MANCHANDA, KUDRAT & TIWARI 61

Tropical Ecology 43(1): 61-74, 2002 ISSN 0564-3295

© International Society for Tropical Ecology

Soil survey and mapping using remote sensing

M.L.MANCHANDA, M.KUDRAT & A.K.TIWARI

Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre, Dehradun 248001, India

Abstract: Soil survey constitutes a valuable resource inventory linked with the survival of
life on the earth. The technological advancements in the field of remote sensing and Geo-
graphical Information System have been a boon for such surveys. Present paper describes the
role of remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) technologies for mapping
and characterizing soils at various scales. The spectral behaviour of soil and its components,
which is fundamental to deriving information from remote sensing data, is also discussed with
illustrations. Furthermore, the scope of present day remote sensing data for varying levels in-
formation generation is also reviewed.

Resumen: El levantamiento de suelos constituye un valioso inventario de recursos ligado a

la supervivencia de la vida en la tierra. Los avances tecnológicos en el campo de la percepción
remota y los Sistemas de Información Geográfica han representado un gran adelanto para este
tipo de levantamientos. El presente artículo describe el papel de las tecnologías de percepción
remota y de Sistemas de Información Geográfica (SIG) para la elaboración de mapas y la carac-
terización de suelos a varias escalas. También se discute e ilustra el comportamiento espectral
del suelo y sus componentes, el cual es fundamental para derivar información a partir de datos
de percepción remota. Además, se revisa el ámbito y alcance de los datos actuales de percepción
remota para varios niveles de generación de información.

Resumo: A prospecção do solo constitui um precioso elemento no inventário de recursos de

que depende a sobrevivência da vida na terra. Os avanços tecnológicos no campo da detecção
remota e dos Sistema de Informação Geográfica constituíram um impulso notável para tais
prospecções. O presente artigo descreve o papel da detecção remota e das tecnologias do Sis-
tema de Informação Geográfica (SIG) no mapeamento e caracterização do solo em diferentes
escalas. O comportamento espectral do solo e dos seus componentes, que são fundamentais
para obter informação dos dados da detecção remota, é também discutido e ilustrado. Revê-se,
além disso, o objectivo dos dados da detecção remota actual, para vários níveis de produção de
informação.

Key words: Carbonates, mineralogy, moisture, organic matter, remote sensing, salinity, spectral
behaviour, soil, texture.

Introduction imperceptible particularly when viewed in the

time frame of human lifespan. However, catastro-
Soil systems like most natural systems, are in phic events such as high intensity storms can ac-
dynamic equilibrium. Most changes are slow and celerate erosion processes resulting in measurable
Address for Correspondence: M.L.Manchanda, Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre, Indian Space Research Or-
ganisation, 4, Kalidas Road, Dehradun 248001, India.
62 SOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING
changes. The changes are mainly in the structure
and composition of the material and such changes
are referred to as ‘structural changes’. Changes are
measurable directly or indirectly or may be in-
ferred from behaviour of the system. Many of the
changes are related to uses of the soil. These ‘per-
formance-related changes are more important as
they can be quantified, particularly in economic
value terms (Szabolcs 1994).
An intimate knowledge of the kind of soils their
spatial distribution is a prerequisite in developing
rational land use plan for agriculture, forestry, irri-
gation, drainage etc. Soil resource inventory pro-
vides an insight into the potentialities and limita-
tion of soil for its effective exploitation. Soil survey
provides an accurate and scientific inventory of dif-
ferent soils, their kind and nature, and extent of
distribution so that one can make prediction about
their characters and potentialities. It also provides
adequate information in terms of land form, ter-
races, vegetation as well as characteristics of soils
(viz., texture, depth, structure, stoniness, drainage,
acidity, salinity and so on) which can be utilized for
the planning and development.
More than ninety percent of world’s food pro-
duction is dependent on soil (Venkataratnam &
Manchanda 1997). The scientific documentation of
the properties of Indian soils dates back to 1898
when J.W Leather distinguished four major groups
of soils namely Indo-gangetic alluvial soils, black-
cotton or regular soils, red soils lying on metamor-
phic rocks and lateritic soils (Velayutham 2000).
The earliest proposals for study of soils of India on
a nationwide scale can be traced back to 1940
when Rao Bahadur B. Vishwanath, the then Impe-
rial Agricultural Chemist, mould the idea of taking
up soil survey on a country wide basis with co-
operation from soil scientists of the states. During
1948, Dr. A.B. Stewart of Macaulay Institute, Ab-
readeen carried out studies on fertility of Indian
soils and submitted a report entitled “Simple Ex-
periments on Cultivators’ Field”. He suggested
that soil survey based on soil climatic zones should
be conducted so that a correlation could be made
between soil types and crop yields. In the year
1954, Dr. F.F. Raickens, a soil specialist from USA
was invited by Govern-ment of India to advise on
soil survey work to be taken up in India. Based on
the recommendations of Dr. Raickens, the All In-
dia Soil Survey scheme was initiated in 1956 at
the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI)
with four regional centres located at Delhi, Cal-
cutta, Nagpur and Bangalore to carry out recon-
naissance soil survey, correlate and classify soils
and prepare small scale soil maps. A soil survey
manual describing the methods of conducting soil
survey to suit our conditions was prepared and
made available in 1960. A revised soil map of India
was brought out in 1962 on the basis of soil survey
and soil classification done by the State and Cen-
tral Soil Survey Organization. During 1969, the
All India Soil and Landuse Survey Organization
was bifurcated on the basis of developmental and
research work. A new organization “National Bu-
reau of Soil Survey and Landuse Planning” was
established in Nagpur. The establishment of In-
dian Photointerpretation Institute (IPI, now In-
dian Institute of Remote Sensing) in 1966 provided
the training support to various soil surveyors on
the use of aerial photographs. The initial soil sur-
veys were based on either ground methods or
through on a systematic aerial photointerpretation
approach. A number of studies on soil survey were
carried out by various workers in India in different
regions using aerial photographs. Use of satellite
remote sensing for soil survey and mapping re-
ceived appreciation during early 1980s in India,
and based on the potential of remote sensing tech-
niques it was decided to map all the States and
Union Territories of India on 1:250,000 scale fol-
lowing a multiphased approach consisting of image
interpretation, field survey, soil analysis, classifi-
cation, cartography and printing (Velayutham
1999).
The use of digital image processing for soil
survey and mapping was initiated with the estab-
lishment of National Remote Sensing Agency and
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres. The
initial works carried out by Venkatratnam (1980);
Kudrat et al (1990) and Karale (1992) demon-
strated the potential of digital image processing
techniques for soil survey. A number of modelling
studies were simultaneously carried out to derive a
variety of information from soil maps, e.g. land
evaluation, land productivity, soil erosion and
hydrologic budget (Kudrat et al 1990; Saha et al
1991; Kudrat 1996; Kudrat et al 1995, Kudrat et al
1997).
Development of satellite remote sensing
for soil studies
Before the launch of Landsat-1 (in 1972), ae-
rial photographs were being used as a remote sens-
 MANCHANDA, KUDRAT & TIWARI 63

ing tool for soil mapping, and, exhibited their po-
tential in analysing physiography, land use and
erosion status. Subsequently, 1972 onwards satel-
lite data in both digital and analog have been util-
ized for preparing small scale soil resource maps
showing soil sub-groups and their association. The
high resolution Landsat TM and Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite (IRS) LISS II data which became
available during mid eighties, enabled soil scien-
tists to map soils at 1:50,000 scale, which is used
for district level planning. At this scale soils could
be delineated at association of soil series/family
level. The SPOT and IRS -PAN data offered stereo
capability, which has improved the soil mapping
efforts.
Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS-1A, 1B,
1C and 1D) provide state-of-the-art database for
natural resources inventories. Many studies have
been conducted to explore the potential of LISS-I
and LISS-II data for soil resource mapping both at
1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scale. Several studies have
been initiated on potential use of IRS-1C, LISS III
and PAN data for mapping soils and it is expected
that information on scale 1:25,000 to 1:12,500
scale could be generated through combination of
these data (Kudrat et al 2000). Studies are also
being carried out to explore potential of Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) data for soil moisture
(Mohan et al 1990) estimation.
Spectral behaviour of soils
Spectral response pattern of soil is generally
governed by a number of factors. The properties of
soils that govern their spectral reflectance are col-
our, texture, structure, mineralogy, organic mat-
ter, free carbonates, salinity, moisture and the ox-
ides/hydroxides of iron and manganese. Chemical
compositions of the soil influences spectral signa-
ture of soils through the absorption processes. In
near infrared (NIR) and middle infrared (MIR)
domain, absorption feature of soil components in

Table 1. Summary of vibrational features (Source: Bear 1968).

Constituents/Modes Reactions Absorption wavelength (nm)

H2O - Symmetric stretch 3106

- Asymmetric stretch 2903

- H-O-H bend 6080
Stretching fundamental 2770
A1-or Mg-OH bend 2200 or 2300
Oxides - Fundamental stretching 5000
Hematite - Fe-O fundamental stretching 20000
Carbonates 7000, 11000-12000
13000-15000
Phosphates 9250, 10300,18000
28500
Sulphates 9000, 10, 200, 16000, 22200
Gypsum - Overtones and combination of OH stretching in molecular 1750, 2300
water
- Fundamental bending mode of constitutional water 6000
- Si-O bending around 5000
Silicates - Si-O stretching 1000
- Si-O-Si, A1-O-Si stretches 12000-15000
- (Si, A1)-O-(A1, Si) stretch 15000-20000
- Deformation and bending modes of O-(Al, Si)-O, 20000-40000
(Si, A1)-O-(Si, A1) O-(A1,Si)-O
- A1, Si-O metal valence stretching 20000-40000
64 SOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING
solid phase originate primarily from the vibrations
of bounded nuclei. A summary of vibration fea-
tures and corresponding absorption wavelengths
are presented in Table 1. In addition to vibrations,
molecular rotation and transition may occur in the
pores where gas and water molecules reside, which
also results in higher absorption in MIR region.
Soil water exhibits absorption peaks (Fig. 1) at
about 1450 nm, 1880 nm and 2660 nm (Hoffer
1978). Electronic transition processes require
much higher energy levels which causes absorp-
tion of light at lower wavelengths. Transition ele-
ments (Fe, Mn, Ti etc.) explain most of the de-
crease in reflectance observed towards the lower
wavelength spectral domain (Hunt & Salisbury
1976; Hunt 1980). Organic matter absorbs strongly
in shorter wavelength as well as in the infrared
region due to the presence of various functional
groups and conjugate bonds (Hoffer 1978; Hunt
1980). Drake (1995) studied the reflectance spectra
of evaporite minerals, which have diagnostic spec-
tra due to vibration of H and NO bonds. Only the
anhydrous Cl- and SO4- salts do not contain any
diagnostic features and cannot be distinguished
from each other. Large grain size samples exhibit
numerous well developed absorption features at
wavelengths less than 1600 nm and smaller grains
exhibit fewer less developed features in this region
and well developed features at wave lengths more
than > 1600 nm (Fig. 2).
Absorption features that appear in the spectra
of minerals and rocks are due to either electronic
or vibration processes. However, it is vibration
process that is important in evaporite minerals
(Crowley 1991). Vibration absorption features are
Fig. 1. Effect of iron oxide and organic matter on spec-
tral reflectance of soil (Source: Sinha 1987).
Fig. 2. Characteristic peaks of water and hydroxyl
bonds (Source: Baumgardner et al. 1985).
caused by excitation of bonds between anion
groups. Many of the spectral features in the min-
erals studied here can be explained by vibration
absorption due to water molecules in or on these
minerals. Other features are caused by vibration of
carbonate (CO3-), nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium
(NH4+) bonds.
The spectral response of water illustrates
many of the properties of vibration features. For a
molecule of n particles there are 3n-6 fundamental
vibrations. As water has three particles it has
three fundamental vibrational modes that occur at
wavelengths longer than 2500 nm. The exact fre-
quency of these fundamental adsorptions depends
on the strength of the hydrogen bonds and thus
varies according to whether the water is gas, solid
or liquid. Absorption features at shorter wave-
lengths than these fundamentals arise from linear
combinations and overtones of these fundamental
adsorptions. These are seen in the 400 to 2500 nm
region.
Water molecules in minerals may occur in five
different ways: (1) as water molecules physically
absorbed to the surface of mineral grains; (2) as
water in fluid inclusions; (3) as water in ill-defined
sites in the crystal structure; (4) as water in chan-
nels in the crystals that are not essential to the
crystal structure (zeolitic water); and (5) as water
that forms an essential part of the crystal lattice
(Hunt et al. 1971a, 1971b; Hunt 1972). Water oc-
curring in the first three ways is largely unrelated
 MANCHANDA, KUDRAT & TIWARI
to mineralogy and its absorption feature near 1400
and 1900 nm is indicative of this. Many of the an-
hydrous salts investigated exhibit these absorption
features as they have hydroscopic properties. Wa-
ter occurring in the last two ways produces nu-
merous features arising from overtones and com-
binations of fundamental absorptions long ward of
2500 nm.
Spectra acquired from different specimens of
the same mineral exhibit variations due to
changes in grain size, shape and structural order
(Crowley 1991; Gaffey 1987). For example, arago-
nite and calcite have features due to the vibration
of C-O bonds, although they are chemically identi-
cal the absorption features have slightly different
positions (Gaffey 1987). As some of the minerals
examined in this study have numerous crystal
forms (e.g., gypsum) the positions of their absorp-
tion features can be expected to vary slightly.
Apart from the absorption processes, dielectric
discontinuities encountered in the soil background
media cause scattering. Other sources of variations
in soil optical properties are linked to the porosity
and both microscopic and macroscopic surface
roughness. The presence of -OH group and H2O
molecule in soil minerals is also responsible for low
reflectance of soils (Hunt 1980; Irons et al. 1989).
Soil texture refers to relative proportion of sand,
silt & clay and affects the spectral reflectance of the
soils due to its influence on water holding capacity
and the size of soil particles. Finer the particles
Fig. 3. Typical spectral curves for various soils and non
soil classes (Source: Venkataratnam 1980).
65
size, the soil surface becomes smoother and more
incoming solar energy is reflected. An increase in
particle size causes a decrease in reflectance. How-
ever, silt content of soil is considered as major con-
trolling factor for spectral reflectance. The reflec-
tance becomes lower as the silt content decreases
(Hoffer 1978). However, it is commonly observed
that sandy soil exhibits higher reflectance than that
of clayey soil, which is due to abundance of macro
pores and air-soil interface that cause multiple re-
flection/scattering. Spectral signatures of a few soils
are presented in Fig. 3.
Soil erosion, an important soil degradation
process can influence soil spectra. Soil erosion in-
fluences indirectly by influencing soil surface
roughness and iron content in top soils. So the
more is the erosion the more will be soil reflectance
(Latz et al. 1984) in the longer wave length of visi-
ble and NIR region.
Need and scale of soil mapping
The soil maps are required on different scales
varying from 1:1 million to 1:4,000 to meet the re-
quirements of planning at various levels . Because
the scale of a soil map has direct correlation with
the information content and field investigations
that are carried out. Small scale soil maps of 1:1
million are needed for macro level planning at na-
tional level. The soil maps at 1:250,000 scale pro-
vide information for planning at regional or state
level with generalized interpretation of soil infor-
mation for determining the suitability and limita-
tions for several agricultural uses and requires
less intensity of soil observations and time. The
soil maps at 1:50,000 scale where association of
soil series are depicted, serve the purpose for
planning resources conservation and optimum
land use at district level and require moderate in-
tensity of observations in the field. The large scale
soil maps at 1:8,000 or 1:4,000 scale are specific
purpose maps which can be generated through
high intensity of field observations based on maps
at 1:50,000 scale of large scale aerial photographs
or very high resolution satellite data. Similarly,
information on degraded lands like salt affected
soils, eroded soils, waterlogged areas, jhum lands
(shifting cultivation) etc., is required at different
scales for planning strategies for reclamation and
conservation of degraded lands (Venkataratnam
1999).
66 SOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING
State of the art: remote sensing technology for
soil and land degradation mapping
Though conventional soil surveys were provid-
ing information on soils they are subjective, time
consuming and laborious. Remote sensing tech-
niques have significantly contributed speeding up
conventional soil survey programmes. In conven-
tional approach approximately 80% of total work
requires extensive field traverses in identification
of soil types and mapping their boundaries and
20% in studying soil profiles, topographical fea-
tures and for other works. In the case of soil sur-
veys with aerial photographs or satellite data con-
siderable field work with respect to locating soil
types and boundaries is reduced owing to synoptic
view. Remote sensing techniques have reduced
field work to a considerable extent and soil
boundaries are more precisely delineated than in
conventional methods.
The satellite data were utilized in preparing
small scale soil resource maps showing soil sub-
groups and their association for about three dec-
ades (Mirajkar & Srinivasan 1975; NRSA 1976;
1978; 1979 & 1981). Survey of literature reveals
that remote sensing data from Landsat MSS were
used for mapping soils (NRSA 1978; 1979; 1981)
and degraded lands like eroded lands, ravinous
lands (Kudrat et al. 1977; NRSA 1981), salt-
affected soils (Venkataratnam & Rao 1977;
Venkataratnam 1980) and shifting cultivation ar-
eas (NRSA 1979). Landsat TM, SPOT and IRS sat-
ellites enabled to map soils at 1:50,000 scale at the
level of association of soil series due to higher spa-
tial and spectral resolutions. In one of the major
projects in Department of Space, Government of
India – “Integrated Mission for Sustainable Devel-
opment”-the soil mapping has been taken up at
1:50,000 scale for about 175 districts/blocks in the
country. With the availability of PAN data with
5.8 m spatial resolution from IRS-1C/1D satellites
soil resources mapping at 1:25,000 or larger scale
has been attempted using PAN merged LISS-III
data. The IKONOS data has the potential for farm
level soil mapping (>1:10,000).
At NRSA, the maps of salt-affected soils for en-
tire country have been prepared at 1:250,000 scale
using satellite data from Landsat TM / IRS sensors
with accepted nation-wide legend for mapping salt
affected soils in association with Central and State
government organizations. The salt-affected soils
are also mapped at 1:50,000 scale on limited scale
using satellite data. Multitemporal satellite data is
being used for monitoring salt-affected soils on op-
erational basis. Satellite data have also been util-
ized in qualitative assessment of soil erosion in
North Eastern states of Manipur, Tripura and
Arunachal Pradesh and to monitor eroded and
shifting cultivation areas in Tripura (NRSA 1990).
Similarly, remotely sensed data from TM and IRS-
LISS-I/II, have also been used in studying ravi-
nous lands, waterlogged areas and impact of min-
ing on forest environment.
Soil mapping methods
Soil surveyors consider the topographic varia-
tion as a base for depicting the soil variability. Even
with the aerial photographs only physiographic
variation in terms of slope and aspects and land
cover are being practiced for delineating the soil
boundary. Multispectral satellite data are being
used for mapping soil upto family association level
(1:50,000). The methodology in most of the cases
involves visual interpretation (Biswas 1987; Karale
et al. 1981). However, computer aided digital image
processing technique has also been used for map-
ping soil (Epema 1986; Korolyuk & Sheherbenko
1994; Kudrat et al. 1990) and advocated to be a po-
tential tool (Kudrat et al. 1992; Lee et al. 1988).
Visual image interpretation
Visual interpretation is based on shape, size,
tone, shadow, texture, pattern, site and associa-
tion. This has the advantage of being relatively
simple and inexpensive. Soil mapping needs iden-
tification of a number of elements. The elements
which are of major importance for soil survey are
land type, vegetation, landuse, slope and relief.
Soils are surveyed and mapped, following a 3 tier
approach, comprising interpretation of remote
sensing imagery and/or aerial photograph (Mulder
1987), field survey (including laboratory analysis
of soil samples) and cartography (Sehgal et al.
1989). Several workers (Karale 1992; Kudrat &
Saha 1993; Kudrat et al. 1990; Sehgal 1995) have
concluded that the technology of remote sensing
provides better efficiency than the conventional
soil survey methods (USDA 1951) at the recon-
naissance (1:50,000) and detailed (1:10,000) scale
of mapping. A soil map generated through visual
interpretation of satellite images at 1: 50,000 scale
is given in Fig 4.
 MANCHANDA, KUDRAT & TIWARI 67

Fig. 4. Large scale soil map of part of Doon valley prepared from PAN and LISS III merged data.

Computer-aided approach (Karale 1992; Kudrat et al 1990; 1992; Mulders &

Epema 1986; Sehgal 1995). However, there is a
Numerical analysis of remote sensing data
need to have an automated method for accurate
utilizing the computers has been developed be-
soil boundary delineation (Harmswarth et al 1995)
cause of requirement to analyze faster and extract
with a transdisciplinary and integrated approach.
information from the large quantities of data. The
computer aided techniques utilize the spectral
variations for classification. The pattern recogni-
Case study
tion in remote sensing assists in identication of
Kudrat et al (2000) evaluated the capability of
homogeneous areas, which can be used as a base
various IRS sensors for soil mapping, ranging from
for carrying out detailed field investigations, and
Wide Field Imaging Sensor (WiFS) to IRS-LISS III
generating models between remote sensing and
and PAN data. The study was carried out in part
field parameters.
of Doon valley in India (Fig. 5). An improvement in
The major problem faced in conventional soil
the delineation of soil boundaries has been ob-
survey and soil cartography is the accurate de-
served owing to increased spatial resolution. The
lineation of boundary. Field observations based on
number of classes were expected to be proportional
conventional soil survey are tedious and time con-
to the spatial resolution of the sensor. The fractal
suming. The remote sensing data in conjunction
dimension for possible number of classes in a given
with ancillary data provide the best alternative,
spatial resolution was computed using total num-
with a better delineation of soil mapping units
68 SOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING

Fig. 5. Soil map of Doon valley prepared from WiFS.

ber of classes detectable using WiFS and other exhibited inherent crudeness due to poor radiome-
sensor data. The total number of classes were re- try of PAN data and the resampling of the LISS III
lated to the increased resolution in comparison to data. Authors concluded that improvement of PAN
WiFS as: to multispectral mode with increased radiometric
Y = Sd resolution may nearly double the number of delin-
where, Y is the multiplication factor for obtaining eable classes. However, since the fractal dimension
total number of classes in a given sensor data with is area specific, total number of classes/units may
reference to WiFS data, S is the resolution get limited due to variability of actual soil units on
enlargement factor with reference to WiFS data the ground.
and d is the fractal dimension.
The study indicated that in comparison to 8 no.
of soil classes delineated from WiFS data, potential Table 2. Total number of classes actually ap-
classes delineable from merged product of IRS 1C peared on soil maps generated for part of Doon
PAN and LISS III data is 57 (Table 2) whereas the valley and potential classes computed through
fractal analysis.
actual number of classes delineated was 34. The
IRS PAN and LISS III merged product was gener- Sensor Actual classes Potential classes
ated by using Hue, Saturation and Intensity (HSI)
IRS WiFS 8 8
transformation images of LISS III data, replacing
the intensity image with PAN image, and, trans- IRS-LISS-II 21 21
forming the HSI (PAN replaced) image back to IRS LISS-III 24 26
RGB. In this process, though the images of the
IRS PAN + LISS III 34 57
spatial resolution of 5.8m could be generated, it
 MANCHANDA, KUDRAT & TIWARI
Kudrat et al. (2000) suggested that minimum
fieldwork for WiFS data for ground truth verifica-
tion and sample collection for about 600 km2 area
is about 10 days. For preparing 1:50,000 scale
map for the same area using LISS II and LISS III
data the field work requirement was worked out
as minimum of 32 days and 36 days. respectively.
For mapping at 1:12,500 scale using combination
of IRS PAN and LISS III data, a minimum of 90
days are required for the field verification and
sampling. The field work includes verification of
boundary, profile observation, correlation and
fixation of series. The efforts for chemical analy-
sis also increase with the increase in scale, which
is mainly due to the increased number of soil
samples as a result of increase in soil mapping
units.
The analysis of cost indicated that the cost of
preparation of soil map at the scale of 1:250,000
using WiFS data is about Rs. 70 per sq. km. Soil
mapping at 1:50,000 scale using LISS-II and LISS-
III costs about Rs. 124 per sq. km and Rs. 185 per
sq. km, respectively. The cost comes to Rs. 496 per
sq. km for 1:12,500 scale mapping using IRS LISS-
III+PAN merged data (Table 3). While generating
a map at 1:12,500 scale, preparation of base map is
difficult, since Survey of India topographic maps
are available at 1:50,000 scale. Optical enlarge-
ment tends to cause distortions at the peripheral
parts of the map. Considering the cartographic
limitations of 1:50,000 scale, one dot (.) being 12.5
m on the ground, an error of 2-3 pixels becomes
inherent. It can be resolved by using large-scale
map which are not available currently. However,
the problem of base map was solved by geometri-
cally registering the IRS-1C PAN data with SOI
toposheet and enlarging the information suitable
computer based model. The digital enlargement of
this map to 1:12,500 scale was found free from dis-
tortion.
Table 3. Estimated cost of soil mapping per
hundred sq. km area for various data types.
Sensor Total cost (Rs.)
WiFS 7,050
LISS II 12,386
LISS III 18,500
PAN+LISS III 49,600
Conventional methods (1:12,500) 5,00,000
69
Discussion
From previous review it could be concluded
that remote sensing technology for the soil scien-
tists in developing countries is only a mapping
tool. Mapping scale is 1:50,000 or smaller. Detailed
soil mapping (1:10000 scale) is not possible be-
cause of coarse spatial resolution of satellite data.
However, the data provided by IRS 1C PAN and
LISS III is expected to provide information on
large scale (1:25,000 to 1:12,500). Digital remote
sensing and use of Geographic Information System
(GIS) are yet to gain momentum in addressing the
various issues in soil survey.
Although there is a tremendous scope of the
usage of remote sensing. The studies on soils,
quantitative aspects of soil fertility, soil mineral-
ogy, hydrological aspects and use of thermal re-
mote sensing of soils are yet to be explored. For
mapping soil, pedologists still use classical con-
cept of soil- landscape models. Only spectral in-
formation, many times, fails to provide landscape
information – a base for soil resource mapping .
Soil is the combined product of rock type, land-
form or topography, vegetation cover and climate.
Thus, single landscape-model or spectral-soil
models will not suffice to predict soil boundary
(Lee et al 1988; Weismiller & Kamingsky 1978)
accurately. This calls for development of knowl-
edge-based classification system for soil. Soil is a
three dimensional natural body and is character-
ised by surface and subsurface diagnostic horizon
characteristics. There is a need to develop a sen-
sor which has a capability to predict depth and
subsurface information (Doolittle 1987). With the
advent of remote sensing technology (with higher,
spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution) and
GIS , integrated approaches must be followed.
Microwave remote sensing also merits attention
for soil related studies.
Future prospects and conclusions
Technology of remote sensing is advancing.
Narrow band imaging spectroscopy in optical and
thermal region of electromagnetic spectrum will
provide comprehensive insight into various as-
pects of soil and their properties and to answer
the quantitative aspects of soil science, namely,
soil mineralogy, soil fertility, soil organic matter,
soil moisture and thermal properties of soils. Soil
biochemistry is completely untouched. There is a
70 SOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING

Table 4. Spectral/Dielectric/lonic conductivity features of soil.

Objective/Phenomena Relevant Spectra Region Optimum Spectral Resolution
VIS (445 to 700 nm)
Soil Colour 445nm 10-20 nm
Organic matter 490 nm 10-20 nm
Broadband absorption due to 520 nm 10-20 nm
(i) Fe-bearing minerals 565 nm 10-20 nm
(ii) Carbonates 620 nm 10-20 nm
(iii) Sulphate 670 nm 10-20 nm
Erosional features 683 nm 10-20 nm
NIR (745 TO 1035 nm)
Vegetative cover 711 nm 10-20 nm
Human content 720 nm 10-20 nm
Weak absorption due to 780 nm 10-20 nm
Fe-bearing minerals 880 nm 10-20 nm
SiO2 960 nm 10-20 nm
Erosional features 1035 nm 19-20 nm
SWIR 1: (1500 to 1800 nm)
Soil moisture 1500 nm 350nm
(qualitative) 1680 nm
Weak absorption bands of carbonates 1740 nm 10-20 nm
SWIR II ( 2000 TO 2400 NM)
Characteristic absorption bands of –CO3, -OH and 2320 nm 10 nm

SO4 bearing minerals e.g. Carbonates and layer silicates 2310 nm 10 nm

-OH and AIOH bearing minerals e.g. kaolinite 2200 nm 10 nm
MuscoviteAlunite 2300 nm 10nm
2340 nm 10 nm
MgOH bearing minerals e.g. Talc, Brucite
2400 nm 10 nm
Soil moisture 2160/2040 nm 20 nm
3000-5000 nm Atmospheric Window
Characteristic emission 3400 nm
Spectra 3400 nm
Absorption bands due to
(i) quartz 4000 nm 1000 nm
(ii) carbonates 4500 nm 1000-2000 nm
(iii) organic matter 4700 1000-2000 nm
8000-1400 nm Thermal Infrared Region
Thermal inertia 10300-11300 nm -
Emission spectra 11500-12500 nm
Thermal regime (large scale)
Microwave Region (1GHz to 20 GHz)
Dielectric response 1.125 GHz (L band)
Ionic conductivity (salinity)
Soil moisture regime (smaller scale) 5.4 GHz (C-band)
Profile moisture estimation 20 GHz (X-band)
Erosion and micro-relief feature
 MANCHANDA, KUDRAT & TIWARI
tremendous scope for the study of soil organic mat-
ter utilising narrow band spectroscopy especially
in middle and thermal infrared region of electro-
magnetic spectra. Attempt for soil mapping follow-
ing digital image processing and GIS is very lim-
ited (Lee et al 1988). Microwave remote sensing is
still at the experimental stage. Tables 1 and 4 ex-
hibit the potentiality of narrow band imaging spec-
troscopy in characterizing soil mineralogy.
Spectral properties of soils which are governed
by the heterogeneous combination of mineral, or-
ganic substances, soil moisture and various salts
contain the valuable information related to the
crucial soil parameters viz., humic substances, soil
texture, thermal properties and primary and sec-
ondary minerals. The special feature of soils in the
visible (0.4-0.7 µ), near infrared (0.7-1.0 µ) and
shortwave infrared (1.0-2.5 µ) spectral regions are
associated with physico-chemical properties, emis-
sion properties. Thermal infrared region (8-14µ)
and different microwave frequencies such as C-
bands (5.4 GHz) and L-band (1.25 GHz) reveal the
temperature regime and hydrologic regime of soils
(Foster 1990). These information are of tremen-
dous value in predicting the biogenic gases from
soils quantitatively and in classifying the soils as
per Soil Taxonomy. The biogenic gases, viz., meth-
ane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide etc. are the
products of soil biochemical processes. The fluxes
of biogenic gases can be modelled with various soil
properties namely organic matter content, nitro-
gen content, free iron content, soil reaction, soil
moisture status and so on. The potential aspects of
the studies on soil, for example, quantitative as-
pects of soil fertility, soil mineralogy, hydrological
aspects and soil biology, need remote sensing and
GIS based research.
A few new promising techniques and tools, still
under trial, should improve our capacity for identi-
fying and mapping external as well as internal
features (Zinck 1990). Doolittle (1987) reported
that ground-penetrating radar (GPR) device can
provide precise images of complete soil sequences.
The GPR is a broad band, impulse radar system
whose soil penetration capacity ranges from ap-
proximately one meter depth in compact clayey
soils to approximately 25 meters in sandy soils.
Relevant soil features and diagnostic horizons can
be identified in vertical and horizontal extent.
Ranges of soil variability can be quantitatively es-
tablished. The use of remote sensing for soil sci-
ence can certainly be further advanced by en-
71
hanced understanding of the process of interaction
of electromagnetic spectrum with soil.
Acknowledgements
Authors express their sincere thanks to Shri S.
Adiga, Director, NNRMS/RRSSC, Bangalore for
encouragement and extending facilities. Thanks
are due to Dr. L. Venkatratnam of NRSA, Hydera-
bad, Dr. A.N. Singh of U.P.RSAC, Lucknow, Dr.
S.N. Das of AIS&LUS, New Delhi and Dr. M. Ve-
layutham of NBSS & LUP, Nagpur, for providing
relevant literature. Valuable suggestions from one
of the anonymous referees are gratefully acknowl-
edged.
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Annexure 1: Explanation of legend of Fig. 5
Symbol Description of the units
H Siwalik hill
H11 Southern aspects of Siwalik hill, Escarpments
H12 Southern aspects very sleep slope moderate dense forest
H13 Southern aspects, strong slope, moderate forest
H21 Northern aspects, Crest
Northern aspects, side slope having steep to very steep slopes,
H22 dense forests
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P Piedmont
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73
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Soil Association (Family)
Loamy skeletal Lithic Udorthents,
Loamy skeletal Typic Udorthents
Loamy skeletal Mollic Eutrochrepts,
Loamy skeletal Typic Udorthents
Coarse loamy Mollic Eutrochrepts,
Loamy skeletal Dystric Eutrochrepts
Fragmental Typic Udorthents,
Loamy skeletal Lithic Udorthents
Fine loamy Mollic Hapludalfs,
Fine loamy Typic Argiudolls
Fine loamy Typic Hapludalfs,
Fine Loamy Dystric Eutrochrepts
Loamy skeletal Typic Udorthents,
Loamy skeletal, Dystric Eutrochrepts
74 SOIL SURVEY AND MAPPING

Annexure 1 Contd.
Symbol Description of the units Soil Association (Family)
Fine loamy Typic Hapludalfs,
P12 Gently sloping upper piedmont cultivation Fine loamy Dystric Eutrochrepts,
Fine loamy Mollic Hapludalfs
Fine loamy Typic/Mollic Hapludalfs,
P13 Upper piedmont forested
Loamy skeletal Dystric Eutrochrepts
Fine loamy Mollic/Typic Hapludalfs,
P2 Lower piedmont
Loamy skeletal Dystric Eutrochrepts
AT Asan river terrace
Typic Udipsamments,
AT1 Lower Asan river terrace
Coarse loamy Typic Eutrochrepts
Fine loamy Dystric Eutrochrepts,
AT2 Middle Asan terrace
Fine loamy Mollic Eutrochrepts
Fine loamy Mollic Hapludalfs,
AT3 Upper Asan terrace
Fine loamy Dystric Eutrochrepts
GT Ganga terraces
Coarse loamy Typic Udifluvents,
GT1 Lower Ganga terraces
Typic Udipsamments
Fine loamy Mollic Hapludalfs,
GT2 Upper Ganga terraces
Fine loamy Typic Eutrochrepts
ST Song river terraces
Coarse loamy Dystric Eutrochrepts,
ST1 Lower terraces of Song river Loamy skeletal Typic Udorthents,
Typic Udipsamments
Fine loamy Typic Hapludalfs,
ST2 Middle terraces of Song river
Fine loamy Dystric Eutrochrepts
Fine loamy Typic Hapludalfs,
ST3 Upper terraces of Song river
Fine loamy Mollic Hapludalfs
Fragmental Typic Udorthents,
RH Residual hill
Loamy skeletal Typic Udorthents

M2 Lower mountain
Fragmental Lithic Udorthents,
M21 Southern aspect Loamy skeletal Typic Udorthents,
Loamy skeletal Dystric Eutrochrepts
Fragmental Typic Udorthents,
M22 Northern aspects Loamy skeletal Dystric Eutrochrepts,
Fragmental Dystric Hapludolls