CHAPTER 06: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

Mechanical properties describe the behaviour of a material subjected to mechanical forces. Materials used in load bearing applications
are called structural materials and may be metals, ceramics, polymers, or a composite selecting a material for a structural application is a
difficult process, and it typically involves consideration of several candidatematerials whose mechanical properties under a given set of
service conditions and cost constraints must be compared in order to make an optimum choice.
New technological developments oftenadvancements in materialsscience. For example, the efficiency of converting thermal energy into
mechanical and subsequently electrical energy is directly related to the inlet gas temperature in a turbine. Therefore, the maximum
turbine efficiency is related to the high temperature strength of the materials used in fabricating different turbine components. A
revolution in the jet is engine industry was brought about in the 1950s and 1960s by the introduction of nickel based alloys, which can
operate at temperature up to 1200c. in comparison, the maximum service temperature for steels is 550c, use of ceramic materials is
expected to further boost the efficiency of aircraft and auto mobile engines by permitting operating temperatures as high as 3000c,
provided the problems associated with brittleness can be solved or dealt with effectively.
Anotherexample of the influence of new materials on technological advances is the introductions of lightweight composite and oriented
polymer structuralmaterials in aircraft. These materials have higher strength to weight ratios andallow for lighter aircraft. Such plans can
carry more passengers, cargo, and fuel than conventional aluminium based aircraft and can travel longerdistances without
stopping.Withoutthese materials the 16 hours nonstop flight between New York and the pacific Rim countries would be impossible. The
latest (2007) Dr eamliner passenger aircraft designed by Boeinguses 50% composites and is 20% more fuel efficient.
Steel used in th construction of structures such as buildings and bridgesmust have adequate strength so that thesestructures can be built
without compromising safety. The plastics used for manufacturing pipes, valves, flooring, and the like alsomust have adequate mechanical
strength. Materials such as pyro lytic graphite or cobalt chromium tungsten alloys, used for prosthetic heart valves, must not fail. Similarly,
theperformance of baseballs, cricket bats, tennis rackets, golf clubs, skis and other sport equipment depends not only on the strength and
weight of the materials uses, but also on their ability toperform under and impact loading. The importance of mechanical properties is
easy to appreciate in many of these loads bearing applications in many other applications the mechanical properties of the material also
play an important role. For example an optical fibre must have a certain level of strength to with stand the stresses encountered in tis
application. A biocompatible titanium alloy used for a bone implant musthaveenoughstrength and toughness to surviveIn the
humanbodyfor many years without failure. Coating on optical lenses must resistmechanical abrasion. An aluminium alloy or a glass
ceramic substrate used as a base for building magnetic hard drives must have sufficient mechanicalstrength sothat it will not break or
crack duringoperation that requires rotation at high speeds. Similarly, electronic packages used to hour semiconductor chips and the thin
film structures created o the semiconductor ship must be able to withstand stresses encountered in various applications as well as those
encountered during the heating and cooling of electronic devices. The mechanical robust ness of small devices prepared using micro
electro mechanical system (MEMS) and nanotechnology is also important. Float glass used in automotive and buildings applications must
have sufficient strength and shatter resistance. Many components designed from plastic, metals, and ceramics must not only have
adequate toughness and strength at room temperature but also at relatively high and low temperatures.
For load bearing applications, engineering materials are select by matching their mechanical properties to the design specifications and
services conditions required of the component. The first step in the selection process requires an analysis of the materials applications to
determine its most important characteristics. Should it be strong, stiff, or ductile, will it be subjected to an application involving high stress
or sudden intense force high stress at elevated temperature cyclic stress corrosive or abrasive conditions materials with the same nominal
chemical composition and other properties can show significantly different mechanical properties as dictated by microstructure.
Furthermore, change in temperature. The cyclical nature of stresses applied the chemical changed due to oxidation, corrosion, or erosion,
micro structural change due to temperature. The effect of possible defects introduced during machining operations (e.g. grinding, welding,
and cutting tec.) or other factorscanalso have a major effect on the mechanical behaviour of materials. The mechanical properties of
materials mush also are understood so that we can process materials into useful shapers using materials processing techniques.
Mechanical properties a material subject to external forceswhich stretch it is said to be in tension, when subject to forces which squeeze
to be in compression. In discussing the application of forces to materials the concern is the forces applied per unit area, this being termed
the stress. Stress has the unit of Pascal (Pa) with 1pa being a force of a 1 newton per square metre, i.e. 1pa= 1N/m2. When a material is
subject to tensile or compressive forces, it changes in length, the term strain, strain E is used for the change in length, original length.
Since strain is a ratio of two lengths it has no units. However, strain is frequently expressed as a percentage i.e. the percentage change in
length.
Elastic and Plastic deformation: when a piece of metal is subject to a uniaxial tensile force, deformation of metals occurs, If the metal
returns to tits original dimensions when the force is removed, the metal is said to have undergone elastic deformation. The amount of
elastic deformation a metal can undergo is small, since during elastic deformationthe metal atoms are displaced from their original
positions but not to the extent that they take up new positions. Thus when the force on metals that has been elastically deformed is

removed, the metal atoms return to their original positions and the metal takes back its original shape. If the metal is deformed to such an
extent that it cannot fully recover its original dimensions, it is said to have undergone plastic deformation. During plastic deformation, the
metal atoms are permanently displaced from their original positions and take up new positions. |The ability of some metals to be
extensively plastically deformed withoutfracture is one of the most useful engineering properties of metal.
Engineering stress and Engineering strain:
Engineering Stress: Let us consider a cylindrical rod of length lo and cross sectional area Ao subject to uniaxial tensile forces F as shown in
figure 8.1 by definition,
The engineering stress on the bar is equal to the average uniaxial tensile e force F on the bar divided by the original cross-sectional area
Ao of the bar thus
Engineering stress=F average uniaxial tensile force/Ao original cross sectional area
The unit for engineering steers are:
Newton's per square meter (N/m2) or Pascal (Pa)
Where 1N/m2= 1Pa
Engineering strain: When a uniaxial tensile force is applied to a rod, such as that shown in fig 8.1
It causes the rod to be elongated in the direction of the force. Such a displacement is called strain. By definition, engineering strain which
is caused by the Acton of a uniaxial tensile force on a metal sample is the ratio of the change in length of the sample in the direction of the
force divided by the original length of sample considered thus the engineering strain for the metal bar shown in figure 8.1 is
Engineering strain E= l-lo/lo=lc (change in length)/lo(original length)
Where lo= original length of sample
L=new length of sample after being extended by a uniaxial tensile force. In most cases engineering strain is determined by using a small
length, usually 50mm, called the gage length within a much longer for example 200mm sample
The unit for engineering strain e are:
Meter per meter (m/m) Thus engineering strain has dimensionless units. In industrial practice it is common to convert engineering strain
into per cent strain or per cent elongation:
% engineering strain= engineering strain100%=%elongation
Poisson's ratio: a longitudinal elastic deformation of a metal produces on accompanying lateral dimensions change As shown in figure 8.2
b,tensile stress z produces an axial strain ez and lateral contracting of ex and ey. For isotropicbehaviour. Ex and ey are equal the ratio
V=e(lateral)/e(longitudinal)=ex/ey=ey/ez
is called Poisson's ratio. For ideal materials, v= 0.5 however for real materialsPoisson's ratio typically range from 0.25to 0.4 with an
average of about 0.3
Shear stress and shear strain
Shear Stress: Another important method by which a metal can be deformed is under the action of a shears stress. The action of a simple
shear stress couple (shear stresses act in pairs) on a cubic body is shown in figure 8.2c, where a shearing force s acts over an area A, the
shear stress (shear stress)=S(shear force)/A (area over which shear force acts)
The unit for shear stress are the same as for uniaxial tensile stress i.e N/m 2
Shear strain: The shear strain is defined in terms of the amount of the shear displacement a in figure 8.2c divided by the distance h over
which the shear acts or
=a/h =tan
For pure elastic shear the proportionality between shear stress and shear strain is
T = G

Where G is the shear modulus

Mechanical properties: mechanical properties are most important formaking right selection of materials it also helps to know whether a
particular manufacturing process is suitable for shaping the material mechanical properties are used to predict the behaviour of the
material under various load conditions These properties are very helpful for safe designing of the metal parts to various size and shape.
Stress strain behaviour
Elastic limit:
Greatest unit stress that is capable of facing without permanent deformation is elastic limit steel is more elastic than rubber. High values
of elastic limit is elastic while low values of elastic of elastic limit is elastic, while low value of elastic limit is plastic opposite to elastic is
plasticity lead exhibits sufficient plasticity even at room temperatures.
Strength: This is the ability of it to resist the application of force without breaking. The term tensile strength is used for the maximum
value of the tensile stress that a material can wit stand without breaking the compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress the
material can withstand without becoming crashed. The unit of strength is that of stress and so is the Pascal (Ps) with Pa being N/m2.
Strength are often millions of Pascal's and so Mpaare often used 1 Mpa being 106pa or 1000000pa
Elasticity: Here the behaviour is elastic but the stress strain curve is not immediately reversible. It takes a while for the strain to return to
zerotheeffects normally small fro metals but significant for polymers.
Factors of safety (FOS) factors of safety depends of the conditions of loading
FOS= ultimate strength,/working stress
Workingstress is the greatest value of stress to which a material si subjected as a matching part of a part of structures. Factor of safety is
significant for a designerin determining
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The degree of safety

The economy of design
The dependability of the material and
Permanency of design
For metals and alloys, the factors
Of safety is generally kept as 4 or 5 when the material is under steady or dead loaded. On the other hand for varying load or live
load, the factors of safety is 6 (if the stress remain same) and 8-10 (if the stress is alternating kind) Factors of safety is highs for
shock loading and is kept at 12-15 factor of safety can be fixed lower than the conventional values provided
(i) Non-destructive testing is adopted

(II) Controlling temperature variation

(III) Controlling stress variation
(iv)Materials without flaws and
V vibrations acting on the material
Ductility: Ductility is the ability of the material to be drawn from a large section to a small section that is the ability to deform
before breaking it is opposite of brittleness. Ductile material must be both strong and plastic. Ductility is measures as percentage
elongation and percentage reduction of area
% Elongation = maximum change in length/original length* 100
The anothermeasure of ductility is reduction in area at the point fracture.
%reduction of area=original area- final area/original area*100
The material having high ductility are greatly reduced in cross section before breaking
The metals having percentage elongation more than 15% are considered as ductilemetals, and the metals having less the 5%
elongation are said to be brittle metal's, between 5 to 15% elongation the metals are intermediate ductile metals
For any given material the strength and ductility are inversely proportional to each other. If any treatment which increases
strength, decrease the ductility. Thestrengthand ductility of material are appreciably affected by temperature. asthe temperature
increases the strength and elastic limit decrease and duct6tiluty increases. Most ductile metal are Gold, platinum, sliver copper,
alluvium, nickel and lead.
Brittleness: It is the property of fracturing material without any warning or without appreciable deformation. All nonductilematerial are brittle shortness is also the name for the brittleness. When material ain reds hot it is known as hot or red
shortness. On the other hand if the material is brittle when cold it is known as cold shortness. Brittleness of a material is of no
use and it is an undesirableproperty. This property finduse only in powder metallurgy. Brittleness is opposite to ductility .a castiron, concrete and glass is brittle materials having lessthen 5% elongations are considered as brittle. This property is of
importance where machine parts are subjected to sudden load.

Malleability: when materials are permanently deformed by compression without rupture. It is known as malleability. For
malleability, the materials should be plastic but need not dependent on strength. This is a useful property in
Rollingandhammering a metal into thin sheets. God, silver, aluminium, copper, tin, platinum, leas, zinc, iron, and nickel are
malleable materials..
Toughness: Toughness is the property of material which enablesmaterial to be twisted, bent or stretched under a high
stressbefore rupture. It is measure the amount of energy that unit volume of material scan absorb before it fracture. When a
material is heated, its toughness decreases.
If load is suddenly applied to two pieces one of mild steel and other of glass, the mild steel will absorb much more energy before
it fails., mild steelshence is much tougher than glass. Thus toughness is highly desirable property for structural and machine
component which have to withstand heavy shock and vibration.
Toughness is usually represented by areaunder a stress strain curved of the material the total areas under s tress stain curve is
the work expanded in deforming one cubic metre of the material until it fracture point. This work is also called modulus of
toughness.
The approximatemeasure of toughness's the product of ultimate strength and elongation which is used for the purposeof
comparison and is called merit number. Toughness is the measurement of ultimate energy strength of a material. It may be
expressed in terms for work units /volume. Where impact loads are applied. From time to time toughness is very importance.
Brass, mild steel, manganese and wrought iron aretoughmaterial.
Stiffness: stiffness is the property of material which enables material to resist deformation. Modulusof rigidity is the measure of
stiffness. The materials which suffers less deformation under load, thus high degree of stiffness. The greater the stress
requiredto produce a given strain, the stiffer is the material e.g. let there be two beams one of steel and other of aluminium.
Both are strong enoughto carry the given load but aluminium beam will sag or deflects (more than the mild steel beam) thus, the
steel been is stiffer than the aluminium beam. Starnes is measured bythe relate of stress to strain of the materials, which follows
Hook's law, their stiffness is measured by Young's modulus of elasticity. The materials which do not follow Hook's law their
stiffness varies with stress.
Stiffness is opposite to flexibility. The overall stiffness or flexibility is the function of dimensions. Shape and characteristics of the
materialswhileselecting componentsto structure or machine stiffness is kept in view. In measuring instruments, it is used in
graduating spring balances and sprig controlled.
Resilience: The capacity of a materialto absorb or storeenergy and to resist shock and impacts is called resilience. Resilience is
measured per unit volume, in stressing materialsup to elastic limit. This property is important in materials used or spring's the
maximum energy which can be stored in a body up to elastic limit is called proofresilience. Proof resilience per unit volume is
called modulus of resilience. Thus, the energy stored per unit volume at elastic limit is the modulus of resilience.
The elastic limit of annealed copper is very low thus it is not used forspring. Material also need for spring having high resilience.
Cold worked copper had much high elastic limit (and resilience) and thus it is used or springs. Resilience property is hence
associated with high elastic limit. Resilienceis alsoofimportancefor materials required to bear shock and vibrations.
Hardness: Hardness is the resistance of a material to plastic deformingusually by indentation. The term may referee to stiffness or
temper or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or cutting. Tests such as brine, Rockwell,Vickersetc., are generally employed to
measure hardness. Hardness is a measure of resistance topermanentdeformationand is related to the bond in lattice structure.
Hardness of materials depends upon the type of bonding forces between atoms, ions, or molecules and increases, like strength,
with the magnitude of these forces. Thus molecular solids such as plastic are relatively soft, metallic and ionic solidsareharder
than molecular solids. And covalent solidsarethehardest materials know hardness of metal is also increased by alloying cold work
and precipitation hardening.
There is close connection between the yield strength of measles and heir hard
Hardness is sometimes state in terms of macro hardnessand micro hardness. The macro hardness of a materialrelates to
itsresistantto larger volume displacementsIn plastic deformation.Micro hardness is the hardness of material sin microscopically
small volumes such as in grain boundaries.
Creep: Creep refers to the continuing permanent elongation for a materialunder a constanttensile load creep is time dependent
deformation of a materialsubjected to a constant stress or load although dimensional change resultingfrom creep may constitute
failure for a particularstructuralmemberregardless of whether the deformation is elastic or permanent, the ultimate creep failure
involve both permanent deformation and fracture. The phenomenon of creep is observablein metals, ionic and covalent crystals
and amorphous. Materials such as glasses, and polymers. Metals, generally exhibit creep at high temperatures, whereas plastic,
rubber and similar amorphous materials are very temperature sensitive to creep.
Fatigue: Materials subject to repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a stress much cu lower than that required to cause fracture
under steady loads. This behaviour is called fatigue and is distinguished by three main features.
(I)
Loss of strength
(II)
Loss of ductility
(III)
Increased uncertainty in strength and service life.
Fatigue results in brittle fracture with no grass deformation at the fracture due to the effect of in homogeneitiesunder
repeated loading

Fatigue is important as much as it is the single largest cause of failure in metals (bridges, aircraft, and machine
components) estimated to comprise approximately 90% all metallic failures, polymers and ceramics (except of r glass)are
also susceptible to this type of failure.
Fatigue specimens must be carefully made to avoidstress concentrations, rough surfaces and tensile residual stresses.
Tensile test and engineering stress strain diagram
The tensile test is used to evaluate the strength of metals and alloys. In this test a metal sample is pulled to failure in a
relatively short time at constant rate. Figure 8.3 illustrates schematically how the sample is tested in tension
The force (load) on the specimen being tested is measured by the load cell while the strain is obtained from the
extensometer attached to the specimen and the data is collected. The types of samples used for the tensile test
varyconsiderably. For metals with a thick cross section such as plate, a 15-mm diameter round specimen is commonly
used as shown in figure 8.4a. For metal with thinner cross sections such as sheet, a flat specimen is used as shown in
figure 8.4b.
A 50 mm gage length within the specimen is the most commonly used gage length for tensile tests.
Figure 8.3 schematicillustration showing how the tensile testing is operates
Figure 8.4 examples of the geometrical shape of commonly sued tension test specimens
(A) Standard round tension test specimen with 50mm gage length
(B) Standard rectangular test specimen with 50mm gage length
The force data obtained from the chart paper forthe tensile test canbe converted to engineering stress data, and a
plat of engineering stress versus engineering strain can be constructed figure 8.5 shows an engineering stress strain
diagram for a high strength aluminium alloy. The tensile test is popular since the properties obtained could be
applied to design different components. The tensile test measure the resistance of a material to a static or slowly
applied force the stain rates ina tensile test are very small (e=10-4 to 10-2 5-1) information concerning the strength,
young's modulus, and ductility of a material can be obtained from such a tensile test
Properties obtained from tensile testing:
(I)
Modulus of elasticity
(II)
Yield strength
(III)
Ultimate tensile strength
(IV)
Per cent elongation
(V)
Per cent reduction
Modulus of Elasticity: In the first part of the tensile test the metal is deformed elastically. That is if the load
on the specimen is released, the specimen will return to its original length. For metals the maximum elastic
deformation is usually less than 0.5 per cent. In general metals and alloys show linear relationship between
stress and strain in the elastic region of theengineeringstressstrain diagram, which is described by hook's
law (Robert Hooke (1635-1703) English physicist who studied the elastic behaviour of solids)
Or (stress) =Ee (strain)
E= stress/ strain (units of Pa)
Where E is the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus (Thomas young (1773-1829) English physicist)
The modulus of elasticity is related to the bonding strength between the atoms in a metal or alloy. Metals with high elastic
moduli are relatively stiff and do not deflect easily. Steels, for example, have high elastic moduli values of 207 GPa( S1 prefix g-gia
=109) whereas aluminium alloys have lower elastic moduli of about 69 to 76 Gpa, Note that in the elastic region of the stress
stain diagram, the modules does not change with increasingstress.
Figure 8.5 engineering stress strain diagram from a high strength aluminium alloy
Yield Strength: The Yield strength is a very important value for use in engineering structural design since it is the strength at which
a metal or alloy shows significantplastic deformation. Because there is no definite point on thestress strain curvewhere elastic
strainends and plastic strain begins the yield strength is chosen to be that strength when a definite amount of plastic strain has
occurred. For mostly engineering structural design the yield strength is chosen when 0.2 per cent plastic strain had taken place as
indicate on the engineering stress strain diagram of figure 8.6
Figure 8.6 linear part of engineering stress strain diagram of figure 8.5
The 0.2 per cent yield strength also called the 0.2 per cent offset yieldstrength is determined from the engineeringstress strain
diagram. First, a line is drawn parallel to the elastic (linear) part of the stress strain plat at 0.002mm/mm strain as indicated on
figure 8.6. Thendata the point where this line intersects the upper part of the stress stain curve, ac horizontal line is drawn to the
stress axis. The 0.2 per cent offset yield strength is the stress wherethe horizontal line intersects the stress axis, and in the case of
the stress strain curve of the yield strength is 537mPa. It should be pointed out ta the 0.2 per cent offset yield strength is
arbitrarilychosen, and thus the yield strength could have been chosen at any other small amount of permanent deformation.
Ultimate tensile strength: The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is the maximum strength reached in the engineering stress strain
curve. If the specimen develops a localized decrease in cross sectional are (commonly called necking) figure8.7, the engineering
stress will decrease with further strain until fractureoccurs since the engineering stress is determined by sing the original cross
sectional are of the specimen. The more ductile a metal is the more the specimen will neck before fracture and hence the more

the decrease in the stress on the stress strain curve beyond the maximum stress. From the high strength aluminium alloy whose
stress strain curve is shown is figure 8.5, there is only a small decrease in stress beyond the maximum stress because this material
has relatively low ductility.
An important point to understand with respect to engineering stress strain diagrams is that the metal or alloy continues to
increase in stress up to the stress at fracture. It is only because we sue the original cross sectional area to determine engineering
stress that the stress on the engineering stress strain diagramdecrease at the latter part of the test.
The ultimate tensile strength of a metal is determined by drawing a horizontal line from the maximum point on the stress stain
curved to the stressaxis. The stresswhere this line intersects the stress axis is called the ultimate tensile strength, or sometimes
just the tensile strength. For the aluminium alloy of figure 8.5, the ultimate tensile strength is 600 Mpa.
Figure 8.7 Necking in a mild steal round specimen
The ultimate tensile strength is not used much in engineeringdesign for ductile alloys since toomuch plastic deformation takes
placebefore it is reached. However, the ultimate tensile strength can give some indication of the presence of defects. If the metal
contains porosity or inclusions, these defects may cause the ultimate tensile strength of the metal tobe lower than normal.
Per cent Elongation: the amount of elongationthat a tensile specimen undergoes during testing provides a value for the ductility
of a metal. Ductility of metal is most commonly expressed as per centelongation, starting with a gage length usually of 50mm. in
general the higher the ductility (the more deformable the metal is) the higher the per cent elongation is for example, a sheet of
1.5mm commercially pure aluminium in the soft condition has a high per centelongation of 35 per cent, whereas the same
thickness of the high strength aluminium alloys in the fully hard condition has a per cent elongation of only 11 per cent.
The per centelongating of a specimen after fracture can be measured by fitting the fracture specimen together and measuring
the final elongation with callipers. The per cent elongation can then be calculated from the equation.
% elongation= final lengthinitial length/initial length*100
l-lo/lo*100
Theper cent elongation atfracture is of engineering important not only as a measure of ductility but also as an index of the quality
of the metal. If porosity or inclusions are present in the metal or if damage due to overheating the metal has occurred, the per
centelongation of the specimen tested my by decreased below normal.
Per cent Reduction in area: the ductility of a metal or alloycan be also being expressed in terms of theper centreduction in area. This
quantity is usually obtained from a tensile test using a specimen 15mm n diameter. After the test, the diameter dof the reduced cross
section at the fraction is measured. Using the measurements of the initial and final diameters, the per cent reduction in area can be
determined from the equation.
% reduction area= initial area-final area/ initial area*100
=Ao-Ag/Ao*100
The per cent reduction in area, like the per cent elongation is a measure of the ductility of the metal and is also an index of quality. The
per cent reduction in area may be decreased if defects such as inclusions and /or porosity are present in the metal specimen.
Engineering stress strain diagram of different material stress strain curves for selected alloys: Engineering stress strain curves for selected
alloys are shown in figure 8.8 alloying a metal with other metals or non-metals and heat treatment can greatly affect the tensile strength
and ductility of metals. The stress strain curves show a great variation in ultimate tensile strength. Elemental magnesium had a ultimate
tensile strength of 240Mpa whereas steel water quenched and tempered at 370C had ultimate tensile strength of 1650Mpa
True stress and true strain:
The engineering stress is calculated by dividing the applied force F on a tensile test specimen by its original force F on a tensile test
specimen by its original cross sectional area Ao. Since the cross sectional area of the test specimen changes continuously during a tensile
test, the engineering stresscalculatedis not precise. During the tensile test, after necking's of the sample occur, the engineering stress
decreases as the strain increases, leading to a maximum engineering stress increases, in the engineering stress strain curve (fig8.9) thus,
once necking being during the true stress is higher than the engineering stress. Wedefine the true stress and truestrain by the following
True stress =F (average uniaxial force on the tests sample)/Ai (instantaneous minimum, cross sectional an area of sample)
True straint=li dl/l=1n li/lo
Where Lo is the original gage length of the sample and Li is the instantaneous extended gage length during the test. If we assume constant
volume of the gage length section of the test specimen during the test, then LoAo=liAi or
Li/lo=Ao/lo and t =li/lo=1n Ao/Ai
Figure 8.9 compares engineering stress strain and true stress curves for a low carbon steel

Engineering designs are not based on true stress at fracture since as soon as the yield strength is exceeded, the material starts to deform.
Engineers use instead the 0.2 percentage offset engineering yield stress for structural design with the proper safety factors.
However,forresearch sometimes the truestress stain curve is needed.
Hardness: Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a metal to permanent (plastic) deformation. The hardness of a metal is measure by
forcing an indenter into its surface. The indenter material which is usually a ball pyramid, or cone, is made of material much harder than
the material beingtested. For example, hardened steel, tungsten carbide, or diamond are commonly number is then calculated or area off
a dial (or digital display), which is bade on the cross section are or depth of the impression. The hardness of a metal depends on the ease
with which it plastically deforms. Thus a relationship between hardness and strength for a particular metal can be determined empirically.
The hardness test is much simple than the tensile test and can be non-destructive. For these reasons the hardness test is used extensively
in industry for quality control. Various hardness test methodsare given as below.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

Mohs test
Brinell's hardness test
Vickers hardnesstest
Knop hardness test
Shore hardness test
Barcol hardness test
Shore scleroscope's method
(1)Mohs Test: Mohs test is the oldest one and is named after friendrich Mohs, a mineralogist. It was conducted on rocks and
minerals. Mohs hardness test with scale range 0to 10. Mohs hardness (Hm) is 1 for talc, 1 to3 layered minerals, 4to5 or ionic
bonded material 6to8 for ionic covalent bonded materials, 9to10 for covalent bonded materials and 10 for diamond. Gypsum,
quartz and corundumscale on Hm=2, 7to8 and 9 respectively on this scale, fingernail, measure s2.5, copper coin 3.5, window
glass 5.5 and steel file 6.5. Steel hard metal and alloy steels will comparatively measure Hm= 4to5 and 7. Led (Pb) shows its
hardness much below Hm= 1 on Mohs scale.
Brinellhardness Test: this testemploys a diamond or hardened steel ball as indenter. Theball is placed suitably in the upper
housing of brrinellhardnesstestingmachine shown in fig8.10. This machine is called a push pullbutton type machine because the
indenting load is applied by pushing a button. There are several push button each of them specifies a known load.
Beforeconducting the test the surface of the specimen is made free from oil, grease, dust and dirt. The indenting load P is applied
on the specimen gradually for a minimum of 30 seconds. Brinell's hardness test with scale range 0 to 3000. The effect of this load
is to make an indentation of depth t and diameter d as shown in figure 8.11 thebrinellhardness number (BHN) is thencalculated
as below after measuring d y an optical microscope
BHN= indenting load in (Kgl)/spherical surface area of indentation immm2
=p/d/2 [ d-d2-d2
Rockwell Hardness test: this test is more common due to tis quick and simple method. There is no need of any calculation
because the Rockwell hardness (HR) may be rad directly on the dial. The test involves application of on an initial load of 10kgf on
the specimen so that the effects of dust, dirt, oil etc. are nullified.This make Rockwell test more accurate than brinell's test
Rockwell hardness test with scale range 0 to 1000. This test employs a ball and a cone as indenters. The specimen is subjects to a
major load of about 15 seconds after the initial load. Specimen 13 scales fortesting of vide rang of materialranging from very soft
to very hard. The scales are name as A, B, C, D, E, F, M, R, etc. of these B-scale and c-scale are common employed B-scale is
preferred for soft steels and aluminium alloys while c-scale is chosen for titanium and hard steel b-scale employs a ball of 1/6
inch=1.58mm diameter. A coneindenter is used in c-scale with a cone angle 120 and point of radius 0.2mm. Hardness value
determine from b-scale isreferred to as HRB and from c-scale as HRC
Rockwellhardness method may be used to determinehardness of wires, blades, inside and outside cylindrical surfaces such as in
I.C engine cylinder and piston. Finishedcomponents can also be tested by thismethod as the indentation made is small. This
method issuitable for hardness beyond the range of brinell hardness number. Figure 8.12show rock wellhardnesstest machine.
Vickers hardness test: this test is similar to brinel'stest but uses a different type of indenter a square beside pyramid indenter of
con angle =136 betweenopposite faces of pyramids is use. The applied loads may be 5, 10 30, 50,100, or 120kgf. The Vickers
hardness Hv is calculated from
Hv=P/[d2/2sing/2]=1.8544p/d2 for =130 where p is the applied load in kgf, d is the diagonal length in mm of indentation made
by the pyramid. The indenter and the indentation are shown in figure 8.13. This test is performedfor smaller cross sections very
hard material polished and nitride surfaces, and very thin test pieces. Hardness of some materials on VHN scales is displayed.
Knoop hardness test: A rhombic pyramid as shown in figure 8.14 is used as an indenter in this test. The includeangle of the
pyramid sis 72.5 and 130. Knop hardnessHk is determine from
Hk=P/0.07026d2
Where the applied load is p in newton and d in mm is the impression of longer diagonal AB of rhombic pyramid. The diagonal of
thepyramid bear a ratio of 7:1 this test is suitable or studying micro hardness such as hardness of individual grains.
This test is suitable for determining hardness of very thin soft metals, and non-metals, plywood, paper, bark of tree, leather and
rubber, aregenerallyshoretested. there are 5scale viz. shore A, B, C, D, and E to test the hardness of material according to
theirsuitably .scale A is use for soft rubber and foamed plasticwhilescale d is use hard rubber and leathers shoretester, also call

durometer, is a handy instrument having a dial and a pointer. The painter is pressed on the specimen and the hardness is
instantaneously read onthe dial. The hardnessscaleranges between0 to 100 on these durometer.
Barcolhardnesstest: this test determines the degree of curing of polymers, and polymeric compositesA specimen showing 90% of
the barcol hardnessvalue on barcoltest is supposed to be cured .hardness of the gel coat mayalso be determined by estimating
barcolhardnessvalue. This value is temperaturedependenthence the result is specified at a certainprefixed temperature.
Shore scleroscope's method: this test is also known as rebound hardness test. In this test, a smallsteel or diamond tipped weight
is dropped from a known height;its rebalance is measure which directly tells the hardness value. Less than 1mm thick jobs and
case hardened surfaces may be tested by thismethod's theshorescleroscopehardness tester generally measure thehardness of a
sample in arbitrary terms of elasticity. Shore'sscleroscope is a portable hardness tester. It use a small weight (callout "tup or
tuppet) bounces back and the height it reaches is a measure of the hardness of the test material. Thisheight is determined by
means of a dial. Indicator witha maximum pointer, which show the highest point of the upwards movement.
Impact: Impact strength is defined as the capacity of the material toabsorb or resist shock energy beforeitsfracture. That is the
ability of the material to withstandshock loading. Impact strength is the measure of resiliency or toughness of a material under
shock loadingconditions. Material canbreakeither inductile manner or in a brittle manner depending upon strain rate and
temperature. Let us look into some day to day examples to understand impact strength. The glass is moulded at high temperature
but is sis brittle at room temperature. Thin piece of steel are ductile where as thick piece are brittle. Welded steel ships wreck
due to brittle round the hull at low temperature in the sea in secure winter. There are to methods by which impact strength cab
be measures. They are
(a) Charpy test
(b) Izod test
Charpy test: the charpy test was developed in 1905 by the French scientistGeorgecharpy. In is an important test in
understanding he fracture problem of ships during the second world we. Today it is used in many industries for testing
building and construction maternal of pressure vessels, bridges and to see how storms will affect materialsused in building.
Charpytest is easy to conduct and results can be obtained quickly but a major disadvantage is that all resultseare only
comparative.
The charpy impact test, also, known as thecharpy v-notch test is a standardised high stain rate test which determines the amount
of energyabsorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure of a given material s toughness and acts as a
tool to study temperaturedependent brittle ductile transition. The charpy impact machine and notch are shown in thefigure8.15.
The apparatus consists of a pendulum axe swinging at a notchedsample of material.Theheavypendulum is released from a
knownheight and it strikes the beam or opposite side to the notch and breaks it.The pendulumswing on and the height tot which
it rise on the otherside is measured. The energy transferred to the material can be inferred by subtracting the potential energy
reached on the over swing from the initial potential energy corresponding to thestartingposition. The dimension of the test piece
is shown in figure 8.16, the notch angle is at 45 and the radius at its peak is 0.25mm. The specimen is place horizontally as a
simple been between two axial of the machine.
The notch in thesample affects the results of the impact test. Thus it isnecessary of the notch tobe of regular dimensions and
geometry. The size of thesamplecan also affect the results. Mostly international level used standard specimen size for
charpyimpacttest
is
101055mm.
sub
size
specimen
sizeare
107.555mm,
106.755mm,10555mm,103.555mm,102.555mm shown in figure 8.16 shows notch and impact details. The quantitative
result of the impact test is the energy needed to fracture a material and can be used to measure the toughness of the material
and the yield strength. The ductile brittle transition temperature (DBTT) may be derived from the temperature where the energy
needed to fracture the material change drastically. However, in practice the is no sharptransition and so it is difficultto obtain a
precise transition temperature,. Face centredcubic (Fcc) structures do not exhibit DBTT and remains ductile at all temperatures
(example aluminium and copper based alloys) while body centred cubic (bcc) ad hexagonal close packed (Hcp)structures do
exhibit DBTT.
Thequalitative results of the impact test can also be used to determine the ductility of a material. If the materialbreaks on a flat
plane, the fracture is brittle andif the material breakswith jagged edge or shear lips, then the fracture is ductile. Ingeneral a
material does not breakin justone way or the other. Hence comparing the jagged surface to flat surfacearea of the fracture, will
give an estimate of the percentage of ductile and brittle fracture.
Izod test: the izod test is carried out on a specimen which is 75mm10mm10mm in size and has a 2mm deep notch making an
angle of 45 as shown in figure 8.17(a) the specimen is held vertically as a cantilever between two jaws, in such a way that the
striking hammer strikes the specimen on the same face as that of notch a shown in figure 8.17(b)
Izod impact testing machine are shown in fig 8.18
The upper end of the pendulum is mounted with ball bearing while the lower end of the pendulum is fixed with a hammer. The
specimen is broken by a pendulum. Impact occurs on the notched side of the specimen the angle rise of the pendulum after

rupture of the specimen is show on a graduated scale by a friction pointer. Figure 8.19 shows the graphicalrepresentation. The
energy used to rupture the specimen s calculated as follows
W=the weight of pendulum
H=height of the fall
H1=height of the rise
R=length of the pendulum
Initial energy wH=wR()1-cosa)
Energy after rupture =wR(1-cosB)
Energy required to rupture specimen =(wH-wH1) =w(H-H1)
=wR(cosB-cosA)
=wRcosB(since A=90)
Variables on impact and their effects
(1)Velocity of impact: after criticalvelocity, impact resistance appears to decrease considerably. This differed for different
material
(2) Dimensions of the notch bar: Decrease in width or depth of the specimen decrease the volume of metal subjects to
distortion.Thisdecreases the energy of absorption when breaking specimen.
(3) Angle of notch: this does not appreciable affect the results until it had exceeded 600. The impact value
improveslargely above these angels for ductile materials.
(4) Shape of notch bottom: sharpnesssoft the root of notch had influence upon the energy of rupture energy of the
rupture decreaseas sharpness increases.
(5) Temperature of the specimen: for a particular metal and typeof temperature,failures are brittle. Above the critical
temperature failure are ductile. Intransition temperature the failure is mixed.
Fracture Behaviour of Material. One of the important and practical aspects of material selection in thedesign
development, and production of new component the possibility of failure of the component under normal operation.
Failure may be defined as theinability of a material or a componentto
(1) Perform the intended.
(2) Meet performance criteriaalthough it may still be operational or
(3) Perform safely and reliable even after deterioration yielding, wear buckling, (elasticinstabilitycorrosion, and fracture
are example of situations in which a component has failed.
Engineering are deeply aware ofthe possibility of fracture in load bearing components and its potentially
detrimental effect on productivity, safety, and other economicissue as a results all design, manufacturing ,and
materials engineering us safetyfactor sin their initialanalysis s to reduce the possibility of fracture by essentially
overdesigning the component or the machine. In many fieldsuch as pressure vessel design and manufacturing, the
exist codes and standardsthat are put in place by various agencies that must be followed by all designer
andmanufacturer. Regardless of the extreme caretaken in design, manufacturing and metals selectionformachine
and components , failure are unavoidable, resulting in loss of property and unfortunately, sometime, life, every
engineershould be (1) completely familiar withthe concept of fracture or failure of material and
(2) Able to extract information from a failed components to the causeof failure. In most casesscientist and
engineercarefully analyse the failed components. To determine the cause of failure. The information gained is used
to advance safe performance and minimize the possibility of failure through improvements in design, manufacturing
processes, and material synthesis and selection, from a purely mechanical performance point of view
engineersconcerned with fracture failure of design components. That is made of metals, ceramic,
compositespolymers, or even electronic material.Fracture is the separation of a sole under stress in to two or more
parts. In general metal fracturecan be classified as ductile or brittle but a fracture canalso be a mixture of the two.
The ductile fracture of a metal occurs after extensive plastic defamation is characterized by slow crack propagation.
Brittle fracture, in constant, usuallyproceeds along characteristiccrystallographic planes called cleavage planes and
has rapid crack propagation. Figure 8.20 shows an example of a ductilefracture in an aluminium alloy test specimen.
Owing to their rapidity, brittle fractures generally load to sudden, unexpected, catastrophic failures while the plastic
deformation accompanying ductile fracture may be detectable before fracture occurs
Ductile fracture: Ductile fracture of a metal occurs after extensive plasticdeformation. For simplicitylet us consider
the ductile fracture of a round (12.5 mm-diameter) tensile Specimen If a stress is applied to the specimen that

exceeds its ultimate ensile strength and is sustained long enough, the specimenwill fracture. Three distinctstages of
ductile fracture can berecognised
(1) The specimen forms a neck, and cavities form within the necked region (see in figure 8.21 a and b)
(2) The cavities in the neck coalesce into a crack in the centre of the specimen and propagatetowardthe surface of
the specimen in a direction perpendicular to the applied stress.
(3) When the crack nears the surfacethe direction of the crack change to 45 to the tensile axis and a cup and cone
fractureresults fig 8.22 show a scanning electron micrographof a ductilefracture of a springsteel specimen and
fig8.23 shows internal cracks in thenecked regionofa deformed specimen of high purity copper.
In practice ductile fracture are less frequent than brittle fractures and the main cause for theiroccurrence s over
loading of the components. Over loading could occur as a result of
(1) improper design,including the selection materials (undersigning)
(2) improper fabrication or
(3) abuse (component sis used at load levels above that allowed by the designer)
An example of a ductile failure is given in figure 8.24 in this figure the rear axle shaft of a vehicle is shown
that had undergone significant plastic twisting (not torsion marks on the shaft) due to applied torsion.
Based on engineeringanalysis, the cause of this failure has been attributed to a poorchoice of material.
Tool steel was use for this component with a n improperly low hardness level of 22-27 HRc . The required
hardnessfor the metal was over 50 HRc, which is usually achieved through heat treatment processes
Brittle Fracture: Many metals and alloys fracture in a brittle manner with very little plastic deformation.
Figure 8.25 shows a tensilespecimen that fail in a brittle manners comparison of this figure wit figure 8.20
reversal the drastic difference in thedeformation level prior to fracture between ductile and brittle
fractures. Brittle fracture usually proceeds along specific crystallographic plumes called cleavage plane
under a stress normal to the cleavage plane (see fig8.26). Many metals with the HCP crystal structure
commonly show brittle fracturebecause of their limited number of slip planes. A zinc single crystal,
forexampleunder a high stressnormal to the (0001) planes will fracture in a brittle manner. Many Bcc
metals such as x iron, molybdenum and tungsten alsofracturein a brittle manners at low temperature
sand high stain rates.
Most brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals areTrans granular, i.e. the cracks propagate across the matrix of
the grains. However, brittlefracture can occur in an inter granular manner If the grain boundaries contain a
brittle film or if the grain boundaryregion had beenembrittled by the segregationdetrimental element.
Brittle fracture in metals is believed to take place in three stages.
(1) Plastic deformation concentrates dislocations along slip planes at obstacles.
(2) Shearstressbuilds up in places wheredislocationsareblocked, and as a result micro cracksare nucleated.
(3) Further stress propagates the micro cracks, and stored elastic strain energy may also contribute to the
propagation of the cracks
In many cases brittle fractureoccurbecause of theexistence of defects in the metals
These defects are either formed during the manufacturingstage or develop during service undesirable defects such as folds, largeincusing,
undesirable grain flow, poor microstructure, porosity, tears and cracks may form during manufacturing operations such as forging , rolling,
extrusion, and casting, fatigue cracks, embrittlementdue to the atomic hydrogen, and corrosion damage often result in final brittle
fracture. When brittle fracture occurs, itconsistentlyinitials at the defectlocation (stress rises) regardless of thecause for the formation of
the defect. Certain defects, low operatingtemperatures, or high loading rats may also cause the brittle fracture of somemoderatelyductile
material. The transition from ductile to brittlebehaviour is called a ductile to brittle tension (DBT) thus ordinarily ductile materials can,
undercertain circumstances, fracture in brittle manner. Figure 8.27 shows the brittle fracture of a snap ring due to the existence of a sharp
corner a s the defect (see arrow on the figure) not the chevron pattern pointing toward the origin of the fracture (typically found in a
brittle fracture surface)
Griffith Theory: Griffith attributed the discrepancy between the observed fracture strength of crystals and the theoretical cohesive
strength to the presence of flaws in brittle material. This theory is applicable only to perfectly brittle materialsuch as glass, and cannot be
used directly to metals. However, Griffith's ida for med a base to understand the fracture in metals.
Griffith proposed that a brittle material contains a large number of fine cracks. He postulated a criterion for the prop again of such a crack
in a brittle material. During propagation, there is a fearless of what is called the elastic stain energy, some of the energy that is stored in
the material as it is elastically deformed. Furthermore, during, crack propagation new free surfaces are creating as the faces of a crack.
This requires energy to overcome the cohesive force of the atoms, that is, it requires increases in surface energy. Griffithdeveloped a
criterion for crack propagation performing an energy balance using these two energies as: a crack propagates when the decreases in
elastics strain energy is at least equal to the energy required to create the new crack surface. The thermodynamic relationship between
their two energies determines the magnitude of the tensile stress needed to propagate a crack of a certain size to produce a brittle
fracture.

Consider a wide sheet of unit thickness of a brittle material. It has a lens shaped crack of 2c length which runs from the front to the back
face as illustrated in fig 8.28 when a longitudinal tensile stress, is applied, the crack tends to increases its length in the transverse
direction (i.e. in a perpendicular direction to the tensile stress.) when thecrack spreads, the surface area of the crack increases, but the
elastic strain energy stored in the thin sheet decreases because the elastic strains are not continuous across the cracked region. The elastic
stain energy released per unit of plate thickness is given by
Uy=y=-c22/y
Where, y is young's modulus. The negative sign indicates the releaseof elastic strain energy as the crack grown. As the crack propagates,
two surfaces are created. If is the surface energy per unit area of the material and as 2c is the crack length, the surface energy of the
crack is
Us=4c
Now, it is possible to writ an energy equation as crack forms. The change is energy U, as the crack propagates is given by
U= 4yc-2c2/y
Griffith postulated that the crack propagated under a constant applied stress, , if an incremental increase in crack length produces no
change in the total energy of the system, that is the Griffith condition for fracture is obtained if the rate at which strain energy is
releasedbalances the rate at which energy is required to create the new surface i.e., the critical value is obtained by setting
dU/dc=o d/dc[4y-2c2/y]
4-2c2/y=o
f2y/c
Whereg=critical fracture stress
Fracture toughness: impact test give useful comparative quantitative date with relatively simple test specimen and equipment. However,
these test do not provide proper data for design purposes for materialsections containing cracks or flaws, data of this type are obtained
from the discipline of fracture mechanics which theoretical andexperimental analyses are madeof the fracture of structural
materialscontain in pre-existing crack or flaws. The fracture of a material starts at a place where the stress concentrations the highest,
which may be at the top of a sharp crack, for example let us consider a plate sample under uniaxial tension that contains an edge crack or
a centre through crack. The stress at the tip of a sharpcrack is highest at the tip of a sharp crack is highest at the tip as shown in figure 8.29
The stress intensity at the crack tip is found to be dependent on both applied stress and the width of the crack. We use the stress intensity
foctor.K1 to express the combination of the effects of the stress at the crack tip and the crack length. The subscript 1 (pronounced "one")
indicates mode 1 testing in which a tensile stress causes the crack to open. By experiment for the case of uniaxial tension on a metal plate
containing an edge or internal crack (mode 1 testing) wefind that
K1=ya
Where K1=stress intensity factor
= =applied nominal stress
a= edge crack lengthor half the length of an internal through crack
y= dimensionless geometric constant or the order of 1
The critical value of the stress intensity factor that causes failure of the plate is called the fracture toughness K1c (pronounced kay one
see) of the material. In terms of the fracture stressfandthecrack length a for an edge crack 9or one half o the internal crack length)
K1c=ya
Fracture toughness (k1c) values have the SI units of Mpam. figure 8.30 is a schematic diagram of the compact type of fracture toughness
test specimen. To obtain constant valueof K1c the base dimension B of the specimen must be relatively large compared to the notch depth
dimension a so that so called plain strain conditions prevail. Palin strain conditions requires that during testing there is no strain
deformation in thedirection of the notch (i.e. in the z direction of fig 8.30a) plain strain conditions generally prevail when B (specimen
thickness) =2.54 (K1c/yield strength) 2 Note that the fracture tongues specimen has a machined notch and a fatigue crack at theend of

the notch of about 3mm depth to start the fracture during the test figure 8.30b show s a real fracture toughness test at the time of rapid
fracture
Fracture toughness values of materials are most useful mechanical design when working with materials of limitedtoughness or ductility
such high strength aluminium, steel and titanium alloys. Material that show little plastic deformation beforefracture have relatively low
fracture toughness K1c, value and tend to be more brittle, where as those with higher K1c value are more ductile. Fracture toughness
value can be used in mechanical design to predict the allowable flow size in alloys with limited ductility when acted upon by specific
stresses (a factor of safety is also applied for added safety)
Ductile to brittle transitions: the increasing yield stress associated with low temperature ofhigh strain rates can results in a material
changing its mode of fracture from ductile to brittle and this is very important when selecting materials for engineering purposes. The
transition cab is explained with the help of figure 8.31. The brittle fracturestress (f) and the yield stress (y) are platted as a function of
temperature or strain rate. The curve for brittle fracture stress rises slightly ot the left because surface energy increase as temperature
decrease. The yield stress curved shows a strong temperature dependence as in BCC metals and metal oxide ceramics the two curves
intersect and a vertical line is drawn at the point of intersection this is called the ductile brittle transition temperature. If a materiel is
stresses at a temperature or stain rate which is to the right side of this line, itwillreach its yield pointbefore it reaches the brittle fracture
stress and will undergo some plastic defamation prior tofracture. On the otherhand, applying a stew under conditions which lie to the left
of the line will result in brittle fracture. The temperature range over which the rapid changes occurs is called the transition region. If the
curves of yield stress and brittle fracture do not intersect there is no ductile to brittle transition. The yield stress curves for FCC material
generally lie below the brittle fracture stress curves and FCC material do not experience this transition.
Fatigue behaviour of materials: fatigue is the lowering of strength or failure of a material due torepetitive stress which may be above or
below the yield strength. It is a common phenomenon in load bearing components in cars and airplanes. Turbine blades, springs,
crankshafts and other machinery biomedical implants, and consumer products, such a shoes or springs, that are subject constantly to
repetitive stress in the form of tension, compressionbending vibration thermal expansion and contraction or other stresses . These
stresses are often below the yieldstrength of thematerial. However, whenthestress occurs a sufficient number of times I cause failure by
fatigue quite a large fraction of components found in an automobile junkyard belongs to those that failed by fatigue. The possibility of a
fatigue failure is the main reason why aircraftcomponents have f finitelife. Fatigue is an interestingphenomenonthat load bearing
components can fail while the overall stress applied may not exceed the yield stress fatigue can occureven if the components are subjects
to stress abovethe yield strength. A component is often subjected to the repeated application of a stress below the yield strength of the
material. Fatigue failure typically occurs in three stages. First, a tiny crack initiates or nucleates typically at the surface often at a time will
after loading being'snormally nucleation site are at or near the surface, where the stress is at a maximum and include surface defects such
as scratches or pits, sharp corners due to poor design or manufacture, inclusion grain boundaries or dislocation concentrations next, the
crack gradually propagates as the load continues to cycle. Finally, a hidden fracture of the material occurs when the remaining cross
section of the material is too small to support the applied load. Thus, components fail by fatigue because even though the overall applied
stress my remainbelowwith yield stress at a local length scale the stress intensity at exceeds the yield strength. For fatigue to occur at least
part of the stress in the material had to be tensile
Fatigue failure: A typical fatigue failure of a steel shaft is shown in figure 8.32 and it has three regions as follows.
(1)a tiny crack initiates or nucleate typically att he surface often at a time well after loading begins.
(2) the crack gradually propagates as the load conditions to cycle.
(3) a sudden fracture of the material occurs when the remaining cross section of the material is too small to support the applied load.
Stress cycle: at the outset it will be advantageous to define briefly the general types of fluctuating stress which can cause fatigue. Figure
8.33 serves to illustrate typical fatiguestress cycles. Figure 8.33a illustrates a completely reversed cycle of stress of sinusoidal form. This is
an idealized situation which is produced by an R.R Moore rotating beam fatigue machine and which is approached in service by a rotating
shaft operating at constant sped without overloads, for this type of stress cycle the maximum and minimum stresses are equal. The
minimum stress is the lowest algebraic stress in th cycle. Tensile stress is considered positive. And compressive stress is negative. Figure
8.33b illustrates a repeated stress cycle in which the maximum stressmax and minimum stress min are not equal. In itsillustration they
are both tension but a reaped stress cyclic could just as well contain maximum and minimum stresses of opposite signs or both in
compression. Figure 8.33c illustrates a complicated stress cycles which might be encountered in a part such as an aircraft wing which is
subjected to periodic unpredictable overloads due to gusts. A fluctuating stress cycle canbeconsidered to be made up o ftw3o
components, a mean or steady, stress m, and an alternating, or variable, stress a. We must also consider the range of stress r. As can
be seen from figure 8.33b the range of stress is the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress is acycle
r=max-min
Thealternating stress, then is one halfthe range of stress

a=r/2=max-min/2
The mean stress is the algebraic mean of the maximum and minimum stress in the cycles
m=max+min/2
Two rations are used in presenting fatigue data stress ration
R= min/max
Amplitude ratio a =a/m=1-r/1+r
The S-N curve: The basic method of presenting engineering fatigue data is by means of the S-N curve, a plot of stress against the number
of cycles to failure. A log scale is almost always used for N. the value of stress that is plotted can be a,max,min. The stress values are
usually nominal stresses i.e., there is no adjustment for stress concentration. The S-N relationship is determined for a specified value of
,r, or a. most determinations of the fatigue properties of materials have been made in completed reversed bending where the mean
stress is zero. Figure 8.34 gives typical S-N curves from rotating beam tests. Cases where the mean stress is not zero are of considerable
engineering importance it will be noted that this S-N curve is concernedchiefly with fatigue failure at high number of cycles (N>105 cycles).
Under these conditions the stress, on a grass scales is elastic but as we shall see shortly the metal deforms plastically in a highly localized
way. At higher stresses the fatigue life is progressivelydecrease, but the gross plastic deformation makes interpretation difficult in terms of
stress. For the low cycle fatigue region (N< 104 or 105cycles) tests are conducted with controlled cycles of elastic plus plastic strain instead
of controlled load or stress cycles.
As can be seen from figure 8.34, the number of cycles of stress which a metal can endure before failure increases with decreasingstress.
Unless otherwiseindicated, N is taken as the number of cycles of stress to causecomplete fracture of the specimen. Fatigue tests at low
stresses are usually carried out for 107 cycles and sometimes to 5108 cyclesfor nonferrous metals. For a few important
engineeringmaterials such as steel and titanium,the S-N curve becomes horizontal at a certain limiting stress. Below this limiting stress,
which is called the fatigue limitor endurance limit, the material presumably can endure an infinite number of cycles without failure. Most
nonferrous metals, like aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys, have an S-N curve which slopes gradually downward with increasing
numberof cycles. These materials do not have a true fatigue limit because the S-N curve never becomes horizontal. In such cases it is
common practice tocharacterize the fatigue properties of the material by giving the fatigue strength at an arbitrary number of cycles, for
example, 108, cycles. the S-N curve in the high cycle region is sometimes described bythebasquin equation.
Nap =c
Where a is the stress amplitude and p and c are empirical constants. The usual procedurefor determining an S-N curve is to test the first
specimen at a high stress where failure is expected in a fairly short number of cycles, e.g. at about two thirds thestatic tensile strength of
the material. The test stress is decreased for each succeeding specimen until one or two specimen do not fail in the specified number of
cycles, whichis usually at least 107 cycles, the highest stress at which a run out (no failure) is obtained is taken as the fatigue limit. For
materials without a fatigue thetest is usually terminated for practical considerations at a low stress where the life is about 108 or 5 108
cycles. The S-N curve is usually determined with about 8to 12 specimens. It will generally be foundthatthere is a considerable amount of
scatter in the results, although a smooth curve can usually be drawn through the points without too much difficulty. However, if several
specimensare tested at the same stress, there is a great amount of scatterinthe observed values of number of cycle to failure, frequently
as much as one log cycle betweenthe minimum and maximum value. Further, it had been shown that the fatigue limit of steel is subject to
considerable variation and that a fatigue limit determined in the manner justdescribed can be considerably in error.
Occurrence of basic structural changes in Ductile metal during the fatigue process: when a specimen of s ductile homogenousmetals is
subjected to cycle stresses the following basic structural changers occurs during the fatigue process/
(1) Crack initiation: the early development of fatigue damage occurs.
(2) Slip band crack growth: crack imitationoccur because plasticdefamation is not a completelyreversible process. Plastic deformation
in one direction and ten in the reverse direction causes surface ridges and grooves called slip band extrusions and slip
bandintrusions to be crates on the surface of the metal specimen as well as damage within the metal along persistent slip bands
(fig 8.35 and 8.36) the surface irregularities and damage along eh persistent slip bands cause cracks to form at or near the surface
that propagate in to the specimen along the planes subjected to high shear stresses. this is called stage1 of fatigue crack growth
and the rate of the crack growth is in general very low (for example, 1010m/cycle)
(3) Crack growth on planes of high tensile stress: during stage 1 the crack may grow in a polycrystalline metal only a few grain
diameters before it change its direction to be perpendicular to the direction of the maximum tensile stress on the metal
specimen. In this stage 2 of crack growth, a well-definedcrackpropagates at a relativelyrapid rate (i.e.micrometres per cycle) and
fatigue striations are created as the crack advances across the cross section of the metal specimen (fig8.32). Thesestriations
useful in fatigue failure analysis for determining the origin and direction of propagation of fatigue cracks.

(4) Ultimate ductile failure: finally, when the crack covers a sufficient area so that the remaining metal at the cross section cannot
support to the applied load, the sample ruptures by ductile failure.
Fatigue crack Growth rate: reliable relation of crack propagation in the stage 2 of fatigue crack growth permits the
implementation of a fail-safe design philosophy which recognizes the inevitability of cracks in engineering structures and aims at
determining the safe load and crack length which will preclude failure in a conservatively estimated service life. The
relationshipbetween fatigue da/dn (crack growth rate is the slop of the crack growth at a given value of crack length a) and K
(range of stress intensity factor, defined as k+kmax-kmin=,maxa-fmina=fa, not the value of f=1 for interior crack
and f=1.12 for edge (crack) is shown in figure 8.34. this curve has sigmoidal shape that can be divided into three regions. Region is
bounded by a threshold value of stress intensity factor (kth), below which there is no observable fatigue crack growth. Region 2
represents and essentially linear relationship between log (da/dn) and logk which is expressed as follows.
Da/dn=(ck)n
Where c and n are empirical constant that depend on the material, n the slop of the curve and c is the value found by extending
the straight line to k= Mpam (figure 8.37) the value of n is approximately 3 forsteels and in the range of 3-4 for al-alloy above
equation is known as Paris law. Region 3 is an area of accelerated crack growth as shown is figure 8.37/ form theParis law, one
can estimate the number of (cycle (Ng) a material can withstand before and it can be represented as
Ng= 2[(af2)2-(aI) 2-n/2/ (2-n) (fn () nn/2
Where ai and af are the flaw size and the flaw size required for the fracture respectively. Knowing, the material constant c and n,
we can estimate the number of cycles required for failure for a given cyclical stress.
Factors controlling the fatigue strength of metal: the fatigue strength of a metal or alloy is affected by factors other than the
chemical composition of the metal itself. Some of the most important of these are:
(1) Stress concentration: fatigue strength is greatly reduced by the presence of stress raises such as notches,holes, keyways or
sharp changes in cross sections. For example, the fatigue failure s fig8.32 started at the keyway in the steel shaft.
Fatiguefailure can be minimized by careful design to avoid stress raises whenever possible.
(2) Surface roughness: In general the smoother the surface finish on the metal sample, the higher the fatigue strength. Rough
surfaces create stress raises that facilitate fatigue crack formation.
(3) Surface condition: since most fatigue failure originate at the metal surface; any major change in the surface condition will
affect the fatigue strength of the metal. For example surface hardening treatments for steels such as carburizing and nit
riding, which harden the surface, increase fatigue life. Decarburizing, on the otherhand,which softens a heat treated steel
surface, lowers, fatigue life. The introduction of a favourable compressiveresidual; stress pattern on the metal surface also
increases fatigue life.
(4) Environment: if a corrosive environment is present during the cyclic stress of a metal the chemical attack greatly accelerates
the rate at which fatiguecracks propagate. The combination of corrosionattack and cyclic stresses ona metal is known as
corrosion fatigue.
(5) Creep behaviour of material: when a metal or an alloy is under a constant load or stress, it may undergo progressive plastic
deformation over a period of time. This time dependent strain is called creep. The creep of metal and alloys is very
importantfor some types of engineering designs, particularlythoseoperating at elevated temperature. For example an
engineer selecting an alloy for the turbine bladesof a gas turbine engine must choose an alloy with a very low creep rate so
that the blades canremain in service for a long period of time before having to be replaced due to theirreaching the
maximum allowable strain. For many engineering designsoperating at elevated temperature, thecreep of metals is the
limitingfactor with respect to how high the operating temperaturecan be
Let us consider creep of a pure poly crystalline metal at a temperature above one half itsabsolute melting point 1/02 tm
(high temperature creep)let us also consider a creep experiment in which an annealed tensile specimen is subjected to a
constant load of sufficient magnitude tocauseextensive creep deformation. When the change of length of the specimen over
a period of time is plotted against time increments creep curve, such as the one shown I fig 8.38, is obtained.
In the idealized creep curve of curves there is first an instantaneous rapid elongation, of the specimen o, following this, the
specimen exhibitsprimary creep in which the strain rate decrease with time. The slope of thecreep curve. (D/dt,or)is
designed the creep rate. Thus during primary creep the creep rate progressively decreases with time. After primary creep a
second stage of creep occurs in which the creep rate is essentially constant and is thereforealsoreferred to as steady state
creep finally a third or tertiary stage of creep occurs in which the creep rate rapidly increase with time up to the stain at
fracture. The shape of the creep curve dependsstrongly on the applied load (stress) and temperature. Higherstresses and
higher temperature increasesthe creep rate.
During primary creeps the metal strain hardness to support the applied load and the creep rate decrees with time as further
strain hardening becomes more difficult. At higher temperatures (i.e. above about 0.5Tm, for the metal) during secondary creep,
recovery processes involving highly mobile dislocations counteract the strain hardening so that the metal continues to elongate
(creep) at a steady state rate. The slope of the creep curve (d/dt=) in the secondary stage of creep is referred to as the
minimum creep rate. During secondary creep the creep resistance of the metal or alloy is thehighest. Finally for a constant loaded
specimen, the creep rate accelerates in the tertiary stage of creep due to necking of the specimen and also to the formation of
voids, particularly along grain boundaries. Cracking in a stainless steel that has undergone creep failure.at low temperature (i.e.
below 0.4Tm) and low stresses metals show primary creep. But neglible secondary creep since the temperature is too low for

diffusional recovery creep. However, if the stress onthemetal is above the ultimate tensile strength the metal will elongate as in
an ordinary engineering tensile test. In general, as both the stress on the metal undergonecreep and its temperature are
increased, the creep rate is also increased(fig8.40)
The creep test: the effects of temperature and stress on the creep rate are determined by the creep test. Multiple creep tests are
run using different stress levels at constant temperature or different temperature at a constant stress, and the creep curves are
plotted as shown in fig 8.41. The minimum creep rete or slope of the second stage of the creep curve is measured for each curve,
as indicted in fig 8.41. The stress to produce a minimum creep rate of 10-5 per cent/h at a given temperature is s common
standard for creep strength. In fig 8.42 the stress to produce a minimum creep rate of 10-5 per cent /h for stainless steel canbe
determined by extrapolation.
Creep rupture test: the creep rupture of stress rupture test is essentially the same as the creep test except that the loads are
higher and the test is carried out to failure of the specimen. Creep rupture data are plotted as log stress versus log rupture time
as shown in fig 8.43. In general the time for stress rupture to occur is decreases as the applied stress and temperature are
increased. Slope change as observed in fig 8.43 are causes by factors such as recrystallization, oxidation, corrosion or phase
changes.
Creep stress rupture data for high temperature creep resistant alloys are often plotted as log stress to rupture versus a
combination of log time to rupture and temperature. One of the most common time temperature parameters used to present
this kind of data is the Larsen miller (L.M) parameter, which in a generalized form s
P (L.M) =T [logtr+C]
Where T = temperature
Tr= stress rupture time, h
C= constant, usually of the order of 20
Creep resistant materials: material for machine parts and structural component used at elevated temperature must be creep
resistant. A number of engineering processes require the use of elevated temperature. Cracks stills in the petroleum industry
need high temperature to accelerate the reaction rates (recall the Arrhenius law) and to control the reaction products. In energy
such as the Carnot cycle is dependent on the difference between the operatingtemperature T2 and the sink temperature T1
=T2-T1/T2
A thermodynamic efficiency of less than 30% with the use of steam at atmospheric pressure can be increased to more than 75%
for a gas turbine with an operating temperature of 900c. Material used for turbine blades must be creep resistant. They should
not deform by creep during service. Creep can result in seizing of the blades with the turbine casing. As a first requirement, the
materials to be used at high temperatures must have a high melting point as creep becomes significant at temperature greater
than 0.4Tm. Refractory oxides such as Mgo and Al2o3 have high melting points and, as such are very suitable for high
temperature use. Their brittleness limits their use to applications whereonly compressive stressareencountered., recent
developments of tougher ceramics such as silicon nitrite (Si3N4) indicate that selected parts of a heat engine such as piston rings
and cylinder heads can be produced from ceramicmaterials. Metals and alloys can be used under more versatileconditions. Most
creep resist not alloys consist of a base metal of a fairly high melting point. Since the ability to fabricate into required shapes of
the components, the relative cost of production and thedensityare the other considerations in the choice of a metal, metal such
as tungsten with a melting point of well over 3000c have no found wide spread use. The commonly used high temperature alloys
are iron base. Nickel base and cobalt bas alloys. All the threebasemetals have moderately high meting point around 1500 c. the
creep resistance of this alloys in the temperature range from 0.5Tm hp to the melting point is considerably improve by a special
strengthening process called dispersionHarding. In TD (thoria disperse) nickel, line particular of thoria (tho2) are dispersed in the
nickel matrix and the antiparticle distance is small enough for effective high range of dislocation motion in the matrix. TDnickel
maintains its strength up to 0.9Tm. The strengthening mechanism is similar to that of precipitation hardening under plastic
deformation; however, there is an important difference. At high temperature, a precipitationhardened alloy would lose its
strength by the coarseningprocess the tiny precipitate particlewouldcoalesce into fewer and biggerparticles, thereby increasing
the antiparticle distance and lowering the strength. The high surface are to volume ratio of the fineparticlesprovidethe driving
force forthe coarsening process. In dispersion hardening, on the other hand, oxide particles are embedded in a metallic matrix,
with very little solubility oftheoxide in the metallic phase. This negligible solubility effectively prevents coarsening, as the
coalescence of the particlecanoccur only by the smaller particles dissolving and precipitating on larger particle in nickel base
super alloys, the coarsening is prevented by a different mechanise. Here, the precipitate particles, of Ni3 (Ti, Al) form an interface
with the matrix of a very low energy, about 0.005jm-2 (serg/cm2)
Cold working cannot be used for creep resistance. At temperature above 0.4Tm, recrystallization will occur quite readily and the
cold worked strength will be lost on recrystallization sold solution strengthcan be use for better creep resistance, in the same way
as in plastic deformation. A fine grained material is desirable forbetter mechanical properties in a low temperature application
where creep is not important. On the other hand, for high temperate application, fine grained metals are to be avoided, as grain
boundary sliding can add to creep deformation. There are no grain boundaries in a single crystal and therefore grain boundary
sliding is not a problem here. Single crystal titanium turbine blades have been triedout;even though the cost is an inhibiting
factor her. A less expensive way of minimizing grain boundary sliding is to orient the grains in such a way that the boundary
sliding does not result in cavities at grain junctions. These cavities if present can coalesce together and cause creep fracture.