L( L+ 1)
2 J ( J +1 )

3.9
For a given value of j, there are two values of Land factor. So spacing between the split
levels of the same L and different values of j is not constant. Therefore, the energy of
Hydrogen atom in a weak external magnetic field is given by
2 4 n
eB
Enj =E 0n+ E1fs + E 1Z =E 0n+ 2
3 E 0n+
gm
2 me c j j .
4 n j+ 1
3.10
2

( )

The effect of magnetic field on the atom, in such case, is to split the energy levels with a
spacing
E=B B g j m j
Spectral lines arise from allowed transitions between the energy levels
h ij Ei E j .
This gives rise to a set of closely spaced frequencies
ij =

EiE j
eB
= 0+
( g m g j m j ) .
h
2 mch i i

The selection rule gives

m j mi 0,1.

3.11

Therefore, the corresponding component

23

wavelengths are
e 02 B
c
ij = 0+
( g j m j g i mi ) .
ij
4 m c2

3.12

b. Strong-Field Zeeman Effect

When B is strong enough, that is when

B ext

,
B

the term

e
2 me c

(L + 2S).B

is much greater than the fine structure. Now the Hamiltonian in Eq. (3.1) reduces to
= 0 + Z =

2 2
e (
+V ( r ) +
L+2 S ) . B
2m
2me c

3.13

and the unperturbed energies become

2

En m m =
l

The energy levels

e
eB
+
( m l+ 2m s) .
2
2a 0 n 2me c

eB
0
En are thus shifted by an amount equal to E= 2 m c ( ml +2 ms ) .
e

This shift is known as Paschen-Back shift [7].

c. Extremely Strong Fields
3
For extremely strong magnetic fields ( 10 T) such as those found in the white dwarfs

and neutron stars, including pulsars, gamma ray bursts and magnetars, the quadratic term are
2

important [24]. The quadratic term is

e B
( x 2 + y 2 ) , and it is so small that we can ignore
2
8 mc

it even for strong fields. Therefore, the spacing of lines predicts the strength of magnetic
field. The same rule helps us to measure magnetic field of different stars by analyzing the
spectral lines coming from their surface to astronomy-labs on the surface of Earth or in a
space probe.
The atoms in a stars atmosphere absorb certain frequencies of energy in the spectrum,
producing absorption lines shown as dark lines in the electromagnetic spectrum. But when
the same spectra of lines is in the vicinity of a magnetic field such as stars field, the spectral
lines subdivide further into multiple lines. The energy of these lines also becomes polarized
with specific orientation which indicates the orientation of magnetic field. So polarization
and spacing tells us about the direction and strength of magnetic fields of stars. To analyze
the spacing under Zeeman Effect and polarization of radiations, spectro-polarimeter is used.
24

This is a combination of spectroscope and polarimeter. Before we discuss about this

instrument, we give the principle of Faradays effect, on which these work.

3.3 Faradays Rotation Method

When a static magnetic field B is added in the direction of propagation of radiations, then plane
of polarization of linearly polarized radiation gets rotated. This effect is known as Faradays
Effect. Under this effect, a linearly polarized light wave decomposes into the sum of two
circularly polarized components with opposite circular polarizations. The radiations passing
through this then interacts with charged particles and causes the movement of these particles
while magnetic field causes the motion of charged particles to be spiral around the magnetic
field. Two circularly polarized components of the radiations thus become actually distinct.
Magnetic field splits the refractive index into two components, for left hand and right hand of
circular polarization. Under this effect, the waves decompose due to slight difference of their
wave vectors. This effect is very important in astrophysical situations for radio waves and is
illustrated in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Faraday rotation [24].

The demonstration of the Faradays rotation is given in Fig. 11 showing the propagation along a
magnetic field in plasma rotates the plane of polarization of a radio wave. How Faradays
rotation works mathematically, is explained as follows:
Suppose a radiation with a high frequency (well above the gyro frequency) propagating along z-axis
through plasma in the presence of static magnetic field. So equation of motion for an electron is

me

since

dv
=e( E+ v B) ,
dt

3.14

B=B0 z^ , we get

25

me

dv
=e(E+ v B0 z^ ) ,
dt
me

or

dv
=e(E+ B 0 v z^ ) .
dt

3.16

, then all perturbed quantities will vary

If the electromagnetic wave is oscillating with a frequency,

with time as

3.15

eit .
me 2 x=e ( E x i B0 y) ,

3.17

me 2 y=e ( E y +i B 0 x ) .

3.18

Taking the linear combination of x and y:

S =x iy ,

3.19

and

E =E x i E y

3.20

Using Eqs. (3.19) and (3.20), Eqs. (3.17) and (3.18) can be written as
2

me S =e ( E B0 S )

S =

so that

where

c=

eB
m

3.21

e E
m e ( c )

3.22

is the cyclotron frequency. We can deduce that the dielectric constant is

2

=1

p
( c ) ,

3.23

k 2 c2
2
,

3.24

Since

p
k c = 1
( c )
2

3.25

26


k=
c

where

3.26

is plasma frequency
p =

When

2p
1
( c )

and

4 n e2
.
me

3.27

p
k k k

3.28

Therefore, with magnetization, right hand and left hand circularly polarized waves of same frequency
differ by a wave number. So a radio astronomer observes a polarized wave with two wave numbers and
slightly different phases. Now the polarization angle of wave is given by

+k
k z= kz
,
E
=tan 1 y =
Ex

( )

= kz .

3.29

Differentiating Eq. (3.29) w. r. t. z, we get

+k
p2 c
k =
2 2 c ,
d
= k =
dz

or

therefore,

4 n e 2
2
me eB
ne B0
d p c
e3
,
=
=
=
2
2
2
dz 2 c 2 c me 2 0 me c 2
ne B0
d
e3
=
2
dz 2 0 me c 2 .
27

Thus we get

+k
k

ds
=

3.30

3.4 Magnetometers Carried by Space Probes

A magnetometer is a device which is used to measure magnetic fields. It is used by satellites and
space probes to measure magnitude and orientation of magnetic field of planets. Different space
probes were sent in the planetary atmosphere and were equipped with magnetometers. Mariner 2
and Mariner 10 were equipped with a three-axis fluxgate magnetometer. These are also the part
of the Mercury MESSENGER mission. These instruments were instrumental in the discovery of
the Van Allen radiation belts around Earth by Explorer 1, and have detailed the magnetic fields of
the Earth, Moon, Sun, Mars, Venus and other planets. There are ongoing missions using
magnetometers, including attempts to define the shape and activity of Saturn's core.

Fig. 12 Helium Vector Magnetometer (HVM) of Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecrafts [25].

28

The first spacecraft-borne magnetometer was placed on the Sputnik 3 spacecraft in 1958 and the
most detailed magnetic observations of the Earth have been performed by the Magsat and rsted
satellites. Magnetometers were taken to the Moon during the later Apollo missions. Many
instruments have been used to measure the strength and direction of magnetic field lines around
Earth and the solar system. Spacecraft magnetometers basically fall into three categories:
fluxgate, search-coil and ionized gas magnetometers. The most accurate magnetometer
complexes on spacecraft contain two separate instruments, with a helium ionized gas
magnetometer used to calibrate the fluxgate instrument for more accurate readings [25].
The next three chapters are based on three of the more commonly acceptable explanations on the
origin of magnetism in stars.

29

Chapter 4
Origin of Magnetic Field in Stars and Planets
Based on the fundamental principles, one is free to speculate on origin of magnetism in stellar objects

The origin of magnetic fields in astrophysics is still an open issue. There are so many
suppositions that one is free to make any assumption because there is no direct evidence that
what is really true in the case of magnetic field of the massive objects. Some of the more
acceptable theories about the origin of magnetic fields in stellar objects are
1. Dynamo Theory
2. Flux Conservation theory
3. Neutron Stars as Giant Permanent Magnet
These theories are now viewed in some more detail in the following sections.

4.1 Dynamo Theory

The concept of dynamo was developed by the Michael Faraday (1791-1867), who had almost no
formal higher education. Faraday used to work as a helper on the shop of a book- binder and
there he could read the books which were brought for binding. He discovered that by moving a
magnet next to a closed electric circuit, or changing the magnetic field passing through it, an
electric current could be "induced" to flow in it. The same "electromagnetic induction" remains
the principle behind electric generators, transformers and many other electric devices.
The principle is expressed in the form of Faradays Law of Magnetic Induction, according to
which: in any closed circuit, the induced electromotive force is negative times the rate of
change of magnetic flux through the circuit:
E=

B
t .

This equation is the Maxwell-Faraday Equation which is generalization of Faradays law. Any
electrically conducting fluid can form a dynamo simply by shear within the fluid itself, because
of a consequence of Lenz's law of induction: moving the fluid through a magnetic field will
induce electrical currents in the fluid that distort the external magnetic field. The direction of the
distortion is such that a previously existing magnetic field tends to be dragged along with the
fluid, as with swirls of cream in a cup of coffee. If the flow has a strong shear component then
the individual magnetic field lines are stretched by the flow, amplifying the existing magnetic
field. Physically it tells that when magnetic field varies with time then a spatially varying electric
30

field is generated. In an electrically conducting body such as fluid, this electric field drives an
electric current which is the basis of Dynamo Process.

4.2 The Mechanical Dynamo

A dynamo or electric generator is a device converting the energy of motion to that of an electric
current. A dynamo is in fact an electric generator which is just a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electricity. Dynamos are mostly used in power plants to generate the
electricity we need to fulfill our needs in life. The mechanical energy that powers the dynamo is
usually obtained from varied
sources: for example, wind
turbines, water turbines, and
steam turbines.

Fig. 13 Faradays disc dynamo [26].

This principle of dynamos is used to describe origin of magnetism and the dynamo action in
relatively smaller stars and planets.

4.3 Dynamo Action in Stars and Planets

Dynamo theory is hard to express in a simple form. Even with super-computers very realistic
models are not yet available. It is taken as a mechanism through which an astrophysical object
like Sun, Earth or any other star generates a magnetic field. A planet with conducting and
convecting fluid can generate a sustainable magnetic field over astronomical time scales. In the
start when the stars were formed there was a weak primordial magnetic field which was created
due to motion of charged particles in the nebula.
So the molten electrically conducting fluid is believed to be circulating throughout astrophysical
sphere. As demonstrated in Fig. 14, by moving through the existing magnetic field, it creates
system of electric currents, spread out through the core, somewhat like Faraday's disk dynamo,
these currents create magnetic fields which are nothing but a distribution of magnetic forces.
31

These magnetic fields in turn generate electric currents and therefore we obtain the following
loop: electric current - magnetic field - electric current - magnetic field - electric current magnetic field and so on. As long as this loop is not interrupted, the planet or star will always
produce magnetic fields.

Fig. 14 An illustration of the dynamo process [27].

There are three pre-requisite for a dynamo process to get activated

i.
ii.
iii.

Electrically conducting fluid flow

Kinetic Energy due to spin of a star
An internal energy source to create convective movement of fluid.

It is believed that these initial conditions lead to the flow that has properties similar to the one in
plasma. However, the plasma flow must have the following properties for dynamo action
i.
Flow must be turbulent, Streamline flow is un-required
ii.
The flow has to propagate in three-dimensions.
iii.
Helical Flow is favorable for dynamo action. But it is not essential. Here we like to quote
H. K. Moffat, helicity is not essential for dynamo action, but it helps [28].

32

Fig. 15 Measured angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment of Sun and planets [18].

4.4 Dynamo Action in Earth

Due to intense heat, the Earth got its interior as a liquid core. A molten fluid is present in the
inner core of Earth. Materials were free to move in the fluid. Denser elements like Iron and
Nickel sank into the center while lighter elements like Aluminum, Silicon etc. got accumulated
on the crust [29]. The amount of heat trapped inside was so immense that even now the core is in
molten form. Thus this molten core is causing the magnetic field of Earth. The rapid rotation of
Earth is causing dynamo action. A small magnetic field plus convection induces electrical
currents inside the core. These currents further produce a larger magnetic field. The Earths
magnetic field does not remain fixed. The dipole of Earths magnetic field changes its location
irregularly which indicates that there must be the dynamo-generated field, because motion of
fluid might be irregular resulting in irregular magnetic field.
33

Fig. 16 A cartoon on dynamo action [30].

As the convection currents in the core circulate, they move the magnetic field around, and
these changes (called the secular variation) are now continually monitored by satellites
orbiting the Earth. We can compare the flows inferred from the secular variation observations
with those found in our simulations. Because the motions are slow compared with the
rotation of the Earth, the dynamical behavior of the core is strongly influenced by the
Coriolis Effect. This gives rise to much counter-intuitive behavior. Hot fluid does not simply
rise, it can travel in a spiral motion, and this type of motion is particularly good at generating
magnetic fields. An important part of our understanding of the dynamics of planetary cores
comes from solving relatively simple problems which illustrate the behavior of rapidly
rotating fluids.
Geological surveys tell that magnetic dipole of Earth not only reverses in direction, at times it
becomes very weak. The magnetic field of the Earth collapses and then rebuilds itself with
the opposite polarity. This has happened many times in the past, as can be measured by
studying the magnetic properties of rocks laid down in the distant past. It has been observed
that he large scale field only changes slowly, on a thousand year time-scale, but the fieldstrength has fallen substantially over the last few thousand years, so another reversal may be
imminent.

4.5 Dynamo Action in Sun

Magnetic eld generation is a key problem in understanding solar variability across wide
range of scales. The solar dynamo is the physical process that generates the Sun's magnetic
field. The Sun is permeated by an overall dipole magnetic field, as are many other celestial
bodies such as the Earth. The dipole field is produced by a circular electric current flowing
34

deep within the star, as expected from Ampre's law. The current is produced by shear or
stretching of material between different parts of the Sun that rotate at different rates, and the
fact that the Sun itself is a very good electrical conductor. The details are shown in Fig. 17.
This figure illustrates that the poloidal magnetic field in the left hand panel is twisted by the
differential rotation of the body to form a toroidal component in the middle panel. Vertical
convection lifts the toroidal field and Coriolis forces twist the field creating poloidal field in
the right hand panel, thus recreating the original field

Fig. 17. Three stages for regeneration of the magnetic field of dynamo [31].

Solar magnetic activity has been recorded since the early 17th century following the invention of
the telescope and the activity record can be extended back thousands of years using proxy data.
All solar magnetic phenomena such as solar flares, coronal mass ejections and the solar wind
result from solar dynamo. These phenomena may all have important terrestrial impacts, causing
severe magnetic storms and major disruption to satellites, as well as having a possible impact on
the terrestrial climate.

35

Fig. 18 The Sun's self-exciting dynamo [32].

The Sun is just one of many stars that exhibit magnetic activity like dynamo action. Sun's
self-exciting dynamo is shown in Fig.18. The direction of the field reverses itself about
every 11 years, causing the sunspot cycle as ropes of magnetic flux rise to the surface of the
Sun and manifest themselves as sunspots on the surface. The solar dynamo is thought to be
located in a region inside the Sun that exhibits a very large shear profile.
Observations of other stars, with varying properties (spectral types, ages and rotation rates)
shows that the sun's behavior is not unique, although there are some stars which do exhibit
cyclic behavior and that other mode of magnetic variability are possible.
4.6 Dynamo Action in Neutron Stars
Neutron star convection is a transient phenomenon and it has extremely high Reynolds
number

Rm 1017 [33]. So a neutron star dynamo is quintessential fast dynamo. To study

the magnetic field in neutron star, we need to have a close look on the formation of these
stars in brief.
A star remains in equilibrium mainly through balancing of the inward gravitational pull and
the outward thermal pressure due to energy ejection during fusion process. Neutron star
results when there in the core of a high mass star, there is a buildup of heavier nuclei. At one
stage due to continuous fusion the star ends up in isotopes of Iron

Fe

56

with highest

binding energy. Now fusion reaction stops and core temperature falls. Thermal pressure gets
insufficient to hold core against gravitational pull. In this situation electrons become so close
36

to each other obeying the Pauli Exclusion Principle that this creates electron degeneracy
pressure which supports the core, if the mass of core is less than Chandrasekhar Limit. But
when cores mass goes beyond this limit, the core collapses and electrons and protons further
fuse and produces neutrons and neutrinos.
+ p n+
e

When these reactions take place, there is an explosion called supernova in which most of the
mass of the star is blown away. Such star then consists of almost 90 % neutrons which create
a Neutron Degeneracy Pressure and disallow the further collapse of the core into a Neutron
Star. The core consists of neutrons but only the densest, core parts are neutrons fields linked
to some of the other regions which are in a sort of superconducting state.

Fig. 19 A neutron star with solid crust and fluid core [34].

It is believed that the whole core of Neutron Stars does not consist of neutrons only. As
shown in Fig. 19, it also possesses some percentage of electrons and protons (about 10 %)
[18]. The particles are electrically charged and they are able to produce an electric current
during differential rotation and as a result, a magnetic field gets induced.
It is assumed that most part of the interior of the Neutron Star consists of a fluid. Due to
some quantum mechanical properties, this fluid flows without any viscosity or frictional
resistance. A fluid with no viscosity is called superfluid. This fluid and rotation of star
develop the dynamo mechanism for magnetic field generation. A magnetic field is assumed
37

to be generated in the core of a SN progenitor at some earlier stage of its evolution and
subsequently amplified during core collapse [18]. It can be seen that the induction
mechanism is the most prevalent mechanism in dynamo action in stars, so we describe the
idea in more detail in the following sections.

4.7 Derivation of Induction Equation

Starting from Faradays law and Ampere-Maxwell Law we derive Magnetic Induction Equation.
Since Faradays Law is given by
E=

B
t ,

4.1
while Ampere-Maxwell Law is
B=0 j+

1 E
c2 t

4.2
0

Here E is the electric field, B is the magnetic field, j is current density,

c is speed of light. Using S.I units
density,

has the value 4

10

is permeability and
is the charge

is the permittivity or dielectric constant. Ohms Law in simplified form is given as

j= ( Ev B)

4.3

so that
j= E (v B) .

Now taking the curl of Amperes Law in Eq. (4.2) and discarding the second term

4.5
1 E
c2 t

, as

we assume that fluid velocity is very small as compared to the velocity of light, we get
B= ( . B ) 2 B= 2 B ,
or

B=0 j

4.6
4.7

Now putting Eq. (4.5) in Eq. (4.6) we obtain

B=0 E+ 0 (v B) .

4.8

38

Putting

E=

B
t

in Eq. (4.8) we have

B= 0

B
B
+ 0
+ ( v B)
.
t
t

4.9

Using vector identity given in Eq. (4.7) in (4.9) we get

0

B
2
= ( v B )= B
,
t
0

or

Dividing both sides in Eq. (4.10) by,

B
2
= ( v B ) + B
.
t
0

4.10

, we get
2

B
1
= ( v B ) +
B
t
0
,

B
= ( v B ) + 2 B
t
.

or

This is called Induction Equation. Here

units m2 s-1,

1
0

is the electrical conductivity and

4.11

is the magnetic diffusivity having the

0

is the magnetic permeability in free

space.
a. Magnetic Reynolds Number
To measure the relative importance of both terms of Induction Equation we need to nondimensionalize the induction equation. If we need a magnetic field generation through a
dynamo mechanism, the driving force represented by the first term ( v B ) must be
greater than the dissipative force represented by the second term

2 B on the left hand

side of Dynamo Equation. The ratio of the induction term ( v B ) to the diffusion term
2 B is known as Magnetic Reynolds number and represented by Rm .

39

Consider that B is the magnetic field strength for magnetic field B and let v be a typical speed
for the flow v . When L is a typical length and T is time then
v=

L
T .

Here L and v are the magnitudes of length scales and velocity field of the magnetic-field
variation, respectively.
1

=
B=B
B
V
=V
v
t
Suppose
and
, t=T
,
.
L
Now the dynamo Eq. (4.11) can be written as

B B vB
B 2

( v B ) + 2 B
=
.
T t
L
L

Multiplying by T =

L
v

and dividing by B on both sides we have

B vB
2
( v B )+
B ,
=
L
Lv
t

4.12

where
vL
=Rm ,

and

Rm

4.13

is known as Magnetic Reynolds number. Reynolds number is the measure of

relative strength of terms, convection term and the diffusion term:

v B vB/ L ,

and

| 2 B| B/ L
vB /L vL

B /L2
.
v B

Rm =

2 B
such that

40

Rm

is a dimensionless parameter. If

Rm 1

, convection dominates over induction

and coupling between plasma flow and magnetic field is strong. In other words, we can
expect a solution for of Dynamo Equation in which Ohmic diffusion is balanced by induction
B
t

and

When

Rm 1

or it may have non-negative average value.

, diffusion dominates over induction and there is a weak coupling between

plasma flow and magnetic field.

for umbrae L= 10

Rm

is very large in astrophysical objects. For example;

km and v = 100 m/s, =10

cm2 s-1 we get

Rm=10 5 1 .

a. Minimum

Rm for Growing Dynamo Actions

There are a number of ways in which a minimum

lower bounds on possible
(i)

Rm

Rm

can be estimated. These are merely

. Two are mentioned below [26]

Childress Bound
Rm .

(ii)

Backus Bound
2

Rm .
There are two conditions for a sustained dynamo action:
When we have rotational motion in which

Rm >10

(critical value), necessary but

insufficient to sustain the action.

R0=v /2 L , where is the spin angular velocity of the
R0 <1 , where
planet or star. Here

R0

is the Rossby Number.

41

Rm

In astrophysics,

is mostly large but in laboratory experiments, its value is very

small up to

50. In principle, all planets satisfy the above two conditions.

A table for comparison of Rm between the Earths core, a typical star and Copper sphere is given
below:
Object

(m/s

v (m/s)

L (m)

Rm

450

)
Earths Core

10
Star

0.5

10
1

109
Cu Sphere

0.15

9
2 10

From the table we can deduce that it is very hard to generate laboratory dynamos because length
scale is too short.

Fig. 20 Growth rate of the field with increase in magnetic Reynolds number [36].

b. Rossby Number

R0

To determine whether it is allowed to neglect the Coriolis force or not, the Rossby number is
often used. It is a dimensionless number and gives the ratio of centrifugal force (or inertial
force) to Coriolis force for a given flow of a rotating fluid. When the Rossby number is
42

small, the effects of planetary rotation are significant. Almost all of the planets and even large
R0
1
satellites satisfy the condition of having
v2
F
R
v
R 0= c = =
Cc fv fR

4.14

where f =2 sin is the Coriolis frequency while

is the angular frequency.

c. High and Low Conductivity

If we assume that plasma is ideal then
ideal or in other words

Rm 1

, that is

=0 , indicating that plasma is

, then Dynamo Eq. (4.11):

B
2
= ( v B ) + B
t

reduces to

B
= ( v B )
.
t

4.15

This is called the convection equation. This is frozen flux limit, that is, flux through any
closed loop remains constant as the loop moves around with the fluid velocity. It is true until
there is no diffusion as diffusion allows the field lines to ooze through the fluid.
When there is no motion: v = 0 and , plasma is not ideal or in other words

Rm 1

, and dynamo equation, in this case, reduces to:

B
= 2 B
.
t

4.16

This is the diffusion equation. It depicts that if there is no fluid motion, the field diffuses
away or we can say that if there is no field at infinity, it will diffuse to zero.
d. Magnetic Diffusion Time
The solution of diffusion equation tells us about the time of decay for a given field or
magnetic diffusion time. The solution of diffusion equation is given by;
B=B0 et / ,

4.17
43

where
1
0

R2 /

with R as the radius of the astrophysical object. Since

so
1

=( o ) R

4.18

Now when R is very large in astrophysical conditions, as expected, the diffusion is

extremely long lived. For example a sun spot has radius
3

diffusivity about 10
11

order 10

10

and has a magnetic

m2 s-1 [37]. The combination of two terms gives time of decay of

s or 3000 years.

Fig. 21 Magnetic lines diffusion [37].

4.8 Convection Zones

Convection zone geometry is very important for dynamo actions. If we consider convective zone
like an envelope then we will see that in cooler and with low mass stars these envelops are
deepened. In hot stars, the convective envelops vanish while a convective core develops as the
mass and temperature increases. Some of the convective zones are given in the Fig. 22. In cooler
and low mass stars these envelop are deepened. When a rotation is present, turbulent flow of
electrically conducting fluid can cause a large scale magnetic field. And as we know most of the
stars are equipped with these two characteristics, that is, rotation and a turbulent flow. Due to
different structures of convective zones in different stars, we can expect the different types of
dynamo actions. But the main working principles, mechanisms and problems are similar.
Actually when we study dynamo theory, we know it very easily that we are in a zoo of

44

dynamos, where every new model is different from other but obeying the same fundamental
principles.

Fig. 22 Convective zones in stars like an envelope [38].

4.9 Biermann Battery

Now we consider the Biermann battery which explains the origin of field during proto-galaxy
collapse. This first such battery was proposed by Biermann in 1950 [39] which generates the
magnetic field in the presence of rotation. We notice that the magnetic induction equation
B
= ( v B ) + 2 B ,
t
does not contain a source term. Therefore, if in the start there was no seed magnetic field in
any star then how can a magnetic field get amplified through dynamo action? In this context we
can question about the how flux conservation hypothesis is valid if there were no original flux?
How can we expect magnetic flux from the proto-galaxy atmosphere where initial magnetic flux
was zero? Both terms in above equation give no field when B=0 .
Suppose a star is composed only of Hydrogen, as most progenitor stars are supposed to be.
m
Plasma of this star consists of electrons of mass e , and charge e, and protons of mass
mp

and charge +e. Applying fluid approach to such plasmas; we need to consider three main

forces which act on charge particles in fluid, such as electrons in this case.

45

a. Lorentz Force
F L =m e

d ve
v B
=q E+ e
dt
c

4.19

. pe
ne

4.20

b. Pressure Gradient Force

Fp=
where

p=nkT , so that

Fp=

.(nkT )
ne

Generally, temperature of plasmas in star remains constant, so,

F p =kT

n
ne .

c. Collision Force
Collision transfers the momentum between the charged particles and also between charged
particles and neutral particles. The force due to collision is

Fc =m ab ( v av b )
ab

so that in case, it is

Fc =mv (v ev i)
Using Eqs. (4.19)
me

(4.21), we get

d ve
v B . pe
=e E+ e

n e mv(v e vi ) ,
dt
c
n

Multiplying Eq. (4.22) by

ne me

4.21

ne

on both sides we have

( vt + v . v )=n e ( E+ v c B ) . p n mv( v v )
e

4.22

4.23

46

Setting left hand side

0 because the electron mass density is very small, the last

term
on the right hand side gives rise to
. pe

term, which is totally negligible on large scale.

B=0 , gyro-radius

, is very small term if the gyro-radius is small. But when

is
infinite. So this term will be retained so that is
v B
0=n e e E+ e
. p e ,
c

or

ne e E+

ve B
= . pe ,
c

or

( E+ v c B )= n .ep

or

( E+ v c B )= nn e. p

such that

( c E+v e B )=

ne c . pe
.

ne e

4.24

Now taking the curl of Eq. (4.24) on both sides we have

ne c p e
n e2 e

or

ne c p e
B
+ (v e B)=
t
n e2 e

or

n cp
B
= ( v e B ) + e 2 e
t
ne e

c E+ (v e B)=

)
,

47

or

ne pe
B
= ( v e B ) c
.
t
ne 2 e

4.25

Last term on the right hand side of the equation is the Biermann battery term is
homogenous and does not vanish even when B=0 . That is, it can generate a magnetic
field from zero. But usually it is assumed to be zero because

pe

is a function of

ne

To reduce this constraint, rotational motion is required. Such motion arises due to shocks
of finite extent that are generated during proto-galaxy chaotic collapse [38].
To summarize: There are lots of varieties in planetary and stellar dynamos, but the
fundamental principle, mechanism and problems are similar and not so different. Most
of the stars rotate significantly and convect somewhere in their interior. When rotation is
present, a turbulent flow in a stratified environment can produce a large-scale magnetic
field. Differential rotation is an excellent mechanism to produce magnetic fields
organized on large spatial scales.

Chapter 5
Fossil Fields Hypothesis
Sometimes collapses in life add another novel dimension to it

Stars go through different stages in their lives. They begin forming from clouds and dust. These
are called Stellar Nebulae. The force of gravity is what then makes the dust particles gather to
48

come closer to each other. As they join, the gravitational energy is converted into heat energy and
the temperature rises. Once the temperature is high enough, it then undergoes nuclear fusion to
form Helium nuclei and gives out massive amounts of heat and light. A star is then born. This
stage of stars life is classifies it in the category of the Main Sequence star and lasts about 109
years. Eventually the Hydrogen begins to run out and the star turns into a Red Giant and the
surface cools. A Sun like star such as ours is smaller. This then cools and contracts and turns into
a White Dwarf. The White Dwarfs light fades completely and it becomes a Black Dwarf or a
Neutron Star. However, bigger stars glow brightly again and undergo more fusion and eventually
explode into a Supernova. Fig. 23 illustrates the life cycle of various type of stars.

Fig. 23 Life cycle of a star [40].

Stars are divided into a series of spectral types based on the appearance of their absorption
spectra. Some stars have a strong signature of Hydrogen such as O and B stars, others have weak
Hydrogen lines, but strong lines of Calcium and Magnesium (G and K stars). After years of
cataloging for stars, they were divided into seven basic classes: O, B, A, F, G, K and M. Note
that the spectra classes are also divisions of temperature such that O stars are hot, M stars are
cool. The fossil hypothesis implies that neutron star fields come from the progenitor OB star
fields which have survived the post main sequence and the core collapse phases. Between the
classes there are 10 subdivisions numbered 0 to 9. For example, our Sun is a G2 star. Sirius, a hot
blue star earlier shown in Fig. 1, is of type B.
Type B stars have a pronounced convective zone but A stars are almost fully radiative whereas
late-type stars have either convection zones of solar type or are fully convective. But all A stars
do not have magnetic field, only a sub-class of A stars and B stars Ap and Bp have strong
magnetic fields. Ap and Bp stars are peculiar stars (hence the p) of types A and B which show
overabundances of some metals, such as Strontium, Chromium and Europium; in addition, larger
49

overabundances are often seen in Praseodymium and Neodymium. Their magnetic fields have
been inferred to be steady and the magnetic field cannot be related to rotation rate of the star.
These stars have a much slower rotation than normal for A and B type stars, although some
exhibit rotation velocities up to about 100 km/s.
The dynamo model reproduces well the characteristics of late-type main sequence stars and
giants. However it fails to explain the magnetic fields of Ap stars, as their envelops are radiative
and they have no convective zone favorable to start dynamo action. The slow rotation of these
stars and non-existence of competent convective zones required for dynamo action discard the
chance to understand their magnetic fields on the basis of dynamo models. There is an
assumption that large scale magnetic field in these stars have a fossil origin. The fossil field
theory suggests that the fields in such stars are remnants of a field present in the interstellar
medium from which the star was formed. Fossil hypothesis assumes that there were some
magnetic fields which were scattered in a huge volume, that is, magnetic flux was distributed
among the whole distribution of stars. However, during early phases of collapse, the flux was
wounded into a smaller volume. In this way there was a strong magnetic field produced which
got locked into the star while it collapsed to equilibrium.
2
As we know magnetic field is proportional to 1/ R , just as the rotation rate is. It means that if

a progenitor star with a solar magnetic field collapses to a neutron star it will end up with a
magnetic field of about 2 10

times that of Sun. This hypothesis can explain the magnetic

fields of most of neutron stars but it does not account for the very strong magnetic fields of some
of the neutron stars such as magnetars [38]. This popular hypothesis is based on the theory of
Flux Conservation which we will discuss in the following section. Actually fossil field theory is
a kind of application of Flux Conservation Theory which is discussed in the next section.

5.1 Magnetic Flux Conservation Theory

As in astrophysical conditions we know that
=

Rm 1

, we assume an ideal plasma, where

and putting =0, so the dissipative term in induction equation (4.11) is almost

negligible and this equation assumes the form

B

v B ).
t =
5.1

This is magnetic differential equation without resistivity. Alfven suggested a very useful
interpretation of Eq. (5.1). This equation leads immediately to a very important concept of flux
freezing, known as Alfven-Walen Theorem which states that motions along the field lines do
50

not change the field but motions transverse to the field carry the field with them. In other words
Rm ,
In a perfectly conducting fluid
the magnetic field lines move with the fluid: the
field lines are `frozen' into the plasma.
When the magnetic field is described by its field lines, these lines must possess a reality beyond
that usually attributed to them in a vacuum. This implies that the magnetic flux through any
material surface of a perfectly conducting fluid is a constant [41]. Physically we say that
magnetic fields flow with the fluid or magnetic flux is frozen into the fluid flow as some field
lines are tied to a specific parcel of fluid. Suppose that the flux through a given surface element S
of a moving contour of length L as shown in Fig. 24.

Fig. 24 Flux freezing phenomena [42].

Mathematically, the flux is defined as

.

B.d s.

5.2
The flux change is due to two reasons
When magnetic field B changes in time
.

1 =
s

B
t .
t ds.

5.3
When the contour changes shape and results in the change of flux:

51

2= B . v

d l. t .

5.4
Here dl is an infinitesimal line element. Using the following vector identity
B . d v d l=( v B ) . d l

5.5

and the Stokes theorem

.

v B . d l= ( v B ) . d s .
s

5.6

Equation (5.2) can be written as

d
B
= { ( v B ) }. ds
.
dt s t

Now assuming the case of ideal plasma, we put

5.7

B
= ( v B )
, in Eq. (5.7) so that
t

d
= { (v B) ( v B ) } .ds
dt s
d
dt

Since

= 0,

5.8
Eq. (5.8) implies that the flux through a superconducting fluid remains constant. In other words
the magnetic flux through any material surface of a perfectly conducting fluid is a constant. The
details on these calculations are given in Appendix A. Plasma moves freely along the field line
but when the plasma and field lines are perpendicular to the motion of the plasma; the plasma is
pushed by field lines. Although for an ideal plasma, flux remains frozen in or constant but other
factors like compressions and shearing change the magnetic field.

52

Fig. 25 Shearing of a flux tube by a velocity field [19].

5.2 Application of Flux Conservation Theory

Here we discuss how the magnetic field gets changed when density of plasma changes. There are
three symmetrical examples as follows:
Consider uniform plasma with uniform magnetic field is flowing in a uniform cylinder of
cross-sectional area A. The flow is in z-direction is perpendicular magnetic field B that is
independent of z. Both the mass and the flux in this cylinder are conserved, that is, here
r 2 and B r2 :
BA = constant
and

A = constant.

Taking the ratio of both the relations, we get:

= constant.

Now we consider motion parallel to B which is dependent on z, in this case cross sectional
area remains constant so B = constant but the length is extended and in this case the
1
plasma density l
or

=constant l 1

or

l=constant

Now consider the isotropic motion with expansion or contraction towards the origin of a
3
2
r
sphere , in this case density
and B r
. Then we get

53

B
2/ 3

= constant.

These are very important applications which favor the fossil field theory as we will discuss in the
next section. Collectively we can write [38]
B
n

= constant,

where with
n = 1:

perpendicular contraction or expansion,

n = 0:

parallel contraction or expansion,

n=

2
3 :

isotropic, contraction or expansion.

This popular hypothesis is based on the theory of Flux Conservation which we have already
discussed. As we already know that the magnetic flux is proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field and surface area. This means that the quantity
B r

=constant,

or
B i r i2=B f r f 2 .

5.9

5.3 Collapsing Stars

11
Consider a collapsing star that has its initial radius r i 10 cm and later collapses to a white

dwarf of radius

r f 10

cm. In this case,

10

increases by ( 11 109 )3

106 .

Assuming that this collapse is isotropic then

2

B 3 ,

54

10
( 6)2/ 3=10 4 .
B

or

6
Therefore, if the initial field was 100 G, it will end up at 10 G after collapse. Similarly if the
11
6
same star with r i 10
cm and a field of 100 G collapses to neutron star with r f 10 cm
15
and its density after collapse is 10 g/cm3 then Eq. (5.9) gives

B f =B i

ri
rf

()

11 2

or

B f =100

( )

2
10
=100 ( 105 ) =1012 G.
6
10

2
So magnetic field is proportional to 1/ R , just as the rotation rate is. It means that if a

progenitor star with a solar magnetic field collapses to a neutron star, it will end up with a
9
magnetic field of about 2 10 times that of Sun. This hypothesis can explain the magnetic

fields of most neutron stars but it does not account for the very strong magnetic fields of some
neutron stars such as the magnetars.
The fossil hypothesis implies that neutron star fields come from the progenitor OB star fields
which have survived the post main sequence and the core collapse phases.

5.4 Problems with Fossil Field Hypothesis

Although the fossil theory looks simple and has gained popularity but it gives an unrealistically
optimistic estimate. For example, the neutron star contains only some 15% of the progenitors
14
mass. If the field is roughly uniform, the flux contained in the core reaches up to 10
G on a

neutron star which is not compatible for magnetars. Magnetic field that exists in magnetars is
believed to be in the range of 1014 to 1015 G. This field is greater than the quantum critical
threshold H_cr [43]. For magnetars fields fossil theory does not give satisfactory solutions [43].
Fossil theory predicts the correct value for magnetic fields of Ap/Bp stars but it does not explain
why all A and B stars do not have strong magnetic fields or vice versa, why only Ap and Bp
stars have strong magnetic field.

55

To explain the existence of very strong magnetic fields in stars, other alternative explanations are
sought. One of these is about treating the whole star as a giant magnet. This is discussed in the
next Chapter.

Chapter 6
Neutron Stars and Pulsars as Giant Permanent Magnets
Neutrons and products of neutrons are not really neutral!

In 1934 two American astronomers Baade and F. Zwicky suggested that one possible outcome of
supernova explosion might be a neutron star. A supernova represents the transition of an
ordinary star into a neutron star, consisting mainly of neutrons. Such a star may possess a very
small radius and an extremely high density.
As we know that most of the neutron stars have strong magnetic fields, B

1012 G. While

a specific class of neutron stars that is magnetars and pulsars possess even stronger field than
normal neutron stars. As already mentioned the most favorite theories to explain the magnetic
origin in stars are dynamo action and fossil field theory.
The dynamo theory has difficulty explaining strong magnetic fields and the observed lack of
correlation with rotation. Magnetars and pulsars have stable magnetic field and there is a
misalignment of the neutron stars field with respect to its orbital axis. This cannot be explained
by dynamo action because differential rotation of conducting fluid should remove the beacon
generated by pulsars. If this happens, there would be no chances of observable pulsars as no
beacon effect would result. But as we know pulsars send strong and stable pulses towards our
Earth with regular intervals of time. This fact rules out the existence of dynamo action in
neutron stars specifically in pulsars.

56

Fig. 26 Neutron star with strong magnetic field [45].

Even the fossil field theory does not explain ultra-strong magnetic field of magnetars. As we
discussed in the Sec. 5.3, even for a strong supernova core, the fossil field hypothesis predicts a
12
13
field of strength 10
G to 10
G. However, this theory does not explain ultra-strong
14

magnetic field of magnetars which is above 10

15

10

G. The theory does not explain the

stable configuration of field which magnetars represent. In dynamo model, neutron star is
assumed to consist of highly conducting convection zones made up of superfluid neutrons and
superconducting neutrons and expected result must be the alignment of magnetic dipole with its
rotational axis.

Fig. 27 Magnetic moment of neutron [46].

We have discussed in Sec. 4.6 that the neutron star contains neutrons only, in its composition.
The presence of other particles in this star remnant has fewer chances. Moreover neutron has
zero charge thats why it is called neutron which is the word derived from electrically neutral.
Neutron is a member of baryon family of particles. A baryon is a composite particle that consists
of three quarks and neutron is one example. In spite of zero charge, neutron has a magnetic
57

moment. Its magnetic moment depicts its substructure, that is, neutron is not an elementary
particle. Because neutron belongs to the family of fermions and it is a spin 1/2 particle, so
definitely it should have magnetic moment. Its constituent particles are one up quark and two
down quarks, that is, udd. Up quark has charge equal to +

charge

1
3

2
3

e, thus making the zero net charge for a neutron ( +

e while down quark has a

2
1
1
e e e=0
). If
3
3
3

the quarks are in motion, they can produce a nonzero magnetic moment. As a very simple model,
suppose the u quark moves in a counterclockwise circular path and the d quarks move in a
clockwise circular path, each of radius r moving with the same speed.
The magnetic moment of neutron becomes the basis of explanations about the enormously strong
magnetic field of neutron stars such as pulsars, magnetars. Neutrons magnetic moment can
contribute to the generation of ultra-strong magnetic field in neutron stars. As neutron is
spherical, so first we derive a relation between magnetic field strength B and magnetic moment
of a sphere having magnetic moment . Then this result can be used to explain the ultrastrong magnetic field of pulsars by integrating magnetic moments of all neutrons present in
neutron star [47].

6.1 Average Field of a Sphere

We discuss here the magnetic moment of spherical object like neutron, and these results will be
used to interpret the ultra-strong magnetic field strength in some of the neutron stars. The details
on the dipole magnetic moment of a current loop which form the basis of this concept are given
in Appendix B.
The average magnetic field over a spherical volume of a charged sphere with magnetic moment,
having radius R, is shown in Fig. 28. Due to an arbitrary configuration of steady currents within
the sphere, the average magnetic field is
B av =

where

0 2
4 R3 ,
is the total dipole moment of the sphere.

58

Fig. 28 A charged sphere with magnetic moment.

By definition,
B av =

where

1
B d ,
z

6.1

4
3
= R
. Writing B as the curl of A, and using Gausss theorem
3

( A ) d =

volume

surface

Ada ,

da is an infinitesimal element of area at the surface of the sphere, pointing in the radial direction.
Therefore
B av =

1
Ada.

The vector potential is itself an integral over current distribution. Thus

A=

0
j
d ,

4 r

j da
1r ()d .
1 0
B av =

59

Doing the surface integration first, setting the polar axis along the vector S from the center to d,
so that
R
( 2+ S 2 RS cos ) ,
r =
2

2
^
. d a=R sin dd R ,

R
( 2+ S 2 RS cos ) R2 sin cos dd r^
1r d a=
2

4
S.
3
Finally, the volume integral yields
j s^
4
()d
3
1 0
B av =

4
j ^s
() d
= 0

4 R3
given by
j ^s
()d
,
1
=
2

where

is the total dipole moment of the sphere

60

j ^s
()d
2
0
B av =

4 R3

0 2
4 R3 .

6.2

This field is similar to the field of a current carrying coil which acts as bar magnet with magnetic
dipole moment . A magnetic dipole experiences a torque when it is placed in an external
magnetic field. Secondly, it generates its own intrinsic magnetic field given by above formula
[48].

6.2 Aligned Magnetic Moments of Neutrons in the Neutron Stars

Now to integrate the magnetic moment of all neutrons present in a neutron star, we find the
number of neutrons present in it. Consider
1030 kg
Mass of Sun = 1.989
Mass of Neutron star = 1.4 1.989

1030 kg

Mass of Neutron = 1.008685 u, u= 1.6605389211027 kg

So

Nc

1.4 1.989 1030 kg

1.008685 1.6605389 1027 kg

= 1.66

1057 .

6.3
Astronomers picture neutron star as a giant atomic nucleus having atomic mass

57

10

17

the neutron star is the densest object in the observable universe with a density of 10

[43]. As
kg/

m3 . At this higher density, we can put aside Pauli Exclusion Principle and Fermi Dirac
Statistics [49] and we can assume that at the time of collapse all neutrons moments were aligned
in a specific direction with the expense of some energy gained during the last moments before
Nc
the explosion of supernova. So the sum of moments of
neutrons is given by
N c =1.66 1057 1.935 B .

6.4
61

Alvarez and Bloch in their first experiment found |

N

|=|

gn

S n N =1.935 N

27
is Nuclear Magneton with the value 5.05 10

, where

J/T [50].

Putting these values in the Eq. (6.2)

B=

0 2 c 4 107 2 1.66 1057 1.935 5.05 1027

=
3
4 R3
4 (10,000)

= 3.2

12

10

T.

6.5
which is the maximum attainable permanent magnetic field due to uniform alignments of neutron
magnetic moments.

6.3 Pulsars
In the mid-1960s, astronomer Antony Hewish designed a large radio telescope. In late 1967, he
and his fellow astronomers detected an unexpected pulsation from some unknown source with a
time period of 1.3 ms. Soon after this detection they were able to find another source of pulsation
with a period of 1.2 ms. Within a year they were able to detect 27 pulsars. Anthony won Noble
Prize for this remarkable success in 1974.

Fig. 29 A highly magnetized neutron star [51].

Soon after this, a link between pulsars and fast spinning neutron stars was realized and it was
concluded that pulsars are highly magnetized fast spinning neutron stars that emit synchrotron
radiation which is detected only when the beam is pointing toward the earth. Although pulsars
were discovered as radio sources but direct measurement of strong magnetic field came after
62

several years later with the help of spectral observation of Hercules X-1 with the Uhuru satellite
[52].
a. Moment of Inertia of Pulsar
As we know that neutron stars possess spherical form. A typical pulsar has mass
M

30
1.4 1.9891 10

kg,

and its radius is R 10 km. So its moment of inertia is

2
2
I = MR2 = 1.4 1.9891 1030 103 1012 10 45
g cm2.
5
5

6.6

33.403 ms is given by

The rotational energy for a crab pulsar with spin period P

1 2 2
E= I ( ) 2 1049 ergs.
2
P

6.7

Now we infer the magnetic field strength of a pulsar with the help of its period and period
derivative.
b. Period Derivative
The luminosity of the nebula L is the energy emitted per unit time, which must be extracted
1031 W, has period
from the pulsars rotation. A crab nebula with luminosity L = 2
derivative given by
L=

dE
2
=I
dt
P

( ) P1 dpdt

or
dp L . P 3
3
= 2 1.52 10
dt 4 I

s s-1,

6.8
3
and the measured period derivative 4. 2 10
s s-1.

So

dE
dt

2
=I
P
rot

( ) ( ) P1 dpdt 4.5 10

38

ergs s-1.

6.9

63

Since a rotating magnetic dipole radiates energy at a rate

2

dE 2 d 2 m 1

dt 3 d t 2 c 3
while
m=

( )

1
2

r3

B0

d2m
2
m
2
P
dt

( )

with

Thus
dE
dt

8 4 B02 r 6
=
.
3 c3 P 4
dip

( )
6.10

Equating both kinetic and gravitational energies, we get

dp
dt

( )

B 0=1.3 1019 P
= 1.3

1019

1
2

(33.4 103 4.2 1013)1/ 2

1012 G.

= 7.6
6.11

Using the above equation, the spinning period

spin

which is the spin down age of the

pulsar since time of its birth to the current time, becomes

t

dp
spin= dP
dt
t
0

( )

1 dp
= P
2 dt

( )

6.12

c. Gyration
When a charged particle of mass m and charge q is interacting with Coulomb force
well as Lorentz force

FL

FC

as

then its equation of motion can be defined as

64

F=FC + F L

dv
=q ( E+ v B ) .
dt

Fig. 30 Helicoidal ion orbit in a uniform magnetic field [36].

We suppose that there is no Columbic field, that is,

E=0 , and the above equation assumes

the form:
m

dv
=q ( v B )
dt
mv
=qB
.
r

or

As we know that the relation between the linear and angular velocities is v =r , so above
equation becomes
m=qB ;
c=

and

where

q=Ze ;
ZeB
m .

6.13

is the cyclotron frequency. A spectral component with energy ranging between

40 keV to 60 keV was interpreted as an electron cyclotron emission in the hot plasma of a
neutron star [52]. Using this energy we can infer the magnetic field strength of a neutron star
from the above formula for cyclotron frequency.
19
Since the energy is E = 60 keV, then the corresponding frequency is 1.45 10 , we

obtain the magnitude of the magnetic field

65

B 5 10

T 5 10

12

G.

6.14
This value is in agreement with the estimate for the magnetic field obtained in Eq. (6.5).

Chapter 7
Summary and Conclusions
Historically, magnetism originated with the discovery of loadstones. This led to the idea of
compass which could be aligned with the geographical poles of Earth with their initial utility in
ascertaining directions. Gilbert proposed that Earth is like a giant bar magnet. The emergence of
classical physics as practical science resulted in explanation that whenever charge particles
move; they produce a magnetic field. After this Faraday gave the idea that magnetic induction
was due to change in flux of electric field. During the last three centuries, the concepts for
electric current and subsequently the magnetic field related to these current were unfolded. By
then the phenomena underlying Lorentz force was established. The unification of electricity and
magnetism led to Maxwells equations which were based on Gausss Law, Amperes law,
Faradays Law and the absence of monopoles. It was until then, just a classical physics picture.
With the advent of modern physics in early last century, quantum mechanical basis of magnetism
was devised. It was revealed that the spin magnetic moment and orbital magnetic moment of
electron were the cause of magnetism in atoms. So these tiniest constituent of matter were
responsible for the magnetism on large scale. Gilberts pondering proved to be a new base for the
research about magnetic fields in astrophysical objects. It was natural that if peaceful and cool
66

planets like Earth could have a magnetic field then why not the planets and stars which were hot
and more dynamic than Earth possess the magnetic field.
When it was proposed and even detected that there exists magnetic field in stars, the next phase
of human curiosity was to know how these fields were produced. Therefore, the science of
detecting origin of magnetism in planets and stars started developing. Every area of research in
physics nowadays is being used to supplement other areas of research. The Zeeman Effect and
then Anomalous Zeeman effect, radio analysis techniques, polarization, Faradays rotation
method etc. were able to detect the strength and nature of fields related to astrophysical objects.
The question arose what could be the reason for the existence of strong magnetic field, as in the
Sun, and sometimes extra strong fields, as in pulsars.
There are several theories about generation of magnetism in Astor objects. Theories were
developed on the basis of knowledge in plasma physics. Generally we know these theories as
Dynamo Models, having no limits, due to different possibilities of rotation, convection in
different field. Amperes law and Faradays law were combined, and mathematically, the
generation of magnetic field in astrophysical objects was explained by dynamo action. In fact,
when we enter the field of dynamos models, there is a zoo of models, although all models are
explained on the basis of same fundamental laws, but approaches and conditions differ. It has
been aimed to explain the basic theme of dynamo action and ideal plasma behavior through
Reynolds number and Rossby number.
As the Astor objects are very far from our physical approach, even with the latest technology
available, very fast moving probes could not go beyond our Solar System. Years are required for
a space probe to reach from Earth to any other planet belonging to Solar System. In some of the
environments, so much temperature and gravity exists that when a spaceship approaches, it could
melt or get engulfed by the gravitational pull. So researchers were free to make assumptions and
proposals on the basis of some measureable facts and with the incorporation of modern physics
ideas. A curtain of light years in distances, high temperature, limited human life span and
helplessness to visit the vastnesss of the universe limits the research work.
Universe is continuously expanding, that is, we are getting far and far from other stars, with the
passage of time. So due to uncertainty and limitations, other models for magnetic field origin
were also formulated, such as, fossil field hypothesis. Some mathematical derivations in this
context are included in this work. Radio astronomy was able to detect neutron stars, pulsars and
magnetars with ultra-strong magnetic fields

1016 G [53]. These ultra-strong fields were not

easy to explain via these two theories fossil field and dynamo theory. So some researchers
sidestepped these theories and went on to explain such strong magnetic field on some other
bases. It was assumed that neutron star could be a giant permanent magnet with the superalignments of neutron magnetic moments. The same phenomenon is observed in strong magnets

67

where magnetic moments are aligned creating a ferromagnetic type of field. However, still we
are in the realm of uncertainty, curiosity and wonder.
Nothing can be said finally and with full certainty about the magnetic phenomena in
astrophysical objects. The alignment of neutron magnetic moments was fascinating idea, which
has the potential and motivation to lead us to study further on these lines. Magnetic moment of
neutral particles is a really interesting phenomenon which could resolve our conflict about the
magnetic field in neutron stars. Moreover, the inclusion of statistical effects can be one of the
directions to focus on, as future research work.

Appendix A
Consider the flux linked to a surface S which is also moving with the motion of the fluid
elements constituting it,
B.

B.d S

=
).
A1
dt
dB
dt .d S+ 1t
The first term in above equation is change in flux due to intrinsic change of B and the second
S1
S2
term is due to motion of the surface S.
is the position of surface at time t while
is
the position of S at t + dt. Applying Gausss law of divergence to the volume enclosed by
S2

S1

and the traces of the edges of S

B.
( d S 2B . d S1 ) B . ( v dt dl ) .
. B dv=

A2

68

Now substituting Eq. (7.2) in Eq. (7.1), we get

d
B . d S=
dt

dB
.B d v
.d S+ B v . d l+
.
dt
dt

A3
Next, applying . B = 0 and using Strokes theorem, Eq. (A3) assumes the form
d
B.d S
=
dt

{ Bt ( v B)}.d S .

A4
As we know Faradays law is
E=

B
t ,

A5
while Ohms law in simplified form is

j = E + v B ).

A6
E from Eq. (A6) in Eq. (A5), we have

Putting the value of

B
j
= v B .
t

As

A7

Eq. (A5) takes the form

B
= ( v B ) .
t

A8

Inserting Eq. (A8) in Eq. (A4), we get

d
B . d S=0.
dt
A9

69

Appendix B
We start with the calculation of the vector potential A. Consider a small loop of wire of area S,
situated at the origin in a plane perpendicular to z axis and carrying a current I. The vector A at
the point P(r, , ) is directed in the azimuthal direction and is given by
A=

0 I 1
r ' d l e^ .
4

B1

Fig. 31 Magnetic field due to current carrying loop.

Since the dl vectors have no z component, A can only have x and y components. For any given
value of r, if a is the radius of the loop, then
0 I 2 a cos
A=
r ' d e^ .
4 0

B2

The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole can be calculated. Consider the current loop in Fig.
Expressing r in terms of r and , in the form of a power series in 1/r and rewriting we get

r 2
=
'
r

()
or

1
a
2 ar
1 ' + ' 2 cos
r
r
2

()( )

[ ()( ) ]

r
a 2 2 ar
=
1
+ ' 2 cos
'
'
r
r
r

70

a2 a
+ cos .
2 r2 r

Assuming that a << r:

1 1 a2 a
=
+ cos .
r' r 2 r3 r 2
Since r/r 1, substituting for r in the two correction terms on the right hand side, the potential
approximately becomes

The magnetic dipole moment of circular loop of wire carrying a current I, except that a2 must
be replaced by the area S of the loop: = I S. The magnetic dipole potential may be expressed
as
A=

where

0 r^
,
4 r2

B3

is the magnetic dipole moment. The magnetic field vector B for the dipole is given

by
B= A .
Using the formula
( C D ) =( D. ) C( C . ) D+C ( . D )D ( .C ) ,

( A )=

we get

or

( A )=

0
4

[( )

0
r^
3 ,
4
r

r^
r^
r^
r^
. ( . ) 3 + . 3 3 ( . ) .
3
r
r
r
r

( )

Therefore,
71

 ( A )=

0
r^
3
4
r

0
4

([ rr^ . ) ( . ) rr^ rr^ ( . ) ] .

3

Using the fact that

( )i

xj
r

=x i x j

ij
r

3
5
r

we have
0
0 r 2 j3 x j ( . r^ )
r^
( A )j=
3 =
4
r j 4
r5

0 3 ( . r^ ) r^ r 2
4
r5

0 1
[ 3 ( . r^ ) r^ ] .
4 r3

Hence we get
B ( r )= A=

0 1
[3 ( . r^ ) r^ ] .
4 r3

B4

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