The design process encompasses the architectural design, the

development of the structural concept , the analysis of the steel structure and
the verification of members
members. Steel solutions are lighter than
han their concrete
equivalents, with the opportunity to provide more column
column-free
free flexible floor
space, less foundations and a fast, safe construction programme.
For the designer, a steel solution means reliable materials,
known material and section properties
properties, precise off-site manufacture and
extensive support including software, design guides and easy to use
resistance tables.
The Blue Book

The Green Book

Contents
1 Design process
o 1.1 Steel design
2 Concept design

3 Factors affecting choice of structural system

o 3.1 Stability systems
3.1.1 Braced frames
3.1.2 Continuous frames
3.1.3 Concrete or steel cores
o 3.2 Columns
o 3.3 Floor systems
o 3.4 Foundations
o 3.5 Integration of building services
o 3.6 External envelope
4 Structural principles
o 4.1 Variable actions
o 4.2 Analysis
o 4.3 Sensitivity to second-order effects
5 Design Standards
o 5.1 Building Regulations
o 5.2 BS 5950
o 5.3 Eurocodes
5.3.1 National Annexes
5.3.2 NCCI
o 5.4 Basis of structural design
o 5.5 BS EN 1993-1 (Eurocode 3)
o 5.6 BS EN 1994 (Eurocode 4)
6 Common structural systems
o 6.1 Composite construction
o 6.2 Precast concrete units
o 6.3 Integrated floor solutions
o 6.4 Long-span beams
7 Trusses
8 Portal frames
9 Member design
10 Connections
o 10.1 Simple connections
o 10.2 Moment-resisting connections

11 Structural robustness
12 Specification of structural steelwork
o 12.1 BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures
o 12.2 The
National Structural Steelwork Specification
Construction (NSSS)
13 References
14 Further reading
15 Resources
16 See also
17 External links
18 CPD

for

Building

The fundamental process of structural design commences with the

preparation of a structural concept, which is itself based on an architectural
design for the structure. For simple, common forms of structure, it will be
possible to prepare a concept design directly from the architectural design typical solutions are well understood.
For more complex structures, or innovative designs, best practice is to
develop the structural concept in conjunction with the architectural scheme,
so that an efficient, appropriate solution can be developed.
Once the concept design has been established, the structural design can
be completed, involving determination of loads, analysis and member
verification.
Steel is ideally suited for design. Material properties are known and member
properties are accurate, meaning that analysis is precise. Design rules are
clear and mature, without undue conservatism, having been developed
over many decades. There is a wealth of support resources, including
software, to facilitate efficient design.
The choice and design of the primary structure is a fundament part of
the concept design of buildings, and ideally should be integrated with the
development of the architectural design. Meeting client, planning
and Building Regulation requirements are paramount, but there will be a
range of structural forms that meet these requirements, each with its own

advantages. The merits of different structural forms should be reviewed

against the requirements for the structure. Key considerations include:

Principal structural elements of a multi-storey building

Cost and speed of construction
Building height and plot ratio
Future flexibility and adaptability
Site constraints including ground conditions
The need for special structural arrangements in public spaces or circulation
areas
Floor grids and dimensional coordination with the planning grid
Structural construction depth (ceiling to floor level)
Servicing strategy and its coordination and integration with the structure
(horizontally and vertically)
Floor loadings
Fire resistance
Sustainability requirements.
The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building comprise
floors, beams and columns. A wide variety ofalternative forms and
arrangements can be used in multi-storey steel framed structures to deliver
the benefits of:
Economy

Shallow floor construction

Integration of services
Flexible, column-free floor space
Reduced foundations
Rapid on-site construction.
Floor grids define the spacing of the columns in orthogonal directions,
which are influenced by:
The planning grid (typically based on multiples of 0.6 m, 1.2 m or 1.5 m)
The column spacing on the facade, to suit the external envelope (typically 5.4 m
to 7.5 m)
The intended use of the internal space
The requirements for building services distribution.
The British Council for Offices (BCO) Guide to Specification[1] provides
extensive guidance on the preparation of scheme designs.
For naturally ventilated offices, a building width of 12 m to 15 m is typically
used, which can be achieved by two spans of 6 m to 7.5 m, with a column
placed adjacent to a central corridor. Natural lighting also plays a role in
choice of the width of floor plate. In larger buildings, a long-span
solution provides a considerable enhancement in flexibility of layout. For air
conditioned offices, a clear span of 15 m to 18 m is often used.
Floor-to-floor height will be an important consideration at the concept
design stage. The table below gives typical floor to floor heights for
buildings of different use.
Prestige office
4 - 4.2 m
Speculative office

3.6 - 4.0 m

Renovation project

3.5 - 3.9 m

Typical floor-to-floor heights

If planning restrictions limit overall building height, shallow floor
solutions may be adopted, or solutions that involve integrating the services in
the structural depth. Typical structural depths for different types of
construction are given in the table below.

Composite beam construction

Cellular beams
integration)

(with

800 mm - 1200
mm

service 800 mm - 1100

mm

Precast concrete floors (7.5 m 1200 mm - 1200

span)
mm
Precast concrete floors (14 m 1450 mm - 1450
span)
mm
Shallow floor system or integrated 600 mm - 800
beams
mm
Typical structural depths (ceiling to floor)
[top]Stability systems

Typical bracing in a multi-storey frame

The structural system required for stability is primarily influenced by the
building height. For buildings up to eight storeys height, the steel structure
may be designed to provide stability, but for taller buildings, concrete or
braced steel cores are more efficient structurally. The following structural
systems may be considered for stability.

For buildings up to eight storeys high, braced steel frames are commonly
used with bracing members generally located within a cavity in the facade,
or around stairs or other serviced zones.
A steel braced frame has three key advantages:
A braced solution is less expensive than a continuous frame
Responsibility for temporary stability lies with one organisation
As soon as the steel bracing is connected, the structure is stable.
For buildings up to four storeys high, continuous frames may be used in
which the multiple beam to column connections provide bending resistance
and stiffness to resist horizontal loads. This is generally only possible
where the beams are relatively deep (400 mm to 500 mm) and where the
column size is increased to resist the applied moments. The connections
between members are likely to be more expensive than those in Concrete
cores are the most practical system for buildings of up to 40 storeys high,
with the concrete core generally constructed in advance of the steel
framework. In this form of construction, the beams often span directly
between the columns on the perimeter of the building and the concrete
core. Special structural design considerations are required for:
The beam connections to the concrete core
Fire safety and robustness of the long-span construction.

Typical beam layout around a concrete core

A braced steel core

Braced steel cores may be used as an economic alternative where speed
of construction is critical. Such cores are installed with the rest of the
steelwork package. An example of a braced steel core is shown in the
figure above right.
Columns in multi-storey
storey steel frames are generally H sections ,
predominantly carrying axial load. When the stability of the structure is
provided by cores, or discreet vertical bracing, the beams are generally
designed as simply supported. The generally accepted design model is that
nominally pinned connections produce nominal moments in the column,
calculated by assuming that the beam reaction is 100 mm from the face of
the column.
For ease of construction,, columns are usually erected in two, or sometimes
three storey sections, i.e. approximately 8 m to 12 m in length. Column
sections are joined with splices , typically 300 mm to 600 mm above the
floor level.

A wide range of floor solutions is available. Although steel solutions are

appropriate for short spans (typically 6 m to 9 m), steel has an important
advantage over other materials in that long-span solutions (between 12 m
and 18 m) can be easily provided. This has the key advantage of columnfree space, allowing future adaptability, and fewer foundations.
Floors spanning onto the steel beams will normally be either precast concrete
units, or composite floors. The supporting beams may be below the floor,
with the floor bearing on the top flange (often known as "downstand"
beams), or the beams may share the same zone with the floor
construction, to reduce the overall depth of the zone. The available
construction zone is often the determining factor when choosing a floor
solution.
Form of construction
Typical solution
Low rise, modest spans,
restriction on construction depth

no Downstand beams
composite floors

precast

units

or

Modest spans (less than 9 m), Integrated solutions precast or composite

restricted construction depth
floors

Low rise, long span (e.g. 15 m)

Downstand beams in the facade composite

floors with secondary steel beams spanning
15 m

Medium and high rise, modest spans,

no restriction on construction depth Downstand beams, composite construction
Medium and high rise, long spans (to Composite floors with cellular long span
18 m) restricted construction depth secondary steel beams
Typical floor solutions
The span range of various structural options in both steel and concrete are
shown in the table. Long-span steel options generally provide for service
integration for spans of over 12 m. Cellular beams and composite trusses are
more efficient for long-span secondary beams, whereas fabricated beams
are often used for long-span primary beams.

Typical spans for various floor systems

Long-span beams have gained in popularity in the commercial building

sector because they offer the following benefits in design and construction:
Internal columns are eliminated, leading to more flexible and efficient use of
internal space
Services can be integrated within the depth of the structure, and so the floor to
floor depth is not increased
Fewer components are required (typically 30% fewer beams) leading to reduced
construction and installation time
Fire protection costs can be reduced due to the massivity (weight : exposed
profile) of the longer span members
Steelwork costs are not increased significantly, despite the longer spans
Overall building costs are increased by a negligible amount.
In inner city and on difficult or brownfield sites, the time and cost of
constructing the foundations has a major effect on the viability of a project.
Although the weight of the frame is relatively small compared with the floors
and walls, a steel frame can be significantly lighter than a comparable
reinforced concrete frame. Further reductions in weight can be achieved by
using light
ight floor construction such as composite metal deck floors and
lightweight concrete.
Difficult ground conditions may dic
dictate the column grid. Long spans may be
required to bridge obstructions in the ground. Generally, widely spaced

columns reduce the number of foundations, simplifying the substructure

construction and often reducing cost.