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http://www.archive.org/details/contributionstoaOOmachrich
Exposition of
its
and
Crit-
Principles. Translated
from
the Second
German
250 Cuts.
534 Pages.
Historical
Edition by T.
J.
McCormack.
Price, $2.50.
Paper, 35 cents.
DEARBORN
ST.,
CHICAGO.
CO.,
CONTRIBUTIONS
TRANSLATED
BY
C.
M.
WILLIAMS
-T
> 3
CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
(LONDON
17
1897
ST., E. C.)
NOW
1890, 1892,
>
and
1897
by
FOR
my
profound obligations
Not a
efforts
little
to
am under
is
owing
to the strenuous
main explanation
of
its
problems
to find the
am
of opinion
sumed
to
it,
is
as-
also
of physiological chemistry.
be
is
is
but a
energies,
is
and influence
of a great authority
it
By
the example
all
different.
had occasion as
to
is
it is,
1^63
Sommer,
calculated to lead
able
unknown
how
little justifi-
vi
to think of
senting
my
still
few inquirers
its
original sig-
new public
is
of pre-
doubly valuable.
E. Mach.
ORIGINAL PREFACE.
THEhave
province
this
am
The very
in the
way
fact that
my
am
others,
who have
odd
must de-
scattered publications, or
charge of desultoriness
and
to the
to the secret
therefore,
little
investigations have
me open
my
W.
to
Preyer
my
The
my
it
will
my
attitude in a
be seen that
somewhat more
in all cases I
have had
in
ever to the
title
yet I venture to
of physiologist,
and
still
of the specialist,
may
not be entirely
viii
where
also,
even though
may
not be every-
in the right.
My
strongest stimulus
(Leipsic,
i860),
from
but
my
its
assistance
To
and
discussions, I
ters.
in the text of
page
81.
recommend
first
and
last
chap-
For me, however, the conception of the whole and the con-
should scarcely
The Author.
Prague, November,
1885.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.
THE MATTER
tioned to
rich as
it
is
problems of
contained in a book
were
in suggestions bearing
scientific
one.
If this
its size.
is
so,
on some
of the
fundamental
drawn from
his observations
and expe-
The German
terest
and
discussion.
considerable
many
edition of the
To
new matter
opened up by them
in-
in the notes
and
trains of thought
in the
on pages
two Appendices.
J.
McCormack,
of
La
Salle,
who
Illinois
also
inde-
in
The Monist.
C.
M. Williams.
I.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introductory Remarks.
of
Antimetaphysical
View
The Space-Sensations
of the
Eye
The
Sight-Sensations.
to
Their
Relations to
57
82
Time-Sensation
Sensations of
Physics.
109
Tone
Influence
Mode
of
I.
Appendix
II.
Addenda
its
119
of the Preceding
Investigations on the
Conception
Appendix
27
41
151
185
Mach"
197
200
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
ANTIMETAPHYSICAL.
I.
to its
modern
which employ
ical
times, a success
ways
enjoy on
is
not restricted
its
of thinking
all
which
science
it
of
procedure
ment.
drift of
modern
inquiry,
men
like
Goethe, Scho-
Johannes
Miiller,
physics despite
its
when we
reflect that
body
unable, with
its
lim-
and
of
it is
all
the subject-matter
of science.
of phys-
ics, it is
only to pursue
its
own
and so
forth, are
manifold ways
which
is
spaces,
relatively
more
fixed
itself in
language.
manency
exhibit,
first,
Out
itself in
designated
bodies.
My
table
is
now
brightly,
now dimly
lighted.
Its
temperature varies.
of its legs
My
it
for part.
But
for
me, amid
friend
may put on
all its
daily write.
may
change.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
or be definitely changed.
manent
features presented,
may
latter
whom
My
be overlooked.
take
coat
my
may
It is
the
same
friend with
daily walk.
we
My very man-
ment
is
is
new ele-
lacking
is
Our
manency, and
its
of
mental rep-
That which
is
perceptually repre-
As
relatively permanent,
is
body
(the
human
cited or ill-humored.
may be
also
is
denom-
feelings, joined to
body), which
is
iThe apparent permanency of the ego consists chiefly in the fact of its
and in the slowness of its changes. The many thoughts and plans
of yesterday that are continued to-day, and of which our environment in waking hours incessantly reminds us (wherefore in dreams the ego can be very in-
continuity
After a
first
is
permanent existences.
tures of bodies
moves the
and
The changeable
first
fea-
what
its
doubled, or entirely wanting), and the little habits that are unconup for long periods of time, constitute the
groundwork of the ego. There can hardly be greater differences in the egos
of different people, than occur in the course of years in one person. When I
recall to-day my early youth, I should take the boy that I then was, with the
exception of a few individual features, for a different person, did not the
chain of memories that make up my personality lie actually before me. Many
an article that I myself penned twenty years ago impresses me now as something quite foreign to myself. The very gradual character of the changes of the
body also contributes to the stability of the ego, but in a much less degree than
people imagine. Such things are much less analysed and noticed than the
intellectual and the moral ego. Personally, people know themselves very
distinct,
poorly.
Once, when a young man, I espied in the street the profile of a face that
was very displeasing and repulsive to me. I was not a little taken aback when
a moment afterwards I found that it was my own, which, in passing by a place
where mirrors were sold, I had perceived reflected from two mirrors that
were inclined at the proper angle to each other.
Not long ago, after a trying railway journey by night, and much fatigued,
I
got into an omnibus, just as another gentleman appeared at the other end.
"What
much dread
in life in
his
abundant measure.
views. Mach,
1895.]
That which
is
INTR OD UCTOR V REMARKS.
properties.
fruit is
of
is
ible,
is
pleasant
gradually, different
made up
bitter.
of
common
The
elements.
visible, the
manifoldness of
and
aud-
The
in
can also be
found in
some bodies
Thus,
it
seeking
sweet; but
In the
into form.
The com-
The
of apprehend-
come
component
of a given
The vague
permanent complex,
when one
or another of the
away
itself.
singly
component parts
itself as
Inasmuch as
it
is
is
taken
something which
possible to take
it is
imagined that
it is
pos-
Thus
remaining.
a thing in
monstrous notion of
arises the
unknowable and
itself^
"phenomenal"
different
from
its
existence.
complexes
of colors, sounds,
and so
forth
nothing
That Protean,
up so much
in
sum-
fact, that
A body
simultaneously.
so long as
it
many
pur-
poses profitable,
is
is
unnecessary to consider
its
details.
necessary.
to carry
is
on
not
in-
cease to be spheres.
Man
possesses, in
consciously and
view.
He
its
arbitrarily
attention to
its
smallest details
now
consider a sta-
and
spectrum
he can
forced to
it.
its
is
usually
its
father
of points of view.
plights?
is
Even
the
man
of
to,
shows.
In this last case, the circumstances appear to furnish a real ground of justification.
Colors, sounds,
But the
tan-
annexed to
it.
knowledge
where the
consideration
is,
that
owing
and
further
and
to
themselves.
colors,
The physiology
of the senses,
however,
may
just as ap-
5-
The
which
may be
commonly
ABC
may be
sent
\iy
KLM
called
volitions,
as
.,
and
.;
KLM. .ABC.
as
ABC.
independence
closer inspection.
complex afty.
induced
is
a /3y
to
^^C
it
ego,
is
of
shall repre-
opposed
a^y
is
and
to the
of sub-
viewed as ego,
as world of substance.
Now,
But
as a separate existence.
Much,
it is
true,
way upon
may change
and
vice versa.
in the
composed
we
rest,
mABC...)
in
the complex
known
at first blush,
sounds, and so
the complex,
.;
making up the
ABC...,
complex
apy
KLM.
of
sake of simplicity, hy
as our
colors,
vice versa.
in
KLM.
.,
when
^Z J/...
in
appears to be more
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
a Py
common
ABC...
of
is
what
appears double
The
it.
K L M.
it
A
;
cube
when
same body,
left
it
sometimes
invisible.
is
therefore,
appear
the appearance
is,
properties of the
modified by our
by
it
which
relations
always codetermined by
it
is
is
so different
KLM
ABC...
are
associated.^
We
S, that
is,
bring
receive a prick.
prick.
The
we touch
connexion with our body, we
But
it
into
We
can see
as soon as
we
S,
If
we
find S.
Neuwied,
tions or illusions.
it
lo
cleus, to
annexed, according to
is
From
quency
of such occurrences
we
cir-
the fre-
ultimately accustom
we
medium
By
call sensations.
body
of the
this operation,
which
effects
however, our
The
In which case
world consists
we have knowl-
of the nu-
and superfluous.
suit
with
only ol
A B C.
that
a fty
KLM
is
con-
more strongly
wont
to
alter
a /3y.
be comprised
.,
as
in the ego.
ABC...
to the
it
In conformity
embrace the
entire world. ^
The ego
is
not sharply
IWhen I say that the table, the tree, and so forth, are my sensations, the
statement, as contrasted witli the mode of representation of the ordinary man,
off, its
displaceable.
Only by
failing to
and
arbitrarily
observe this
tr
limits,
fact,
and
while at the
met with
in
this connexion.
As soon
as
unities ''body
we have perceived
'*
obliged, in
may
and so
pain,
many profound
forth),
we
find ourselves
scientific investigations, to
The
abandon them as
insufficient
antithesis of ego
and
and inappropriate.
afty...ABC...
K LM
was only a
.,
of
which
this antithesis
is
partially
This connex-
itself
aright (get
environment which
its
is
bear-
thereby
on
whom
the eyes of the audience are all converged, and who is conor in that of the able politician who is deftly
guiding his party; and so on. In conditions of depression, on the other hand
such as nervous people often endure, the ego contracts and shrinks. A wall
seems to separate it from the world.
12
On
appears to
be made up
ments than
ABC...
much more
of
KL M
evanescent
ele-
which
last the
stability
and
in
/;/
nuclei as
it
elements of
were).
complexes prove
all
in spite of the
knowledge
ascendancy
in the
to
be homogeneous^ yet
body and
mind. The
philosophical spiritualist
of an antithesis of
is
and
a loss
when
artificial reflexion
endow
required to
The
which
world of bodies
the ma-
the world
has evolved,
is
easily clouded
instinctive notions.
7-
The
following case.
In the complex
ABC.
.,
which we
own body
K LM
.,
we
.,
K"L"M".
.,
deal with
K'L'M'.
.,
we
When, however, we
inquire after
only
is
we no
.,
we add them
in thought.
We have
safe.
an abyss. ^
we seek
province of sense
the
13
the feeling as
it
if
Not
is
we were plunging
this
method
into
only, will
which
is
first,
complex^ -5
(our body).
sort.
heard.
.,
without regarding
^Z J/.
white bullet
The
Let us
falls
upon a
bell
a sound
is
sodium lamp,
{ABC.
.)
{KLM.
.).
one eye
to the side,
came
we
we
see none at
all.
If
we take
we press
we close
we
sever the
But
If
if
If
years,
ment.
I first
to
my
14
ABC,
therefore,
.,
and
and regard
is
heard.
The elements
among
To this extent,
KLM.
do we
call
ABC...
accordingly,
we do
sensatiofis,
In this way,
and the
KLM
which,
in
spiritual
.
world. ^
All
motion
elements
is
ABC...,
disturbed, all
in
of iron near
with-
mass only,
KLM.
is
within,
is
in
is
.
in
put
has
ABC.
system of elements.*
8.
That
traditional gulf
ual stereotyped
method
of observation.
upon
heat,
its
we consider
its
color
is
dependence
forth.
Regarding, however,
KLM
its
.),
Leipsic
Engelmann,
1875, p. 54.
INTR OD UC TOR Y RE MA RKS.
it
becomes a psychological
15
Not
object, a sensation.
is
two domains.
men
of our
sensations,
when
much
it is
domain
than when
it is
made
own
more
in
bodies
that
is,
familiar physical
Otherwise there
chical processes.
accom-
when
we must
is
it
This
is
no essential
dif-
ference.
The
upon
my
sofa.
If
close
my
left
eye.
eyebrow, by
a part of
ment.^
is
my
nose, and by
my
diately expressed
lie
presented to
by a movement
my
moustache, appears
beyond the
my
Thus,
motor idea
of
it,
environ-
bodies
is
imme-
and that
its
lA discussion of the binocular field of vision, with its peculiar stereoscopic features, is omitted here, for although familiar to all, it is not as easy
to describe, and cannot be represented by a single plane drawing.
i6
by the
circumstance, that
Fig.
a head.
vision,
ment
If I
observe an element
and investigate
B within
the
its
same
within
my
field of
field, I
ele-
domain
17
my
through
skin.
may be made
10.
ABC.
that
and a /3 y.
As
a matter of fact,
is,
fectly
we
more evanescent
much
;
less determinate, a
green
its
and, what
is
is
much
propose to execute
The
much
paler and
of especial note,
tree,
are per-
that
when we
see a
it is
A movement
is
ment
when
the image
spheres, means,
this, that
if
Thus
tuents of
ABC.
IJ.
The
vivid enough.
and a appear
to the
bottom
state-
in different
of
it,
simply
elements.
same
we go
is
far, therefore,
.
.,
a 13 y
would seem
to
be
the
motor sensations
z8
.),
of their
connexion
differ-
ent.
from sensations.
tions,
but
may be
tactile sensa-
may
all
justly
termed sensations.
however
pass
common
faint they
may
be, really
and emotion,
ideas, volition,
in short the
the con-
whole inner
of a small
number
in relations of vary-
as vestiges of a one-
we
prefer to speak
The aim
is
of
But
make up
Thus, perceptions,
mode
to ascertain the
of
connexion
of these elements.^
II.
That
mentally
complex
in this
is one^
of elements,
and
remarked.
1
die
which funda-
The comprehending
at the conclusion of
in
manner
my
treatise,
19
are
is
pleasure-seeking
therefore,
is
it
The
will.
instinctively effected,
is
rendered familiar,
Owing
all
and
In
The primary
claims,
their
is
an object in
may prove
itself,
to be insuffi-
and untenable.^
ments (sensations).
The elements
but the
constitute the/.
ele-
element
memories).
tion green,
when /
When / cease
die,
to
^Similarly, esprit de corps, class bias, national pride, and even the narrowest minded local patriotism may have a high value, y^r r^r^a/ /wr/(7j^j
But such attitudes will not be shared by the broad-minded inquirer, at least
not in moments of research. All such egoistic views are adequate only
for practical purposes. Of course, even the inquirer may succumb to habit.
Trifling pedantries and nonsensical discussions, the cunnijig appropriation
of others' thoughts, with perfidious silence as to the sources, the metaphorical
dysphagia suffered when recognition must be givefa, and the crooked illumination of others' performances when this is done, abundantly show that
the scientist and scholar have also the battle of existence to fight, that the
ways of science still lead to the mouth, and that the/r^ quest of knowledge
in
is still
an ideal.
20
That
is all.
Only an
way
of association.
and we
ask.
Who
we have succumbed
Who
pos-
experiences
to the habit of
upon an
we
older, lower,
of
view.*
1 The ego is not a definite, unalterable, sharply-bounded unity.
None of
these attributes are important; for all vary even within the sphere of insought
after
the
individual.
by
dividual life in fact their alteration is even
;
Continuity alone
it,
to
numerous
many extravagances
religious
of pessi-
truth,
2The habit of
First, the
nervous
in point.
unity of consciousness
is
due entirely
is
no respect more
in
to
our
mode
exists
rich
not an argu-
is
21
difficult to
of consciousness
understand than a
If
we regard
either
which
it is
But
if
difficult to yield
we
own ego
of other people
(a proposition to
serious assent).
22
less strongly
become
pendent upon us
dependent upon
know only
We
translate cogito
Where
we
We
the border-line?
is
should say, //
It is
by /
of the
the
of others that
us.
say, // lightens.
Though
We
and thoughts.
tulation,
**
ego
is
mere
cogito,
The assumption,
think.
we
we
thinks^ just as
if
or pos-
practical necessity."
this result is
somewhat
different
full
at
12.
make up
appear the
real,
bodies.
abiding
all
bodies
(complexes of elements).
many
it
By
points of psychology
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
and physics assume more
forms, and
For
many
distinct
of.
of
mysterious
23
entities,
which by
it
accessible.
is
In this investigation
have always
felt it as a
For
us, colors,
we must
24
selves to be
purposes
On
fittest
ways
itself,
just as is
done
instinctive
in view.
its
field of
experience.
The
are
able
to
represent the
course, is different,
of
perience in question
The outcome,
field.
re-
which
is
If
enlarged, or
several provinces
tended province.
with the
when
for others
To
disappear
room
no longer
the adaptation
which have
perfected, to
make
"body"
my knowledge
more
extensive,
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
is
25
or ego.
is
is
not
thought that has been designedly or undesignedly constructed for a given purpose, possesses for that pur-
When, however,
research in
in the other.
From
If
we regard
of,
and the
effected.
This
all
provinces of experience
accommodates
is,
itself
it
adhered
consequently
is
economical
tolerant.
office, this
It
fundamental view
itself into
still
is
its
purely
eminently
provinces in
adequate.
It
main
ception.
The
26
man if
that term
may be
consideration.
It
has a claim
to the highest
man.
It is
sustained by nature.
accomplished
preserved and
is
is,
The
fact
ment he
is,
is
art.
view held by
all
men
in
com-
mon.^
To
view
is
and
hold
to
it,
we have
what purpose
and
w/iy
and
obliged to abandon
permanent validity.
The
show why
it.
we
No
for
It
seems to
2 [A kindred view will be found in Avenarius {Kritik der reinen Er/ahrung, and Der menschliche IVeltbegriff). Avenarius has also undertaken the
commendable
TT TE WILL
*
now
take,
tained, a broad
problems that
When
through
things,
will
adaptation,
and B,
B is added
which has
The
root in an
B which
itself
habit,
felt
is
two
makes
its
appearance,
work
economy, and
is
par-
of great investigators,
connecting
effort for
may be termed
it
has gained,
Wherever
in thought.
its
intellect
habit of
in thought,
at-
in the
sufficiently large to
connexion of
be noticed makes
and continues
to
do so
We
28
and the
some cases cannot be carried over unnew cases, until we are prepared to asso-
habit gained in
disturbed to
condition satisfied by
in
Thus another and modifying principle conwe will call it the principle
of
sufficient determinateness,
The
or sufficient differentiation.
cited.
in the
change
refraction
phenomena exhibited
must
still
We
associated.
law of
must be
tion
must be associated
and so on.
and
being conceived as so connected that to every observable change of the one there corresponds a dependent
change
as
is
of the other.
component
ample,
It
may happen
that
as well
of
when
B IS
component
corresponds.
di.
of
a particular
spectrum, and
the correspond-
compound
component part
to every
components
troscope
to
be tested,
of the
29
which case
in
Only
is
can the
this relation
2.
its
in its
N.
None
is
changed.
And
a color-
to
is,
in itself,
imme-
adopted by Johannes
may be
investigated ac-
modern school
of physiologists), or,
which
may be
followed up
servation
is
directed to
all sides,
a mode of
procedure
method ob-
it
appears practicable.
30
and that
principle of continuity
it
is
of sufficient determi-
same
always as-
is
discoverable.
ble into a
we
number
If
of
on the discovery,
in
have
to
all
N,
of
In a
B we
We may thus
investigations,
According
to
principle of
and
physical.
cal
of course
but
this principle is
we may
also enunciate
almost a matter
it,
as
did years
As the
principle
is
die
may now be
given.
Wherever
des
have a sensation
of space,
31
way,
am
process in
cases the
sensations, also,
If I
same
in kind.
must suppose
For
all
time-
like nerve-processes.
and shape
If
is, if
they yield
two
different melodies
If
two melodies
of dif-
If
the seem-
is
sus-
by psychological analysis
may be expected
system of nerve-processes.
If
for the
sations appears in the character of a threefold manifoldness, its system of co-ordinated nerve-processes
will likewise present itself as such.
32
more or
appurtenant nerve-process),
when he
its
resolves clangs,
in this
method
our principle.
Merely
its
application
,2
is
not complete,
guided by a psycho-
and
to the
view
light,
and
that, therefore,
tion of an unlimited
number
Newton^s assump-
weg,
&
Co.
Brewster,
red, yellow,
>4
and blue
spectrum.
fall
33
may make
But had he
its
reflected
appearance entirely
without physical light, he would have confined his conclusions to the nerve-process and left untouched
New-
which are
Thomas Young
corrected
He
were compatible
number
of color-sensations
continuum
Young
of the space-sensations).
full
But even
conscious-
and
and
by physical prejudices.
Young,
too,
which he
and believed that he saw his narrow spectrum divided by the strongest of
these lines into a red, a green, and a violet part. He regarded these lines as
the dividing lines of the physical colors. Young took up this conception, and
substituted for his fundamental sensations red, yellow, and blue, the colors
red, green, and violet. In his first conception, Young regarded green as a
composite sensation, in his second, both green and violet as simple. The
questionable results which psychological analysis may thus yield, are well
calculated to destroy belief in its usefulness in general. But we must not forget that there is no principle in the application of which error is excluded.
34
The
direction in
me many
still
to
of color-sensation,
of perfection
through
what
of color-sensation.
We
have
observations of
dji yjpgi's.
book
35
and
at the
same time
years ago,
to
show
clearly before
instinctively
ttiy
own mind
a truth which
of setting
had long
felt.
As we recognise no
and the psychical,
it is
real gulf
biological
observations
may be employed.
lead to the conviction that the artists, and among them especially he himself,
were the true forerunners of the great scientists who came soon afterwards.
These men were obliged to understand nature in order to reproduce it agreeably they observed themselves and others in the interest of pure pleasure. Yet Leonardo was far from being the author of all the discoveries and
inventions which Groth, for example, {Leonardo da Vinci ah Ingenieur und
Philosophy Berlin, 1874,) ascribes to him. My own scattered remarks concern;
ing the theory of color-sensation, were perfectly clear. I assumed the fundamental sensations white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, and six different
corresponding (chemical) processes (not nerve-fibres) in the retina. (Compare ReicherVs und Dubois'' Archiv, 1865, p. 633, et seq.) As a physicist, I was
of course familiar with the relation of the complementary colors. My conr
ception, however, was that the two complementary processes together excited
a new the white process. [Loc. cit., p. 634.) I gladly acknowledge the great
advantages of Hering's theory. They consist for me in the following. First,
the black process is regarded as a reaction opposing the white process I can
all
the
36
Much
when we draw
physical apparatus,
is
that
we
owe
I shall
condense what
into a footnote of
IThe idea
and
and eventful
race-history.
have to say on
this subject
some
length.^
Even
teleological
0/ Organised Matter, 1870, (English translation. Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1895). As a fact, memory and heredity are nearly embraced
under one concept if we reflect that organisms, which were part of the parent-
body, emigrate and become the basis of new individuals. Heredity is rendered almost as intelligible to us by this thought as, for example, is the fact
that Americans speak English, or that their state-institutions much resemble
the English, etc. The problem involved in the fact that organisms possess
memory, a property which is apparently lacking to inorganic matter, is, of
course, not removed by this insight, but still exists. Recently Weismann
(Ueber die Dauer des Lebens) has conceived death as a phenomenon of heredThis admirable book, also, contributes greatly to our enlightenment.
ity.
The difficulty which might be found in the fact that a trait which can make
its appearance in the parent-organism only after the process of inheritance is
ended should be subject to inheritance, lies probably only in the manner of
statement. It disappears when we consider that the power of the cells of the
body to multiply can increase, as Weismann shows, only at the cost of the
increase of the germ-cells. Accordingly, we may say that greater length of
life on the part of the cell-society and lessened propagation are two phenomena which mutually condition each other. While a student at the Gymna-
sium, I heard it stated that plants from the Southern Hemisphere bloom
I recall clearly the
in our latitudes, when it is spring in their native place.
37
shunned.
It is true,
of reality is not
to
an un-
of consciousness.
quench
38
known World-Purpose,
less,
itself
problematic.
Neverthe-
raised the yami-mai in the open oak woods, etc. The ordinary mulberry silkworm has, for many generations, been raised indoors, and has become exceedingly helpless and dependent. When the time for passing into the chrysalic state arrives,
it
is
their cocoons.
not to prepare the usual bundles of straw for a colony of silk-worms. The
result was that the majority of the worms perished, and only a small portion,
the geniuses (those with the greatest power of adaptation) spun their cocoons.
Whether, as my sister believes she has observed, the experiences of one generation are utilised, in noticeable degree, in the very next generation, is a ques-
which must probably be left to further investigation. From all these remarkable phenomena we need derive no mysticism of the Unconscious. A
memory reaching beyond the individual renders them intelligible. A psychology in the Spencer-Darwinian sense, founded upon the theory of evolution, but supported by positive investigation of particulars, would yield richer
results than all previous speculation has done. These observations and conceptions had long been made and written down when Schneider's valuable
work, Der thierische Wille, Leipsic, 1880, which contains many that are simition
lar,
Heredity
Press,
1889).
highly
39
may be
this function.^
this account, as
comprehension
of
improbable, and finds in the germ-elements and in the selection of the germelements the most important factors. We can scarcely withhold our assent
to Weismann's arguments, and certainly not refuse recognition to the almost
mathematical precision and depth of his presentation of the problem. But
that the germ-elements themselves may be altered by outer influences appears
to be clearly shown by the formation of new races, which maintain themselves
as such, transmit their racial traits, and are themselves, again, capable of
Accordingly, some influence must
alteration, under other circumstances.
certainly be exerted on the germ-plasm by the body which envelops it (as
Weismann himself admits). Thus an influence of the individual life upon
descendants can certainly not be entirely excluded, even although a direct
transmission to the descendants of the results of use in the individual is {according to Weismann) not to be expected.
[I have to add here that I lay great stress on the works of C. Lloyd Morgan, with which I have since become acquainted, and that I agree in almost
every point with his expositions. 1895.]
40
have
*'
when we
discover that
it
is
Darwin himself
species.
is
which a function
problem
is
developed
mode and
while the
still
remains a physical
reason of an organism's
problem.
The
only
is
it is
by no means the
last
The
arisen.
will, therefore, is
pleasuredirected
transforms
it
when
Were
its
it
cies, it
it
and
when
when
it
is
it is
It
advantageous to do so
advantageous
and destroys
deceiving both
itself
and
in a vicious circle,
all individuals.
This would
*'
per-
" of physics.^
1 [The same absurdity is committed by the statesman who regards the individual as existing solely for the sake of the State. 1895.]
THE
berless branches
soft,
In like manner,
divisible whole.
round, yellow
fruit,
first
its
a single, in-
we regard
num-
smooth
the sweet,
fire,
with
its
One name
depths of oblivion
all
associated memories, as
if
they
The
mirror
is visible,
fire,
is
separated into
The
visible
be tasted,
The
may
etc.
be a single
42
thing.
round as the
just as
things
may be
may be
first,
but
is
fruit
together
second
fruit is
green or red.
Two
they
Thus
sen-
and
space-sensations.
is
we
shall
life.
In the pro-
modified.^
Light
in-
ICompare Grant Allen, The Caior-Sense (London: TrQbner & Co., 1879).
The attempt of H. Magnus to show a considerable development of the colorsense within historical times, cannot, I think, be regarded as a felicitous one.
Immediately after the appearance of the writings of Magnus, I corresponded
with a philologist. Prof. F. Polle of Dresden, on this subject, and both of us
soon came to the conclusion that the views of Magnus could not hold their
own before the critical examination either of natural science or of philology
As each of us left the publication of the results of our discussion to the other
these were never made public. Meantime, however, the matter was disposed of
by E. Krause, and notably by A. Marty. I shall take the liberty of adding only
a few brief remarks. From defects of terminology we cannot infer the absence
of corresponding qualities of sensation. Terms, even to-day, are always indis
tinct, hazy, defective, and few in number, where there is no necessity for
sharp discrimination. The color-terminology of the countrjrman of to-dayand his terminology of sensations in general, is no more developed than that
of the Greek poets. The peasants of Marchfeld say, for example, as I have
often proved by personal experience, that salt is "sour," because the expression "salty " is not familiar to them. The terminology of colors must not be
looked for in the poets, but in technical works. And, furthermore, as my colleague Benndorf has remarked, we must not take an enumeration of vase-
life.
The green
43
animal body.
The two
tint.
The discovery
of the visual
The
role
which color
is
well known.
It
suggests a
new con-
place,
though only
phenomena.
in
one direction,
in
photo-chemical
is
substantially
dis-
light.
made with
place?
44
two components
It is likely, therefore,
tions.
of colors,
many
of the electro-
life
which
manifest themselves in color, renders locomotion necessary to a far greater extent than adaptation to those
alone
we
The
tainty.
man, concerning
whom
immediacy and
cer-
is
herewith rendered
intelligible.
We shall now
In examining two figures which are alike but differently colored (for example,
size
NMBIj
B|^
^^
we
the
two
same
ence of color-sensation.
ceptions, therefore,
like sensation-components.
sations
letters of the
of different colors),
The
sight-per-
two cases.
We will
now investigate
45
First,
it is
which
On
the
and foundation
may be
Two
of all geometry.
Fig.
3.
intellectual
the
actly the
is
Look
same
Place
position in a
row
(Fig. 5)
Compare my
we
I
^*^- *
the result
recognise
in the
46
mill
Fig.
at
5.
figures.
is
6), their
not recognisable
6.
^]^g
M^
other hand,
we
if
On
^F^^L
^^^ ^^
median plane
pig 7
apparent. But
if
is
strikingly
the plane of
symme-
8,
is
rec-
^P
4^
^^v
^^
Fig. 8.
j^
^^K
plane (Fig.
In this case
9).
we have
same
the so-
we reduce
similar spot.
^^^'^'
is
proportionately,
r^^^
On
or by an intellectual act.
gruent
tically)
is
all
we
But
obtain a geometrically
congruent,
nor
the
geometrically
is
"
If
47
Turning one
blance (Fig.
stitute for
two
will also
If
1).
we
similar.
of the spots
1
appear optically
sub-
Fig. ^10.
^^e-
12),
symmetrical
similarity will be
which has
value.
in its
also
4Cv
produced
Ir
^^'
an optical
^^' ^^'
also
a physiologico-optical
But
If
we do
b, c,
this is
we
an
affair
place beside a
ment.
tible,
If
the similarity
is
to
become
optically percep-
must be added.
That a
48
may be
b, c,
and a-^-m^
The
b-\-tn, c-\-m.
Similarly
all alike.
stand in
all
still
less
The
mined by all
or by
their
all their
homologous
is
do
etc.
deter-
But
e^L
all
must
also
be similarly
situated^ that
their
homologous
is
all
Fig. 14.
lines
must be
parallel or.
Some twenty
proposed
We
may
49
We
can read at a
determined by
its
slope
us,
can we
The
swer
is
itself
why
easy.
coefficients,
What we
see are
which are an
etc.
The
an-
of an-
other.
In fine, since
we
and are
and
8.
It is
motor apparatus
of the eye.
we may
is
With-
observe,
first,
and especially
50
movements
mately
and
letters b
d^
some
q.
Adults,
left to
right
or intellect render
The symmetry of
The
perceptible.
it
is
very perfect.
it-
left.
is
/ and
as also
unless
self,
Hence, symmetrical
like space-sensations.
found the
too,
of looking will
And
ant sensations.
and
motor functions
have become associated, through writing, with the motor functions of the right hand, a confusion of those
which the
art
become so strong
and
This
that re-
The confusion
of right
and
left still
occurs, however,
left
must be
51
many predicaments
finding their way.
The
moreover, by animals, as in
motor functions
observer.
to
is
be employed,
with
my
left
hand,
forehand) to turn
easily
my
example, supposing
for
If,
it
hand
am
in the
certain (unless
wrong
is
reflect be-
direction,
right
that
is, I
symmetrical
The
of
observations of
of
persons
different
space-sensations
are asso-
This
is,
plane.
The
and important
for the
is
so very decisive
motor apparatus
same
of the rest of
the rest.
It is
well
landscape and of
known
its
symmetry
of a
felt.
that the
head
of a person lying
upon a couch
52
letters b
us,
The
to the impression
^,
children.
and the
rest,
simi-
Hence, we have
Looking
depth.
objects near at
These sensations
hand determine
viust not
supreme importance
and
far,
and looking
at
different sensations.
of the difference
human
between near
beings.
They
is
The observation
that
mould
in
to the observations
is
cast
is
quite analogous
objects.
If
The
same space-sensations.
Herein consists
aesthetic value.
by the circumstance
that,
through
like position
Every other
its
lie in
are brought
it
to the
53
as awryness, or as
is felt
The
repetition of the
same space-figure
same
prominent (noticeable)
sation.
in the
same space-sen-
same
sensation.
is
absent.
same
of the
in the
The sameness
dimensions alone
by side
it,
the impression
same
The
paratus as the
left half of
If
we
alter the
An
we
symmetrical simi-
left
sameness
effect.
180'',
contrasting
it
THE ANALYSIS OF THE SENSATIONS.
54
with
That
produced.
is, if
two pairs
6>,
of
symmetry
is
homologous points
each other
all lines of
tion.
If
there
still
is
eliminated,
cal similarity.
The value
which
is
perceptible in
its
of
manifold syvnTnetry,
single position.
lO.
The
Grammar of
Ornanient (London,
new and
The
Owen
1865).
Jones
In almost
different kinds of
sym-
is
Writ-
ing
is
beauty.
the
we
find
among
the twenty-four
H,
I,
M, O, T, V,
W,
X, Y),
55
which are
five
to
of a figure in space
The
physiological
by these
On
solely.
geometrical investigations.
less attracted attention not
shortest
its
line
The
the
impulse to
first
because of
its
being the
The plane
physiological simplicity.
likewise pos-
sesses, in addition to its geometrical properties, a special physiologico- optical (aesthetic) value,
notice for
it,
of the plane
as will be
and
shown
of space
later on.
which claims
The
division
The circum-
physiologically
felt,
led,
no doubt,
to
an
earlier
and others.
af-
56
ration of sense-perception
tific
geometry
is
inconceivable.
of the principles of
is totally
The
symmetry and
HankePs book)
mode
of the Indian in a
of presentation is well
new
worthy consideration.
That space-sensation
is
only as to
how
this
connexion
is
Opinions
to be repre-
sented.
If
therefore,
figures.
We
may,
But
that
we
perceive on moving
ITo my knowledge, the matter treated in the preceding chapter has not yet
been discussed, except in three small works of my own. The considerations
of the present chapter, moreover, are, for me, founded upon those of the preceding chapter. I indicate here the methods by which I have myself gotten
clear regarding the sensation of space, without laying the least claim to that
theory of Hering.
The
58
If I
retina.
an object
(9,
an object A, which
is
my
eyes upon
reflected
on the
most
certain height.
upon B,
If
now
raise
me to be situated at a
my eyes, fixing them
It
would neces-
position
of
if
the image on
the
the
my
can raise
^*s- 15.
glance as far as
in this relation.
Thus,
the physiological process which conditions the voluntary raising of the eye, can entirely or partly take the
turn
my
eyeball
is
summationable with
upward by a
homogeneous with
it.
it,
If
The same
voluntary process
is
According
for
to
some decades
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED,
59
sensation
upon an object
*'
right."
itself
to the
that the
Some
years ago,i
far
of
owing
of the eyes,
If,
we
placement to the
Thus
right.
form
The experiment
is,
we may term
it
at first, surprising.
viz., that
to the right,
My
the right,
right
eye,
may be
left
together
which
wish
amount
to,
to the
same
to
my
force.
6o
The
will to
the space-sensation.
itself
is
we have
certain spot,
cured,
rect
we immediately grasp
amount
of
movement.
amount
is sufficiently se-
at the spot
we
of exertion to-
retina, as
draw our
soon as this
attention.
By
hit
fix
on a certain point
of the retina.
If
the eyes
we begin
to
the
left,
ically
new
added
innervation of the
same
tary innervations or
to the innervations
when
sort is algebra-
disturbance
extraneous, involun-
determined by the
will.
4-
under discussion,
now
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
which has not
yet, to
In a very dark
my
room we
fix
A A'
at a light
The
light
B, of course,
At
the light
lower down, B.
6i
The sweep
is,
is
not
of course, an
movement, but
this
is
the
able point
sitional
and
remark-
with
values
pothat
innervations and
position of
Similar
the eye.
p.^^g
phenomena
machine.
If
the experimenter
is
surprised by
If it yields
a per-
an-
By what
it
is
is
determined
probably of some
62
ments
of the eyes.
5-
of simplicity
we have
hitherto re-
If,
now,
we move
the eyes
upon any
But
motionless.
may notice
remain
at the
we
^_^.,::::j''^
is
the
Still more
phenomenon if
^.^.^^rrr^g
:b
Fig. 17.
of the
from above.
hands
of a clock
viewed
fre-
The process
On O Ty
is
off
17.
curve
OA
The
and
O C C to
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
No
63
we
are concerned
movement
of
How
body.
naturally, to
motion
this
is
be investigated.
simple conception
two
the body,
is
its
impulse of inner-
For us
it
suf-
know that this automatic, unconscious compensational movement of the eye is actually
fices, provisorily, to
present.
impression)
it
no op-
is
a thing which
is
body
If,
we must overcompensate
the auto-
by the voluntary
if
inner-
the whole
In this
fields of vision
and why,
at the
64
same
which we see
of our
own body,
in turning,
we
That
see, for
Thus we
tion of our
body
understand
why
and ramblings
it
that, in
is
and
in the streets
We
in buildings,
and
in
of direction,
though
is
it
we
we soon begin
which we some-
to
That peculiar
us.
for the
at night,
window
or the
Similar
selves
phenomena
on the rotation
to those
of the
body make
their appear-
wise,
eyes
If I
move my head
or
rest.
The
latter
seems
to continue motionless,
same
movement
in
The
parallactic
we
displacements to which
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
correctly interpreted.
of a
But
in the
65
monocular inversion
amount and
direction,
6.
When
it
turning
my head, I
which I am able
turn
This
turning.
is
due
When
reach out
If I
touched, skin-sensations
the attention
1
imme-
also feel
in the
hand
Compare my
berichte der
is
Even where
my
com-
look
to-
substituted
The view
is
is
1868).
Diderot.
down only
much
practice.
Besides,
if
66
we may
delocalised, as
movements
tions
briefly express
In passive
it.
and movements
of
pearance.
my skin-sensations
same
inner-
If
myself at
But
am
I feel
myself turning
turning.
and
feel
left.
rest, or I
for this I
same sensation
as
its result.
7.
my work
on the Sensations of
to a
encountered, consequently,
and which
mann,
difficul-
1875.
P. 83.
-non
If
of explana-
an observer
Enge^
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
67
toward the
in rotation
right, the
same
will ap-
images on
If his
movements
toward the
right.
If,
however, he
upon
movement towards
fore, that
the right.
is
conscious
It is plain, there-
vertigo noticed in
this
move-
to disappear
by the voluntary
The remaining
cases of optical
my work may
be disposed of in like
manner. 1
In voluntary forward motion or rotation,
we have
ple sensation of
As a
fact,
we do
cases, indeed, in
forward movement
that of the
1
move-
There are
so.
of
movements
is
do
of the legs
is
altogether lack-
mann,
1875.
P. 83.
THE ANALYSIS OF THE SENSATIONS.
68
This
ing.
is true,
etc.
which furnishes
may be
is
to the
impulses
which
The
conditions
more
we
felicitously inter-
8.
The
perhaps
will
view of these
phenomena.
If
we
we
fix-
shall generally
rest, whilst
Prolonged gazing,
in the direction
The
re/attve
motion
know, the most varied forms of the same impression are obtained in the midst of a nnmber of railway trains indiscriminately in motion
and at rest. A short time ago, while making a steamboat excursion on the
all
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
of the objects
in
is
69
why
is felt to
at
ter
at
them
my
move. In order
leisure, I
structed which
is
to investigate the
represented in Fig.
of simple pattern is
18.
An
oil-cloth
rol-
lers,
bearings, and
is
of
mat-
in
and about
tres
thirty centime-
above
a string
it,
is
stretched
with a knot K,
ff,
which serves as a
point for the
observer
Now,
in
if
fixation-
eye of the
stationed
at
A.
motion
room
if
he gazes
will presently
at the knot,
rest.
it
in
On the
more or
less
onds.
If
we once
it,
few sec-
I was astonished at discovering, just before landing, that the ship was
standing still and that the whole landscape was moving towards it an experience that will be readily understood from what follows.
Elbe,
70
sions
and
may be made
at will.
to alternate with
some
rapidity
by which
its
pattern becomes
This phenom-
phenomenon, which
is
fa-
a local x^-
environment, so far as
it is
moving
which
stereoscopic phenomena,
mo-
distinctly visible, is in
is
veil is
at rest.
for
drawn along
The
attendant
Before
riment,
An
it
we proceed
will
in this connexion.
observer stationed at
towards the
TTy
left.
now
to the horizon.
after
We
We
TT
SS,
in
in-
1 In my book on Bewegungsempfindungen (p. 63) I stated that the PlateauOppel phenomenon was the result of a peculiar process, which was not concerned in the other sensations. of movement. I wrote there as follows
"We must therefore suppose that, during the movement of an image on
the retina, z. peculiar process is excited which is absent during rest, and that
:
in the case of movements in opposite directions, very similar processes are excited in similar organs, processes which are, however, mutually exclusive, so
commencement of the one, the other must cease, and with the
exhaustion of the one, the other begins."
This statement of mine seems to have been overlooked by S. Exner and
Vierordti who subsequently expressed similar views on the same subject,
that with the
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
tercepts the direct view of
TT moves
TT
71
If
we
are
we shall presently
with the whole
downward
sinking
fancy ourselves
room, whereas
we
reversed
as
the motion be
if
shall
seem
in a balloon.^
if
to ascend
y^Rf
yyn^
Finally, the
to
which
and
>^K
but
all
None
of these
phenomena
are accompanied
by unmistakable motor
9-
What
preceding phenomena?
well
rest,
eye,
the eye
If
is
and
is
But
forcibly restrained
if
the eye
is
from following
little
72
to the
of innervation flowing
the
if
But when
we were
in motion.
fol-
obviously unneces-
It is
is
requisite
that
is
All
it
as intentional fixa-
tion.
No
special apparatus
is
They
on
all
will.
hands.
My
met with
are to be
of the
intervention on
fastly
upon
my
My
part.
All
will,
up,
citation of a
mass
made
of
to resist
moving
is
brought
forward movement.
same
if
this
and
it,
The
must also be
set
objects.
Hence
the motor
The
it
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
to
The
be running.
73
same sensation
if
If I
of a
to
my
opposite direction.
objects with
motion
my
for
hands
am
my
Only when
resist
following the
arise.
10.
my book
taken of the
It is
facts, as
we
shall
extremely probable
dam,
of the
1879).
74
it
often great uncertainty in their walk when their eyes were closed, and in
many cases an astonishing loss of the sense of direction on being plunged under water, in which case there always resulted alarm and complete uncertainty
as to up and down. These facts speak very strongly in favor of the view, which
naturally follows from my conception, that in deaf-mutes the sense of equi-
librium proper is considerably degenerated, and that the two other localising
senses, the sense of sight and the muscular sense, (the latter of which loses
all its points of reference when the weight of the body is neutralised by immersion in water,) are rendered proportionately more necessary.
The view is untenable that we arrive at knowledge of equilibrium and of
movement solely by means of the semi-circular canals. On the contrary, it is
extremely probable that lower animals, in whom this organ is entirely wanting, also have sensations of movement. I have not yet been able to undertake experiments in this direction. But the experiments which Lubbock has
described in his work, Ants, Bees, and Wasps, become much more comprehensible to me on the assumption of sensations of movement. As experiments of this sort may be interesting to others, it will not be amiss perhaps to
consider an apparatus which I have briefly described before {Anzeiger der
30, 1875).
The apparatus
and eliminated, so that the active movements of the animal alone shall be
left and rendered observable. The optical neutralisation of the rotary motion is attained simply by causing a totally reflecting prism to revolve, with
the aid of gearing, above the disk of the whirling machine, about exactly
the same axis, in the same direction, and with half the angular velocity of the
disk.
view of the apparatus. On the disk of the whirling maa glass receiver, g, in which the animals to be observed are enclosed.
By means of gearing the eye-piece o is made to revolve with half the angular
velocity and in the same direction as^. The following figure gives the gearing in a separate diagram. The eye-piece 00, and the receiver gg, revolve
Fig. 20 gives a
chine
is
about the axis AA, while a pair of cog-wheels, rigidly connected together, revolve about BB. Let the radius of the cog-wheel aah&r; that of bb also r,
that of cc 2^/3, and that of dd 4^/3, wherewith the desired relation of velocity between 00 and gg is obtained.
In order to centre the apparatus, a mirror S, provided with levellingscrews, is laid upon the bottom of the receiver and so adjusted that, on rotaIt is then perpendicular to the axis
tion, the reflexions in it remain at rest.
of rotation. A second small mirror, S', in the silvering of which is a small
hole L, is so adjusted to the open tube of the eye-piece, with its reflecting surface downward, that, on rotation, the images seen through the hole, in the
mirrored reflexion of S' in S, remain motionless. Then S' stands perpendicuWith the aid of a brush we may now mark
lar to the axis of the eye-piece.
upon the mirror S a point P, whose position is not altered on rotation (a re-
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
and by means
which
easily
is
of
But instead
ments.
suit
of
75
movemotor
it
Fig. 20.
in
;-4
]
k^
fall
111
coincident.
The
simplest eye-
by
this
n
Fig. 21.
method. A prism of total reflexion, therefore, is much more adLet ABC {Fig. 22) represent a plane section of such a prismatic
vantageous.
76
this
organ
Innervation
may be
re-
by the
letters
WI and
UI.
Both
sorts of innervation
eye-piece cut perpendicularly to the planes of the hypothenuse and the two
Let this section include, also, the axis of rotation ONPQ, which is
parallel to AB. The ray which passes along the axis QP must, after refrac-
sides.
NO
Fig. 22 also
shows the
AB
Fig. 22.
The
upon AC,
field of vision
ray OA, which
is
reflected at
AC
my experiments. If
a printed page is placed in^^, and the apparatus turned so rapidly that the
image on the retina is entirely obliterated, one can easily read the print
through the eye-piece. The inversion of the image by reflexion could be removed by placing a second, stationary reflecting prism above the revolving
prism of the eye-piece. But this complication appeared to me unnecessary.
With the exception of a few physical experiments, I have hitherto undertaken rotation-experiments only with various small vertebrates (birds, fishes),
and have found the data given in my work on Motor Sensations fully confirmed. However, it would probably be of advantage to make similar experiments with insects and other lower animals, especially with marine animals.
The apparatus has
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
may
'j'j
{LM^.
We
induce by the
will, that is
tenant innervation
directly
is
the innervation,
is
OM and LM.
felt.
movement,
unnecessary.
If
(taking
from
a passive one
is
sur-
exre-
UI, which
over
compensa-
movements,
indi^^^' ^^'
If
WI takes
compensation
cessity for
satory
differing
from
proceed
produce
tory
as
shows,
perience
flexes
TO
by
us
then,
prise),
The appur-
no part
is effected,
in the process,
movement
is
and the
But
if
the compen-
is,
is
ment, and
it
sensation.
The
to
the
terminal organ
WI and UI
first,
that
TO is
accordingly so adjusted
in
78
two.
But
further,
we have
TO
excitation
movement induced
movements,
is
is
to
WI
naturally the
same whether
In active
passive or active.
For
and UI.
proceeding from
TO and
WI
TO and UL The
TO upon WI must be conceived as much
weaker than that of TO upon UI. If we should picture
the willed innervations from WIX.0
influence of
whom
was a
there
first
flight,
whom
filled
the
do not
offer the
am
grasp a
exactly as a
fully
little
bird in
my hand, the
in
my hand
In watching
children whose movements are largely unreflecting and unpractised, the hands and eyes remind one very strongly of polyphoid creatures. Of course, such impressions do not afford solutions of scientific questions, but it is often very suggestive to abandon oneself to their influence.
(A welcome confirmation of my conjecture of 1875 regarding the macula
acustica has been furnished by the subsequent works of Breuer and Kreidl.
The latter has succeeded in causing certain specimens of the Crustacea to
substitute ferrum limatum for their natural otoliths, and they have then re-
company
of
little
Mach,
1896.]
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
But the attempt
79
ment
all
change
of place, or
be found
The assumption
justifiable.
quality of sensation
of locomotion, or at the
will
is
etc.,
that this
is
known
at the
present time.^
II.
From
tive to
symmetry and
similarity,
and
we may immediately
correspond, but that with looking upwards and looking downwards, or with looking at objects afar
at the objects
off
and
different sensations
as we should naturally
ception
we
ologico-optical
1
Vol.
Part
With
I.,
p. 547.
in
as yet received
THE ANAL YSIS OF THE SENSA TIONS.
8o
now come
The space of
is
a mental construct
grown up on the
basis of
the geometrician
manual and
space (Hering's
Optical
intellectual operations.
")
bears a somewhat
The space
foldness.
all
a quality which
by no means
is
may
a threefold mani-
is
directions the
same properties
characteristic of phys-
iological space.
ometry.
rela-
space
of physiological
Such
is
when we
The
mean
know only
the
dis-
amount
of
of the ordinates.
12.
As long
as
we conceive
to be separately innervated,
to explain this
for years,
fundamental
we
fact.
on the principle
in which,
and
but
SPACE-SENSATIONS CONTINUED.
owing
to
my
8i
am
therefore,
dered by Hering,
who
discovered
To
it.
the three
threefold innervation,
or to the
This
case.
to the right
left,
to converge,
ziir
in-
we
a question neither easy nor necessary denevertheless Hering's statement throws a flood
to
vation,
cide,
of light
cess.
The phenomena
symmetry and
cited
similarity,
But
it is
unnecessary,
is
to
think,
(p. 57
and page
68).
This conception also removes a difficulty which I still felt in 1871, and
to which I gave utterance in my lecture on " Symmetry " (Prague Calve
now translated into English in my Popular Scientific Lectures, Chicago,
1872),
1894, in the following words "The possession of a sense for symmetry by
persons who are one-eyed from birth is certainly an enigma. Yet the sense
for symmetry, although originally acquired by the eyes, could not have been
confined exclusively to the visual organs. By thousands of years of practice
it must also have been implanted in other parts of the human organism, and
cannot, therefore, be immediately eliminated on the loss of an eye." As a fact,
the symmetrical apparatus of innervation remains, even when one eye is lost.
2
THE SIGHT-SENSATIONS.
THEIR RELATIONS TO ONE ANOTHER AND TO
OTHER PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS.
I.
TN
-^
normal psychical
make
their
life,
sight -sensations
do not
We
do not see
optical im-
round about us
qualities.
in their
Deliberate analysis
is
needed
to single out
Even
the
By
adaptation
demanded by
movements
their conditions of
slowly,
is
life.
little
of
If
and
sufficient.^
[When
the above lines were written, over ten years ago, I had only a few
my own at command. I knew that certain beetles crept only
experiences of
stalks, no matter how often they were turned round, that when
they arrived at tke top they again invariably flew upwards; that moths always
upwards on
intellectual
development
is
and variable.
different
of adaptation
when
spot, or capture
before
its
it
Long
it
comes
its
appropriate movement.
remembrances
in
food at
at the right
test its
is sufficiently
strong to out-
associated
lead
it
risks to itself
character.
of life are
way and
But
accomplishment
Lower
their
unnecessary.
the case
intricate
to the
is
83
to excite the
Here, therefore, a
sum
of
intellect.
life,
movements
With
are frequently
the development
complexes necessary
IThe sucking of young mammals, and the conduct of the young sparrow
described in the note on page 37 are good examples of this.
84
to
placed by the
intellect, as
may be
re-
daily observed in
2.
where the
latter are
But
in
ini-
normal
life,
to the organism.
chical
life,
As
marked
a fact, there
difference
me.
is,
in
normal psy-
white
lines, or
a colored figure.
what
represent to myself.
sentation,
my
eyes,
am aware
that
But, pathologi-
what
see
and
my attention is turned
from
In consequence of
It
same
would not
seen through
it.
We
85
fact,
undoubtedly be discovered.
Where
plex conditions of
is
human
now
presented
life,
in the
representation
com-
may
fre-
neighborhood
noticed,
of the reflecting
a state
to
absent-mindedness, although
it
to
are
wont
person in question
is
to call
If
the
3.
It is well to
it is
an excellent
safe-
in psychological explana-
sense-phenomena.
been paid
if
to this circumstance.
The organ
of representation
all
is
now
that,
this,
now
86
is
excited in
it.
for physiological
ergies.
As
is
are prob-
That wealth
of representative life
made
its first
life,
in
But the
begin-
one another
is
relation to
ganism as a whole.
mechanism
of
The two
of the or-
accommodation and
of
motor
luminous adjust-
logical experiment
own
peculiar
own
adaptive habits,
its
its
own
intelligence.
The most
of Sight*'
Cob*
and others
in the
87
Miiller
They
are in-
and have
They
ena of sense.
may
also,
to
MuUer) are
by
excita-
of
phantasms or hallucinations.
We
speak of
phantoms
arise
more
freely
sense-
allied in char-
when
and independently.
the
But
am
perience.
number
acquainted with
The mingling
of
enchanted net) shone out upon the book in which I was reading, or on my
writing paper, although I had never been occupied with forms of this sort.
The sight of bright-colored changing carpet patterns before falling asleep
was very familiar to me in my youth the phenomenon will still make its appearance if I fix my attention on it. One of my children, likewise, often tells
;
88
When we
of
always present.
when
Indeed, they
make
example,
at a surface
appearance
weak and
when we
indis-
look, for
we then seem
by a
their
tinct, in
to the
The
figures
which
produced
and combining
some
at
excitation.^
me of
Less often, I see in the evenmanifold human figures, which alter without the
action of my will. On a single occasion I attempted successfully to change a
human face into a fleshless skull this solitary instance may, however, be an
accident. It has often happened to me that, on awaking in a dark room,
the images of my latest dreams remained present in vivid colors and in abundant light. A peculiar phenomenon, which has for some years frequently
occurred with me is the following. I awake and lie motionless with my eyes
closed. Before me I see the bedspread with all its little folds, and upon the
latter, motionless and unchanging, my hands in all their details.
If I open
my eyes, either it is quite dark, or it is light, but the spread and my hands He
quite diiferently from the manner in which they appeared to me. This a remarkably fixed and persistent phantasm with me, such as I have not observed
under other conditions.
ing, before falling asleep,
seen, he.
89
must,
In like manner,
we
by reason
of
be accounted patho-
Such, very
etc.
now
we may
optical
true,
as
phenomena, the
is still
distant, but
full
explanation of which,
it is
life
on the part of
the sense-organs.
" tains, rivers,
cliffs, trees,
manner
of battles, life-like positions of strange, un" familiar figures, expressions of face, costumes, and numberless things
all
"which thou mayest put into good and perfect form. The experience with
" regard to walls and stone of this sort is similar to that of the ringing of
"bells, in the strokes of which thou willst find anew every name and every
"word
"Do
90
We
definite
needs of
Not
in space.
life,
fill
is of
importance.
incom-
plete.
is
is
cir-
distant objects
We
The shading
objects in space.
of bodies is scarcely
noticed.
a condition
which
is
very noticeable in
Very
image on
We
are
depth
of the
when brought
into
my
childhood,
all
remember
shading appeared to
me
an unjustifiable
satisfactory to me.
It
is
likewise
91
not shade at
The
all,
do
made many-
depth.
wise, before us
edge
the
left.
us.
Let the
bent
from
its
light fall
towards
is
We
udiced observation.
now
Here-
we
Still
in the illumination.
But
soon as we succeed
in see-
as
painted thereon.
Such
mined
If in
in
is
monocular vision.
Fig. 25, 1
abe
di
section of
ab
will
be.
be.
Also in
2,
ab
light,
will ap-
must acquire
93
fall of
the depth-sensation.
The
fall
tion,
towards the
left (1)
contrariwise,
right,
embedded
are translucent,
it is
is
whether the
light falls
left.
Ac-
by means
initely connected.
it is
is
developed,
of
def-
If,
with the
first
effect is
made
habit, as in the
The purpose
of the
preceding remarks
is
merely to
speculation)
is
to be sought.
We
will further
remark
Differences of illumination
capacity.
At the expense
on
in
An
of differences of depth,
of illumination
may be
another connexion.
RELATIONS OF THE SIGHT-SENSATIONS.
93
5-
The
is,
of
culiar
it
a source of pe-
A two-colored
makes
parition
its
appear-
known.
In
same form
a configuration frequently
employed
signs,
as
in
ornamental de-
may
be seen in
tig. a6.
Grammar
35,
and
The phenomena
of space-vision
which accompany
94
or,
what amounts
to the
same
thing, the
monocular
But
am
much
to
be
perspective drawing
ber of different objects, and consequently the spacesensation can be only in part determined by such a
drawing.
If,
many
bodies con-
must
exist
It
cannot arise from the adducing of auxiliary considerations in thought, nor from the
remembrances
in
awakening
of conscious
cer-
which
it
may, in the
first
place,
assume that
it
;
proceeds acthat
is,
those
pearance together
is
make
excited.
their ap-
For
ex-
thereby.
pears to manifest
tive
drawings
itself in
that
is
by the
95
The two
excitation.
results, as
we
demanded
7.
The
following
of the above.
may
When we
perspective drawing,
line in space,
tive
we always
it
as a straight
But only
in the spe-
cial
see
it
line.
It is
thus
appear a straight
line,
is
object,
a spatial straight
The
ties.
line.
properties, for
example the
96
in the
of importance.
siologically
symmetrical to themselves.
lying in the
median plane
tinguished by
tion,
ity.
and by
its
its
is
made
vertical
quickly
may be
and
readily
But the
logically distinguished
sameness
by some
must be physio-
different
mark.
Its
In addition to
this,
however,
it is
to
boring points.
Thus the
itself that
The
is
least effort.
same
time, in con-
when
it
ex-
54
97
8.
The
mean
adjacent sensations
is
Every
new
of the
some space-sensa-
the attention
is
directed.
The plane
is
field
on which
distinguished
the
mean
lar
0.
is
minimum,
is
the
same
seem
abovefor all
points.
years ago.^
If
of adjacent parts
pointed out
many
passage (opposing the Darwinian view, which I supported in the same paper)
half-heartedly. To-day 1 am more than ever convinced that the efficiency
referred to is not the result of individual functioning, nor indeed of human
functioning, but that
it is
and
is,
at least in
98
as are
shown
paper
A A BB,
in
and
this
is
parallel to
AB^
there will be
latter, a grey-
to
Ay in
P ft,
make
spond
their appearance.
to the indentations
Fig. 37.
exceeds the mean intensity of the immediately adjacent parts, while, on the other hand, the light-intensity
at ft falls short of the
parts.*
felt,
mean
is
distinctly
stance
is for
of objects,
Of what significance
this circum-
A remark
concerning the analogies between light-sensation and the pobe found in my note "Concerning Mr. Gu^bhard's Representation of Equipotential Curves," IViedemann't Annaltn (i88a), Vol
1
XVII.,
p. 864.
With regard
99
by a
ments are
Fig. 28
instructive.
two diagonals.
with
its
it is
most
a plane quadrilateral
is
we regard
it
monocularly,
law of prob-
ability, as a plane.
If
objects which are not plane, /^r^^ the eye to the vision
Where
of depth.
this
compulsion
lacking,
is
is
the most
organ of sight.
also
bd
oi
which
lies in front
back of
will
is
The
ac.
of
bd
oi
which
is
extremely limited
the
selection of
of sight for
of which,
lies
it
and to
its
we
cording as
ther
<f,
we
represent to ourselves
away than
ac.
The organ
bd
at will, ac-
nearer or far-
of sight is practised in
loo
The same
abed.
This
finally,
we imagine
if
be seen as a four-
difficult to do,
is
often
may,
figure
sided pyramid,
is
it
if
with the
conflicts
no
is
the effort
is
a slight indentation at
<f,
But
if
difficulty.
The
effect of
unerringly by one
one who
is
who
ignorant of perspective as by
is
a condition
ular observation.
readily fulfilled in
monoc-
remem-
my
belief,
Why the
tial
as
is
is felt
straight lines,
Where
out.
depth.
points.
Such
no necessity
lines
for
may
effect of the
vanishing
such an impression.
If
we hold
is
the
ghef
is
a passage-way.
we
down
e,
bf^ eg,
it
ends efgh
the distance
If
dh appear
loi
horizontal.
and the
rise,
If
floor
abef seems to
Upon lowering the drawing, the opposite phenomenon is presented and
;
analogous changes
may be observed
Fig. 29.
left.
pression.
If
oblique
example, by Fig.
difficulty,
of
30,
as
is
shown, for
When
paper.
outlines,
such as are
spatial
boundary
form,
minimum
Fig. 30.
with a
defi-
of deviation
is
to say, is
it
briefly,
presented
depth-sensation.^
IHere
space
at the
xoa
lO.
The
the
retina),
whereby
was
by me on the occasion
of the
first
observed
above-men-
The
Fig. 31.
card in Fig.
on
is
my seeing
open upon
my
table,
e.
When
one
is
zr^-
perfectly ac-
may
The
effect is
a table
and
let
be the eye.
is
(Fig. 32.)
projected to
On
a',
face does not coincide with the surface of minimal area, which would be ob-
tained if the spatial outlines were made of wire, and then dipped in soapsuds, producing a liquid film of Plateau.
cube
to
The
d\
seem
to stand obliquely
/' /'.
will
the table
and d
c to c\
3',
103
on
its
edge
c'
upon
it
be seen, together
will
With
sufficient
may be provoked
in
attention,
the
same phenomena
If
we
the
observe
raised,
it
monocularly,
but
will project
may be
if
we
place
us,
and
if ^<?
be
to the observer.
e
It
thrust out on different sides of the plane of the drawing, or of the plane perpendicular to the line of sight,
We
may
referred to differed in
no
phenomenon
Although these
the
if
the investigation
is
not ut-
'^'^^^
104
ANALYSIS OF
terly to miscarry or to
771E
SENSATIONS.
be prematurely broken
off.
We
without
artificial
surface of a liquid, as
we
it
II.
gan of
sight,
the civilised
the
phenomena
in
of
man.
me no
The
principle of
economy
enlightenment.
of success
of probability.
seems
to
Let us con-
upon the
segment having
An
infinite
number
of values for ^,
now,
A we may
all
105
have corre-
and
The
of the triangle to
c,
result
is,
be performed
180.
in a definite
nomena
was
not, however,
in question,
which we might be
in-
regarded
is
2iS
physiologically the
same
conception has
still
a question which
12.
But
if
the angles be
fre-
made
to
a solid
assume a
body
solid form.
in rotation,
a former occasion.^
of
We generally see,
such as
then,
have described on
The well-known
acoustic figures
phase, appear to
lie
excellent example
io6
In
fact, solid
surround
us.
which we move
solid
body
is,
of solid bodies
we
We
space.
Herein
main
tised, the
ture.
lies, for
Children,
who
tive foreshortenings,
and are
remember
able to
can well
this condition of
remembrance am
body
the unprac-
who
represent
all
of
parts of the
pressing them, as
it
we
disinclination
to
still
In the fres-
foreshortening,
is
although
already manifest.
The
mand
107
13-
see-
unchanged
salient points
habit than
which
is
is
is
much
easier to us through
always the
Accordingly,
liberate analysis.
we may expect
is
apprehended as a
as the
motion of a
that
common
be seen preferably
its
must
is little
confess,
how-
satisfactory to me.
is
a habit
ments
of solid bodies.
If
we should assume,
for ex-
ample, that every diminution of the transverse dimension of an optical sensation-mass to which the attention
to induce a cor-
and
vice versa,
ogous
to that
we should have
This view
is
certainly
much
an adequate explanation.
ables us to
comprehend more
Furthermore,
easily
how
it
en-
so elemental
io8
how
it
for the
same
could be inherited.
As a
I will
an egg, or
If
its
it
does not
movements, we
shall fancy
we
see,
on viewing
it
phenomenon
more noticeable
is still
if
bi-
The
its
in
This
effect
is
follow, are
A rotating
The explanations
tainly far
adduced
will
ough study
of these
solid
made upon
body
is
the
then seen.
siderations
axis.
have some
way
for a
phenomena.
effect in stimulat-
thor-
TIME-SENSATION.
I.
1\
TUCH
-^ '-*-
more
difficult
space-sensation
sensations
make
is
their
out, space-sensation.
that of time-sensation.
Many
We
from none.
With
this
psychological difficulty
is
associated an-
other,
more
radical,
Our
therefore,
must confine
physical aspect, as
itself chiefly to
analy-
the psycho-
'
mie, Vol.
I
from that of my
Wiener AkadeInto the details of these earlier experiments, begun in i860,
slightly
Sitzber. d.
no
2.
That a
pears to
me beyond
tity of the
all
iden-
k^in
i>
We have
The rhythmical
doubt.
^fi
is
immediately recognised.
may
two tonal
we have
we
As
in
we
On
the
first,
bell,
which
discriminate between
Do
the accompany-
with which the strokes of the bell happen to be associated, afford these distinguishing
marks
do not
How
of
TJME-SENSATION.
background
that accidental
it if
of
While
but
strikes,
striking,
strokes.
am
reflecting
iii
memory ?
give no heed to
After
it.
it
has finished
it
whole attention
to this recollection,
give here
and by
striking
By what mark,
from the
which
each
like
bell, is
I
Why do
now wanting
connected for
starts
up
manner,
memory from
could
to
me.
not regard
all
the strokes,
is
which
do
then,
first ?
means
this
my
me with
Because
a special time-sensation
it.
In
my
4-
Since, so long as
is
always present,
we
it is
probable that
it is
connected
that we
feel the
employment
conditions, when we
work of attention
effort of attention
short.
time
is
long
In phlegmatic
ZZ2
When
we
completely exhausted,
sleep.
our attention
is
In dreamless sleep,
is
lacking.
intervenes, yesterday
is
an intellectual bond.
The
on continually
in
The
of at-
sensations
Normal
later.
parallel of
this
ground
in
in the
same sense-province.
It is
which
later
may
occur
analogous
yet,
earlier.
its
observed
a well-known fact
physically
arises
sometimes happens,
so-
and afterwards
first
for example,
Dvorak has
von
8.
Marz,
1872.
TIME-SENSA TION.
out at
my
produced
113
may
be
is
centred appearing (even in the case of an actual tardiness of 1/8-1/6 of a second) earlier than that indirectly seen.
It is
may
this fact.
is
by me.^
shown
Two
in the following
it
occupied, to an-
is
experiment instituted
red
the eye.
red
dark room by an
red
The square
seen appears
red,
directly
but
The
seen square when
seen
dir.
seea
Fig. 34-
that
tensely so.
indir.
and
positive after-image.
on the passage
same
phenomenon.
The
Communicated by Dvorak,
have been
loc. cit.
sitting in
my room,
XI4
ments
in explosions
occurred that
larly
It
regu-
state, as
stance,
is
we dream
man who
of a
in this
For
in-
rushes at us with a
dream.
Now
there
its fall,
is
some inverted
mentioned,
of the
is
attention
perceived
first
above
plosion.
to
and
dif-
But
in
many cases
it is
undoubtedly sufficient
work
If
of a
time-sensation
is
time in dreams.
the fact that
at all,
often sleeps only in part. We converse very sensibly, in dreams, with persons long deceased, but with no recollection of their death. We reflect, in
the dream-state, concerning dreams, recognise them as such by their eccentricities, but are immediately pacified again.
I once dreamed very vividly of
a mill. The water flowed downwards, in a sloping channel, away from the
TIME- SENSATION,
increase of the effort following
is
intelligible
why
upon
waking
attention, then
physiological time
115
is
to the eye
and
standing,
show nothing
as capable, in a
^^
is
f t f
somewhat imper-
organ of consciousness
weakened degree,
the
capable only of
of representation as
it
no symmetry.
Hence
ac-
f T f
few.
of at-
The two
^
are
energies, of
we
which
to the under-
sation of time.
a.
^8
of music,
It is
as
state
companying bars
not reversible
As long
it
revivified.
and hard by, in just such another channel, upwards to the mill. I vras
not at all disturbed by the contradiction. At a time when much engrossed
with the subject of space-sensation, I dreamed of a walk in the woods. Suddenly I noticed the defective perspective displacement of the trees, and by
this recognised that I was dreaming. The missing displacements, however,
were immediately supplied. Again, while dreaming, I saw in my laboratory
a beaker filled with water, in which a candle was serenely burning. " Where
mill,
it
get
its
the answer.
fied.
verified in
mann
Seippel.
xi6
Hence
bridge of communication
between
sensations and
all
none
of the
Should
latter.
this
new energy
ad
hoCf
we might
once assign to
at
physiological function.
What
if
it
this
an important
energy kept up
Our conception
lated it?
its
destination,
of attention
and regu-
and of time-
The
would become
and
tention,
is
is
determined by
at-
it.
8.
In listening to a
we can
bell,
number
of similar strokes
If
the
number
is
large,
this case,
that
is,
some
if
we must
in
num-
however, we distinguish
efiunt
from a
a mistake,
first.
In
we must
ordinal symbol.
a perfect
TIME-SENSA TION.
we have
wards,
measure
is
we
mov-
are
removal
of this
is
metrical.
time
to
In walking for-
away from
ing
is
17
single
its
9-
time-sensation exists,
If a special
goes without
it
diately recognised.
fact
may appear
as the
may
The
of position
Lf
12
I
pie,
0*
l;
for
exam-
we regard
charged^ so to speak,
at
The reason
of this is
or
3,
that
is,
manis dis-
that the
to the successive
Compare
p. 64.
ii8
in the following
diagram
when similarly-marked
\\i\v^^\vx\^m
that
is,
when
the attention
Two
same
relation to
all
is
introduced at homol-
physical time-figures
may
makes
is
its
likewise fulfilled.
to judge,
we
Furthermore, so far as
am
able
of
of
we
identity of
by the
an explanation of the
time
is
IThe
fact that
one part
Herewith we have
felt,
SENSATIONS OF TONE.*
I.
TN tone-sensations,
--
also,
we
psychological analysis.
ments
As
Among
we can
offer.
by speech,
etc.
and
of the
The
communication
The
human
each other.
remarkable characteristics
is
music.
There
1 Barring details, I have held the position here taken, for twenty years.
Stumpf, to whom I owe a debt of gratitude for the repeated consideration of
my work, has many points of detail {Tonpsychologie^ Leipsic, 1883) that appeal
to me. The view expressed on page 119 of his work, however, is incompatible with the principle of parallelism, my fundamental axiom of research.
Compare my note, "Zur Analyse der Tonempfindungen," Sitzungsberichte
der Wiener Akademie, Vol. 92, II. Abth,, p. 1283 (1885).
I20
hauer^ that music represents the will, and in fact generally in the designation of
emotion
although this
is
music as a language
of
monkeys.^
We
work
of
widely
of
Even
made use
by the
and
is,
But as
of in courtship.
as a
to the
And
see-
who howled
preference, we may be
the
justified in
wondering why
and
not be underrated.
all
that in
the prob-
Surely no one
ah WilU und
Vorstelhing,
Berlin, 1879,
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
121
We
is
tion
may
Although music
must,
it
have contained
for wooing,
is
pleasurable.
if it
at the start
some
positive
mem-
To
ory.
life,
Nor does
by the scent
admired as a
lamp
self
on
agreeable.
if
none the
the
in it-
is
reminded,
It
contribute
still
preferred to a
se, it
assuredly can
of the
Yet
less disgusting
man who
is
me
And
is
child.
fifth.
would be obtained
if
we were
122
means
of
communicating
ideas, of express-
of discriminating
women, and
children
between the
they are not
means by which we
The
of
man
cannot produce,
presumably are of extreme importance for the determination of the direction from which sounds proceed.'
In
fact, it is
more than
There
is
life of
animals.
no one but
will cheerfully
acknowledge
we
Following his
we
p. 421.
S
wick, 1863.
first edition,
Bruns-
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
,
123
of
If
certain relations of n
and
may
and
in the
is
first
case
rendered per-
effected.
result,
it
is
may
We may also give our assent to Helmholtz's physiological theory of the auditive organ.
The
facts ob-
make
it
all
whether
It is a
by the organ of
Corti.
5.
If
duration,
it is
m =(^/g) n,
that
^'^/^
X24
winter of
872-1 873)
re-
may be
the two
twenty-eight
observed.
full vibrations,
transitions
all
tone of
ra-
when
its
duration
is
weak
the pitch
between
is still
perfectly distinct. ^
(the
may be detected
wave
of
an
electric spark,
We
with iH-\-0).
filled
in a report
may
of the air
exploding soap-bubbles
easily convince our-
lifted,
it
organ
sation.
seems clear
may be
to
aperiodic vibra-
more
For
fall
all,
though
damped perform
This
II.
vibrations of greater
TVwih^
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
even
in the case of
tions of the
effects, is
air,
125
series of end-organs.^
The
is
that produced
at
by striking
member
of the
same
as
Moreover, in the
duration.
by
single excitation
produced
its
incomplete-
ness.
of
harmony.
Thus A.
v.
sounds.
tion
is
He
to
be found
in the
accompanying remembrance
Exner, Auerbach, BrQcke, and others, subsequently treated the same question
in detail.
2
1866), p. 3<k
126
of the
common fundamental
remembrance of the
common
Oettingen.
But
am
**
in
accompanying
overtone (or
On
of the
phonicV be-
quite
fill
My
sation.
opinion, therefore,
gen's conception
is
is
that A.
physiologically
von Oettin-
inadequate.
His
composite notes), as also his conception of dissonances as indeterminate composite musical sounds admitting of more than one interpretation
pear to
me
to
(p.
224) ap-
science.'
1 [The lowest of the harmonics common to all I term the coincident or
phonic harmonic. Von Oettingen, Harmoniesystem in dualer Entwicklung, p.
Quoted by translator.]
3a.
8 A popular statement of the principle of duality, of which Euler [Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, p. 103), D'Alembert {Elimens de mustque, Lyons,
1766), and Hauptmann {Die Natur der Harmonik und Metrik, Leipsic, 1853,
translation by W. E. Heathcote, London, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1888),
had all a faint inkling, is to be found in my Popular Scientific Lectures (Chicago, 1894), under the caption " Symmetry " (originally published in 1872;.
Perfect symmetry, such as is found in the province of sight, cannot be imagined in music, since sensations of tone do not constitute a symmetrical system.
"
SENSATIONS OF TONE,
127
7.
made some
holtz,
and
and also
later,'
had
critical
in 1866, in a small
Von
pointed out some demands which a more perfect theory of the subject would have to satisfy.
ever,
up
my
how-
Since,
remarks have, to
my
them here
at length.
8.
We
mem-
maximum
Then
ergy.
there are as
its
response, and
many
we
but
ries.
we
assign to
number
by
them
which rates
we
recognise
We feel imme-
us.
of different pitch,
Akademie,
of rates of
Of three tones
diately
shall
specific energies as
Further,
we
and
1863.
{Fickte's Zeitschrift
1866.
128
which
This
is
For,
readily
if
we
enough explained
moved
common
But
excitations.
certain similarity
lowest tones
we can
detect a resemblance.
Conse-
all
to
assume
tone - sensations
common factors.
Conse-
not be as
many
specific
tinguishable tones.
For
here concerned,
tions of tone
contrary
cussed
is
is
facts with
it suffices
to
which we are
different proportions
by
different
later.
we assume
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
reflect that these energies are similar to
that
is,
at the
common
contain
one another,
elements, virtually
same conception.
in order to
129
For
let
we
arrive
us assume, merely
us, that, in
color-sensation in passing from pure red to pure yellow, say by the gradual admixture of yellow.
fully retain,
on
We can
How
does
it
we should
sensation
naturally expect
;
them
definite
form.
still
The
more
The
case
is
dif-
IThe view
that different end-organs respond to different rates of vibration is too well supported by the production of beats by neighboring tones,
and by other facts adduced by Helmholtz, and, upon the whole, too valuable
for the comprehension of the phenomena, to be again relinquished. The
view here presented utilises the facts disclosed, notably by Hering, in the
analysis of color-sensations.
I30
when
similar to that
The
is
of
tonal
no symmetry
left in
median plane.
It
a direction perpendicular
more resembles a
vertical
But while
median plane.
which
is
we
the reason
may move
tone-sensations.
about,
is
different with
be fixed
if
tinctly perceived.
We
in each case
is
to
be
dis-
that differ-
exists,
occur together.
is
similar
Or both
At present
which
it
conditions might
may be regarded
come
as
to a conclusion
in the matter.
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
131
unconsciously expresses
of high tones
left tones,
itself in
We speak
language.
of right tones
and
In one of
my earliest
publications^
supported the
am now
un-
ground
have made.
fall to
the
physiological elevcvent
remains to be discovered. ^
The supposition
1863.
have
had something to do with the formation of the tonal series I likewise noticed
in my work of 1863, but did not find it tenable. Singing is connected in too
extrinsic and accidental a manner with hearing to bear out such an hypothesis. I can hear and imagine tones far beyond the range of my own voice. In
listening to an orchestral performance with all the parts, or in having an hal2
132
10.
on points in
I shall cite
One and
again here.
the
same combination
2 in the
acter according as
we
two
our atteni
and
different char6
ff=^
if
fix
this
fix
re-
1=3
bi
that
we
of
Combinations
other.
have
be helped by having
me
them
in
is intelligible
ment
is to
writing.
is
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
one note
sound
is
possible to
into
its
later
ZS3
after
With
it.
decompose a chord
This then
little
practice
it
themselves (as in
6).
to the
Especially astonishing
is
phenomenon
the
pro-
is fixed,
to
The
be damped.
it,
attention
which comes
struck.
entire tonal effect passes the threshold of consciousness, whilst in the former a part
7, for
example,
we
fix
I
r
is
augmented.
the attention
^-^:rrj_
If in
If,
in 9,
we
fix
is
ap-
the attention
134
we
different ac-
my
in II or 12, I fix
If,
The
lo.
fixed.
is
i^ W
'J2L
r
s-
mass
tic
will
e-f.
will
appear to
upon the
seem
to sink in
rise
we regard
if
But
in ii,
if
depth; while
in 12
it
compound
The
facts here
ad
is
alternately fixed
to
of the attention
on
different points.
harmonium, where
all
if
Compare my EinUitung in
to point
is
reu-
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
135
The
relations
have
describing, touch-
follow,
by changing
median plane
in the
parallelism,
all
intermediate shades
Fig. 36.
On
now
which we
shall
though
explanation
theory
its
is
to lay
series of tones
scale,
but be
is
remains
unintelligible,
absolutely necessary
if
If
the
two
made
ratios of vibration,
p. 58.
state,
we shall recognise
in both the
same
same
136
the
same form.
Like
Even
in a series of only
is at
Thus
once recognised.
the
all
same
The
plest form.
Such
is
the fact, in
its
sim-
and recognise
in-
music who
is
little
Kulke, mention
original
method
scription of
own
lips.
is
made, bearing on
of instruction
which
I will
this point, of
by P. Cornelius
According to Cornelius,
it
a wonderful
is
make note
The Overture
I at
an
a de-
to
If I
which
of
be-
Tannhauser,
hear a fourth
is
the
same
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
by
this
which
tics
test in
would be easier
melody.
my
effective,
lectures
on acous-
apparently compli-
it
countenance
with a
In like manner,
cates matters.
to
interval.
may be
X37
is
more
name than
is
them names
an individual
interval, just as
easily
of faces
in a system.
And
Every
it is
by which
it is
is
made
with the
third, every
its
character-
recognised independently of
number
of beats,
in-
creasing pitch.
ear.
If
two
ear,
monic
very feebly
But
if
same
ear, the
is
sound
Two
other,
forks of har-
138
one
ear.
served
when one
is
harmony
of the
is
pre-
Discord
experiment.
also remains
quite perceptible
Harmony and
in
this
beats alone.
some simple
ablenesSy
and
As
ratio.
ratio, are
(2),
by a sensation
characteristic of this
is
no deny-
sulting always
where the
ratios of the
numbers repre-
of
mu-
He
accident of acoustic color, and notices that tones further stand to each other in a positive relation of contrastj like colors,
The
among
tones
is
does exist
is
einigt
lively effect is
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
139
ond
In like manner,
color.
mount
ally to
in pitch,
if
we cause
sec-
a tone gradu-
companying example
Passage 2 sounds
will show.
12
w ^^tjli-^
quite different after
from
different
2,
diately following
from what
and even
it
5 different
from 4 imme-
3.
12.
ask
if
to the
this
If
bined with
its
harmonic
of \\\& first
note (4^).
holtz, is the
combinations.
If I
and A, representing
their
fact, in the
marked
and
in
and
harmonics
of the lower
in the cut
on the
harmonic
Helm-
all third-
marked T coincide
is
between the
fifth
of the
I40
Be
higher note.
mon
it
do with
to
For sensa-
sensation.
between
the
e's,
On
a's,
which are
b-flat
tn
b
3*
e g -sharp b
yn
6m
ZtH
4*
jm
e
8m
e-flat
2n
2M
3fft
a c-sharp e
6m
5'
7M
8m
^^
t
f
8*.
t
4/
an
is
the
common
must
insist
on
this distinction of
my
it
pro-
question as to wherein
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
141
geometrical, consisted
and
it is
was disproved.
issue,
If
we
we should
was, after
that
all,
and
fifth
sound continued
also, as periodic
(JPogg.
vibration
a conception which
could be supposed
it
With
re-
and
/^m is in
no respect
less symbolical
and does
13.
So
far I
have presented
conviction that
my
necessary to
me
in the
make
This feeling
same measure
in the
essential features,
time ago.
clear
was suggested
up and
illustrate,
requirement which
of tone-sensations is
may
to
me
at least serve to
believe a
bound
a long
also, the
to meet.
it is
an extremely
36.
142
important
an animal of simple
or-
medium
in
which
excessive size of
it
lives.
its
If
organs, and
its
consequent lack
is
consciousness,
it
may
The organ
tion.
touch. ^
Now
organ of
its
physical
of vibrational rates
between certain
limits
becomes
of
suffice,
gan of Corti
It
is
arises.
The
or-
mem-
is
able experiments and observations of V. Graber (" Die Chordotonalen Ori(ane," Arrh./Ur Microskop, Anat., XX., p. 506;. Compare also my Bewtgung**
tmpfindungn
p. 123.
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
On
vibration.
the contrary,
M3
we must suppose
that
it
of
Inasmuch
^2/4, etc.
as the assump-
re-
two
we
(somewhat as we do
in
mixed colors) by
The
cited.
bolically
pD-\-qC\
or,
making /-|-^
and regarding ^ as a
D -\-f{n) C.
to the
The sensation
arising will
f{p)\
now correspond
excitation,
on whatever member
excitation
may
light.
And
new
member Rn responds most
powerfully to n, and only in a much more enfeebled
degree to in, 3^, or to nji, n/^, E vibrating with n
f(n)\ D -\-f{n)
will
still
be predom-
Stumpf,
loc. cit.y p.
C are
D and
IThus,
to take a
we might
make/"()
=k
log.
144
would
A member
,
rate of vibration
a conclusion which
and
also,
/2, /3
2, 3,
rates of vibration.
It is,
to , or
the contrary,
it is
to these
same sensation
Rn responds
is
excited whether
whether Rn responds to
On
n.
mem-
weak supplementary
sation receives a
colorings
by
by
undertones by Zi,
sations of tone
+/()
Z^, Zg,
On
.,
C'
The
and
for the
would be somewhat
richer in composi-
tion than
cited
Zi,.
which we
fundamental tone
[1
/()] D
by the fundamentals,
same
series
by the
first
Z,, etc.
or
may
by
[1
/()]
on
this last
and form
U-\- f{n) V.
is
unchanging elements,
i/'and Vy
point
either
But
series representable
immaterial.
It is true that
Z^, Z^,
me
of importance.
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
145
would take on
if
we regarded
Our example
and
m = ^p',
the two
tones
is
whose
5/2
= 4^ = 20/,
common
following table
as given.
is
third combination,
Z^, Z^,
to the
two
n^\p
common
to
/.
Then we
obtain the
i^
The members
of
Rp
Ra^
^S>
4/
5>
J?ao/
4/
4A 5/
5/ =
20/
mentary sensa-
^4.^5
Zx
tions:
>
20/
=5
(4/)
^f^i
20/ = 4 (5/)
a
o o
Thus
supplementary
make
their
146
may be
These supplementary
open
any
colorings,
air or at
The diagram
do occur.
interval.
though scarcely
through the
become conspicuous
scale,
in
combina-
become
vivid
when
And,
spond
to the
same
ratios of vibrations,
no matter what
the pitch.
In this manner
receive,
intelligible
is
singly
The elements
sounded.
Z^, Z,
On
the contrary,
and on the
[I
C are
this
of the
concep-
/()]^ + /() ^
Since /()
and
it
The
these.
by
According to
attention.
by
as
may
tones
them when
is
how
others^ the
to
it
may
is
and
1,
If
the
SENSATIONS OF TONE.
number
147
below or
rises
weak response
interval
must disappear
limits of hearing
in
first,
by the
14.
by Helmholtz may be
posite sounds
all retained.
may be decomposed
In place of
however,
we
lationship of
we
when sounded
together.
and that
of
By
distinct,
several tones
members
sig-
148
is
diminished,
ably on the ground of musical facts, the positive characteristics of intervals are to
Von
be sought.
Finally,
by
Oettingen's principle of
mend
assumption of
**
memory"; while
at the
same time
it
To
development of modern music as well as the spontaneous and sudden appearance of great musical talent
seem, at
first
glance, a
phenomenon.
ment
of the
What
power
of hearing
Does
it
What can
Of what use
sense of pitch?
to us
is
a perceptive
As a matter
of fact, the
is
its
art,
material
is
The
ques-
SENSATIONS OF TONE,
of a
far
Newton, an Euler, or
their like,
which apparently
tion
is
satisfies
is
which
to music,
for the
Music, however,
picts nothing.
149
closely allied to
a person
may
Having
difine
power
direc-
of distinction,
such
The
of lines.
case
is
the
and
of color-
of the
power
so, too, it
undoubtedly
that talent
and genius,
We
must bear
however gigantic
in
mind
their achievements
may appear to
ment.
Talent
may be
us,
endow-
And
as for genius,
it is
talent
supplemented
The
sion of genius.
But
disappears, and
we
this
dom, have
character.
we
are
wont
to ascribe to free-
I50
do not make
their
Weismann has
accumulated
of ancestors
effort
flect that
re-
aptly shown,*
Taken
we
don
augmented
Weismann, Ueber
in
now
slightly diminished,
now
amount.
PHYSICS.
INFLUENCE OF THE PRECEDING INVESTIGATIONS
ON THE MODE OF ITS CONCEPTION.^
WHAT
ing investigations
wide-spread prejudice
rier.
There
is
no
is
rift
physical, no within
In the
first
sensation to
it,
a bar-
and without^ no
place, a very
which
formed
There
which
is
but
this supposititious
elements
which are
The world
the psychical
domain
alike.
and
(See
my Erhaltung
152
we
sidering them,
Gay
study physics in
we
its
we
whereas we
main attention
to the
vous system.
Our body,
If,
solely practical
is
new paths
and con-
purposes of science, we
to our ner-
all
all
connexions
be opened up.
3.
We must regard
physicist
is
intellectual
now no
it
implements of physics.
If
ordinary
'<
mat-
this
be
The value
of
still
As
ence.
But we have as
little
PHYSICS.
,53
from experience
even
we have
tainly not
We
itself.
revelation than
in the
Still less,
therefore,
should the monstrous idea ever enter our heads of employing atoms to explain psychical processes
seeing
narrow domain
of physics.
4-
The
may be
sciences
distinguished according to
ner of treating
Further,
it.
all
man-
its
aim
Resum-
may be
it
said, arises
ABC ...
the elements
example, physics
in
or the elements
reproduced or representatively
ments a^y.
where
KLM
ABC
in their relations to
apy
one another
senses,
KLM
ele-
For
are
mimicked by the
any manner
the
the
through repro-
ABC
to
154
KLM
tions of
to
aPy
Now
ABC
themselves by
of less
But un-
need
is
moment
satisfied the
our thoughts
far,
and as
far only, as
5.
Our knowledge
an earthquake,
is
of a natural
phenomenon, say
as complete as possible
when our
all
no power
tion,
we
latter,
to occasion surprise.
When,
of
the
may
and
having
in imagina-
of the
ground, the
PHYSICS.
movement
of the furniture
155
and the
when we
see in
wind over a
the trees
of dust,
field of grain,
when we
at present
bine the partial facts in their right and required proportions without the aid of certain auxiliary conceptions
it
to grasp all
at once.
we not
reach,
by
When
falls
upon a prism
tained
upon
when
of light
forehand
beam
a screen
see
its
which
real
which
band
of
spectrum-image, ob-
by interposing a
lens,
and
in that
X5
lines
when
my
see, in
on
its
how
these self-same
it
altering
all
mind,
its register,
know
my
The
latter is
6.
The adaptation
is
the aim of
all scientific
In this, science
research.
life
as
we become capable
own
its
As soon
accord.
of self-observation,
we
find our
in
of the
facts.
known
z.s
its
new
judgment.
child,
on
is
looks
ball.
1
new
fact necessitates a
meadow,
**We are in a
about, and says wonderingly
The world is a blue ball."^ Here we have two
This case
is
not
fictitious,
my three-year old
child.
PHYSICS.
judgments.
What
formation?
In the
is
'57
first
company *'we"
is
broad-
Likewise, in
**
is
world"
(i.e.,
supplemented
which must
wanting).
or
A judgment is
amendment
name
also
for
it
of the deficiencies of a
sensuous per-
is
fact.
If
the
new
The
persons by words.
process of judgment, therefore, in the present
ments
If
the process
is
making
and
its
appearance
in consciousness as a distinct
To
Locke
owe
calls
it,
*'
intuitive
knowledge," as
their growth.
THE ANALYSIS OF THE SENSATIONS.
X58
ing Statements
has no claws
weak sulphuric
butterfly; (4)
has a root
(6)
magnetic needle
transformed into a
(5)
(7) a
cube has
The
first
six surfaces,
statement em-
second a correction
of a
The seventh
metrical
**
proposition
is
an example of geo-
intuition."
7.
Intuitive
presses
itself
knowledge
its
appear-
ance there in the form of recollections which spontaneously supplement every fact presented by the
senses.
But the
paramount place
in
memory
On
the requirements
and be of
made by
if
memory
it
reminded, by
soft,
fruits
Even
to the
the animal
by green hard
to satisfy
must conform
is
and
difl&culty), of
PHYSICS.
their sour taste.
The
at everything that
159
insect-hunting
buzzes and
fly,
monkey snatches
flies,
Here we have
the wasp.
ex-
and
continuity
and
for
selection
and
of the direction
which
The
when
ception
he says (generalising)
adds (differentiating)
when he
8.
A considerable
place unconsciously and involuntarily, under the natural guidance of the facts presented to the senses.
this adaptation
to
If
fact
which runs
vio-
without our being able to discover at once the determinative factor likely to lead to a new differentiation,
then a problem arises.
The new,
z6o
tellectual discomfort,
may engender
a volitional frame
a consequent
new mental
adaptation.
Thus
arises
which
in the
immediately given.
some time
or another,
lifting
We
at
common
by means
of a small
sensuous phenomenon
itself is
not
of the
lever,
and
then,
**
moment" and
''Moment" or **work"
The
ing
is
'*work,"
of the problem.
moment"
or
"work" hav-
exists.
9-
abstraction ?
cannot
com-
men
as
general triangle,
PHYSICS.
which
is at
i6i
be imagined.
sciousness at the name of the concept, and accompanying the conceptual process,
must be used
heard
to describe
many different
it
In
per-
child
fact, generally,
necessity
is
dog and
a large and
calls
sheep, **dog."^
him
Any
similarity
whatever reminding
use of
be at
its
all
The
name.
same
the
may
It
color, again in
and so
Of a
on.
concept there is
no question.
Thus, a child
the horns of a
cow
its father,
'<
in the
hairs";
tinction, a *'brush";
words
'*
and so
Most adults
on.^
treat
The
illiterate
and occasionally,
man
calls a rectangle
rectangular boundaries.
The
a square,
because of
1 Thus the Marcomanni called the lions sent across the Danube by
Romans "dogs," and the lonians called the x^F^^'- ^ *^^ Nile from
its
(Herodotus,
II., 69.)
the
the
x62
number
concept
do not act
differently.^
nothing involved in
is
impulse to perform
some
famil-
which a
as the result of
nite
In using a
is
show
defi-
obtained.
''heptagon,"
bly before
me
and when
in so
or of
its
doing
image
in
my
number,"
visi-
consciousness
components
is
In speaking of a
falls
'square
etc.,
of the
by the
excited
of operations,
But the
result
is
patent.
The sensuous
The same
may
of
activity
a number
present.
mind.
ing.
This fact
is
Frequently, the
so obvious (as
it
is,
my
on count-
PHYSICS.
163
necessary.
Such
constitute the
main source
do not directly
see,
ellipse, parabola,
be
and
of misunderstandings con-
by an
seems un-
all
but
may
can
When,
fact,
therefore,
we apply
form a
abstract concepts to a
upon us
as an impulse to per-
tion introduces
which opera-
By
this activity
we
when by
for us.
We
the physicist
is
a precise
do
and
it
dif-
The concept
of
definite reaction-activity
To
revert to
a lever,
its
we
an
earlier
example,
when we behold
arms, to weigh
its
arms by the
of its
of its weights.
If
64
the
We
have here
itself,
will
keep well
in
we
mind
that thought
an-
but which
now
reaction-activity
to
If
by concepts
we
is
fact that
no one
practical exercise.
tirely
on
action.
In fact,
it is
working knowledge
of its details.
ulti-
when
the
found (say,
is
moments
of facts are
found
to
Thus here
of the determinative
way what
is
imme-
measuring rod,
scales,
PHYSICS.
mathematician,
165
quite the
same way
extension of facts.
The
K LM in his
The
investigator and
all his
everything
else.
A real chasm
On
tention
is
by terming
it
it is
is
ajiy
many sensuous
the at-
elements,
and precisely
Every abstraction
to certain
is
founded
sensuous elements.
II.
The
facts given
all
alike
follow
fact, the
Where we
strongest and
to lend to
This process
is
it
the
which
i66
birth.
Thus we think
new
become
facts
as familiar
helps.
and as
intui-
is
out of the
become ordered
in
sufficient
an economically
as-
by the
knowledge.
12.
results of
mental adapta-
Herein
is
what
is
advantage in point of
economy.
to
is,
for the
by
it,
rendered
intelligible.*
13-
The
I
see a
unconditionally constant
can see
i
it
Compare
my
without touching
nay Mechanics,
Eng
trans.,
we term
eyes in
it,
its direction.
can touch
Chicago,
substance.
1893, p. 504.
it
without
PHYSICS.
seeing
it.
component elements
ditions, I yet
my
hands
167
complex
of the
is
joined to con-
to appreciate or notice
them markedly.
in
I
moment,
the object of
it is
my
senses or not.
nucleus,
its
gain the
also appear to
here
My behavior
is
which
my mere willing it
complexes
dis-
in question
is
not sufficient to
sensuous
facts,
make
of the
and although
in
I
to
auxiliary
notions.
ments corresponding
on a higher plane
provinces of facts.
to a body,
we may
also proceed,
we
when
not associating
i68
pear
When
electric," far
my
and
definite
more memories
say a body
arise in
my
mind,
groups of
facts,
than
if I
had emphasised,
for
cific
is
made
all
same sensu-
we
of that particular
form in which we
first
**
electric"
became
ac-
fact.
If
the
it
is
easy for us to do the same in cases in which the conditions of sensuous manifestation lie entirely without
our reach
for
shall
world
perhaps never
a method of
of parts of the
PHYSICS.
in
world, but
method.
step,
if
indeed,
we
169
it
It
we were
still
certainly not
is
present in
its
is,
where
stant.
solely
is
present in germ
for
now is, thousands of years hence) as conThe entire passage of time, in fact, is dependent
on conditions of sensuous activity. Were a
it
arded.
14.
exist, as
will
We
we overlook
them
or underrate conditions, or as
as always given, or as
them.
braces
There
is
we
we regard
deliberately disregard
all
of relation).
The majority
metamorphosed
makes
its
into a frog
appearance
in the
Bodies
When
form
fall
**
The
tadpole
chlorate of sodium
of cubes-
Rays
of
with an acceleration
17
pressed in concepts,
we
stancy of connexion.
erts a force
them
call
When
on a body B,
mean
Force
laws.
(in
is
that B, on
ex-
coming
immediately affected
is
The
which takes
is
is
the
effect
easily
shattered. If we, or
organs, be put in the place of B, here a condition intervenes, which, seeing that
to fulfil
it,
is
it is
ap-
Similarly, a magnet,
in its direc-
netic force,
iron,
which we cannot
The
fact.^
phrases,
remove a
"No
self-incurred contradiction,
become
su-
guished light goes to. He will not suffer the electrical machine to be turned
any great length of time for fear of exhausting the supply of sparks, etc.
Only upon noting conditions of a fact that are outside ourselves does the impression of substantiality disappear. The history of the theory of heat is
very instructive in this connexion.
J^HYSICS.
171
15-
Given a
is
sufficient
By virtue
of this constancy
The impulse
facts.
by the individual
is it
facts as
intentionally evoked
all
incompletely ob-
prompted
in question is not
we
find
it
nor
operative in
we
oped by experience,
it
is
fact.
us.
By this
impulse
it is
is
The impulse
more to
Although
measure
assists us,
contained
in a certain
Through
it
the latter
we have always a
larger
man
perienced
the
is
human
the single
claim to
fact.
it
and there
exists
rests entirely
added
to
no necessity
it.
Our
con-
is
infallibility,
For
trials, of
the suf-
supposition.
172
any moment.
Not
all
constancy.
interest in
to support
them by the
of
latter.
as projectiles,
facts of
movement had long been ascertained. We believe we understand the suction of a pump, the flowing
of a siphon, only as we add in thought the pressure
of the air. Similarly we seek to conceive electrical,
their
optical,
ses.
stronger thoughts
and
is
is
We naturally prefer,
all
explanation in science.
without
many
which we may
or
corresponding and
still
development we stand
in
need
of
no ex-
in-
PHYSICS,
about with
But
us.
we
if
173
is
appreciably
weakened.^
It
was
above that
said
me
Let
of nature.
by
man
himself
illustrate this
may be
his sensations.
is
a fragment
by an example. For
sufficiently character-
But
thought.
in
When
its
flected to
swimmer
my
left if
the direction of
is
my
moves
Or
by an inner
reaction.
may
may make
like-
circuit, so that
de-
is
in the current.
situ-
Then
by
may approach
to the value
"^HE
174
in fact
it
that the
shadow
The fact
known in all
a single
whole.
not
is
cases,
Whenever
some of
that
it
happens,
6.
in a
complexus
of elements,
In such cases
it is
which survives
this need,
and
is cha?iged.
this
change.
satisfied
it
J.
R. Mayer
first
felt
which corresponds
to the technical
me-
of
"energy." Mayer
conceives this force (or energy) as something absolutely constant (as a store of something, as a sub-
stance),
intuitive thoughts.
gle
with
We
expressions,
to the strongest
with
he
and most
general
first
philosophical
and second
and
of his
intuitively
PHYSICS,
the urgent need of such a concept.
175
But the
great
we may
also, if
we
like,
Arbeit, p. 45, and for many instructive discussions of particuthe admirable work of J. Popper, Die physikalischen GrundsStze der
electrischen KraftUbertragung.)
Erhaltungder
lars,
If the body does not fall freely, but in gradually sinking heats another
body or renders it electric, then an entirely new constancy takes the place of
the first. Nothing compels us to regard the quantity of heat generated or the
electric potential produced as the equivalent of the missing rnv^/z. Our determining that the heat shall stand /or exactly as muck as the corresponding
fh' is arbitrary, notwithstanding its great convenience. It was primarily
Mayer's need that led him to write down his equation, which as regards the
facts was not as yet satisfied and which is generally incorrect if the right
176
17.
Upon
norm
When
my
mind.
But the
He must
know,
rod
if
path, he can
cou7it to i, 2, 3,
M*
I, 4,
the path.
9,
The
i6
4 ...
he must, on ap-
yields a sensory
mark Ey
on a
definite reaction
on the giving
of
also yields,
this
means
it is
possible to supply
By
him
without resorting to a
as an investigator of the
first
rank.
new experiment,
it by no means
But
characterises
follows from
contrary,
am
PHYSICS.
177
i8.
The space
up wholly
of the geometrician
of the
system of
Is
by no means made
body
oi physical observations,
In the very
and
he
Without experience
(p. 80).
cian
this
simple property
by the superposition
of angles,
other.
of rigid bodies to
Without propositions
Apart from
etry.
of physical observa-
of
by the application
The
fact,
of congruence^
one an-
no geom-
images would
we
and
due
If
to the
remembrance
there
its
of
its
is
would be no necessity
for learning
it.^
That
IThe method
of Euclid
is
178
discoveries
mind
the
features
escaped unnoticed
which
;
new and previously unseen demay be discovered. Even the theory of numbers
brightly-lighted lamp,
tails
must be looked
at in
its
funda-
The cogency
is
of
geometry (and of
by some
select
its
base
is
particularly convenient
to the test
mathematics)
all
which
is
at its
moment
to the
same
tests.
More-
far
more
The
over,
is
self-
confidence.
A
cian
is
gained, the
PHYSICS,
179
perience.
To
ex-
two others
will
of tone
But the
in-
less sur-
The mathematician,
and the student
when indulging in
analogous modes of pro-
of natural science,
speculative flights,
pursue quite
The
former,
terial,
it is
true,
owing
to his
opposite reason
is
at a disadvantage
as
compared
When
the
to be identicalj
such as
this
result of
is
obtained,
i8o
we
In like manner,
of the thought.
much more
is
obtained from
the mercury.
a clock)
is
number
is
For example,
put.
if
we
/ is
The
of its surroundings
by 5 := 0^*', then
number.
relation
actually represent,
is
is
Thus
meant
to
be repre-
in the equation
{xjdf
the values oi
geometrical (or
real) significance.
Similarly,
this
it
would have
to
be expressly added,
5 = Sj-^*
if
re-
we imagine
the
free des-
may be
PHYSICS.
tions,
i8i
Time
not reversible.
is
With
A warm
off
body
set in cool
flames
again.
house
itself
up
The
warm
grows out of
it,
increasing in size.
one only
is
actual.
We
do not need
to
APPENDIX
I.
T PURSUED
-^
in
my youth
physical ^ philosoph-
ardor.
of
an
of that
tions
day think
it
of ''body,"
**
How
the notions
not investigated.
of
was
The
fields of physical
own
its
No
M^niti. Trans.
APPENDIX
way connected.
I.
183
of the
it still
connexion ap-
appears to Dubois-
Reymond.
Now
such as to satisfy
my
mind,
I
it
was nevertheless
nat-
dominant views
of the
to
two
psychical
life is
to be
harmonised
we
are obliged,
ories of physics,
at all
I
of the
reasoned, to con-
dynamic phenomena
If
The
various
istic
If
we accept
of psychic
no other way
still
see
ception.
It is
artificial
scaffolding
em-
long run.
artifice
As a
was
in
fact,
my
employment with
means
this
cumbrous
i84
to
my
better conviction,
latently
present.^
discovered that
it
tinguish
between what we
supply.
When,
stance (a fluid)
I
for
my physical work
phenomena
soon
to dis-
see
example,
to another,
and
of conduction
ample, reproduces with the greatest ease the method of the creation of the
a (o= -fa a).
world by a division of zero-quantities into +a and
The motion of a single body as a totality does indeed appear simpler at
first glance than any other process, and this is the justification of attempts at
a /A^*/Va/ monadic theory. The thoughts of a single man are connected together; the thoughts of two different men are not. How can the processes of
the different parts of the brain of one man be connected ? In order to make
the connexion very intimate, we conceive everything that requires to be psychically connected, as collected in a single point, although the connexion is
not explained by our procedure. Thus the psychological monadic theory
rests on a motive and on an illusion quite similar to those on which the phys-
ical rests.
Let us assume for a moment the proposition in the text; viz., that the
atoms are endowed with feeling. By the space-co6rdinates x,y, z, x',y\ z'. . of
the atoms are determined in the atoms internal conditions a, jS, y, a', /?', y'...,
and vice versa. For we feel by our senses our physical environment, and our
reactions upon our environment are conditioned by our sensations. The idea
alone are directly given, to set up by the
then suggests itself, since a 3y
elimination of jc,y,z... equations directly between a/?y, a' P' y'
This view would very nearly approach to my present one, (apart from the fact
.
APPENDIX I,
exchange.
Z85
who
established
it,
on the other
is
produced by
By
friction.
Huygens
follows
refraction.
him
prevents
(for
he
familiar),
tion
fact of polarisa-
The conception
way
tive capacity,
<7/"the
but
it
eye of Fara-
for the
we mentally
facts,
(theoretically) supply
in
general,
own
view,
experience demon-
of a fact
facts that
field of
investigating
something
different,
in the place
x86
which
is
it is
does
in the place
the familiar
certain
different
When
in other aspects.
of light
enon
it
some
him
phenom-
as a thing
sound-waves
Our
unacquainted.
while placing in
relief
what
important in certain
is
what
is
important
of refraction looks
upon rays
and that
straight lines,
in other cases.
of light as
is sufficient
The law
homogeneous
for the
comprehen-
But the
they interfere.
On
is
more
as an undifferentiated
difficult.
The
fact
we
and
But when
covery of new
facts, a
circular polarisation,
may
this
hap-
and Hertz's
electric
waves furnish
As a general
rule,
however, there
is
APPENDIX /.
phenomena and
ceptlons of
187
we
that which
observe.
as auxiliary in-
definite
pur-
No
agine for a
moment
= as a kind
of geometrical
model which
all
Now,
tricity,
caloric, elec-
domain
it,
Even
to facil-
within the
must be ex-
and above
all
more information
is
not to
On
showing the
by the
is
no lack
of instances
inquiries that
were legitimate
and
of psychology.
Allow
me
to illustrate this
A physicist
by a few examples.
it is
"
z88
How
come
He
is
be reflected on the
which
to
does a luminous
If,
now,
this question,
ics,
The
question
why we
see
a psychological problem.
The
light-sensations of the
To
the
it-
self.
It is
jection.
the
The problem
luminous object-point
of the eye, in the
of the physicist
of a point
is,
of pro-
to seek the
subject this problem does not exist, as the light-sensations of the retinal spots are connected
The
en-
founded in
my
is
bound up
Our
is
APPENDIX
189
I.
table
but a part.
fills
is
That
my body. A
pro-
neither con-
itself, is
on the retina
is
blind.
He
is
accustomed
to associat-
Hence
What do we
out
how
is
be excluded,
here.
We
the image
not
felt,
filled
If
all
the question
is
it
will
of psychological questions
The
gap, furthermore,
is
at a spot blind
is
conception or
mode
of
thought which
is
valid
and
German ethnographer
of
itself
by the practice
of
igo
By its side lay the book of an Engwho deals with the same subject. The
cannibalism."
lish inquirer
latter
Islanders eat
human
and comes
to
own
my
five year-old
human
mouth
beings "
of the
is
"
**
a very beautiful
ethnographer
shall say,
we
so gladly
not everywhere to
and so on.
fill
space,"
**
when we
*'
Energy
Matter
wwj-/
^^/r/
be con-
the
stant,"
eat
of
^'We
sullies
it
out,
in
dictum
we
to their
are subject to
serviceability.
dogma,
if
not to
In such
dogma which
like
our
cre-
is
forced
ated ourselves.
APPENDIX
191
I.
and
Now
position
that
I
have
take, I
may perhaps be
able to explain
dualism
is
to
my mind
artificial
my
This
and unnecessary.
Its
matical problems,
having
we
we
ample, when
For
ex-
Ampere develops
10
mm
mercury-pressure in a minute,
am
readily dis-
my
sensations.
what
reality
But
am
have determined,
terrestrial
definite
its
The
intensity of
shall
The determination
known
of the
weight, and
oxyhydrogen gas
Z92
IS
no
The whole
less intricate.
statement, so simple
in its appearance, is
ticularly
if
we
Now
tual experiment.
physicist
who does
which
it
saying) see the trees for the woods, that he slurs over
the sensory elements at the foundation of his work.
Now
is
nothing
which
ABC
denote hy
ments
elements
.,
on such a connexion.
been made
them
of
These
ele-
no further resolu-
are
the simplest
we have
yet
may be
process as
it
of a purely
propagates
itself
through a sensitive
nerve to the spinal cord and brain of an animal and returns by various paths to the muscles,
tion produces further effects in the
the animal.
whose contracenvironment
in so doing, of
;
what
Very much
any
investigate
is
lacking,
of
feelis
it
a
is
APPENDIX I,
this process,
my
193
me
it
me
nor deceive
is
all
motion
with respect
ignorance.
Long
had
by physical influences
is
much
is
our own.
To
that which
see, to
my
to
sensations,
who
is
of the animal,
my own
more abrupt
investigating a nervous
This
how
it is
is
produced from
like.^
Psychological analysis has taught us that this surprise is unjustifiable, since the physicist deals with
is a legitimate question: To what kind of nervous prothe sensation green to be mentally added? Such questions can be
solved only by special inquiry, and not by reference in a general way to motion
and electric currents. How disadvantageous it is for us to remain satisfied
with such general conceptions can be seen from the fact that inquirers
IThe following
cesses
is
have been repeatedly on the brink of abandoning the specific energies, one of
the greatest acquisitions we have made, simply because they were unable to
discover any difference in the currents of different sensory nerves. I was
impelled as early as 1863 in my lectures on psycho-physics to call attention to
the fact that the most diverse kinds of nervous processes can conceal themselves in a current. Current is an abstraction and places in relief but one
feature of the process the passage of energy through a transverse section. A
current in diluted sulphuric acid is something entirely different from a current in copper. We must therefore expect also that a current in the acoustic
nerve will be something entirely different from a current in the optic nerve.
ANALYSIS OF THE SENSATIONS.
I^HE
194
sensations in
also
show us
The same
his work.
all
may
analysis
by analogy
of
it,
field of
sense or
daily practised
is
when he imagines
by the
the
moon
moon
The
it.
above described
is
therefore an illusion.
The
illusion disappears
(psychologically) on
a plant.
when
my own
make
observations
Before
me
of the leaf
lies
is
and sensation
visibility of the
lamp
(^)
(Z>).
the yellow
If
of a
the leaf of
united with a
of
sun or the
the place of the sun, the green (^) will pass into
brown {Fy
If
the
((9).
But
elements,
the green {A )
my
retina.
ciple
is
There
is
nothing to prevent
own eye
in exactly the
of
X Y Z.
my own
eye,
it
\i this
in prin-
this process in
same manner
my
as in the cases
ments
me
it
to its ele-
APPENDIX I.
and the gap
of another,
filled
Now in
as in physical investigations.
B C D.
upon
X yZ
pendence on
{A ), however,
we
of
,j
is
.
its
dependence
a physical element, in
is
it
its
de-
The green
a sensation.
not altered at
is
195
whether
all in itself,
/ see,
dependence,
and
cal
therefore, no opposition
of physi-
sensory sphere of
my
In the
consciousness everything
is at
The
take
ical
it,
physicist says
I find
no sensations
must be something
physical objects
The
sensations, there-
from the
entirely different
The
deal with.
psychologist accepts
To
him,
it is
it
But what
tion.
thing
Is
it
haps both ?
the one and
is
it
that
is
now
is
Or
is it
per-
so, as it is
now
intangible.
elements designated by
is
^^
the case.
C
for
me
Or does
For me the
are immediately
196
of special research
having
for
rhce
which
is
made
not
may
AB C
it is
the
form
{A, By
.)=o.
*
me
simply
Moreover,
ance of pseudo-problems.
restrict
intentionally
re-
APPENDIX
A
NEW
ACOUSTIC EXPERIMENT BY
TN A
--
which
of
II,
is
E.
MACH.l
is
placed an
From
this
branches.
One
of these
manometric capsule
is
the other
it
is
carried close to a
The
slit
of variable
through the
slit.
is
now
198
duration of which
tating mirror
gas-jet,
is
which
is
curtailed
by the
slit.
In the ro-
slit
Fig. 37.
T, electric tuning-fork.
tube.
observer
sees as
many
behind the
slit.
E, the ear.
O, the eye.
vibrations as he hears.
We can
number
and so con-
APPENDIX
tion of tone a certain
If
number
II,
199
ticed,
pitch
no-
is
distinguishable.
and twenty-eight
full
low tone
vibrations
is
of
one hundred
recognisable as a
damental, from
able.
its
it
pro-
when
the fun-
ADDENDA.
Paob
97,
Bomena may
the
LAST FOOTNOTE.
moon and
the words
chener Akademit,
Paox
Add
"The same
105.
"Compare on
II. CI.,
XIX. Bd.,
II.
Abhattdlungtn tUr
MUn-
Abtheil., 1896).-
phe-
shadow of
last line of
paragraph ix
INDEX.
.^
See Elements.
Absent-mindedness,
Benndorf, 42 footnote.
74 et seq.
Acoustic color,
138.
of, 103-105.
Adaptation, organic,
40, 83
mental,
asso-
geometrical,
After-images,
55.
of, 65
dreams,
et
observed
world, 12 et seq.
5.
152.
83.
11.
Busts,
Caloric, 185.
Attention,
et seq;
footnote.
Blind, space-sense
Anachronisms
Analysis,
85.
Afi&nity,
Automata, 83 footnote.
work
of, felt
as time, iii
its
trans-
and wandering
190.
20 footnote, 26 foot-
and
will, 173
6.
Aubert, 34 footnote.
Auditive organ, theory
Cannibalism,
footnote.
Attributes,
52.
139 et seq.
Courtship, music
in, 120-121.
io6.
Circle, 97.
D'Alembert, 126.
Darwin, 36 footnote, 38 footnote,
40, 43
Decomposition of chords,
Depth-sensation,
Complexes of sensations,
Descent of bodies,
122, i34i
Diderot, 65 footnote.
Differential coefiBcients, 49.
Differentiation, principle of
suflS-
suffi-
7.
x86.
of science,
of environment
and thought,
166-171.
Dubois-Reymond, 183.
Dvorak, 112; 113 footnote,
125 foot-
note.
function in orientation, 73
See Auditive Organ and
ToHc-Sensations.
Ear,
its
footnote.
Ego, its unstable character, 3-4 footnote its relation to bodies and the
:
Continuity, principle
of, 27,
158 et
seq.; 166.
world of sense, 8
et seq., 11 et seq..
organ
191
et seq.
163.
ject-matter
footnote.
Conic sections,
192.
power
II text
Egyptians, art
seq., 147.
Counting,
175 footnote.
tion, 164.
Corti,
52, 99 et seq.
cient, 28.
147.
174;
Determinateness, principle of
et seq., 22.
stancies
133 et seq.
39,
Deaf mutes,
116.
its
10-
IMDEX,
203
Electricity, 168.
Gay-Lussac's law,
ABC...,
of analysis, 5 et seq.;
KL M
the world,
a^
18, 25,
may be viewed
8-25, 153; of
as merely depend-
End-organs, auditive,
i8i.
123, 127 et seq.,
Energy,
whence derived,
Ghosts, fear
and
178.
Germ-plasm, 39 footnote.
Entities, 23.
Environment
Genius, 149-150.
Geometry, space-sensations and, 45;
cogency,
152.
sensations,
re-
Goethe,
of, 37
footnote.
i.
Goltz, 37 footnote.
Graber, V., 142 footnote.
value, 180.
Guebhard, 98 footnote.
Guye, Dr., 73 footnote.
movements of,
tory movements
compensa-
58-73;
Hallucinations, 87.
Hankel, H.,
Harmonics.
Harmony,
See Overtones.
Hauptmann,
67. 71.
56.
21 footnote, 126.
Heat, sensation
of, 180.
extension
and enrichment of, by concepts,
164 the goal of mental adaptation,
Heidenhain, 51.
Helmholtz, 32, 120, 122-125, 129 foot-
165.
Faraday,
185.
note
in hearing, i34-i35.
Faust, 38 footnote.
Fear, 38 footnote.
Fechner, 39 footnote, 112 footnote,
121 footnote, 138 footnote.
forms of thought,
Heredity, 36 footnote.
Hering, 23 footnote, 34, 35 footnote,
36 footnote, 39 footnote, 48 footnote,
57 footnote, 68, 79 footnote, 80, 81,
129 footnote.
186.
Hindus, The,
56.
Holtz. 61.
et seq.
Fittest
24.
Huygens,
its
envi-
185, 186.
note.
physiologi-
cal, 46.
204
Law, definition
Laws, 170.
Images, 161.
Imagination, influence
ual process,
of,
on the
vis-
99.
of, 156.
metry, 54-55.
Lever, example
Lichtenberg,
22.
Individuality, 4 footnote.
Innervation, 63, 72, 76 et seq.; sensations of, 60, 65 et seq., 79.
Light-vibrations,
Insane persons,
Lissajous, 105.
89.
and sensation,
musical,
sensation
characteristic
recogni-
ception
new chemical
con-
of, 43.
45, 82-84.
foot-
note.
83
footnote.
na.
Inverted, objects, 51-52; vision, 187
et seq.
Marchfeld, peasants
// thinks, 22.
Marcomanni,
note.
Materialism,
movement, 62
Jones, Owen, 54.
tary
Judgment, 156
et seq., 72-73.
.,
the complexes.
Mean
See
Ele-
ments.
consti-
ori-
4, 152.
96 et seq., loi.
authority,
172.
tutes, 151-156.
Melody,
136.
Memory, organic,
Kreidl, 78 footnote.
Kulke, E.,
12.
KLM.
42 footnote.
et seq.
of,
161 footnote.
harmony,
125-126,
136.
36
footnote;
148
in
in discov-
of, in
the
INDEX,
Method, in physics and psychology,
I
205
Organ
for
motor sensation,
74 et seq.
et seq., 13 footnote.
Overtones, 123,
Molecules, 152-154.
12 et seq., 193.
151, 189.
199.
Molifere, 26 footnote.
184 foot-
note.
Painting, 34 footnote.
Parallactic displacements, in vision,
64.
Monadology, 23 footnote.
Monism, 12.
Parallelism,
and
the psychical
Patriotism, 19 footnote.
Monocular, vision, 99
of
et seq.; inver-
Pedagogue, story
of, 4 footnote.
Percepts, 162.
sion, 102.
83
footnote.
Moths, 82 footnote.
Motion, reducing of everything
Permanency,
to,
Motor sensations,
the ego,
and
relative, of bodies
3, 4,
et seq.
Personality,
its origin,
character, and
import, 18-22.
147.
ear, 100;
elements
of,
loi
lin-
inver-
Names, 41,
Naming, 3,
to, 106.
161.
5.
Newton,
Phonic, 126.
Phylogeny, as explanation, 120-121.
7,
Physharmonica, 133.
Physical and psychical, no duality
between, 195.
Physical science, its character and
influence on the other sciences,
1-2; distinguished from physiological
rience, 178.
195
of, 103-105.
85-89.
Phantasms,
its
its
func-
2o6
Reaction-activity, concepts
Pigments, 34 footnote.
Plane, the geometrical, 55, 97.
Plant-memory, 36 footnote.
Plateau-Oppel phenomenon, 70.
Plateau, wire-net, 65
note.
film,
174. 176.
102 foot-
note.
Refraction,
Polychromy, 42 footnote.
Pompeiians, art of, 42 footnote, 106.
Popper, J., 17 footnote, 23 footnote,
Regularity,
54.
175 footnote.
125 et seq.
characteristic
of intervals, 148.
loi footnote.
of,
24
nature
of,
harmony,
Representation,
17,
organ
example
125-126.
154
and sensa-
of, 85 et seq.;
of
Reversible processes,
175 foot-
7, 9.
Pseudo-problems, 196.
Psychical processes, not explained
by atoms, 153.
Psychological analysis, 34 footnote.
Psychology of the senses, 152-153.
Psycho-physical law of Fechner, 39
Ribot,
117;
4.
Riehl, 24 footnote.
Romans,
footnote.
161 footnote.
of, 160.
115,
note, i8r.
of, 176.
example
in
104.
Problems, origin
Remembrance,
Pulley,
in, 69.
Relief, 99 et seq.
tion, 84-85;
Prejudice, 19 footnote.
Pressure, 184 footnote.
Properties,
Projectile,
et
seq.
harmony,
a, 163.
lumps
of, 59.
note.
Puzzle-pictures, 93.
Santonine,
13.
Saunderson, 65 footnote.
Scaffolding, artificial, in science,i83.
Schneider,
Railway
trains, relative
motion
of, 68
19 footnote.
footnote.
Rays of
light, 186.
38.
et
Schopenhauer,
INDEX.
Scientist, his struggle for existence,
19 footnote.
and
white, 97-98.
Seebeck, A.,
141.
Seeliger, 200.
energy, 116;
specific
and under-
Sensations,
2, 7, 10,
J07
energies,
85;
in
theory of the
115-116;
Spiritualism, philosophical,
note, 193.
Sense, illusions
of, 9
footnote
mem-
Shading of bodies, 90
Sight. See Visual.
et seq.
12.
162.
note.
Stereoscopic effects,
Straight lines,
properties
97.
symmetry
Superstition, 37 footnote.
Supplementary colorings, acoustic,
144 et seq., 147.
Sight-space, 80.
Silk-worm,
Square numbers,
adaptive power
of,
38
footnote.
Supplementing.
See Completing,
Surfaces,
footnote.
flat, loi
46 et seq.
Similitude, principle of, in mechan-
ics, 56.
note.
Skin-sensations, 65-66.
Sleep,
112.
J.
Soul, 4
L., 56 footnote.
seat of the, 21 footnote.
Sound-sensations,
Sound-waves,
186.
32.
Talent, 149-150.
Tannhauser, overture to, 136.
Teleology, in research, 36-40, 80.
Temperature, excess of, substituted
for time, 180-181.
74.
helps to facilitate
2o8
Theory of
colors, 44
nature
of, 185
et seq.
Thing-in-itself, 6 et seq.
115;
perspective
contraction
of,
128
of, 141-148.
126.
Unconditioned
permanent
things,
Appendix
II.
Vierordt, 70.
Vinci, Leonardo da, 34 footnote, 35
footnote, 88 footnote, 137.
Virgil, 42 footnote.
Virtuoso, musical ego of, 11 footnote.
Visiting card, experiment of, 91, 102.
Visual, pnrple, 43 apparatus, 49-50
;
process, 81
dis-
Undertones, 144.
Undulatory theory of light, 185.
Unity of the soul, 21 footnote; menfootnote.
94, 107.
Weismann,
city, 13 footnote.
20 footnote. 36 footnote,
determines space-sensations,
Witchcraft, 38 footnote.
Within and without, 44,
151, 189.
note.
tinguished, 140.
Universals,
World-purpose,
Writing,
38,
50.
Young, Thomas,
33.
i6o.
and
sense, organic
Work, mechanical,
196.
tal, 184
an analysis
hypothetical analysis
100.
Thermometers, 180.
Thing, 151. See Bodies.
117
Vanishing points,
foot-
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