HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

NGUYỄN THÚY HẠNH

TITLE: CONVENTIONALITY VS.

UNCONVENTIONALITY REFLECTED THROUGH
THE IMAGES OF MAY WELLAND AND ELLEN
OLENSKA IN THE AGE OF INNOCENCE BY EDITH
WHARTON

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (TEFL)

SUPERVISOR: ĐỖ THU HƯƠNG, MA

MAY 2010
 ACCEPTANCE PAGE

I hereby state that I: Nguyễn Thúy Hạnh, 06.1E16, being a candidate for the
degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the requirements of the College
relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s Graduation Paper deposited
in the library.

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in

the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in
accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the
care, loan or reproduction of the paper.

Signature
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Acknowledgements i
Abstract ii

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Rationale 1
1.2. Method 2
1.3. Scope of the study 2

Chapter 2: Literature review

2.1. Conventionality versus unconventionality
2.1.1. Conventionality and its existence in the 1870s 3
2.1.2. Unconventionality and its existence in the 1870s 5
2.2. The novel The Age of Innocence
2.2.1. Critical reception of The Age of Innocence 7
2.2.2. Edith Wharton’s life and its influence on The Age of Innocence 10
2.2.3. Plot 13

Chapter 3: Conventionality as shown in the image of May Welland

3.1. Refusal to hold unpleasant talks 15
3.2. Indifference to lower classes and disgraceful people 22
3.3. Anti-feminism 26

Chapter 4: Unconventionality as shown in the image of Ellen Olenska

4.1. Straightforwardness 31
4.2. Equal treatment to everybody 34
4.3. Feminism 39

Chapter 5: Comparison between May Welland and Ellen Olenska

5.1. Family background 43
5.2. Attitude towards changes 46
5.3. Opinions on conventionality and unconventionality 48

Chapter 6: Conclusion 51

References 53
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. Đỗ

Thu Hương for her valuable feedback, guidance and encouragement, without
which it would have been impossible for me to finish this graduation paper.

I also appreciate my friends for their comments and support. Their help
makes it easier for me to complete my thesis.

Last but not least, I wish to thank my parents, who always encourage and
believe in me during the process of writing this graduation paper.

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 ABSTRACT

This thesis is an analysis of conventionality and unconventionality reflected

through May Welland and Ellen Olenska in The Age of Innocence by Edith
Wharton. It consists of six chapters.

Chapter 1 is the introduction, which includes rationale, method and scope of

the study.

Chapter 2 is the literature review, which consists of the definitions of

conventionality and unconventionality, their existence in the 1870s as well
as the facts relating to the content and creation of The Age of Innocence.

Chapter 3 is an analysis of conventionality as shown in the image of May

Welland.

Chapter 4 is an analysis of unconventionality as shown in the image of Ellen

Olenska.

Chapter 5 is a comparison between May Welland and Ellen Olenska.

Chapter 6 is the conclusion, which sums up the main ideas of the entire
thesis.

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 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Rationale

The significance of literature to human life is undeniable. Literary works have the
ability to soften people’s pain. They can draw in readers’ attention, let them drown
in an imaginary world, put their problems aside for sometimes, then emerge from
them and become stronger than ever. Literature is also a great educator. Children
can be aware of what is good and bad by reading books. People are motivated to
work hard and live well as it is the way to a “happy ending” for their own lives.
Besides, they learn the way to treat each other without inflicting pain or
humiliation.

The Age of Innocence is a novel which possesses all the features above. Setting
against the backdrop of the New York upper-class society in the 1870s, this is a
story of the eternal triangle between Newland Archer, Ellen Olenska and May
Welland. Since its publication, readers all over the world have been delighted with
the brilliant and exact description of the style and manner of the 19th century
society. The novel not only realistically depicts the life of the upper-class but also
successfully illustrates the profound emotions of the main characters. In 1921, it
won the Pulitzer Prize, marking the first time that an authoress gained this honor.

The Age of Innocence is really an addictive novel. Once readers put it up, they can
hardly put it down again. They are charmed by the beautiful words, stunning
descriptions together with a very high level of accuracy. The Age of Innocence is
truly a novel that can lure people, make them forget their own problems for a short
moment, and at the same time inform them of the lost etiquette as well as the

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oppressed lives of the previous generation. A melancholy feeling pervades the
whole book, which makes the readers realize how fortunate they are to live in a
free world.

This work has been reviewed by many critics; however, as far as I know, there is
no intensive research on the conventionality and unconventionality reflected
through May Welland and Ellen Olenska. That is the reason why I decided to do a
study on this aspect.

1.2. Method

The working method for this graduation paper consists of four steps. The first step
is searching for materials. The needed materials are books on American etiquette
during the 1870s and reviews for The Age of Innocence. The second step is
analyzing the two characters, May Welland and Ellen Olenska in order to find out
the conventionality and unconventionality shown through them. The third step is
forming judgement based on the analysis. The final step is reaching conclusion.

1.3. Scope of the study

The research is limited to the novel The Age of Innocence written by Edith
Wharton. The study will focus on analyzing the conventionality and the
unconventionality reflected in the images of the two heroines: May Welland and
Ellen Olenska.

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 Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1. Conventionality versus unconventionality

2.1.1. Conventionality and its existence in the 1870s

“Conventionality” is the noun form of “conventional”. According to the Oxford

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “conventional” is “tending to follow what is done
or considered acceptable by society in general; normal and ordinary, and perhaps
not very interesting.” In other words, “conventionality” is the disposition to
conform to social convention. Generally, “convention” consists of traditional
customs and the ways that things have been done for a long time.

Conventionality varies in accordance with different countries and societies. For

instance, in Korea and Japan, people often bow to each other when they are first
introduced; however, it is unacceptable among the Jewish. As time goes by,
conventionality can change even in one nation or community. For example, from
the 10th century to the early 20th century, the foot binding custom is widely
practiced in China, but nowadays it is eradicated and considered as cruel and dated.

Conventionality can be considered as good or bad depending on the types of

conventions that are followed. In the cases of old-fashioned and barbaric customs
like foot binding in China, compensation marriage in Pakistan and Afghanistan,
child marriage in many countries such as Vietnam, India, etc., the followers can be
considered as unwise, inhumane and ruthless. However, good customs like
ancestor worship in Asian countries, family gathering during the Lunar New Year

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in Vietnam, etc. need to be preserved and adhered and the followers are
commendable.

The Age of Innocence revolves around the upper class in New York City in the
1870s whose life was bounded by a system of rules and etiquette that ones were
forced to follow. The roles of men and women were clearly differentiated. Men
went to work and indulge themselves in various kinds of entertainment while
women were in charge of the social work including visiting, writing and answering
invitations, leaving cards, calling, and performing all the multifarious duties of the
social world. Thorstein Veblen (2003, pp.3, 39) pointed out that upper class people
were exempted from industrial and manual occupations. Men chiefly involved in
the jobs which are considered as “honorable” like warfare, priestly service and the
law. Meanwhile, women were not expected to do housework as it is the duty of the
low class people. It was also a proof that their husbands earn enough money to
support the family. The tasks like cooking and cleaning were all done by servants.
The mistresses only took part in time-killer and unproductive work like embroidery
and knitting.

In the 1870s New York society, politeness and delicacy were valued above
anything else, which explains the complicatedness of forming a relationship.
People could not be acquainted with each other if they were not formally
introduced by a third party. Agnes H. Morton (1919, pp.57-58) stated that a
gentleman could only be introduced to a lady after her permission was attained,
and the lady had the right to refuse doing so. Introducing a man to a lady was
acceptable, but the reverse was unacceptable. Two women could not be introduced
to each other if the third party failed to get the consent of both of them. Sarah
Annie Frost (1869, p.6) told a story about a gentleman who saw another man

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drowning. At first, he took off his coat and intends to plunge into the water, but
suddenly he remembered that he was not introduced to the victim. So, he took on
his coat and serenely resumed his way. This is only a joke, but it shows the
importance of the introduction etiquette.

Among the New York upper-class society, stylishness was valued as much as
gentleness. George Routledge (2004, pp. 14-15) considered dressing as fine arts
itself since it required “taste, good sense and refinement” to dress fashionably and
gracefully. In this era, comfort and convenience were not the priorities. The
foremost goals were to be stylish and able to show off one’s wealth.

The entertainment of the upper class was diverse, ranging from family
entertainment to public entertainment. In the family, singing, playing instruments
and cards, holding parties and balls were extremely popular. Going to the theatre
and riding were considered as fashionable and graceful.

In short, the New York upper class society in the 1870s led an idle and luxurious
life, bounded by a complicated set of rules and etiquette.

2.1.2. Unconventionality and its existence in the 1870s

“Unconventionality” is the noun form for “unconventional”. According to the

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, unconventional is “not following what is
done or considered normal or acceptable by most people; different and
interesting.” Like conventionality, unconventionality also has its good and bad
side.

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In many cases, unconventionality can be considered as the ability to “think outside
the box”. It is the nonconformity to the wrong ideas as well as outdated and
unreasonable customs. For instance, Galileo Galilei – the Italian physicist,
mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher – dared to oppose the widely-accepted
Earth-centered theory and supported the Sun-centered theory despite the rage of
the Church. Another example is the case of the 16th President of the United States –
Abraham Lincoln. In spite of the long and deeply-rooted existence of slavery, he
still decided to abolish it and finally succeeded. Thus, unconventionality is also a
form of creativity, humanity and courage.

Nevertheless, unconventionality still harbors some disadvantages. If someone

refuses to obey the good and reasonable customs like behaving politely to the
elder, dressing neatly and appropriately when going to work and to school, filial
piety to parents and ancestors, etc., that person will be seen as an inhumane rebel
and hated as well as isolated by other people.

In 1870s, feminists were considered as unconventional since they dared to defy

their fated duties which included giving birth to children and taking care of their
families. Eleanor Flexner and Ellen Fitzpatrick (1996, pp.108-115) stated that this
period witnessed the intellectual progress of women. Women at that time were
generally prevented from taking part in fields like medicine, law and theology.
However, some women bravely went against the traditional views and achieved
high level of education. Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to receive a medical
degree in the United States, established the Women's Medical College and co-
founded the London School of Medicine for Women. Maria Mitchell was the first
woman to be admitted to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences as well as
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. She was also the

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founder of the Association for the Advancement of Science. Feminists like
Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger launched campaigns to ask for women’s
sexual, reproductive and economic rights. Towards the end of 19th century, the
activity concentrated more on gaining political power for women. The first-wave
feminism ended when the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States
Constitution (1919) granted women the right to vote. (Source: Oxford Guide to
British and American Culture, 2005).

2.2. The novel The Age of Innocence

2.2.1. Critical reception of The Age of Innocence

The Age of Innocence receives generally positive reviews. In May 1921, the novel
brought her a Pulitzer Prize, marking the first time a female author won this
prestigious award. It is also a worldwide bestseller. The work is highly praised for
its exact description of the lifestyle and traditional customs of the New York upper
class in the 1870s.

The brilliant narrative of the suppressed feelings of the main characters, especially
in the scenes of the two lovers Newland Archer and Ellen Olenska, has also
charmed both the critics and the readers. William Lyon Phelps (1999, p.VII)
heartily declares:

I do not remember when I have read a work of fiction that gives the
reader so vivid an idea of the furnishing and illuminating of rooms in
fashionable houses. (…) The absolute imprisonment in which her
characters stagnate, their artificial and false standards, the desperate

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 monotony of trivial routine, the slow petrifaction of generous ardours,
the paralysis of emotion, the accumulation of ice around the heart, the
total loss of life in an upholstered existence – are depicted with a high
excellence that never falters… The love scenes between [Archer] and
Ellen are wonderful in their terrible inarticulate passion… So little is
said, so little is done, yet one feels the infinite passion in the finite hearts
that burn.

Carl Van Doren (1920, pp.510-511) also praises Edith’s truthful illustration of the
rigid old customs which has become a part of her childhood life: “Mrs Wharton’s
triumph is that she has described these rites and surfaces and burdens as
familiarly as if she loved them and as lucidly as if she hated them.”

However, there are some critics who disapprove of this novel. In their opinion, the
novel is truly the “art-for-art’s-sake” type – it benefits no one and it does not
matter whether one reads it or not. The 1870s is an era full of historical events, but
none of them is mentioned in the book. At that time, New York has just emerged
from the Civil War and suffered from the loss of thousands young men, but The
Age of Innocence pays no attention to any of this. It neither records the important
events nor looks forward to the future. It is purely a narrative of the etiquette of the
old generation. Prompting by these thoughts, Vernon L. Parrington (1921, p.160)
gives this novel a harsh review:

But when one has said the craftsmanship is a very great success, why not
go further and add that it doesn’t make the slightest difference whether
one reads the book or not, unless one is a literature epicure who lives for
the savour of things. What do the van de Luydens matter to us; or what

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 did their kind matter a generation ago? Why waste such skill upon
insignificant material? There were vibrant realities in the New York of
the seventies, Commodore Vanderbilt, for example, or even Jay Gould or
Jim Fiske. If Mrs Wharton had only chosen to throw such figures upon
her canvas, brutal, cynical dominating, what a document of American
history – but the suggestion is foolish. Mrs Wharton could not do it. Her
distinction is her limitation. She loathes the world of Jim Fiske too much
to understand it. She is too well bred to be a snob, but she escapes it
only by sheer intelligence. The background of her mind, the furniture of
her habits, are packed with potential snobbery, and it is only by
scrupulous care that it is held in leash.

The dull and oppressed life of the characters in the novel has been criticized by
several critics since they think that it is a pessimistic view towards life. The fact
that disturbs the reviewers is that the protagonists Ellen and Newland struggle to be
free, but fail to do so, and finally come to accept the rigid and conservative old
world as it is. V.S. Pritchett (1953, p.490) is one of those reviewers:

Again and again we find that novelists who have attacked the
conventions because they stultify the spirit, who attack the group for its
cruelty to individuals, will end by pointing the virtues of submission. Mrs
Wharton may have hated old New York, but she hated the new New York
even more. She disliked the prison of silent hypocrisy, but she drew in
her skirts when candour came in. Especially after her long life en grande
luxe in Europe. What indignation denounces creeps back in the name of
sentiment.

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The novel is criticized by Katherine Mansfield (1920, pp.810-811) for its coldness
and lack of connection to the readers:

But what about us? What about her readers? Does Mrs Wharton expect
us to grow warm in a gallery where the temperature is so sparkingly
cool? We are looking at portraits – are we not? These are human being
arranged for exhibition purposes, framed, glazed and hung in the perfect
light.
Is it – in this world – vulgar to ask for more? To ask that the feeling
shall be greater than the cause it excites it, to beg to be allowed to share
the moment of exposition (is that not the very moment that all writing
leads to?) to entreat a little wilderness, a dark place or two in the soul?

In my opinion, The Age of Innocence is a good novel in terms of both art and
information. Thanks to it, I have learned something about the life of the past
generation and come to appreciate the current free world. This novel may not have
a happy ending but I am still able to find a momentary escape from the real world
by reading it. The beauty of the words and the brilliancy of the scenes do give
relaxation to my mind. I can positively classify it as one of my favorite.

2.2.2. Edith Wharton’s life and its influence on The Age of Innocence

Edith Wharton (1862-1937) – nee Edith Newbold Jones - was born in New York
into a wealthy and elite family. The aristocratic society in which she spent her
childhood is the inspiration as well as the basis for The Age of Innocence. The
novel is written after the end of the Civil War and at the beginning of a new era.
Although Edith Wharton did not entirely approve of the old society, she did not

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feel comfortable living in the new one. This novel therefore is her tribute to the
past and her means to let go of the regrets for the lost world. In her autobiography
A Backward Glance, she wrote: “I found a momentary escape in going back to my
childish memories of a long-vanished America, and wrote The Age of Innocence.”
(1933, p.191)

During her girlhood, she could not appreciate the rigid lifestyle and the
unchangeable customs of the upper class. She stated: “When I was young it used to
seem to me that the group in which I grew up was like an empty vessel into which
no new wine would ever again be poured.” (1933, p.6) Her childhood world is
described as one “from which all dealers in retail business were excluded as a
matter of course. The man who "kept a shop" was more rigorously shut out of
polite society.” (1933, p.8) This view is the restatement for the thought of the
protagonist Newland Archer: “Though it was supposed to be proper for them to
have an occupation, the crude fact of money-making was still regarded as
derogatory, and the law, being a profession, was accounted a more gentlemanly
pursuit than business.” (1933, p.81) However, gradually she came to understand
the values of the old society: “Now I see that one of its uses lay in preserving a few
drops of an old vintage too rare to be savoured by a youthful palate; and I should
like to atone for my unappreciativeness by trying to revive that faint fragrance.”
(1933, p.6) She acknowledged that the old society was “"good" in the most prosaic
sense of the term, and its only interest, for the generality of readers, lies in the fact
of its sudden and total extinction, and for the imaginative few in the recognition of
the moral treasures that went with it.” (1933, p.6) This opinion coincides with the
conclusion of The Age of Innocence: “After all, there was good in the old ways.”
(1933, p.219)

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Some characters in The Age of Innocence greatly resemble the ones Edith Wharton
interacted with. In her autobiography, her father, George Frederic Jones, is
described as a handsome and lonely man, “haunted by something always
unexpressed and unattained.” (1933, p.22) Out of deference for her parents, she
never fully explained the reason for his sadness. However, she did reveal that he
used to possess a rich imagination, and that it was her practical and realistic who
“shrivelled up any such buds of fancy” (1933, p.22). It can be seen that there are
some similar traits between Edith Wharton’s father and the protagonist of The Age
of Innocence, Newland Archer. Both of them used to be passionate and
imaginative young men, but their abilities are suppressed by the family life and
they have no way to recover the virtues they have lost. The marriage life, which
should have given them felicity and comfort, ends up imprison them for the rest of
their life. The image of Newland Archer is also based on another important figure
in Wharton’s life – Walter Berry, who she called “the love of my life”. The
lifelong friendship between them started when she was twenty five. He was her
literary advisor and counselor, as well as a model for many other characters in her
novels, like Lawrence Selden in The House of Mirth and Ralph Marvell in The
Custom of the Country. May Welland can be considered as loosely based on her
mother since their unimaginativeness truly resembles each other and it is also the
cause for the unhappiness of their husbands.

Just like her father’s, Edith Wharton’s married life was an unhappy one. In 1885,
she wedded Edward Robbins Wharton, who was 12 years older than her. He was
an unfaithful husband and continuously involved himself in the affairs with
younger women. This left a bad effect on Edith’s mental health. They finally
divorced in 1913 after 28 years living together. Edith Wharton thought of their
marriage as the “greatest mistake” of her life. The antagonist Count Olenski,

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whose brutal treatment and unfaithfulness force Ellen Olenska to escape to
America, does somewhat resemble Wharton’s husband. Ellen Olenska, as a badly-
treated wife, also bears some similar traits with Edith herself. After being tortured
by their spouses, they both succeed in escaping. Ellen takes refuge in America and
later France, while Edith files for divorce.

In general, The Age of Innocence is created from Edith’s memories and experience
of the past life, together with her feelings for the people she met.

2.2.3. Plot

Newland Archer, a lawyer and heir of a New York upper class family, is eagerly
looking forward to his marriage with May Welland, the beautiful daughter of
another prestigious family. However, after meeting May’s cousin - Countess Ellen
Olenska, he begins to doubt his choice. Ellen is married to a wealthy Polish Count,
but she is unhappy because of his brutal treatment towards her. Finally, she
resolves to escape from her husband with the help of his secretary, which fuels the
rumor of her unfaithfulness. At first, Ellen's arrival disturbs Newland since he does
not want his fiancée’s family to bear any humiliation. Nonetheless, he gradually
becomes attracted to the passionate and straightforward Ellen. His feelings for
Countess Olenska change his views on life and forces him to doubt the future
happiness of his upcoming marriage with May – the typical product of the old New
York. Ellen then decides to file for divorce despite the strong opposition of her
family. However, after being persuaded by Newland, she agrees to stop the
divorcing process. Meanwhile, as his admiration for Ellen grows, Newland’s
uncertainty of his love for May also increases. To put an end to his infatuation with
Ellen, he begs May to accelerate their wedding date but she refuses. Newland and

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Ellen then confess their love to each other. Ellen agrees to remain in America, on
condition that they do not have any sexual intercourse. Right after that, Newland
receives May's telegram agreeing to marry sooner. They get married but Newland
still cannot forget Ellen. Ellen moves to Washington with her aunt. Her husband
asks her to come back but she declines. Frustrated by her decision, her family
decides to cut off her allowance. Newland desperately looks for a way to leave
May and be with Ellen. When her grandmother gets sick, she is called back to New
York and asked to stay there permanently to nurse her. Persuaded by Newland,
Ellen agrees to have sexual intercourse with Newland for once. However, Newland
then discovers that after doing so, she will return to her husband. Newland has
decided to abandon May and follow Ellen to Europe when his wife announces that
she and Newland will hold a farewell party for Ellen since she is going to Paris
soon. When the party is over and Ellen has gone, Newland resolves to tell May that
he will leave her. She interrupts him before he is able to say anything and tells him
that she is pregnant and that Ellen was aware of it two weeks ago. Newland is
forced to give up his plan for the sake of his child. Twenty-six years later, after
May's death, Newland and his son come to Paris. His son wishes to pay a visit to
Countess Olenska and asks Newland to join him. However, when they arrive,
Newland decides not to go into her house and walks back to his hotel without
meeting her.

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 Chapter 3: Conventionality as shown in the image of May Welland

3.1. Refusal to hold unpleasant talks

Talking is an important part of human life. It bonds people with each other, eases
their pains and multiples their happiness. It is easy to talk about pleasant things like
congratulating someone on being accepted to a university, or chatting about music
and movies since they do not offend, sadden or worry anyone. However, it does
not mean that unpleasant topics like divorce or failure to get a good job should be
considered as taboos. It is necessary for people to speak out their minds, share their
problems with each other and argue to defend their points in order to release their
stress, receive advice and help others realize their mistakes.

Nowadays, freedom of speech is widely applied. People can talk about everything
they want, provided that it is not illegal. However, in the 19th century, the same
prerogative was not available. Sarah Annie Frost (1869, pp.32-34) points this out:

In general conversation avoid argument. It is too engrossing of

attention, and is moreover apt to break in upon the harmony of the
company. If obliged to discuss a point, do so with suavity, contradicting,
if necessary, with extreme courtesy, and if you see no prospect of
agreement, finishing-off with some happy good-natured remark to prove
that you are not hurt or offended. (…) Eschew scandal, for “in scandal
as in robbery, the receiver is always thought as bad as the thief.” (…)
Swearing, sneering, private affairs either of yourself or any other, have
long ago been banished out of the conversation of well-mannered
people. (…) Do not commence any conversation by the suggestion of

15
 painful or disagreeable topics. (…) Avoid an officious offer of advice or
your own opinion, and if you do give your opinion, be sure it is given as
such and not as a fact.

May Welland is the embodiment of all the above-mentioned qualities. True to the
requirement of her society, she tries her best to prevent heated argument with
anyone. When she is prompted by Newland Archer to hasten their marriage, even
though she disagrees with him, she still manages to close their conversation after a
few words:

‘You do love me, Newland! I’m so happy.’

‘But then – why not be happier?’
(…) She looked a little bored by his insistence. She knew very well that
they couldn’t, but it was troublesome to have to produce a reason. ‘I’m
not clever enough to argue with you. But that kind of thing is rather –
vulgar, isn’t it?’ she suggested, relieved to have hit on a word that would
assuredly extinguish the whole subject.
(pp.53-54)

In order to end a topic peacefully, May uses soothing words to ease Newland and
at the same time shows her unwillingness to continue the talk (i.e. “You do love
me, Newland! I’m so happy.” and “I’m not clever enough to argue with you”). Her
resolution to refrain from vigorous debate remains even after her marriage. When a
disagreement occurs during a discussion about Ellen Olenska, she stops the
conversation before it turns into a serious quarrel:

‘After all, I wonder if she wouldn’t be happier with her husband.’

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 (…) ‘I don’t think I ever heard you say a cruel thing before.’
‘Cruel?’
‘Well – watching the contortions of the damned is supposed to be a
favourite sport of the angels; but I believe even they don’t think people
happier in hell.’
‘It’s a pity she ever married abroad then,’ said May, in the placid tone
with which her mother met Mr Welland’s vagaries.
(p.137)

May Welland does not utter a word to change the subject or apologize for her
views, yet with a simple change of tone, she successfully prevents the conversation
from getting worse and makes her husband regrets his remark. This is what George
Routledge (2004, p.10) states: “Remember in conversation that a voice “gentle and
low” is, above all other extraneous acquirements, “an excellent thing in woman.”
There is a certain distinct but subdued tone of voice which is peculiar to only well-
bred persons.”

The reason for May’s avoidance of argument is that the society requires it of her.
In this era, people in general and ladies in particular are expected to be sweet-
tempered and calm. Agnes H. Morton (1919, p.70) points out: “Control of temper
is one of the most valuable results of training in the etiquette of calm behavior.”
George Routledge (2004, p.11) also considers argument as a breach of etiquette:
“Long arguments in general company, however entertaining to disputants, are
tiresome to the last degree to all others. You should always endeavour to prevent
the conversation from dwelling too long upon one topic.” Since May fully
conforms to traditional etiquette, she does not want to involve herself in heated
arguments in order to preserve her innocent and gentle image. Refraining from

17
debate has its own good and bad points. On the bright side, it prevents people from
hurting each other and maintains a peaceful atmosphere. However, its weakness is
that people who are afraid of arguments will not be able to understand the others or
realize their own mistakes in order to learn and grow. By refusing to argue with
Newland, May has lost the chance for both her and Archer to have a better
understanding of each other and lessened her own felicity.

Apart from her tendency to avoid fierce debate, May tries her best to ignore the
“unpleasant” things. This trace of her is first shown when she and Newland talk
about Countess Olenska after Ellen’s arrival to New York:

‘No; at the last minute she decided not to.’

‘At the last minute?’ he echoed, betraying his surprise that she should
ever have considered the alternative possible.
‘Yes. She’s awfully fond of dancing,’ the young girl answered simply.
‘But suddenly she made up her mind that her dress wasn’t smart enough
for a ball, though we thought it so lovely; and so my aunt had to take her
home.’
(…) Nothing about his betrothed pleased him more than her resolute
determination to carry to its utmost limit that ritual of ignoring the
‘unpleasant’ in which they had both been brought up.
(p.17)

Despite knowing Ellen’s notorious past as well as her indifference to social

conventions, May manages to entirely ignore those traces and keep quiet about the
scandalous things. George Routledge (2004, p.12) writes: “Scandal is the least
excusable of all conversational vulgarities.” In this case, paying no attention to the

18
infamous stuffs can be considered as a good trace because it enables May to fulfill
her duties as a respectful cousin and prevents Ellen from getting hurt by the harsh
words of her own family. Sometimes it is good to forget the past, especially if it
can enable someone to improve and turn into a better person.

However, there are some circumstances under which May’s quietness can do more
harm than good. When she finds out that Newland wants to go to Washington to
meet Ellen, she says nothing and lets Newland find out her true meaning on his
own.

‘And you must be sure to go and see Ellen,’ she added, looking him
straight in the eyes with her cloudless smile, and speaking in the tone
she might have employed in urging him not to neglect some irksome
family duty.
It was the only word that passed between them on the subject; but in the
code in which they had both been trained it meant: ‘(…) I know you
mean to see Ellen when you are in Washington, and are perhaps going
there expressly for that purpose; and that, since you are sure to see her,
I wish you to do so with my full and explicit approval.’
(pp.168-169)

This type of communication is not worth encouraging because of two reasons. First
of all, the listener may not understand the hidden meaning and therefore, cannot act
in accordance with the words. The second reason is that the receiver may choose to
ignore the message hidden in the words, and say that he/she does not get it when
being asked. Despite all these disadvantages, this is the only way for the upper
class in 19th century to talk about the unpleasant things. When people wish to have

19
their thoughts and feelings known, they should speak out clearly so that others can
understand. Not everyone is a mind-reader, so in some cases, it is better to be
frank, and if discretion is required, we should try to be discreet in an easy-to-
understand way.

Besides the afore-mentioned features, May also has the tendency to hide her
sadness and irritability. When she finds out that Newland will postpone his going
to Washington because Ellen has come to New York, she keeps quiet and her
sadness is shown through her tears which she struggles to hide.

‘Then it’s not postponed?’ she continued, with an insistence so unlike

her (…)
‘No, but my going is,’ he answered (…). It did not hurt him half as much
to tell May an untruth as to see her trying to pretend that she had not
detected him.
(…) ‘Goodbye, dearest,’ she said, her eyes so blue that he wondered
afterward if they had shone on them through tears.
(pp.178-179)

Another case when May says nothing about her worries is when Newland forgets
to come to Mrs Manson Mingott’s with her.

Archer was struck by something languid and inelastic in her attitude.

(…) If May had spoken out her grievances (he suspected her of many) he
might have laughed them away; but she was trained to conceal
imaginary wounds under a Spartan smile.
(p.185)

20
Speaking out their opinions and sometimes, even quarrel, are the ways for couples
to maintain a marriage. If their feelings are bottled up, they cannot fully understand
each other, as well as clear away the disagreement and misunderstanding. In May’s
case, she keeps hiding her grievances because it is what she is taught to do, but it
can only do her and her husband harm. They are not truly connected with each
other since May never complains and Newland never lets her know his thought
either. She even goes so far as to say nothing about the fact that she knows about
her husband’s affair with Ellen. May just silently separates them and never refers
to it even when she succeeds. If only May opened up a little bit more, her marriage
would not become a deadly monotonous affair when the two of them keep mum
about their real feelings. Because of her silence, Newland cannot do anything to
ease her sadness and his love for her decreases as well due to the lack of
confidence between husband and wife. This situation still exists in the modern
world. Nowadays, there are many wives who silently suffer from the ill treatment
of their mothers-in-law or the lack of understanding of their husbands. However,
none of them dare to stand up and speak out their opinions, so they are partly
responsible for their unhappiness. If they do not speak out, people may not
understand or care about them. Endurance is often considered as a noble
characteristic, but in some circumstances, endurance is equal to the lack of courage
to speak the truth.

Generally, May’s refusal to hold unpleasant talks enables her to perform her duties
of a daughter, a wife, yet it makes her become distant and passive. By refusing to
converse freely, she has lost the opportunity to let others understand her more, to
release her stress as well as her chance to have a happy marriage.

21
3.2. Indifference to lower classes and disgraceful people

Best Society abroad is always the oldest aristocracy; composed not so

much of persons of title, which may be new, as of those families and
communities which have for the longest period of time known highest
cultivation. Our own Best Society is represented by social groups which
have had, since this is America, widest rather than longest association
with the old world cultivation. (…) To the general public a long purse is
synonymous with high position--a theory dear to the heart of the
“yellow” press and eagerly fostered in the preposterous social functions
of screen drama. It is true that Best Society is comparatively rich; it is
true that the hostess of great wealth, who constantly and lavishly
entertains, will shine, at least to the readers of the press, more brilliantly
than her less affluent sister. Yet the latter, through her quality of birth,
her poise, her inimitable distinction, is often the jewel of deeper water in
the social crown of her time.
Emily Post (1922, p.17)

In the 19th century, aristocrat, people from renowned families as well as the richest
businessmen were considered as the upper class. They were highly respected and
sought-after. The lower classes, i.e. intellectuals, workers, farmers and the poor in
general were looked down upon by the so-called high class. This convention
pervades the entire novel. In The Age of Innocence, the esteem among the upper
class is built upon family background, social status, wealth and stylishness.
Aristocratic families like the Lannings, the Dagonets and the van der Luydens are
unconditionally admired and feared, though they themselves do not necessarily
wish for that. Some characters are famous for their wealth and their style, despite

22
their loose morals. Lawrence Lefferts is greatly valued as “the foremost authority
in ‘form’ in New York”, although everyone knows that he is a Don Juan at heart
and his poor wife is constantly cheated. His fault is pardoned just because he is
stylish. Another example is the rich banker Julius Beaufort. His origin, past
conducts and moral are all doubtful, yet he is still popular because of his
extravagant parties and his seemingly-limitless money-supply. In short, the
popularity of the characters in The Age of Innocence is decided not by their virtue
and intelligence, but rather by their status and money.

May Welland is the perfect embodiment of New York’s way of thinking since she
looks down upon the poor, sneers at people with low status and shows no
sympathy for disgraceful people. The first time she shows her arrogant attitude is
during her honeymoon in London. She and her husbands are invited to a dinner
consisting of two old ladies, their nephew, his tutor, a vicar and his wife. She is
visibly irritated because she is invited out to meet such low class people:

Archer noticed that his wife way’s of showing her self at her ease with
foreigners was to become more uncompromisingly local in her
references, so that, though her loveliness was an encouragement to
admiration, her conversation was a chill to repartee. (…) he [Archer]
guessed that she nursed a secret disappointment at having been invited
out in London to meet a clergyman and a French tutor.
(pp.125, 128)

Like the rest of the New York upper class, May rates people by their wealth, status
and appearance. Her opinion about the intelligent and gallant French tutor is
extremely low because he is unattractive and poor.

23
 ‘The little French man? Wasn’t he dreadfully common?’ she questioned
coldly (…)
‘Those people are always awkward in society. But then,’ she added
disarmingly, ‘I suppose I shouldn’t have known if he was clever.’
Archer disliked her use of the word ‘clever’ almost as much as her use of
the word ‘common’; but he was beginning to fear his tendency to dwell
on the things he disliked in her.
(pp.127-128)

May’s point of view is incorrect as low class people are not necessarily vulgar and
common. We can learn something from everybody, regardless of their status and
education, and people (except criminals) are all admirable in their own ways.
May’s refusal to take the tutor seriously is extremely wrong since it takes time to
fully understand people, and they should not be judged by outward appearance
alone. Sadly, this trait still lasts until today. Many people retain the habit of
judging someone base on family background, education, work and appearance. For
instance, some parents advice their children not to get married with the ones whose
parents are divorced or criminals; people who fail to enter college are considered
as stupid and useless; the manual workers are regarded as vulgar; and seemingly
poor customers are ignored and looked down by the sales assistant.

May not only refuses to respect the lower class, she also expects other people to
behave like herself. That is the reason why Ellen’s willingness to befriend with
“common” people like the Blenkers and Mrs Samuel Struthers greatly annoys
May.

24
 ‘I should have liked to see her again,’ May said as they drove home
through the dusk. ‘But perhaps she wouldn’t have cared – she seems so
changed.’ (…) ‘So indifferent to all her friends, I mean; giving up New
York and her house, and spending her time with such queer people.
Fancy how hideously uncomfortable she must be at the Blenkers’!’
(p.137)

This trait of hers shows that she is selfish and snobbish. People have the right to
befriend whoever they like, yet May dislikes Ellen because she dares to get
acquainted with the lower class. May can never understand Ellen’s behavior as the
only influential things to her are traditional customs and social prejudices.

May is willing to disown her cousins if they are involved in scandalous affairs. The
first is Ellen when she refuses to return to her husband. May’s disapproval is
shown twice through her words. The initial one is when she talks with her husband:
“After all, I wonder if she wouldn’t be happier with her husband.” (p.137). The
next one is when Mrs Lovell Mingott wonders why Mrs Manson Mingott calls for
Ellen, she replies: “Perhaps it’s to urge on her again that after all her duty is with
her husband.” (p.174) After that, May blushes with embarrassment whenever
Ellen’s name is mentioned. Her behavior shows that she never truly loves Ellen.
May cares more about reputation than her cousin’s happiness. Because Ellen’s
refusal to come back to her husband damages the good image of her family, May
chooses to ignore her to preserve her so-called dignity. The second person she
decides to give up is Mrs Beaufort. After Julius Beaufort goes bankrupt, May and
the whole family ignores them entirely due to the fear of being degraded together
with them. When May knows that Ellen still visits Regina Beaufort, she breaks out
angrily:

25
 ‘You understand, don’t you,’ she went on, ‘why the family have
sometimes been annoyed? We all did what we could for her at first; but
she never seemed to understand. And now this idea of going to see Mrs
Beaufort, of going there in Granny’s carriage! I’m afraid she’s quite
alienated the van der Luydens…’
(p.199)

The fact that Julius Beaufort is isolated is understandable as he has cheated many
people, but it is unfair to ill treat his wife since she has nothing to do with all of
that. It is similar to the case when innocent children are disdained because of the
sins their parents commit. It is a cruel, inhuman and cold behavior which
unfortunately, still exists till today. HIV-positive patients are isolated, sometimes
even by their own families; and homosexual people are considered as scary and
despicable.

May’s indifference to lower classes and disgraceful people, even though they are
related to her, is ruthless and callous. At the same time, it destroys her domestic
felicity since her coldness disgusts and tires her husband, as well as widens the gap
between them. She has made a big mistake because people should be judged by
their own merits, not by their acquaintance, status, wealth or appearance.

3.3. Anti-feminism

Feminism is “the belief and aim that women should have the same rights and
opportunities as men” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary). Anti-feminism,
therefore, is the opposition to feminism.

26
The “first wave of feminism” in the US occurred in the mid 1800s when Susan B
Anthony fought for women’s right to vote. Other notable activities included
Margaret Sanger’s plan to provide contraception for women and Elizabeth
Blackwell’s receipt of a medical degree, marking the first time a woman became a
doctor in the US (Oxford Guide to British and American Culture). Despite all of
these well-known events, feminism plays an insignificant role in The Age of
Innocence. Apart from Ellen Olenska who dares to rally against her fate and fails
miserably, other female characters, especially May Welland, all peacefully subject
themselves to the traditional conventions of women.

Due to her education, May Welland virtually loses her ability to think for herself.
She follows closely what tradition requires of her, as well as acts and says in
accordance with it. This trace of her is shown clearly in her discussion with
Newland on their engagement, as her answers are all what she has been taught to
speak:

‘If you call it long! Isabel Chivers and Reggie were engaged for two
years: Grace and Thorley for nearly a year and a half. Why aren’t we
very well off as we are?’
It was the traditional maidenly interrogation, and he felt ashamed of
himself for finding it singularly childish. No doubt she simply echoed
what was said to her; but she was nearing her twenty-second birthday,
and he wondered at what age ‘nice’ women began to speak for
themselves.
(p.53)

27
May’s real problem lies in the fact that she herself does not realize that she is, in
fact, chained by the traditional customs. She never once stops to think about her
rights. She is, as Newland points out, “the young girl who knew nothing and
expected everything” and that “she would probably go through life dealing to the
best of her ability with each experience as it came, but never anticipating any by so
much as a stolen glance.” (p.119). She is willing to do the things that she does not
like, as long as it is conventional. For example, although she is not passionate
about sewing, she still takes up embroidery work “since other wives embroidered
cushions for their husbands” and “she did not wish to omit this last link in her
devotion” (p.186).

May not only refuses her right to think, she also forfeits her right to speak out her
feelings. Whenever she is sad or disturbed, she buries her grievances deep in her
heart, even when she finds out the affair between her husband and Ellen. It is
because a “nice” woman should never make a fuss or lose her temper. The readers
can easily see that she is imprisoned by traditional customs, yet she never once
thinks that she is miserable.

May pays no attention to feminism and dislikes women who act against the
etiquette. She strongly opposes Ellen’s decision to leave her husband for good and
befriend with the lower class. She also dislikes Mrs Beaufort’s attempt to ask for
support from Mrs Manson Mingott when her husband’s failure is inevitable since
women at that time are expected to suffer silently instead of going around and
begging for help.

May’s anti-feminism is the product of New York society. Since she was a little
girl, she has been taught to be passive, innocent, indifferent and dedicated to

28
traditional customs by her mother, grandmother and other female relatives. Her
mother has constantly set an example of a handy and seemingly cheerful wife, who
always does her best to please her husband, never gets into a quarrel and subjects
happily to everything he wants. May and her family can hardly be blamed for their
unwise perspective as they just try to create a pure image which can capture the
heart of men in order to reach the ultimate of goal of women at that time: to get
married. The men want their wives to be sweet, gentle and innocent women, so
that, as Newland Archer points out, they might exercise their “lordly pleasure in
smashing it [their purity] like an image made of snow.” (p.30). Even a liberal
minded man like Newland, who often exclaims that women should be as free as
men, still frequently shows satisfaction in his possessorship of May Welland.

And he contemplated her absorbed young face with a thrill of

possessorship in which pride in his own masculine initiation was
mingled with a tender reverence for her abysmal purity.
(…) Archer was proud of the glances turned on her, and the simple joy
of possessorship cleared away his underlying perplexities.
(…) The attitude was so full of a classic grace that a murmur of
appreciation followed her appearance, and Archer felt the glow of
proprietorship that so often cheated him into momentary well-being.
(pp.52, 133)

Growing up in an environment like that, it is no wonder that May turns out to be an

anti-feminist. Not only is she taught to be demure, quiet and indifferent, she is also
expected to be gentle and nice by her own husband. That is the reason why she
cannot and do not want to break away from the old-fashioned tradition. Today anti-
feminism still exists even among educated people. Theoretically, women have the

29
right to do whatever they want, provided that it is not illegal or immoral. Yet, some
people still preserve the ideas that women’s duties are to get married, give birth
and take care of their families, not to achieve high career goals. This view will not
be eradicated easily and quickly.

In short, it is not entirely May’s fault that she is an anti-feminist. Rather, it is the
result and the influence of her education, the environment in which she grows up
and the desire of men. All these things combine together to create an embodiment
of a traditional woman: clueless, passive, innocent and indifferent.

30
 Chapter 4: Unconventionality as shown in the image of Ellen Olenska

4.1. Straightforwardness

It is bothersome to deal with guys who never say anything. (…) Don’t
think it’s so noble to just keep silent and think that no one can
understand.
Clamp (2007, pp.42-43)

The above quotation can be considered as a perfect motto for Ellen Olenska’s point
of view. Contrary to a demure and quiet May Welland, Countess Olenska is very
straightforward. She dares to speak out what is in her mind, regardless of whether
it is conventionally acceptable or if people are offended by it. Being honest is
generally a good quality; however, in the era that Ellen lives, her frankness does
her more harm than good.

Unlike May, Ellen has the courage to honestly present her opinions about people
despite their ranks, wealth and power. When she is invited to see the van der
Luydens’ Duke, instead of pretending to be respectful, she says: “I think he’s the
dullest man I ever met.” (p.41) By speaking thus, she has breached the etiquette of
old society, which is “Beware of personal abuse or invective.” (Sarah Annie Frost,
1869, p.35). She is also brave enough to face her tragic marriage and talk about it.
However, her feelings are not listened by her relatives as etiquette requires them to
“Eschew scandal, for “in scandal as in robbery, the receiver is always thought as
bad as the thief”.” (Sarah Annie Frost, p.33). Their indifference hurts her
exceedingly and isolates her from society.

31
 She shook her head and sighed. ‘Oh, I know – I know! But on condition
that they don’t hear anything unpleasant. Aunt Welland put it in those
very words when I tried… Does no one want to know the truth here, Mr
Archer? The real loneliness is living among all these kind people who
only ask one to pretend!’ She lifted her hands to her face, and he saw
her thin shoulders shaken by a sob.
(p.50)

Ellen’s attempt to talk about her grievances is not wrong. Rather, it is her relatives
who are cruel and indifferent. Nonetheless, Ellen does not let that hinder her from
speaking out her opinions. Occasionally, Ellen’s honesty nearly amounts to
vulgarity. She is brave enough to talk about the topics which are considered as
“taboos” in New York. When Newland Archer persuades her that they should be
together, she says frankly:

‘Is it your idea, then, that I should live with you as your mistress – since
I can’t be your wife?’ she asked.
The crudeness of the question startled him: the word was one that
women of his class fought shy of, even when their talk flitted closest
about the topic. He noticed that Madame Olenska pronounced it as if it
had a recognized place in her vocabulary, and he wondered if it had
been used familiarly in her presence in the horrible life she had fled
from.
(p.183)

Ellen even goes so far as to suggest that she and Newland should consummate their
relationship, a thing that “nice” women at that time are dreaded to say.

32
 ‘Shall I – once come to you; and then go home?’ she suddenly hazarded
in a low clear voice.
(p.197)

Unlike May, who is a perfect model of a traditional woman, Ellen is heedless of

social customs and etiquette. She dares to speak about forbidden topics which May
never even thinks of. It is an effective way to release stress and let others fully
understand about her. Sometimes, however, Ellen is honest to the point of being
nearly disrespectful and ungrateful. When the New York upper-class families
refuse to meet her, the van der Luydens help her preserve her dignity by inviting
her to their party, thus forcing other families to come see her. However, she
commits a breach of etiquette again by her words:

‘Oh, it’s [her house] a poor little place. My relations despise it. But at
any rate it’s less gloomy than the van der Luydens’.’
(…) ‘No: how kind they are! It was such a nice party. Every one seems
to have such an esteem for them.’
The terms were hardly adequate; she might have spoken in that way of a
tea-party at the dear old Miss Lannings’.
(…) ‘Isn’t that perhaps the reason?’
‘The reason - ?’
‘For their great influence; that they make themselves so rare.’
He coloured a little, stared at her – and suddenly felt the penetration of
the remark. At a stroke she had pricked the van der Luydens and they
collapsed.
(p.48)

33
Once again, Ellen breaches another etiquette, that is “When visiting, be careful that
you do not appear to undervalue anything around you by comparing it with what
you have at home.” (Sarah Annie Frost, 1869, p.34). She owes the van der Luydens
a favor, and she should speak more respectfully of them. It is not totally
unacceptable that she should state her real opinions, but she should only confide
with the ones she is close with. At that time, she and Newland have just met for a
few times; besides, the van der Luydens are Newland’s cousins. Therefore, it is
unwise of her to criticize their house and speak lightly of their reputation because it
may hurt Newland’s feeling or worse, her words may be reported back to the van
der Luydens. Even in today’s free world, people should still watch their own
statements in order to avoid inflicting pains or offend others. For instance, teachers
should not call slow-witted students stupid in front of the class even if it is true
because it can shatter their pride; or people should not tell any women that they are
old and ugly since it can hurt them terribly.

In short, Ellen’s straightforwardness is the sign of a high-spirited soul. Ellen

Olenska has the courage to speak out her opinion and defy the things she dislikes.
However, in a world where people abhor unpleasant things, her personality hurts
her exceedingly and isolates her from the upper class.

4.2. Equal treatment to everybody

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,
that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
(Thomas Jefferson, 1776, p.1)

34
The 19th century New York society is clearly differentiated into three classes: the
upper class, the middle class and the lower class. Theoretically, everybody is
equal; however, in reality, the lower class is often ignored and underestimated
because of their poverty and low social status. Unlike May, who visibly shows her
disgust toward the lower class and disgraceful people, Ellen Olenska treats
everyone equally, regardless of their wealth, education and status.

She is willing to befriend with the poor and even to live in their quarter. Contrary
to her relatives who prefer a fashionable and rich area, she is not ashamed of living
in a poor and eccentric one, as long as it is respectable and peaceful. It is because
in her opinion, a house is, after all, a place to live and it is not necessary for her
home to be located in a luxurious and stylish quarter.

‘I’ve never been in a city where there seems to be such a feeling against
living in des quartiers excentriques. What does it matter where one
lives? I’m told this street is respectable.’
(p.47)

Ellen is also very friendly towards her neighbors. When the child of Mr Ned
Winsett, her neighbor, falls down before her house, she bandages him carefully,
then immediately takes him home. Her behavior leaves a deep impression on her
neighbors.

‘(…) she’s been awfully kind to my little boy, who fell down her area
chasing his kitten, and gave himself a nasty cut. She rushed in
bareheaded, carrying him in her arms, with his knees all beautifully

35
 bandaged, and was so sympathetic and beautiful that my wife was too
dazzled to ask her name.’
(p.78)

She also gives Mrs Winsett a bouquet of red roses and keeps quiet about her name,
leading the lady to think that it is a present from her husband. Her generous, liberal
and caring personality is shown clearly through these things.

‘Tell the boy to carry them to the house of Mr Winsett, the dark
gentleman who dined here. His wife is ill – they may give her pleasure.
(…) And, as you live, don’t say they come from me!’
(p.104)

Ellen’s feelings towards her neighbors are sincere and selfless. She hardly gains
any benefits from befriending them; rather, her reputation is damaged by the
relationship. However, she cares nothing about that because she truly likes and
respects them. Ellen Olenska’s nice treatment is extended towards not only her
neighbors but also her own maid. When she sends her maid, Nastasia, on an
errand, she calls her “My dear one” and wraps Nastasia in her own opera cloak. It
is an unusual thing because in 19th century New York, the mistresses do not call
their maids so intimately and provides them with their stylish clothes like that. This
action is a proof for Ellen’s disregard of social conventions. In her opinion,
everybody should be treated equally. Thanks to her view, she is loved and
respected by her neighbors and servants.

Ellen is willing to befriend with the eccentric as well. She is acquainted with the
Blenkers, a family of “an intense and voluble mother and three blowsy daughters

36
who imitated her”, which is generally considered as weird and common. She does
not look down on them and even goes so far as to stay with them during the
holiday. Ellen is fascinated by artists, despite their vague origins and mysterious
life. The New York upper class, on the other hand, is reluctant to be acquainted
with them because of their ambiguous background and eccentric appearance.
Countess Olenska pays no attention to the general view and just does what she
pleases. She is passionate about literature, drama and art, so it is natural for her to
get close to the ones who master them. She does not bother to think whether her
behavior is conventionally acceptable or not; or whether the ones she acquaints
with belong to the best society. All she wants is “good conversation”, as her aunt
Medora points out. Social conventions hardly have any claim on Ellen. She makes
friends with whoever she likes, despite their social status and wealth.

Ellen does not abandon her friends even when they are ignored by the whole
society. After Beaufort’s bankruptcy, the Beauforts are shunned by the entire upper
class. Regina Beaufort, despite her relation with the Dallas and the Mingotts, are
abandoned by her own family. However, Ellen is the only one who stays by her
side and encourages her. She even persuades her grandma to lend her the carriage
to visit Mrs Beaufort.

‘The day after she got here she put on her best bonnet, and told me, as
cool as a cucumber, that she was going to call on Regina Beaufort. (…)
“She’s the wife of a scoundrel,” I answered. “Well,” she said, “and so
am I, and yet all my family want me to go back to him.”
(pp.190-191)

37
She also treats Mr Beaufort’s illegitimate daughter with great kindness and looks
after her when her parents are absent.

‘You know she was awfully good to Fanny when Mr Beaufort sent her
over from Buenos Aires to the Assumption. Fanny hadn’t any friends in
Paris, and Madame Olenska used to be kind to her and trot her about on
holidays.’
(p.224)

In the 1870s New York society, illegitimate children were often shunned by
society due to their ambiguous background. Yet Ellen, a New Yorker at heart, is
not afraid of tainting her own reputation by taking care of Fanny Beaufort. It
requires courage and kind-heartedness to behave like Ellen. Her noble idea of
“everybody is equal” is a part of the reasons why Newland falls in love with her.
May Welland may be gentler and quieter, but Ellen Olenska, with her generous
treatment for everybody, is definitely friendlier, warmer and kinder.

All these above-mentioned cases prove that Ellen is extremely kind-hearted and
generous. In a world where the rich, beauty and the aristocrat are honored and
admired, Ellen’s equal treatment to everybody is such a rare and precious thing.
Her behavior helps her gain new friends and enables her to live in the intellectual
atmosphere that she loves. However, it also separates her from the upper class and
isolates her from her own family.

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4.3. Feminism

In opposition to an anti-feminist May, Ellen is an embodiment of feminism. She

dares to revolt against her fate, does whatever she wants and refuses to subject to
old-fashioned conventionalities.

Ellen constantly struggles to create a better life for herself. When she is cruelly
treated by her husband, instead of staying in his house and suffering silently, she
promptly escapes from that living hell with the help of his secretary. She pays no
attention to the rumors implying that she is involved in an affair with her savior
and never says anything to clear them away. Ellen believes she has done the right
thing and does not regret it. Even after her husband asks her to come back and
promise her a large sum of money, she still refuses and chooses to live in America
in poverty because to her, freedom is the most valuable thing. She once says to
Newland that: “I had to be free.” (p.49). When she realizes her love for Newland
Archer, she decides to divorce her husband in order to pursue her love, even
though divorce is regarded as a taboo in New York. All she wants is to be happy,
and she is willing to do everything in her power to secure it.

Ellen Olenska is not influenced by the social trends and conventions. This trait of
hers is what enables her to act as she pleases. Unlike other women, she cares little
about fashion. A queer thing about her is that she dresses contrary to the situation.
When she first appears in New York after running away from her husband, she
surprises everyone by her unusual dress: “the dark blue velvet gown rather
theatrically caught up under her bosom by a girdle with a large old-fashioned
clasp” (p.7) which shows off her bare shoulders. She goes to the party held by the

39
van der Luydens in a simple dress which disappoints the entire New York because
they expect her to be more stylish and conspicuous.

At the same time she was simpler in manner than most of the ladies
present, and many people (as he heard afterward from Janey) were
disappointed that her appearance was not more ‘stylish’ – for
stylishness was what New York most valued. (…) New York had expected
something a good deal more resonant in a young woman with such a
history.
(pp.39-40)

The way she dresses at home is also different. While other ladies often wear simple
dinner dresses, she puts on “a long robe of red velvet bordered about the chin and
down the front with glossy black fur” (p.67). However, none of these things trouble
Countess Olenska since she dresses for herself, not for others. She even says:
“Why not make one’s own fashions?” (p.47). She chooses her own friends and
goes wherever she pleases, despite the general disapproval. She repeatedly comes
to Mrs Blenker’s house on Saturday to entertain herself although she has been
warned not to. She associates with anyone she likes, from the eccentric artists to
common and poor people as it keeps her from being lonely.

‘You’re going to Mrs Struthers’s?’

‘Yes.’ She smiled and added: “I must go where I am invited, or I should
be too lonely’.
(pp.107-108)

40
When she is bored with the monotonous New York, she sub-lets her house and
moves to Washington, where she leads a much gayer life with her aunt. She does
not care that her behavior disturbs her relatives since she wants to do everything
that makes her feel alive.

Although Ellen is free-spirited and capricious, she is not selfish or cruel. She is
willing to sacrifice herself for others. When Newland advises her not to divorce
because it will cause a lot of troubles for her as well as her family, she agrees to
stop it for fear of bringing notoriety and scandal on the people she loves, even
though it means that she will not be able to be with Newland. Even though she is
shunned by the upper class in general, Ellen’s spirit makes her become a great
favorite among men, including Newland Archer, Julius Beaufort and Lawrence
Lefferts, who are all willing to become her lovers. However, she never commits
adultery or tries to break apart their families. She comes back immediately from
Washington when she is informed of her grandmother’s illness and agrees to stay
in New York to take care of her. After May tells her that she is pregnant with
Newland’s child, she decides to settle in Paris with her aunt Medora to enable the
Archers to live a happy life. Ellen’s image is like that of a modern woman. She is
confident, intelligent and brave, but still feminine, kind-hearted and willing to
sacrifice herself for others. Women nowadays are very active in work, but they can
put their job on hiatus for sometimes to take care of their families and fulfill the
duties of wives and mothers.

Ellen’s carefree behavior isolates her from the upper class society, including her
own family. When she first returns to New York, many renowned families have
declined to meet her because of her notorious reputation, and she luckily escapes it
with the help of her family and the van der Luydens. However, she loses all

41
support after refusing to come back to her husband. Her allowance and relationship
with her relatives are cut off drastically.

Everybody knew that the Countess Olenska was no longer in the good
graces of her family. Even her devoted champion, old Mrs Manson
Mingott, had been unable to defend her refusal to return to her husband.
The Mingotts had not proclaimed their disapproval aloud: their sense of
solidarity was too strong. They had simply, as Mrs Welland said, ‘let
poor Ellen find her own level’
(pp.164-165)

Had Ellen been born in our time, she would have been praised for her courage and
received multiple supports from everyone, even from outside her family. As it is,
her society is too narrow-minded and old-fashioned to understand and forgive her
behavior. Her feminism has been suppressed by the social etiquette and
conventionalities. Yet, her extroverted personality makes her become a great
favorite among the Europeans as well as the younger generation, including
Archer’s son and Beaufort’s daughter.

In short, Ellen is the exact opposite of the quiet and demure May. She is broad-
minded, carefree, brave and active. However, her personality is too different from
these of New York upper class women at that time. It leads to a lack of
understanding between her and the society, and as a result, she is isolated and
lonely.

42
 Chapter 5: Comparison between May Welland and Ellen Olenska

5.1. Family background

The differences between May Welland and Ellen Olenska are due to their
upbringing and education. While May is born into a traditional-styled family, Ellen
is raised up by a rather eccentric and unusual one.

May Welland’s personality is created by the environment in which she grows up.
Her father is a conventional, nervous and weak man who is overly conscious of his
health. He has a lot of habits which other members in his family have to follow.
Every winter the Newlands have to go to St Augustine with him to prevent him
from catching bronchitis. It is impossible for him to go alone because he cannot do
anything without the help of his wife. During this holiday, he has to hire a house
since he cannot stand the local hotel, and a lot of servants need to be hired to
satisfy his demand. In summer, the whole family always goes to Newport as it is a
fashionable place which attracts everyone in the upper class society. Mr Welland is
an extremely methodical man. He wants everything to occur on time, never dares
to miss a drive or drink his medicine late (even though he does not have any health
problem). Living with a mechanical man like her father, May becomes a girl who
does everything that other people expect her to, conforms to traditional customs
without wondering at their absurdity. It is because she is used to satisfying the
demands of her father and learned to follow the cues of society.

The one who has the deepest influence on May is her mother. Mrs Welland is a
stolid, dull and selfish woman. The thing she cares for most is conventionality and
she is willing to do anything to conform to it, even by pretending.

43
 In reality they all lived in a kind of hieroglyphic, where the real thing
was never said or done or even thought, but only represented by a set of
arbitrary signs; as when Mrs Newland, who knew exactly why Archer
had pressed her to announce her daughter’s engagement at the
Beaufort’s ball (and had indeed expected him to do no less), yet felt
obliged to simulate reluctance, and the air of having her hand forced.
(p.29)

She is also unsympathetic towards the problems and mistakes of other people.
When Ellen tries to confide her grievances to her, she flatly refuses as “Having an
invalid to care for [her husband], I have to keep my mind bright and happy.” (p.93)
and also because she hates to hear about scandalous thing. After Ellen refuses to
return to her husband, she decides to abandon her and “let poor Ellen find her own
level” (p.165).

She teaches May how to become a good wife, which is to cheerfully fulfill all
requests of her husband. Mrs Welland has succeeded in moulding May into an
exact replica of her: indifferent, rigid and dull. She is also the force behind May’s
long engagement. Had it not been for her decision, May would have yielded to
Newland’s request to hasten their marriage. In short, Mrs Welland is the one who
shapes May’s personality and her influence is even greater than that of Mr
Welland.

Contrary to May’s peaceful and traditional family, Ellen’s is more complicated and
unusual. Her parents are described as “continental wanderers” and since her
childhood, she has been taken to different places with them. Her free-spiritedness

44
is obviously inherited from them. When she was nine or ten, her parents passed
away and she was adopted by her aunt Medora Manson. Medora is an eccentric,
capricious and romantic woman. She is also a wanderer who rarely settles in one
place and pays little attention to conventionalities.

Poor Medora, repeatedly widowed, was always coming home to settle

down (each time in a less expensive house), and bringing with her a new
husband or an adopted child; but after a few months she invariably
parted from her husband or quarreled with her ward, and, having got
rid of her house at a loss, set out again on her wanderings.
(p.38)

Under Medora’s queer upbringing, Ellen receives a most peculiar education. Her
lessons include “dancing a Spanish shawl dance and singing Neapolitan love-
songs to a guitar” as well as “ ‘drawing from the model’, a thing never heard of
before, and playing the piano in quintets with professional musicians.” (p.39).
When she is mourning for her parents, instead of wearing blacks, she puts on
“crimson merino and amber beads, like a gipsy foundling.” (p.38). At her coming-
out ball, where she should not appear in black color, she wears a black satin dress.
Due to Medora’s guidance, she grows up to be a wild and broad-minded girl, who
pays no attention to fashion or old traditions. Her own marriage is as tragic as
Medora’s and both women end up losing their property and have to rely on the
support of their family, i.e. Mrs Manson Mingott.

Scientists have proved that children’s personalities depend on the hereditary

factors as well as their upbringing. This theory also applies to the case of May
Welland and Ellen Olenska. May, born into a traditional family, has become a

45
conventional woman; while Ellen, who receives an eccentric education, grows up
to be high-spirited and unconventional.

5.2. Attitude towards changes

May Newland and Ellen Olenska is different in their attitude towards changes.
While May dislikes changes and never expects them to happen, Ellen Olenska
always welcomes new things because they make her life become less monotonous.

May Welland leads a methodical life. She does what society requires of a “nice”
woman and abhors things that go against the golden rules. Her idea of traveling is
“mountaineering in July and swimming in August” (p.123). She never breaks these
rules, even when her husband suggests that they should go to Italia to visit the
Italian Lakes in July. May also dislikes going to unfashionable places, and she
flatly refuses when her husband tries to persuade her to come to a remote island for
a change. In general, she does not like traveling without valid reasons because she
cannot bear to leave her comfortable house.

As time goes by, May Welland still remains the same, “so lacking in imagination,
so incapable of growth, that the world of her youth had fallen into pieces and
rebuilt itself without her ever being conscious of the change.” (p.220). Thanks to
her incapability to recognize changes, she is able to live a happy life believing that
the world is still the good old one that she grows up in; but her defect also prevents
her children as well as her husband from confiding their opinions to her. Archer
once comments that: “(…) she would probably go through life dealing to the beat
of her ability with each experience as it came, but never anticipating any by so

46
much as a stolen glance.” (p.119). May is the perfect embodiment for 19th century
New York’s perception of changes:

It was thus, Archer reflected, that New York managed its transitions:
conspiring to ignore them till they were well over, and then, in all good
faith, imagining that they had taken place in a preceding age. There was
always a traitor in the citadel; and after he (or generally she) had
surrendered the keys, what was the use of pretending that it was
impregnable?
(p.164)

The “traitor” mentioned in the above passage is Ellen Olenska. She heartily
welcomes all kind of changes as long as they make her feel alive. Ellen loves
conversing with artists because of their artistic and innovative views. She is among
the first people to join in Mrs Struthers’s Sunday parties, even though that woman
is considered as common and vulgar. Several years later, people start coming
regularly to Mrs Struthers on Sundays to entertain themselves, but they still resent
Ellen for being the first person to frequent her house.

Ellen is a creative woman. She decorates her house in her own way and transforms
it into something exotic, romantic and sentimental. She dislikes following fashion
trends and prefers creating her own style. Her lively personality is the source for
her creativity, but it also makes her become capricious. She does not like the
monotonous life in New York and decides to move to Washington “to meet more
varieties of people and of opinion” (p.151). Ellen likes to befriend with all types of
people because good conversation is what she values the most. This is contrary to

47
the view of New York upper class, which opposes any kind of relationship with the
lower class.

To conclude, May Welland abhors and ignores changes, while Ellen Olenska likes
trying new things and heartily welcomes them. Due to these differences, May’s life
is peaceful yet monotonous, while Ellen’s is exciting, active but lonely.

5.3. Opinions on conventionality and unconventionality

The Age of Innocence describes a struggle between conventionality and

unconventionality, represented respectively by May Welland and Ellen Olenska.
May Welland considers conventionality as a matter of fact and regards
unconventionality as vulgar. Meanwhile, Ellen Olenska objects to conventional
ideas and leads an unconventional life.

May Welland respects old traditions and feels comfortable living within their
limits. When Newland persuades her to hasten their marriage and suggests that
they might elope together, she refuses because it is vulgar, and in fact, being vulgar
is the thing that she fears the most.

‘But that kind of thing is rather – vulgar, isn’t it?’ she suggested,
relieved to have hit on a word that would assuredly extinguished the
whole subject.
‘Are you so much afraid, then, of being vulgar?’
She was evidently staggered by this. ‘Of course I should hate it – so
would you,’ she rejoined, a trifle irritably.
(p.54)

48
May is willing to do anything that tradition requires her to. For instance, she
embroiders cushions even though she dislikes it “since other wives embroidered
cushions for their husbands she did not wish to omit this last link to her devotion.”
(p.186). She never confronts he husband about his infidelity because etiquette
requires that she should be discreet about infamous subjects. May especially
dislikes people who revolt against conventionality, i.e. Ellen Olenska and Regina
Beaufort. She even goes so far as to be willing to cut off relationship with them
once they breach the social etiquette.

Ellen, on the other hand, cannot bring herself to care about conventionality. She
once tries to conform to social etiquette by moving from a poor quarter to a more
luxurious residential area. However, the change does not suit her and she fails to
subject herself to the old-fashioned traditions.

She had grown tired of what people called ‘society’; New York was kind,
it was almost oppressively hospitable; she should never forget the way in
which it had welcomed her back; but after the first flush of novelty she
had found herself, as she phrased it, too ‘different’ to care for the things
it cared about – and so she had decided to try Washington, where one
was supposed to meet more varieties of people and of opinion.
(p.151)

Ellen repeatedly commits unconventional acts, from befriending common people

to wearing shocking clothes and refusing to return to her husband. She dislikes the
old-fashioned customs, but she still respects them because she believes “under the

49
dullness there are things so fine and sensitive and delicate that even those I most
cared for in my other life look cheap in comparison” (p.152).

In general, May Welland blindly follows traditional etiquette and conforms

unconditionally to conventionality, while Ellen Olenska revolts against it and
indulge herself in unconventionality.

50
 Chapter 6: Conclusion

The Age of Innocence is Edith Wharton’s satire of 19th century New York with
May representing the conventionality and Ellen as the representative of
unconventionality. May possesses all the qualities of the old upper class, including
her opposition to frank talk, her stolidity towards the lower class as well as sinners,
and her extreme antifeminism. Ellen, on the other hand, is a perfect illustration of
the upcoming generation who is more straightforward, friendlier to people outside
the upper class and eager to adopt feminism.

At the beginning of the novel, Ellen appears as a challenge to the old New York
while May stands for the stolid conventions of this city. However, as the novel
progresses, she becomes less and less conspicuous, showing that the tradition of
the Big Apple (nickname of New York) is too big for her to overcome. Ellen
finally has to admit that “under the dullness there are things so fine and sensitive
and delicate” (p.152) though she or other characters never directly point out what
these things are. Towards the end of the novel, Ellen compromises with the
conventionality and has to settle in Paris. The gentle and innocent May’s emerges
as the winner, though throughout the novel, she pales in comparison with
conspicuous and strong Ellen. Reviewer V.S. Princhett (1953, p.490) once wrote:
“Mrs Wharton may have hated old New York, but she hated the new New York
even more. She disliked the prison of silent hypocrisy, but she drew in her skirts
when candour came in.” It is true that no matter how much Edith Wharton
abhorred the old-fashioned and narrow-minded New York upper class society, she
still respected and preferred to live in it. This fact is understandable as it is the
place where she grew up and it had become an inseparable part of her. Her
protagonist, Newland Archer, said: “If one had habitually breathed the New York

51
air there were time when anything less crystalline seemed stifling.” (p.61) This is
the reason why Mrs Wharton let conventional May win and unconventional Ellen
was forced to return to Europe.

Conventionality and unconventionality as represented in The Age of Innocence are

not totally good or absolutely bad. Their very existence is the factor that attracts
early 20th century readers. Even modern readers are absorbed in this novel because
conventional and unconventional things mentioned in it still exist in today’s world
and form a large part of human life.

52
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