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Workbook Scope:
The purpose of this workbook is to provide informative engineering experience and guidelines
to allow the successful design and operation of a process plant vacuum system. This also involves:
1.0 Selection of vacuum-producing equipment;
2.0 Operation of vacuum-producing equipment; and,
3.0 Trouble-shooting of vacuum-producing equipment operating at 0.04 inches of mercury or
higher. Vacuum operation lower than 0.04 inches of mercury is considered a special and
unique vacuum design and requires additional expertise.
SAFETY
Vacuum equipment either must be capable of withstanding the maximum possible pressure to which it might
be subjected in case of a malfunction, or it should be protected by a rupture disc or buckling pin. For example,
a cast iron steam jet ejector using 125 psig steam as motive force and built with a 25 psig maximum
allowable working pressure (MAWP) on the body (or the same steam jet connected to a 25 psig MAWP
vessel) should have a rupture disk or buckling pin installed to prevent the 125 psig steam pressure from being
applied to either the jet ejector's body or the process vessel.
Needless to say, all equipment connected to a vacuum-producing device should be 100% vacuum rated.
GENERAL ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
Initially, the required process vacuum must be established at the startup of the related equipment.
This is called the "pump-down" period, and the vacuum system must be able to evacuate the
connected equipment in the required amount of time.
After the process has been analyzed properly to determine the vacuum required, it then becomes
necessary to investigate the process material(s) and to determine the amount or rate of gases
generated during process that ultimately have to be handled by the vacuum-pumping equipment.
Corrosive vapors and suspended solid materials then must be identified to determine what materials
of construction will be necessary to obtain reasonable life expectncy from the vacuum-producing device.
Analysis of the process equipment then must be made to determine a reasonable air leakage value.
Number and type of packing glands, valves, sight glasses, etc, all must be taken into consideration and due
allowances made. By estimating a reasonable air leakage of equipment and the other noncondensables
from the process, it is possible to determine the required capacity of the vacuum-producing equipment.
However, it is very important to determine the saturation factor (i.e., every pound of air and other
noncondensables carry with them some quantity of process vapor according to the law of partial pressures
- as expounded in the well-known Dalton's Law.)
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FileName: 325898434.xls
Worksheet: Scope of Work
Art Montemayor
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Absolute Pressure
This is a pressure value measured from absolute zero pressure, i.e., from an absolute
vacuum base starting point. Note: often some scientists and engineers are delinquent in
using the term "vacuum" when they mean a negative value from the base point of
atmospheric pressure. This is often results in confusion and misunderstanding.
Absolute pressure is recommended usage because it is precisely that - absolute.
Static Pressure
This is a pressure value measured within the gas medium such that no effect from
the velocity of the gaseous medium is reflected on the measurement; i.e., the velocity
head effect (v2/2g - where v = fluid velocity, ft/sec; g = 32.2.ft/sec 2) is not measured.
Suction Pressure
This is the absolute static pressure prevailing at the suction of the vacuum-producing
equipment expressed in pascals, psia, torr, or in inches, millimeters, or microns of
mercury.
Discharge Pressure
This is the absolute static pressure prevailing at the discharge of the vacuum-producing
equipment expressed in pascals, psia, inches of mercury, or mm Hg (torr).
Support Pressure
This is the maximum discharge pressure against which a stream jet can operate stably.
Absolute Temperature
Suction Temperature
Stable Operation
Capacity
The capacity of steam jet ejectors is expressed as a weight rate of flow of a specific
gas [usually as lb/hr of dry air at 21 oC (70 oF)]. For mechanical vacuum pumps,
capacity is expressed as a volume rate of flow at the specified suction pressure and
suction temperature (usually Acfm of dry air).
Dry Air
This is atmospheric air at normal room temperature, devoid of any water vapor content
that is usually found in atmospheric air. The very small amount of water vapor in it is
considered insignificant and is ignored. For example, the weight of water vapor in
atmospheric air at 50% relative humidity and 25 oC (77 oF) temperature is 0.010 pound
of water per pound of dry air.
Equivalent Air
This is the calculated weight rate of air in lbs/hr that is equivalent to the weight
rate of gas handled by the vacuum-producing equipment at the suction conditions.
14.696 psia
101.325 pascals
760
760
760,000
29.94
mm mercury
torr
microns mercury
inches mercury absolute (@ 32 oF)
14.5 psia
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FileName: 325898434.xls
Worksheet: Scope of Work
Art Montemayor
PUMP-DOWN TIME
Plant equipment (especially distillation columns) are fixed assets that must be employed to the maximum in
order to maximize the return on their investment. The column start-up time should be as short as possible and
requires large vacuum rates that are in far excess of the designed, steady-state value that the system usually
runs at. You should decide on the maximum time allowable for start-up and make sure you have sufficient
vacuum rate to evacuate the system in that period. For this, you must have accurate volumetric estimates of all
the system components, including all connected piping.
The following equations (which neglect air seepage into the system) may be used to estimate the evacuation
time for a system to be reduced in pressure if the system is initially found filled with atmospheric air.
For vacuum systems using positive-displacement, mechanical vacuum "Pumps":
T Evac = ( 1. 1 )
P1
V
Ln
cfm
P2
( ) ( )
T Evac = ( 2. 2 )
V
DA
where,
TEvac = The approximate time to evacuate the system from P 1 to P2, minutes
V = System volume, Ft3
cfm = Mechanical pump capacity, Acfm
P1 = Initial pressure, inches Hg absolute
P2 = Final pressure, inches Hg absolute
DA = Steam jet design capacity, lbs dry air/hr @ 70 oF
Calculation examples: (Key in input into YELLOW cells and answer is in RED)
(1) Calculate the time to evacuate a
3,140 ft3 chamber from atmospheric pressure,
29.9
inches Hg absolute, down to
1.0
inch of Hg absolute by using a
1,000
Acfm positive displacement vacuum pump.
Solution:
TEvac =
TEvac =
11.7
minutes
minutes
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FileName: 325898434.xls
Worksheet: Scope of Work
Art Montemayor
Atmospheric air seepage into the system through joints and seals;
Gases generated by, or inherent to, the process;
Liquid impurities whose vapor pressures are higher than the vacuum setting;
Maximimum pump-down time required for startup of the system.
The amount of air leakage (actually seepage) into a system is a function of design, operation, and
maintenance. Energy conservation and environmental emission controls dictate that air seepage be
minimized and kept to the lowest practical levels. Once air is introduced into a vacuum system, its
negative effects are compounded downstream.
One way to identify air seepage into existing equipment is to employ a field pressure drop test. For this test,
all process fluid should be evacuated from the subject equipment and the system should be subjected to a
vacuum level within the range of 1 to 10 inches Hg absolute. Once the vacuum level is attained, the
vacuum-producing equipment should be quickly and positively isolated from the system. The time that it
takes the system to reach a given rise in pressure is measured as accurately as possible. As an example,
measure the time required to achieve a pressure rise of 2 inches Hg. The system pressure should not be
allowed to increase the system pressure above 15 inches Hg during the test.
To calculate the estimated air seepage rate into the system, use the following relationship:
Air Seepage , lb / hr =
( 0. 15 ) ( V ) ( P2 P1 )
where,
2.9 lbs/hr
The air seepage into a process can originate from various sources. Leaks can occur through gasketed joints;
through holes, cracks, or other flaws in the base material of construction; through permeation; and through
flaws in the welded vessel joints. Most of these sources are related to the pressure or concentration
differential existing between the vacuum-producing equipment and the surrounding atmosphere. Leakage
allowances should always be estimated on the conservative side (allowing for an excess vacuum capacity) in
order to ensure that there will be sufficient capacity for a variety of conditions that may arise.
Air seepage can be estimated for new or existing systems by using the following empirical relationships:
Page 4 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Air Seepage
Art Montemayor
First: Estimate the air seepage due to metal porosities and weld line cracks and flaws with one of the
following three equations
For a design vacuum pressure (P) less than 0.4 inches Hg abs, use
W 1 , lbs/hr =( 0 . 0781 ) P
0. 34
0. 6
For a design vacuum pressure (P) within the range of 0.4 to 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
W 1 , lbs / hr =( 0 . 0742 ) P
0. 26
0. 6
For a design vacuum pressure (P) greater than 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
W 1 , lbs / hr =( 0 .106 ) V
0. 6
Second: Estimate the air seepage due to the various system components using one of the following three
equations. Determine the value of the specific heat leak, Q, from the subsequent Table below.
For a design vacuum pressure (P) less than 0.4 inches Hg abs, use
W 2 , lbs/hr =3 D Q P
0 .34
For a design vacuum pressure (P) within the range of 0.4 to 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
W 2 , lbs / hr =2. 78 D Q P
0 . 26
For a design vacuum pressure (P) greater than 4.0 inches Hg abs, use
W 2 , lbs / hr =3 . 98 D Q
Note: D = the nominal diameter, in inches, of a sealed joint
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FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Air Seepage
Art Montemayor
Static Seals
O-ring construction
Conventional gasket seals
Thermally cycled static seals
Temperature < 100 oC (212 oF)
100 oC < Temperature > 200 oC (392 oF)
Temperature >200 oC
lb/hr-in.
0.0020
0.0050
0.0050
0.0180
0.0320
0.1000
0.1000
0.2500
Threaded Connections
Access Ports
Viewing Windows
Globe Valves, diameter < 2 inches
0.0150
0.0200
0.0150
0.2400
Third: To obtain the total estimated air seepage, add the W1 estimate to the sum of all the estimated W 2
values and the answer will be the total air seepage rate in lb/hr.
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WorkSheet: Air Seepage
Art Montemayor
keted joints;
capacity) in
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WorkSheet: Air Seepage
Art Montemayor
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WorkSheet: Air Seepage
Art Montemayor
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FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Air Seepage
Art Montemayor
Process Gases and Non-Condensables Generated within, or inherent to, Vacuum Systems
Process gases such as water vapor, alcohol, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, chlorine,
sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, carbon monoxide, the nitrogen oxides, etc. are often found to be generated
within a process operation - especially one involving sufficient heat to cause decomposition of some of the
liquid components (i.e., the vacuum distillation of crude nitric acid I did at the DuPont Plant in Victoria, TX).
Determination of the quantities and rates involved is necessary since either they have to be handled by the
related vacuum system just as if they were so much more seepage air or they must be removed by
condensation or by chemical scrubbing done subsequently downstream. Familiarity and/or intimate
knowledge of the chemistry involved in the process is required in the absence of actual laboratory
determinations. Those with a command of Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures will appreciate the fact that any
liquid components with vapor pressures in excess of the system vacuum at the operating temperature will
emit their flash vapors in accordance with Dalton's Law.
In some cases, the amount of dissolved gases or generated gases will be found to be quite large and may
even be more than the amount of seepage air. In many cases, however, these gases are very small in quantity
and can be considered as additional air leakage. In other cases, these process gases can be considered as
nil or neglected altogether.
If there is a possibility of removing process gases selectively by employment of condensation, scrubbing,
adsorption, or even possibly a reaction, this should always be considered first before discarding the option.
When a condensable process gas temperature is higher than that of the available condensing or scrubbing
media, it always requires less energy to remove the gas as a liquid with a barometric leg (or pump) rather
than to "pump" it as a gas. The size of the vacuum-producing equipment and its energy consumption can be
reduced economically any time that water vapor or process gases can be condensed or scrubbed ahead of
the vacuum-producing equipment.
However attractive the incentives to remove process gases may appear, they inherently carry the inevitable
engineering trade-off. Any process or technique applied to removing these gases will introduce a pressure
drop immediately prior to the vacuum-producing equipment and this directly increases the size and/or
complexity of the subject equipment - and consequently the total capital cost. Nevertheless, such is the
attractiveness of the incentives to remove the process gases that it is always in the interests of the design
engineer to carefully analyze the available options and their merits. Frequently, due to strict emission laws
and potential hazardous conditions, there is no choice and it is a practical decision to install such equipment
directly rather than waste irrelevant time and effort by subjecting it to economic analysis and justification.
Page 10 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Process-Generated Gas
Art Montemayor
72" ID
108" S/S
Engineering Solution:
Assume that the reactor ellipsoidal heads have a 2" straight flange.
The volume of each ellipsoidal head is calculated by using my
Vessel Volumes Workbook:
Pump-down Capacity:
Volume of two ellipsodial heads =
263.89 Ft3
320.45 Ft3
W 1 , lbs / hr =( 0 . 0742 ) P
0. 26
0. 6
where,
P =
3.5 inches Hg absolute
V = Total vessel volume, Ft3 (see above calculation)
therefore,
W1 =
Page 11 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Sizing Example Problem
Art Montemayor
In order to estimate the air seepage through the various system components, the following equation from the
Air Seepage Worksheet is used:
W 2 , lbs/ hr =2. 78 D Q P
0 . 26
=
=
=
=
=
1.57
1.51
0.57
0.28
3.93
By applying the Universal Gas Law, volumetric equivalent capacity for the total Seepage Air is:
V=
where,
Z
n
R
T
P
ZnRT
P
38 Acfm
Density
Volume
(lbm/ft3) (ft3/lbm)
0.0049137
203.51
0.0049410
202.39
0.0049684
201.27
0.0049957
200.17
0.0050230
199.09
Go to:
http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/
for themodata on water & other fluids.
Art Montemayor
Page 12 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Sizing Example Problem
Art Montemayor
To convert any gas or vapor to an equivalent air weight requires a conversion factor equal to the square root
of the molecular weight ratio. As an example, the 2,000 lb/hr of water vapor is equivalent to:
MW of air
MW of water
Page 13 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Sizing Example Problem
Art Montemayor
Page 14 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Vent Condenser Application
Art Montemayor
In order to find the volumetric flow rate of the gases exiting the vent condenser, assume that the outlet gas
will approach the inlet cooling water by 5 oC (9 oF) so the gas to the vacuum-producing equipment will be
at 25 oC.
The FREE NIST databank (at: http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/) for water vapor yields:
Temperature
(oC)
22
23
24
25
26
27
Pressure
(psia)
Density
(lbm/ft3)
0.38367
0.40771
0.43305
0.45976
0.48789
0.51751
Volume
(ft3/lbm)
0.001214
0.001286
0.001361
0.001441
0.001524
0.001611
823.64
777.66
734.58
694.2
656.32
620.79
The above table identifies the saturated water vapor pressure as 0.95 inches Hg absolute (0.45976 psia)
This pressure is also the partial pressure of water vapor in the system at 25 oC.
Since the vapor stream is a binary of (water + air), by Dalton's Law the partial pressure of the air is:
Air partial pressure = (3.5 - 0.95) =
By applying the Universal Gas Law, volumetric equivalent capacity for the total Seepage Air is:
V=
where,
Z
n
R
T
P
ZnRT
P
35 Acfm
This volumetric flowrate also includes the evacuated water vapor; by Dalton's Law, the water vapor also
occupies this volumetric flowrate. From the above NIST data, the specific volume of water at 25 oC and
0.95 inches Hg is 694.2 Ft3/lb. Therefore, the water vapor being evacuated by the vacuum-producing
equipment is:
Water Vapor evacuated = 0.051059 lb/min
=
3.06 lb/hr
The equivalent dry air load for this quantity of water vapor =
3.89 lb/hr
Note the tremendous load difference in the vacuum-producing equipment when a vent condenser is used.
The water vapor load has been reduced by (2,000 - 3.06) = 1,997 lb/hr. (99.8 % of the total)
Page 15 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Vent Condenser Application
Art Montemayor
considered
nol, etc.).
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FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Vent Condenser Application
Art Montemayor
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FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Vent Condenser Application
Art Montemayor
Vacuum Specifications
75.7 Acfm
(Refer to Sizing Example WorkSheet)
3.5 inches Hg absolute
(Refer to Sizing Example WorkSheet)
o
25 C
(Assume this as ambient, since not stated)
2. The capacity required for evacuating process gases and air seepage is as follows:
Capacity =
Vacuum pressure =
Process Temperature =
Capacity =
Vacuum pressure =
Process Temperature =
2. The capacity required for evacuating process gases and air seepage is as follows:
Capacity =
=
Vacuum pressure =
Process Temperature =
Capacity =
=
Vacuum pressure =
Process Temperature =
6,710 Acfm
Page 18 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Equipment Sizing
Art Montemayor
Vacuum Specifications
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WorkSheet: Equipment Sizing
Art Montemayor
Vacuum Specifications
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FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Equipment Sizing
Art Montemayor
As has been mentioned in the Vent Condenser Application WorkSheet, pressure drops introduced in the
trajectory of a vacuum system cause additional work requirements on the vacuum-producing equipment.
flow. In other words, the ultimate vacuum-producing equipment must be specified for a higher vacuum in
order to produce the desired end result further upstream, within the process.
Typical equipment employed and causing pressure drops in a vacuum system are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Piping, fittings;
Valves;
Condensers, heat exchangers;
Traps, separators;
Scrubbers, filters;
Low piping points or piping "traps".
Piping should be designed with as short a process run as is feasible within the guidelines and scope of the
equipment layout and process requirements. All piping should be positively sloped to avoid any liquid
accumulation in the run. Strategically-located condensate drop-legs should be in incorporated - especially in
the main header runs. Branch tees should be avoided as much as possible and all elbows should be minimal
long-radius design - with piping bends used as a preference. Characteristically, process vacuum piping
(especially headers) will be fabricated as "Big-Bore" piping (pipe with an O.D. greater than 24"). This size
and type of pipe is normally installed with mitered elbows (minimal 3-cut) to reduce presssure drop. Big
Bore piping requires special supports and expansion capability design; sometimes it may have to be
re-inforced for vacuum rating. The discharge piping of vacuum-producing equipment should be liberally
sized to reduce pressure drop to a minimum because the equipment's performance is adversely affected by
a high discharge pressue - especially steam jet ejectors.
Valves should be held to a minimal quantity. Only block valves are employed as line valves; there is no
throttling required in the main piping. Vacuum flow control is done in the smallest size piping - usually in
the process area. Any Ball or Gate Valve employed as a block should be a "Full-bore" type.
Condensers are always specially designed for vacuum service, due to the pressure drop constraints. This
means that the shellside is normally used for the vacuum side, since this is the side that offers the lowest
pressure drop available. As a result of this, baffle design and phase separation become key design criteria
in order to keep the pressure drop as low as possible while maintaining the required heat transfer.
Condensing under a vacuum is an industrial specialty and fabricators usually have proprietary techniques
and know-how that enables them to design, fabricate and warrant the operation of successful equipment.
Young or inexperienced engineers with less than 10 to 15 years design and operating experience are advised
to distance themselves from this specialty design area and leave it to the experts who will warrant their
design and equipment supply.
Page 21 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Vacuum Line Sizing
Art Montemayor
Traps, separators, scrubbers, and filters should be kept out of a vacuum system if this action can be justified.
However, many times, because of process characteristics and needs, this is not possible. Nevertheless, the
best advice for a successful vacuum system is to keep the process SIMPLE, with a minimal of hardware and
controls.
Recommended Design vapor velocities for vacuum lines are as follows:
System Process Pressure
Maximum
Desired Operating
Allowable Velocity
Velocity
Torr (mm Hg)
Absolute
Vacuum
Ft/sec
Ft/sec
755 - 760
725 - 755
685 - 725
380 - 685
0 - 380
0-5
5 - 35
35 - 75
75 - 380
380 - 760
300
250
200
150
150
275
225
175
150
150
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FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Vacuum Line Sizing
Art Montemayor
Vacuum-Producing Equipment
The vacuum-producing equipment related to the information in this workbook are the following types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Page 23 of 26
FileName: 325898434.xls
WorkSheet: Equipment Types
Art Montemayor
Vacuum-Producing Equipment
This category of vacuum pumps covers a wide range of positive-displacement devices from reciprocating
pistons through sliding rotary vanes and rotating lobes. Most of these types of devices depend on very
close clearances between metallic or solid parts and, as a result, they require oil for lubrication and
sealing. This oil is subject to being separated and filtered back into the pumps process by way of
special-designed equipment and often is a process and maintenance problem.
Although they are limited to clean, dry gases and vapors, the type that employs a rolling-type of internal
contact are better suited for limited solids' loadings than the type that uses a sliding-type of contact. The
necessity of lube oil also causes concern when the gases handled can react or form gels, gums, or other
semi-solid compounds with the lube oil. Nevertheless, this type of device is the most efficient single
vacuum-producing equipment available at present. Although the capacity is limited to the device's
displacement, this shortcoming can be overcome by using rotary blowers as a first stage of vacuum. This
combination of equipment has the maximum thermal efficiency for vacuums less than 8 inches Hg absolute.
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WorkSheet: Equipment Types
Art Montemayor
Vacuum-Producing Equipment
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WorkSheet: Equipment Types
Art Montemayor
216
222
228
234
240
5,711.03
6,200.29
6,716.73
7,261.07
7,834.06
8,000.00
f(x) = 0.000567137 x^2.9998426901
R = 0.9999999872
Volum e , CuFt
7,000.00
6,000.00
5,000.00
4,000.00
3,000.00
2,000.00
1,000.00
0.00
0
50
100
Inside Diam e te r, Ft
150
200
250
300
72 inches
211.52 Gallons
28.28 Ft3
Reference:
Trinity Industries, Inc.
Head Division
Navasota, TX
Product & Services
Catalog # 7962M (1996)
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