03 - Load Flow and Panel

Load Flow Analysis
ETAP Workshop Notes 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.
System Concepts
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 2
Power in Balanced 3-Phase

Systems S V I
*
LN
S3
3
3
S1
V LL I *
jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor
Leading Power Factor
Current and Voltage
Slide 3
Leading & Lagging Power

Factors
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
Leading
Power
Factor
Lagging
Power
Factor
jQ
P - jQ
P + jQ
Slide 4
3-Phase Per Unit System

kVA B
3kVB
IB
ZB
(kVB )
MVA B
3VI
3ZI
IB
SB
3VB
VB2
SB
ZB
If you have two bases:

Then you may calculate the other two
by using the relationships enclosed in
brackets. The different bases are:
IB (Base Current)
ZB (Base Impedance)
VB (Base Voltage)
SB (Base Power)
I pu
I actual
IB
Zpu
Zactual
ZB
Vpu
Vactual
VB
Spu
Sactual
SB
ETAP selects for LF:

100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
The kV rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.
Slide 5
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied starting
from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
To determine base voltage use:

1
B
kV
kVB2
N1
kVB2
N2
Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find

the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.
Z pu
X pu
1
X
R
X
R
R pu
x pu
X
R
Slide 6
X pu
0.065(12.14)
1 (12.14)
0.06478
0.06478
12.14
R pu
0.005336
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
Znpu
Zopu
o
B
n
B
V
V
% Z 100 Z pu
n
B
o
B
S
S
(5.33 10
j0.06478)
13.8
13.5
100
5
(0.1115 j1.3538)
11.15 j135.38
Impedance Z1: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.
VB
kVutility 13.5
4.0695
N1
3.31
N2
ZB
VB2
MVA
(4.0695) 2
100
0.165608
Slide 7
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Z pu
Zactual
ZB
% Z 100 Z pu
(0.1 j1)
0.1656
(0.6038 j6.0382)
60.38 j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Slide 8
Load Flow Analysis
Slide 9
Load Flow Problem

Given
Load Power Consumption at all buses
Configuration
Power Production at each generator
Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Slide 10
Load Flow Studies

Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows
Power Factors
Transformer LTC Settings
Voltage Drops
Generators Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Total Generation & Power Demand
Steady State Stability Limits

MW & Mvar Losses
Slide 11
Size & Determine System

Equipment & Parameters
Cable / Feeder Capacity
Capacitor Size
Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)
Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting

Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.
MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings

Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
Generators Mvar Demand

Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Slide 12
Optimize Operating
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
Slide 13
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the
results are within the specified precision.
Slide 14
Load Flow Calculation

Methods
1.
Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
2.
Low Requirements on initial values,

but slow in speed.
3.
Fast-Decoupled Method
Two sets of iteration equations: real

power voltage angle,
reactive power voltage magnitude.
Fast in speed, but low in solution

precision.
Better for radial systems and

systems with long lines.
Newton-Raphson Method
Fast in speed, but high requirement on

initial values.
First order derivative is used to speed up

calculation.
Slide 15
Load Nameplate Data
kVARated
FLA3
FLA1
kWRated
PF Eff
kVARated
3 kV
kVARated
kV
HP 0.7457
PF Eff
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %

loading conditions
kVA
PF
I3
I1
(kW ) 2 (kVar ) 2
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
1000
kV
1000
Slide 16
Constant Power Loads
In Load Flow calculations induction,

synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads.
The power output remains constant even

if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).
The lump load power output behaves like

a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.
Slide 17
Constant Impedance Loads

In Load Flow calculations Static Loads, Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
Slide 18
Constant Current Loads

The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity.
AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
ETAP by defining Load Duty Cycles used for
Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.
Slide 19
Constant Current Loads
Slide 20
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Slide 21
Generator Operation Modes
Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Slide 22
Governor Operating Modes

Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generators power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.
Slide 23
Isochronous Mode
Slide 24
Droop Mode
Slide 25
Droop Mode
Slide 26
Droop Mode
Slide 27
Adjusting Steam Flow
Slide 28
Adjusting Excitation
Slide 29
In ETAP Generators and Power Grids have four operating

modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.
Swing Mode
Governor is operating in
Isochronous mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
Droop Mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
Droop Mode
Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)
PF Control
Droop Mode
AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
Slide 30
In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are reached, the

model is changed to a Load Model (P & Q are kept fixed)
Slide 31
Generator Capability Curve
Slide 32
Slide 33
Slide 34
Maximum & Minimum

Reactive Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
Field Winding Heating Limit
Steady State Stability Curve

Armature Winding Heating Limit
Slide 35

Field Winding
Heating Limit
Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)
Steady State Stability Curve
Slide 36
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Slide 37
Power Flow
V*I
V1
V2
V2
1
2
jQ
V1*V2
*SIN(
X
P
V1
V *V
j 1 2 *COS(
X
V1*V2
*SIN( 1
X
V1*V2
*COS( 1
X
V2
X
)
2
V2
X
Slide 38
Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are

connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0 , V2 = 100 /30 and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.
I
I
V1 V 2 100 j0 (86.6 j50)

X
j5
10 j2.68
I
V1I* 100( 10 j2.68)

V2 I*
1000 j268
(86.6 j50)( 10 j2.68)
1000 j268
| I |2 X 10.352 5 536 var
Slide 39
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
( V E)
X
sin
( V E)
cos
X
Power Flow
V
X
2
2
0
Real Power Flow

Reactive Power Flow
Slide 40
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated 13.5 kVNo min al 13.8

V%
kVCalculated
100 97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated
V%
4.03
kVNo min al
4.16
kVCalculated
100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 41
Slide 42
Lump Load Negative

Loading
Slide 43
Load Flow Adjustments

Transformer Impedance
Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Transmission Line Length

Adjust Transmission Line Impedance based on possible length
variation tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
Slide 44
Load Flow Study Case

Adjustment Page
Adjustments applied
Individual
Global
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Slide 45
Allowable Voltage Drop

NEC and ANSI C84.1
Slide 46
Load Flow Example 1

Part 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 47
Load Flow Example 1

Part 2
Slide 48
Load Flow Alerts
Slide 49
Equipment Overload Alerts

Bus Alerts
Monitor Continuous Amps
Cable
Reactor
Line
Monitor Line Ampacity
Transformer
Monitor Maximum MVA Output
UPS/Panel
Monitor Panel Continuous Amps
Generator
Monitor Generator Rated MW
Slide 50
Protective Device Alerts

Protective Devices
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker
Continuous rated Current
OverLoad
High Voltage Circuit Breaker
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches
OverLoad
Slide 51
If the Auto Display

feature is active, the
Alert View Window will
appear as soon as the
Load Flow calculation
has finished.
Slide 52
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Slide 53
Load Flow Convergence

Negative Impedance
Zero or Very Small Impedance
Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
Long Radial System Configurations

Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values
Slide 54
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
Slide 55
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Change Syn2 Quantity to 6.

(Info Page, Quantity Field)
Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under

Voltage Condition)
Method 1 - Change Xfmr
300 kvar 3 Banks
Method 3 - Change Tap

Place LTC on Primary of T6
Select Bus8 for Control Bus
Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8

MVA, will notice slight
improvement on the Bus8 kV
Select Update LTC in the

Study Case
Too Expensive and time

consuming
Bus Voltage Comes within

specified limits
Run LF
Slide 56
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Method 2 Add Capacitor
Add Switch to CAP1
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run Load Flow
Run LF
Var Contribution from the

Utility reduces
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Method 3 Xfmr MVA

Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
Will notice decrease in the
contribution from the Utility
Slide 57
Panel Systems
Slide 58
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels
Slide 59
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Slide 60
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Slide 61
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
Slide 62
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage =

Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C:
For load connected to phase B
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)
Slide 63
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

Slide 64
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library
Slide 65
Schedule Page
Circuit Numbers with

Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers with

Column Layout
Slide 66
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Slide 67
Rating Tab
Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.
For example, if total Watts
for a 3-phase load are
1200, enter W as 400
(=1200/3)
Slide 68
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Slide 69
Protective Device Tab

Library Quick Pick LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or
Library Quick Pick

Fuse
will
appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.
Slide 70
Feeder Tab
Slide 71
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.
Slide 72
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Code Demand Per Phase and Total
Slide 73
Output Report
Slide 74
Panel Code Factors

The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done
for each types of load separately and then summed up
Slide 75

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Load Flow Analysis

ETAP Workshop Notes 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Power in Balanced 3-Phase

Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Leading Power Factor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Current and Voltage

Leading & Lagging Power

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

3-Phase Per Unit System

If you have two bases:

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

ETAP selects for LF:

To determine base voltage use:

Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Problem

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Studies

Steady State Stability Limits

Size & Determine System

Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting

MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings

Generators Mvar Demand

Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

Load Flow Calculation

Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method

Low Requirements on initial values,

Two sets of iteration equations: real

Fast in speed, but low in solution

Better for radial systems and

Fast in speed, but high requirement on

First order derivative is used to speed up

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Load Nameplate Data

Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Constant Power Loads

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

In Load Flow calculations induction,

The power output remains constant even

The lump load power output behaves like

Constant Impedance Loads

1996-2008 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Constant Current Loads

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Constant Current Loads

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Generator Operation Modes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Governor Operating Modes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Adjusting Steam Flow

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis