The settlement patterns in early times were generally influenced by the physical features

of the geographical space. Physical features, particularly the natural drainage, and the
climatic conditions and fertility of the soil all of these were important for the purpose
of economic activities, mode of production and subsistence of the people. The geologists'
identified the region of Bengal as a 'delta', whereas the scholars dealing with the history
of Bengal were inclined to highlight variations in the topography of the entire area for the
purpose of explaining the historical processes. For example, Barrie M. Morrison divided
the whole of Bengal into five distinct major geographical regions, viz., the deltaic plain, the
Tippera surface, the Sylhet basin, the Madhupur jungle, and Varendra uplands (made of
Pleistocene alluvium).^ Deltaic Bengal is bounded by the Tippera hills on the east, the
Shillong plateau and Nepal Terai on the north and the highlands of the Rajamahal and
Chota Nagpur on the west.'' Whereas the deltaic plain, the Tippera surface and the Sylhet
basin consist of recent alluvial deposits, the Madhupur jungle and the Varendra uplands,
which are contiguous to one another, comprise large tracts of ancient Pleistocene alluvium
and are formed of oxidized ferruginous soils. The twin geological region (MadhupurVarendra) has remarkable drainage pattern and abundant vegetation cover.'' The
Varendra area, which measures three thousand six hundred square miles, stretches from
the northern reach of the flood plains of the Ganga to the alluvial fan of the Nepal
foothills. The Brahmaputra marks its eastern boundary and separates it from Madhupur,
whereas its western edge merges into the lands lying across the Garo-Rajmahal gap.^ This
Varendra area, identified elsewhere^ as the heartland of Pundravardhana, which may well
be called the Pundra-Varendra region, was the more ancient part of Bengal. By analyzing
the distribution of population in the 1941 Census of undivided Bengal, Morrison observed
that the Madhupur jungle and Varendra were more thinly populated than other parts of
Bengal.'
Historically, Pundra-Varendra was an important region of early Bengal. Many politically
important urban centres of ancient and early medieval Bengal, such as Pundranagara
(Mahasthangarh), Bangarh, Paharpur, and (jauda-Pandua were located within the region.
The Mahasthan Inscription of the Mauryan period, said to be the oldest epigraphic record
found in Bengal,^ referred to Pundranagara. But this urban centre, along with Gaudapura
and Gauda had attained significance as early as the sixth-third centuries BC, as known
from the literary sources, such as the Astadhyayi of Panlni, the Arthasastra of Kautilya,
and the Haraha inscription of the Maukhari king, Isanavarman. By the medieval period^,
Gauda (or Gauda-Pandua) came to be known as Laksmanavati (Lakhnauti). VarendrT
(Varendra) found mention in the Talcher Grant of Gayadatungadeva (dated the last
quarter of the tenth century), the Kaviprasasti of the Ramacaritam, and the Silimpur,

Tarpandlghi and Madhainagar inscriptions as a flourishing urban centre within

Pundravardhana.' It may be presumed that the growth of these important urban centres
had been possible because of the support derived from the resource-rich rural
hinterlands. The Himalayan streams passing through this region fed the major rivers of
Bengal, including the Karatoya (which river still flows by the ruins of the ancient city at
Mahasthangarh, although the volume of water has undoubtedly decreased). However, all
the major rivers have changed their courses during the last three hundred years thereby
causing major problems in tracing the ancient settlements in the region based on the
evidence of the available sources."

Urbanization The epigraphic records and archaeological remains offer a fair view of the
early urbanization processes in the Pundra region. The Mahasthan Fragmentary Stone
Plaque Inscription"^ of the third century BC. which happens to be the earliest epigraphic
record pertaining to the region, mentioned 'Pundanagala' ('Pundranagara', i.e., the city of
the Pundra), identified with Mahasthangarh, the site at which the fragmentary stone
inscription was recovered. Pundranagara was the headquarters of the Pundras and the
Samvamglyas. At that time, northern Bengal or Puijdravardhana was presumably a province
of the Maurya Empire. As mentioned earlier, the inscription recorded that the local
governor was ordered to distribute funds from the imperial treasury during times of
scarcity caused by flood, fire or pests. This information suggested that the Mauryan
rulers exercised political control over the Bengal delta or, at least, the area later on known
as Varendra, at which Pundranagara"'' was located. Presumably, this 'nagara' or urban
centre had continued to flourish from about the fifth century BC."^ That Mahasthangarh
''"' For details, Ranjushri Ghosh, "The Ri"er Karatoya in the Persi)ective of the Evolution
of Sattletnents in Pundravardhana/Varendra - third centur}' EC to rn.d-twelfth ci-ntury:
An Archaeological Study", in Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 62"'' Session,
Bhopai. 2001, p.1010; F.J. Monahan, Early History of Bengal, Oxford. 1925; reprint 1974,
Bharatiya Publishing House, Varanasi, p.201- R.K. Mookerji, Chandragupta Mavrya and His
Tiwes, Delhi, 1943; reprint 1974. Motilal Banarsidass. Delhi, p.24; R.C. Majumdar

On the basis of epigraphic records pertaining to the region, B.M. Morrison commented
that in the Madhupur jungle and the Varendra where the flooding was much less severe
the homesteads were frequently grouped in villages centered on crossroads or a river
crossing.

The decline of the rule of the Candras corresponded to the rise of the Varmans who
seized Vikramapura and ruled over deltaic Bengal for a short period. The Varman kings also
issued land grants some of which were wiihin the heartland of Pundravardhana.
Harivarman's Samantasar grant (dated around AD 1090-1136) registered the gift of one
hdla, six droms and eighty other units of cultivable land (ksetra) in the village of
Varaparvvata located in Mayuravidja-v/iS-avc lying within the Vancavasa-mandala of
Pundravardhana-^/zw^//. The donee was a Brahmana who served as a santivarika. He was
the son of Padmanabha-Sarnian and the grandson o'i Shattaputra Vedagarbha.The
donation was made as daksina for the service of the santivarika. Tlie donee belonged to
the Asvalayana sdkha of the Rg Veda and was a member of the Vatsa gutra. The
inscription mentioned that he was attached to the five usual pravaras but it did not clearly
spell out the pravara-names.^^ Bhojavarman's Belava Copper-plate grant (the 5* regnal
year, dated to AD 1150) recorded the donation oi' one pdtaka and nine and one-fourth
dronas of land in the village Upyalika located in KausambT-Astagaccha-A:/zaw(3'a/a within
the Adhapattana-waw/a/o situated within the jurisdiction of Pundravardhana-6/;nA://.^'
The grant was made to a Brahmana named Ramadcvasarman, who was the
santyagdradhikrtdya or the officer-in-charge of the room H'here propitiatory rites were
performed. The inscription stated that the donee was the great-grandson of
PTtambaradeva-Sarman, the grandson of .Fagannathadeva-Sarman and the son of
Visvarupadeva-Sarman. The great-grandfather of the recipient had migrated from
Madhyadesa and resided in S\6A\\a\a-grdma in Uttara-Radha.^^ Thus, the family of the
donee had been settled in that iocalily for a long time. 1 he donee was a student of the
Kanva sakha of the Yajw Veda branch of Vedic knowledge. He belonged to the Savarna
gotra and the pravaras of Bhrgu. Cyavana, Apnavana. .Aurva and Jamadagni. He was also
attached to the Vajasaneya carana of Vedic studies.'*'' The information contained in the
Belava Copper-plate grant of Bhojavarman points to the fact that apart from the
santivarikas., the santyagaradhikrlayas were also held in high esteem by the rulers and so
frequent donations of landed property were made to them. The transfer of property was
also for the purpose of inducing Brahmanas proficient in Vedic studies from outside Bengal
to settle in different parts of the Varman kingdom. The rulers perhaps wanted to promote
Vedic knowledge among the Brahmarias of the area and to encourage the advancement of
Brahmanical culture and to extend the knowledge of iron technology from the region of
Madhyadesa to Pundravardhana so as to augment higher agricultural productivity.^^

The period of Sena rule in Bengal witnessed political unrest caused by frequent invasions
of the Muslim elements in midland India (Madhyadesa), causing insecurity to the lives and
occupations of the Brahmanas residing in the affected areas. Some of the distressed
Brahmanas are said to have left their original homes in the disturbed areas for safer
places in search of comfortable livelihood. The later Palas, the Varmans and also the Sena
kings of Bengal welcomed the displaced Brahmana families from midland India by settling
them in large tracts of land, which action sen/ed to strengthen the position of the
resident Brahmana community in Bengal. The frequent donations made to the Brahmanas in
Bengal attracted Brahmanas from other regions other than midland India as well.
Vijayasena's Barrackpur grant (dated to the twelfth century) recorded the gift of
fourpato^as of land yielding two hundred kaparddaka puranas (unit of currency used in
Samatata), which land was located in the village of Ghasasambhoga-bhattavada (Bhatpada)
within Khadi-v/>av(7 of Pundravardhana-Zj/iwfc'/."^ The donation was made to
Udayakaradeva-Sarman as a fee for the performance of homa during the kanakatuldpurusa
mahddana ceremony performed by the MahadevJ VilasadevT on the occasion of a lunar
eclipse.*^" He belonged to the Vatsa gntra and the Bhargava, Cyavana, Apnavana, Aurva
and Jamadagnya pravaras. He was attached to the six angas of Asvalayana sakha of the Rg
Veda. Udayakaradcva-Sarman was the great-gi"andson of Ratnakaradeva-Sarman, grandson
of Rahaskaradeva-Sarman and son of BhaskaradevaSarman.^' The inscription infomied
that Ratnakaradeva-Sarman, the donee's greatgrandfather, was an immigrant from
Madhyadesa and that the family had formerly resided at Kantijohga.^^ Most likely the
family of the donee had been living in the locality for a long time.
As many as six copper-plate grants in the Pundravardhana-^.^wA:^/ have been ascribed to
the reign of Laksmanasena. The Tarpandlghi grant (dated to AD 1180) recorded the gift of
land measuring 120 ddhavapas and five unmdnas lying within the jurisdiction of the village
of VelahisthT situated in Varendrl within Pundravardhana-6/?wA:r/.^^ The land was
granted according to the hhumicchidranydya. It was bounded on the east by an udranga
(dyke) of one ddhavapa of rent-free fertile land belonging to the deity of a Buddhist
monastery; on the south by the Nicadahara tank; on the west by the Nandihari-pakundT;
and on the north by the ditch called Muliana. The tract included forests, khila (unused
Iand),ya/o (water), go-ksetra (pastures), tamdla (betel-nut) and coconut trees and yielded
an annual income of 150 kaparddaka purana^?^ The grantee was the Brahmana IsvaradevaSarman. He received the gift as fee {daksina) for his service as a dcdrya (teacher) in the
hemdsvarathamahdddna ceremony.' The document traced the genealogy of the donee for
three generations, [t mentioned Isvaradeva-Sarman as the great-grandson of
Hutasanadeva-Sarman, grandson of Markancleyadeva-Sarman and son of Laksmldharadeva-

Sarman of the Bharadvaja gotra. He belonged to the pravaras of Bharadvaja, Angirasa and
Barhaspatya and was a sludent of Kauthuma sdkhd of the Sdmaveda. In fact, most of the
land grants made by Laksmanasena were for the Brahmanas of the Kauthuma sdkhd of the
Sdmaveda.'^ Evidently, the family was residing in Bengal, since the charter said nothing
about the family's place of origin. Similarly, Laksmanasena's Sundarban grant (2"'' regnal
year, dated AD 1180) announced the gift of five contiguous plots of land measuring three
hhii-dronas, one khadika, twenty-three unmanas and two and half hakims, according to the
standard of thirty-two cubits. The land was situated in Mandala-grawa belonging to the
Kantallapura-cfl/wrato in the Khadl-mandala of Pundravardhana-^/zw^//". The donee was
the santyagarika Krsnadharadeva-Sarman, priest-in-charge of the room where propitiatory
rites were performed. The land included homestead land {vastu-bhumi). The grant was
made no according to the bhumicchidranyaya and yielded an annual income of fifty puranas.
The inscription provided the genealogy of the donee for three generations. He was the
great-grandson of Jagadharadeva-Sarman, grandson of Narayanadharadeva-Sarman and
son of Narasirnhadharadeva-Sarman of the Gargya goira. He belonged to the Angirasa,
Brhaspati, Usanas, Garga and Bharadvaja/^ravoras. He was a student of the Asvalayana
sakha of the Rg Veda. Interestingly, the record indicated that the plots which bordered
the gifted land were held by the Brahmanas. The plots on the east, west and north were in
the possession of the santyagarikas., whose names were Prabhasa, Ramadeva, Visnupani,
GodalT and Kesava GodalT."^
Laksmanasena's Anulia grant {^^ regnal year, dated to AD 1181) also recorded the gift of a
field measuring one pdtaka, nine dronas, one adhavdpa, thirty-seven unmdnas and one
kakimkd according to the vrsabha-sankara-nala (unit of measurement). The field yielded an
income of one hundred kaparddaka-piirdnas per annum. The donated land was situated
within the jurisdiction of the village Matharandiya in Vyaghratatl-manc/a/fl (a part of
Samatata lying in the delta of the Gahga) of Pundravardhana-MwM. The gifted land had on
its eastern boundary banyan trees, on the southern border the settlement of Jalapilla, on
the western limit the village of SantigopT, and on the northern border the settlement of
Malamancavatl. The land included forests, barren tracts (khila), water, betel-nut and
coconut trees, grass, puti plants and pasture grounds (go-ksetra). The recipient of the
grant was Pandita Raghudeva-Sarman of the Kanva branch of the Yajur Veda. The grant
recorded the genealogy of the donee for three generations. He was the great-grandson of
Vipradasadeva-Sarman, grandson of SaiTikaradeva-Sarman and son of DevadasadevaSarman belonging to the Kausika gotra and to the Visvamitra, Bandhula and
Kausika/7ravaras''. The in,scription referred to the donee as apandita or scholar. It may
therefore be inferred that the Sena rulers encouraged the settlement of scholarly

Brahmanas for the spread of education or knowledge within the territory. It appears that
they were respected by the rulers and were held in high esteem in the contemporary
society.
Laksmanasena's Madhainagar grant ("IS"* regnal year, dated to AD 1204) recorded the
gift of the village Dapaniyapataka located on the Ravana lake near Kantapura-vr/// in
VarendrT within Pundravardhana-A/7///t;'/. The land was gifted according !o the
bhumicchidranyaya to one Go^'indadeva-Sarn1an, a sapiyagcirika or an official in charge of
the room for performing propitiatory rites. The granted land measured one hundred
bhukhadis and ninety-one khadikas and yielded an annual income of one hundred and sixtyeight kaparddaka-puranas. The gift was made for the performance of the aindn mahdsanti
ceremony on the occasion of the mulabhiseka and for the maintenance of the Brahmanas
associated with the religious ceremonies performed in the propitiatory room and the
deities worshipped there. The record provided irTormation about the genealogical tree of
the donee. He was the great-grandson of Damodaradeva-Sarman, grandson of RamadevaSarman and son of Kumaradeva-Sarman of the Kausika gotra. He was attached to the
Pippalada branch of the Athai-vn Veda '^ The inscription made no mention of the donee's
pravoras or rhe family's place oforigin or earlier residence.
Laksmanasena's RajavadT (Dharyya-^'mwa) or Bhawa! grant (27"' regnal year, dated to AD
1206) recorded the donation of land divided into four plots situated in two villages
Madisahansa and Vasumandana south of the river Banahara in Bandana within the
Pundravardhana-6/72vA;/'/. The land was granted TO one Brahmana Padmanabha to please
the god Narayana and to secure the welfare of the two major queens. The gifted land
measured six patakas, one drona and twenty-eight kakinis and yielded four hundred purams
per annum. The recipient of the gift, Padmanabha, was a pathaka or reciter of holy texts.
He was associated with Kauthuma sakha of the Samaveda. The charter revealed that the
donee was the great-grandson of Buddhadeva-Sarman, grandson of Jayadeva and son of
Mahadeva of the Madgallya gotra; he belonged to the Aurva, Cyavana, Bhargava,
Jamadagnya and Apnavsna pravaras^^^ The document however did not give any information
on the homeland of the donee's ancestors.
Kesavasena's Edilpur grant (issued from Phaspha-grama in the 3'"'' regnal year, dated to
AD 1225-1228) recorded the transfer of one pataka of land in the village Talapadapataka
to a Brahmana named Isvaradeva-Sarman. The village was situated in Vikramapura within
Pundravardhana-^Z/wA:;/. 7'he grant was made to the Brahmana for praying for the long
life of the king on the occasion of his biith anniversary. The gifted land yielded two
hundred drdmmas per annum. The charter traced the genealogy of the donee. He was the

great-grandson of Parasaradeva-Sarman, grandson of Garbhesvara-Sarman and son of

Vanamalideva-Sarman. The donee was appointed nltipathaka or reciter of moral texts. He
belonged to the Vatsya gotra and the pravaras of Bhargava, Cyavana, Apnuvat, Aurva and
Jamadagnya."''* From the evidence of the document it is obvious that he was a learned
Brahmana
Visvariipasena's Madhyapada (or Dacca or Calcutta ! VafigTya Sahitya Parisat) Copperplate
grant (dated to the twelfth century) recorded the grant of eleven plots of land altogether
measuring 336'/2 unmanas situated in the Nfivya-mandala to the Brahmana AvapallikaPandita Halayudhasarinan on the occasion of the birth anniversary of the king, coinciding
with the lunar eclipse. The donated land included eleven plots distributed over six villages,
i.e., (a) two plots in the Ramas\ddh\-pataka measuring sixtyseven and three-fourth iidanas
and yielding hundred pw/a^as annually of which nineteen and eleven-sixteenth was received
from the Barajas; (b) one plot in the village of Vinaya-tilaka measuring twenty-five udanas
and yielding sixty puranas\ (c) one plot of land measuring one hundred sixty-five udanas
in \]\k\i\a-patdkas which lay in Navasamgraha-6'a/wrato included in 'vJadhuksTrakar/vr/// and yielding one hundred forty annually; (d) three plots of land measuring twentyfive udanas, seven udanas and ten udanas respectively in Deuiahasti in Lauharidaca/M7'aA in Vikramapura yielding one hundred puranas; (e) twelve and Ihree-fourtl'.
udanas in Ghagharakatti in Ura-caturaka within CandradvTpa; (f) and twents-foui udanas in
PatiladivTka in CandradvTpa yielding \\\mdxQd puranas. The tolal art-a yielded sn annua!
income amounting to five hundred piirdnas. The grant was made accor;!ing to tiie principle
of bhumicchidra. The village Ramasiddhi-/amto. wherein sixty-sc'-c-n and three-foyLh
udanas of land was granted, has been identified with a village ir, (be GaurnadT area of
Bakerganj district.'^ According to traditions, it was an enlightenod -village inhabited by
the Srotriya Brahmanas. The village of Vinayatilaka has not yet been definitely identified,
although it is clear from the text that its eastern boundary extended up to the sea (Bay
of Bengal) and the estuary of the river Meghna. The region possibly enjoyed special
navigational facilifies, corresponding "to the tract of country lying along the lower course
of the Padma."""^ The location of Aj'ikula-pataka in Navasamgraha-can^ra/cn in
MadhuksTraka-m'r/// and its connection with the Navya region has not been traced with
certainty The charter mentioned that all the plots of land distributed over the six villages
were included within the jurisdiction of Pundrvardhana-Zj/jufez. Evidently, the donee who
received the grant was the great-grandson of LaksmTdharadeva-Sarman, grandson of
DevadharadevaSarman and son of Adhyayadeva-Sarman of the Vatsya golra and belonging
to the pravaras of Aurva, Cyavana, Bhargava, .lamadagnya and Apnuvat. He was a scholar of
the Kanva sdkho of the Yajur Veda}^'' Barre M. Morrison observed that some of the plots

were acquired by purchase and the oth(;rs were p.i-esontea as gifts by a number of
persons connected with the royai court.'' *"

http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/61841/11/11_chapter%205.pdf

Visvarupasena's Madanapada Copper-plate grant (14* regnal year, dated to AD 1206- 1220)
recorded the donation of two plots of land in the village PinjokasthT situated in
Vikramapura within Pundravardhana-^/jwA://. The land was granted to the Brahmana
Visvarupadeva-Sarman who was a srutl-pathaka or the reciter of moral text for acquiring
merit as described in the Siva Purana. The donated land comprised two plots situated in
two different localities in the village of PinjokasthT. One was in the locality called
Kandarpasankarasa and yielded an annual income of five hundred puranas. The other was
located in the area called Narandapa and yielded one hundred twenty-seven jf^wraw^s
annually. Thus the total income from the donated land was six hundred twenty-seven
puranas per annum. The grant was made in accordance with the principle of bhumicchidra.
The donee was the great-grandson of Parasaradeva-Sarman. grandson of
Garbhesvaradeva-Sarm$n and son of Vanamalideva-Saiman of the Yatsya gotra. He
belonged to the pravaras of Bhargava, Cyvana, Apnuvat, Aurva and Jamadagnya. Nothing is
known about the measurement of the donated land or the scholarship of the donee. Barrie
M. Morrison felt that the donated land was situated in the two villages of PinjokashthT
and Narandapa.''*^' But R.R. Mukherji and S.K. Maity thought that the latter was a
locality within PinjokasthT.'"

A series of recently discovered copper-plate inscriptions in India and Bangladesh bear

testimony to the rule of a Deva dynasty in parts of northern and southeastern Bengal
pertaining to the thirteenth century. Perhaps it was at the time the rule of the Senas was
on the decline and they were preoccupied with resisting the Muslim invasions.
Damodaradeva's Mehar Copper-plate grant (dated Saka Era 1156, 4"^ regnal year = AD
1234) recorded the donation of a number of plots in Vagisagrama in Mdnar-khandala (in
Candpura sub-division, Tipperah district, now in Bangladesh) in Paratay'i-visaya in
Samaiata-mandala of Pundravardhana-Z>/7wto'. The grant included sixteen homestead
sites and other plots of land approximating four and eleven-sixteenth dronas
(approximately one chati) and yielding twenty-tlve puranas. The donation was made to
twenty Brahmanas who belonged to the Savarna, Bharadvaja and Atreya gotras. The gifts
were received on behalf of all the donees by one Kapadi of the Savarna gotra. The
grantees were referred to as residents of different villages, viz.. (a) Kanyamala,
Purvagrama in Daksina-Radha (identified with a village of the same name, situated seven
miles to the west of the Murshidabad town); (b) Siddhalagrama (identified with a modern
village under Laspur Police station in the Birbhum district); (c) Dindasa (related to modern
Dimsa or Disa in Burdwan district); and (d) Kesarakona (associated with a village bearing

the same name in Bankura district)."^ The geographical features of the donated land do
not find any mention in the document. However. Puspa Niyogi observed that all these
villages, with the exception of Kanyamala, were included among the fifty-six gamis of the
Radhlya Brahmanas in the genealogical accounts (Kulapafijika) of the Brahmanas of Bengal.
Niyogi further observed that the Brahmanas of Siddhalagrama enjoyed a high reputation
for their scholarship and piety throughout Bengal and that there was demand for them in
other parts of the sub-continent wherever the rulers were pursuing a policy to strengthen
the cause of Brahmanism."^