MATERIAL REMOVAL

PROCESSES

Theory of Metal
Machining

1. Overview
2. Theory of Chip Formation
3. Force Relationships
4. Power and Energy Relationship
5. Cutting Temperature
1

Introduction
Everyday Experience: Scraping
the ice from your windshield
Edge angle of the ice scraper
Force required depending on the
characteristics of ice

Incentives: Making a ceramic

vase out of clay
Shaping
Removal of excess materials machining

Powder Metal or Cast

Exact dimension
Tolerance & Surface Finish

Classification
Conventional
Machining

Turning and
Related Operations
Drilling and Related
Operations
Milling
Other Machining
Operations

Material Removal
Processes

Abrasive
Processes

Grinding
Processes
Other Abrasive
Processes

Nontraditional
machining

Mechanical Energy
Processes
Electrochemical
Processes
Thermal Energy
Processes
Chemical
Machining
3

Material Removal Processes

A family of shaping operations through which
undesired excess material is removed from a
starting workpart so the remaining part
become closer to the desired shape
Categories:
Machining material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
4

Machining
A shearing process in which excess
materials is removed by cutting tools.

A variety of work materials

Repeatable regular geometries
Close tolerance (<0.025m)
Smooth surface finish (0.4m)
Waste, Expensive: Cost and Time
Other processes such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing create the general shape
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details
5

1. Overview
Work

Types
Turning - Lathe
Drilling Drill press
Milling Milling Machine

New Surface
Feed Motion
(tool)

Cutting tool

Speed motion
(work)
Speed motion
(Tool)
Feed Motion
(tool)

Peripheral
Face

Drill bit

Cutting Tool
Work

Speed motion
Milling Cutter

New Surface

Milling Cutter

Speed motion
New Surface

Feed Motion (work)

Feed Motion (work)

Work

Peripheral (End) Milling

Work material

Face (Slab) Milling

Cutting condition
Relative motion between tool and work
Cutting conditions
Cutting speed, v (m/s) Surface speed
Feed f (m): the lateral distance traveled by the tool
during one revolution.
Depth of cut d (m)

Material Removal Rate: MRR = v f d

Roughing - removes large amounts of material, at
high feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - Achieves final dimensions, tolerances,
and finish, Low feeds and depths, high cutting
speeds
7

Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a
machining operation
Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power and controls speed, feed, and
depth.
Pumps a Cutting fluid
v
d
f

2. Theory of Chip Formation

Orthogonal Cutting Model
Rake angle:
Shear angle:

Shear
Plane

Tool
tc

to
ls

Work

Chip thickness ratio:

to
ls sin
r= =
tc ls cos( )
By rearranging
r cos
tan =
1 r sin

r is always less than 1.0.

9

Shear
Strain
in
chip

B
A
D

Using

C
sin ( ) = sin cos cos sin
cos( ) = cos cos m sin sin
B

AC DC + AD
=
= tan ( ) + cot
=
BD
BD
sin ( ) cos
cos
=
+
=
cos( ) sin sin cos( )

As (from 10 to 35) increase, (from 5 to 2) decreases.

C
10

Velocity
Vc

Vs

90-+
-

Tool

90-

Vc
Vs

Work
Vc
=
=

sin
sin + sin
Vs
cos V
& = =
2

y cos( ) y
V
V
V
= s = c
where y is the finite thickness of
cos( ) cos sin

Vs

the shear plane, typically 0.03mm.

Shear Strain rate is around 103-105sec-1
11

Actual Chip Formation

(a) Discontinuous chip
Brittle materials at low cutting speed
High tool-chip friction and large feed and
depth
(b) Continuous chip
Ductile materials with high speeds and
small feed and depth of cut
(c) Continuous chip with built-up edge
Ductile material at low to medium speeds
(d) Serrated chip
Difficult-to-machine metals at high cutting
speeds

Secondary
Shear Zone

Tool

Effective

Primary Shear Zone

Work12

The Real Cutting Force

Cutting Forces are measured with Dynamometer.

Normal
Shear

Ft

Fr

Fn

Ft

Area: A=bh
where b=chip width
h=chip thickness
Temperature (500-1000oC)
Pressure (1000-3000 MPa)

Sticking Zone Sliding Zone

13

3. Force Relationships

Tool

Tool

Fs
R

Fn

F: Friction Force
N: Normal Force

N
Work
Fs: Shear Force
Fn: Normal Force

Fc
R

Ft

Work

Fc: Cutting Force

Ft: Thrust Force
14

Force Diagram

Fc

Fs

F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos Ft sin

Ft

Fs = Fc cos Ft sin

Fn

Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos

R=

Fs

sin cos( + )
s to w
=
sin cos( + )
Fs cos( )
Fc =
sin cos( + )
Fs sin ( )
Ft =
sin cos( + )

15

Cutting Force

cos( )
Cutting Force: Fc = bh s
= K c bh
(
)
+

sin

cos

Thrust Force:

cos( )
Ft = bh s sin
= K t bh

sin cos( + )

Fs = R cos( + ) = Fc cos Ft sin =

Fn = R sin ( + ) = Fc sin + Ft cos
Kc and Kt must be calibrated
through machining experiments.

Fc = R cos( )

Ft = R sin( )

Tool

Fc

s bh
sin

tc

to

K c N / mm 2

d
h

F
t

Work

f
Top View

16

Chatter Analysis
Mechanical vibration
m&x& + cx& + kx = 0

Free Vibration:
Forced Vibration:

m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo sin t

Assume x(t ) = X sin (wt + )

Or using complex harmonic functions

m&x& + cx& + kx = Fo e j e jt

(w )

Assume x(t ) = Xe j (t + )

(k m + jc )Xe
2

1
X
=
Magnitude ratio: (w) =
Fo
k
Phase: = tan 1

2r
1 r

where r =
and

= F (t ) = Fo e e

jt

2 2

+ (2r )2

n =

x(t )

= c 2 km

(1 r )

jt

cx&

kx

k
m

-90
17
-180

The Merchant Equation

Fs
Shear stress: =
As

to w
Shear Plane Area: As =
sin
Fc cos Ft sin
Shear stress: =
to w sin
Merchants Assumption: Shear plane angle will
form to minimize energy
After differentiating w.r.t , Merchants
Equation:
= 45 +

2
18

Implication of Merchants
Eq.

= 45 +

2 2
An increase in rake angle causes the shear plane angle
to increase.
A decrease in friction angle cause the shear plane angle
to increase.
The analysis from orthogonal cutting can be used in a
typical turning if the feed is small relative to depth of cut.
Effect of shear plane angle :
(a) higher with a resulting
lower shear plane area;
(a) smaller with a resulting
larger shear plane area.

Tool

Tool

19

Turning vs. Orthogonal

Feed f

Uncut Chip thickness to

Depth d

Width of cut w

Cutting speed v

Cutting speed v

Cutting force Fc

Cutting force Fc

Feed force Ff

Thrust force Ft

tc

to

Fc

Tool

Ft Work
20

4. Power & Energy Relation

Power (energy per unit time)

Pc = FcV
FcV
HPc =
33,000

P
hpc =
33,000 P in ft-lb/min
Pc
Horse power Pg =
or
E

Unit Power Pu = Pc

hpc
hp g =
E

with mechanical efficiency E=90%

MRR

Specific energy U = Pu =

Pc
Fc v
Fc
=
=
MRR vto w t o w
21

Size Effect & Energy Distribution

0.04 (in)

0.01

1.6
1.4

Proportion of Energy

Correction Factor

100
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4

Tool
Work

50

Chip
0

0.125 0.25

0.5

1.0

Chip thickness before cut (mm)

Cutting Speed (m/s)

22

Specific Energy for various work

materials (to=0.25mm)
Materials

Brinell
Hardness

Specific Energy (U)

Nm/mm3

In-lb/in3

Hp/in3/min

Carbon Steel

150-200
200-250
251-300

1.6
2.2
2.8

240,000
320,000
400,000

0.6
0.8
1.0

Alloy Steels

200-250
251-300
301-350
351-400

2.2
2.8
3.6
4.2

320,000
400,000
520,000
640,000

0.8
1.0
1.3
1.6

Cast iron

125-175
175-250

1.1
1.6

160,000
240,000

0.4
0.6

Stainless steel

150-200

2.8

400,000

1.0

Aluminum

50-100

0.7

100,000

0.25

Aluminum Alloys

100-150

0.8

120,000

0.3

Magnesium Alloys

50-100

0.4

60,000

0.15
23

Problem 21.30

A lathe performs a turning operation on a work piece of 6in diameter. The shear strength of the
work=40,000lb/in2. The rake angle of the tool =10o. The machine settings are: rotational
speed=500rev/min, feed=0.0075in/rev. and depth=0.075in. The chip thickness after the cut
is 0.015in. Determine: (a) the horsepower required (b) the unit horsepower for this material,
(c) the unit horsepower with the correction factor (1 for to=0.01in.) Use the orthogonal model.

(a) To get HP, Fc and v are needed

t o 0.0075
=
= 0.5
0.015
t
r cos
tan =
;
1 r sin

r=

0.5 cos10
o
= 28.3
1 0.5 sin 10

= arctan

10

; = 2 45 + 28.3 = 43.4 o
2 2
2

t w 0.0075 0.075
= 0.00119in 2
As = o =
sin
sin 28.3
Fs = SAs = 40,000(0.00119) = 47.5lb

= 45 +

(b) HPu
MRR = vfd = 785(0.0075)(0.075) = 5.3 in 3 min
HPu =

(c) HPu with the correction factor Fig. 21.14

Fs cos( )
47.5 cos(43.3 10)
= 83.6lb
=
cos( + ) cos(28.3 + 43.4 10)
v = r = 500rev / min( 6 / 12)ft / rev = 785ft/ min
Fc =

HP =

Fc v
83.6(785)
=
= 2hp
33,000
33,000

HP
2
=
= 0.375hp/(in 3 /min)
MRR 5.3

HPu =

HPu 0.375
=
= 0.326hp/(in 3 /min)
f
1.15
24

5. Cutting Temperature
Cooks dimensional analysis
U vto
T = 0.4

C K

0.333

Experimental Measurement
Tool-chip thermocouple
Triggers results T = Kv m
RC-130B Ti (T=479v0.162)
18-8 Stainless steel (T=135v0.361)
B113 Free machining steel (T=86.2v0.348)
25