Fixed Wing Theory of Flight Manual Module 03

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING
MODULE 03 FIXED WING THEORY OF FLIGHT
MODULE 03
FIXED WING THEORY OF FLIGHT

M 03: FIXED WING THEORY OF FLIGHT
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
Background. Theory of flight forms the backbone of the knowledge needed by the
technician to understand the basic operation of an aircraft. It forms the basics of
every other module you will encounter.
1.2.
Terminal Performance Objective. Recall theory of flight for fixed wing aircraft.
1.2.1.
Training Venue. 68 Air School.
1.2.2.
Setting. Classroom condition.
1.2.3.
Time Allocated. Three days theoretical instruction.
1.2.4.
Attainment requirements. 70% to be obtained for knowledge test.
1.3.
Instructions.
1.3.1.
You will at all times adhere to safety precautions.
1.3.2.
It is compulsory for you to complete this module successfully, to enable you to

progress to the following module.
1.4.
Learning Objective.
1.4.1.
Objective 01. Recall the principles of flight.
1.4.2.
Objective 02. Recall Bernoullis theory.
1.4.3.
Objective 03. Define the glossary of terms.
1.4.4.
Objective 04. Recall the patterns of airflow.
1.4.5.
Objective 05. Recall the flat plate theory.
1.4.6.
Objective 06. Recall the aerofoil.
1.4.7.
Objective 07. Recall drag.
1.4.8.
Objective 08. Recall the four forces.
1.4.9.
Objective 09. Recall the main components of an aircraft.
1.4.10.
Objective 10. Recall the manoeuvres of the aircraft about the three axis.
1.4.11.
Objective 11. Recall the aircraft stability.
1.4.12.
Objective 12. Recall the control about the axis.
1.4.13.
Objective 13. Recall the balance of control surface.
1.4.14.
Objective 14. Recall the high lift devices & air brakes.
1.4.15.
Objective 15. Recall the supersonic flight.

2.
Objective 01: Recall the principles of flight.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
2.1.
An understanding of the basic principles of aerodynamics is as important to the

aviation technician as it is to the pilot and the aerospace engineer. The technician
is concerned with the strength of all structural members of an aircraft because of
the stresses applied (through the forces of aerodynamics) when the aircraft is in
flight. Often being responsible for the repair or restoration of aircraft structures,
the technician must know that the repair work will restore the initial strength to the
part (or parts) that is being repaired.
2.2.
Aerodynamics as explained in this chapter may also be termed theory of flight,

because the flight of an aircraft depends upon the laws of aerodynamics. "Aero"
pertaining to air, aircraft aviation, or aeronautics; and dynamics to that branch of
physics which considers bodies in motion and the forces that produce or change
such motion.
THE ATMOSPHERE
2.3.
The earth's atmosphere can be said to consist of concentric gaseous layers. The
layer nearest to the surface is known as the troposphere, above which is the
stratosphere. The boundary of the troposphere, known as the tropopause, is not
at a constant height but varies from an average of about 7625m at the poles to
16470m at the equator.
Above the tropopause the stratosphere extends to
approximately 30km, till 80,45km.
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

2.4.
Air is a mixture of several gasses. For practical purposes it is sufficient to say that
air is a mixture of one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. Pure, dry air contains
about 78 percent (by volume) nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 0.9 percent argon.
In addition, air contains about 0,1 percent carbon dioxide and traces of several
other gasses. See Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Distribution of gases in the atmosphere.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

2.5.
Definition. The pressure of the air at any point is due to the weight of the column
of air above that point.
2.6.
The weight of the column is obviously at its greatest near to the earth and
decreases as we go upwards, because the column of air is getting shorter and
shorter. We can see that the pressure of the atmosphere at any place is equal to
the weight of the column of air above it. Therefore, atmospheric pressure varies
with altitude. The higher above sea level, the lower the pressure. Bearing this in
mind it would be clear that atmospheric pressure would not vary with the cross
sectional area of any surface, for example the pressure exerted on the surface of a
room of 5m at sea level would be the same as a room of 10m.
2.7.
Air pressure can be expressed as follows:
2.7.1.
The standard pressure at sea level which is approximately 14,7 pounds per
square inch. This means that a column of air, one inch square, extending from
the earth's surface vertically upwards into space weighs 14.7 pounds.
2.7.2.
By comparing the pressure with the height of a column of mercury which would
balance the weight of the air above it. The column of mercury at sea level
extends approximately 29,92 inches high. The higher the pressure on the
surface of the mercury, the higher the liquid would rise in the evacuated tube
which is placed in the mercury.
2.7.3.
The third form of measurement is very nearly standard in meteorology and is

known as the millibar. Sea level standard pressure is 1013,2 millibars. These
pressures at sea level are sometimes referred to as "one atmosphere"See
figure1.2
Figure 1.2: Measurement of atmospheric pressure.

2.8.
Barometers and sensitive altimeters are sealed to provide pressure information in
inches of mercury.
Figure 1.3: Example of mechanical type altimeter

2.9.
An altimeter See Figure 1.3 must compensate for atmospheric pressure changes if
it is to give true indications under all conditions.
DENSITY
2.10.
Definition. Density is a term that means "mass per unit volume."
2.11.
Air is invisible, and posessess considerable weight.

Density of a body = mass of the body
volume of the body
2.12.
Density is normally expressed in pounds per cubic foot. At sea level, the density
is approximately 0,08 pounds per cubic foot.
2.12.1.
Density varies in direct proportion to pressure.

rises, the more denser it becomes.
The higher the air pressure
2.12.2.
Density varies inversely proportional to temperature. A decrease in temperature

causes air to contract and therefore to become more dense. An increase in
temperature causes air to expand and therefore to become less dense.
2.13.
Changes in density affects the aerodynamic performance of an aircraft. With a

similar power setting, an aircraft can fly faster at high altitude where air density is
low, because there are less particles of air to offer resistance to the aircraft,
resulting in less drag.
2.14.
It must be remembered that an aircraft is supported in the air by forces which are
entirely dependant on air density; the less the density, the more difficult flight
becomes, but for all of them, flight becomes impossible in a vacuum.

2.15. So, let us realise that however thin the air may seem, it possesses (like other
substances) the following properties:
2.15.1.
Weight
2.15.2.
Mass
2.15.3.
Density.
2.16.
The density of air is particularly important to pilots. If the climate is cold and the
altitude at which the airfield is situated is low, the air will be dense. An aircraft will
therefore take off at a much slower speed, using a shorter runway than when the
air is warm and the aircraft is at high altitudes. For this reason a pilot must be
aware of the effects of density, especially if the aircraft is to take-off from a short
runway.
TEMPERATURE
2.17.
Definition. Temperature is the reaction of the suns radiation reflecting back from
the earth upwards.

2.18. When air is heated, it expands so that a smaller mass will occupy a given volume;
therefore, the density will decrease, assuming that the pressure remains constant.
The opposite will also apply. Thus, the density of the air will vary inversely as the
absolute temperature drops.
In the atmosphere the fairly rapid decrease in
pressure as altitude is increased, has the dominating effect on density as
compared to the effect of the decrease in temperature, which tends to increase the
air density.
2.19.
The decrease in temperature is caused by the radiant heat direct from the sun
which passes through the atmosphere without appreciably raising the temperature
thereof. The earth, however, absorbs the heat, causing the temperature of the
earth to rise and the air in contact with it is affected by this heat radiation which
causes the atmosphere to increase in temperature, and expand. The temperature
then decreases at a steady rate with an increase in altitude as the heat radiation of
the earth decreases and at about (10980m) ceases to decrease any further and
remains constant at -57C. (This altitude varies at different parts on earth, being
greater at the equator due to more heat radiation). The portion in which the
temperature decreases, is called the troposphere, and where temperature remains
constant - the stratosphere. The surface inbetween is commonly known as the
tropopause. See Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 : The ISA (International Standard Atmosphere)

Table 1.1 : ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) Standard Atmosphere
Altitude
Density
Cs
Feet
Celsius
Hg
Lb/ft
Slugs/ft
Cs, ft/s
- 2 000
18,9
108,40
2273,7
2,52
1124,54
15,0
101,04
2116,2
2,38
1116,89
1 000
13,0
97,46
2040,8
2,31
1113,05
2 000
11,0
93,95
1967,7
2,24
1105,31
3 000
9,1
90,57
1896,6
2,18
1101,43
4 000
7,1
87,26
1827,7
2,11
1096,53
5 000
5,1
84,09
1760,8
2,05
1057,73
10 000
-4,8
69,50
1455,3
1,76
1037,26
15 000
-14,7
57,04
1194,3
1,50
1016,38
20 000
-24,6
46,43
972,5
1,27
995,06
25 000
-34,5
37,46
785,3
1,07
968,46
30 000
-44,4
30,02
628,4
0,89
968,46
36 089
-56,5
22,56
472,7
0,71
968,46
40 000
-56,5
18,71
391,7
0,58
968,46
50 000
-56,5
11,57
242,2
0,36
968,46
60 000
-56,5
7,15
149,8
0,22
968,46
70 000
-56,5
4,46
93,5
0,14
968,46
T : Standard temperature
Cs : Standard speed of sound
Pressure
Slugs/ft3
ft/s
:
:
32.18 lb/ cubic feet

Feet/second

HUMIDITY
2.20.
Definition. Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the air.
2.21.
Air is capable of absorbing a certain amount of water vapour. This amount of

water vapour is determined by the temperature of the air. The hotter the air, the
more vapour it can absorb, and vice versa. Water vapour weighs about five
eighths more than an equal amount of dry air. Thus, being lighter than dry air,
this causes the air density to vary. On moist days, air is less dense than on dry
days. For this reason, an aircraft requires a longer runway for take-off on damp
days than it does on dry days.
INERTIA
2.22.
Definition. Inertia is the tendency of a body to resist change in its state of rest or
steady motion.
2.23.
Inertia will be more readily understood after Newton's three laws of motion have
been studied.
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
2.24.
Definition. A body in a state of rest or uniform motion will remain in this state, until
it is acted upon by an external force.
2.25.
This law is sometimes referred to as "The law of inertia". If a body is moving at a

uniform speed in a straight line, force must be applied to increase or decrease that
speed. Since air has mass, it is a "body" according to the law. When an aircraft
is on the ground with its engines stopped, inertia keeps the aircraft at rest. An
aircraft is moved from its state of rest by the thrust force created by the propeller,
or by expanding exhaust gases in the turbine engine. When it is flying at a
uniform speed in a straight line, inertia tends to keep the aircraft moving. Some
external force is required to change the aircraft from its path or state of flight.
NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

2.26.
Definition. This law states that if a body moves with uniform speed is acted upon
by an extrenal force, the change of motion will be proportional to the amount of the
force, and motion will take place in the direction in which the force acts.
2.27.
This means that motion will take place in the direction of the applied external force.
This law may be stated mathematically as follows:
Force = Mass x Acceleration (F = m X a)
2.28.
If an aircraft is flying against a headwind, it is slowed down. If the wind is coming

from either side of the aircraft's heading, the aircraft will drift off course unless the
pilot takes corrective action against the wind direction.

NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
2.29.
Definition. For every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force).
2.30.
This action is well illustrated by the action of a swimmer's hands. He pushes the
water aft and thereby propels himself forward, since the water resists the action of
on his hand. When the force of lift on an aircraft's wing equals the force of gravity,
the aircraft maintains level flight. These three laws of motion are closely related
and applied to the theory of flight. In many cases all three laws may operate on
an aircraft at the same time.
THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (I.S.A.)

2.31.
The values of temperature, pressure and density are never constant in any given
layer of the atmosphere. In fact, they are all constantly changing. Experience
has shown that there is a requirement for a standard atmosphere with the
comparison of aircraft performances, calibration of altimeters and other practical
uses.
This standard assumes a mean sea level temperature of + 15C, a
pressure of 1013,5 millibar (14,7 pounds per square inch) and a density of
1,225kg per m3.
2.32.
If the actual performance of a certain aircraft is measured under certain conditions

of temperature, pressure and density, it is possible to deduce what would have
been the performance of this aircraft under the conditions of the Standard
Atmosphere. Thus, it can be compared with the performance of another aircraft,
e.g., which has been similarly reduced to standard conditions. This applies not
only at sea level, but also at every altitude above sea level.
2.33.
Definition. Pressure and temperature at average sea level and the change of
temperature at height are measured to the set standard as mentioned above.
AIR CURRENTS
2.34.
Air currents are movement of the air with respect to the earth. If the air is rising
from the earth, it is called a vertical/ thermal current. These currents are also
called convection currents and they often occur over sandy beaches and freshly
ploughed fields, in desert areas and in other places where the air is unstable. In
the past, rising or falling air currents have often been called "air pockets" or
"bumps", but these terms are not exact disciptions.
The correct terms are
updraughts or downdraughts. The ability of rising air currents to lift an aircraft is
used by glider pilots who are often able to keep a glider in the air for many hours
merely by keeping the glider in the rising currents. See Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Effect of a rising air current on the flight path of an aircraft.
2.35.
The air may be perfectly still for a short period of time, but most of the time it is in
motion. The differences in temperature between the poles and the equator, and
between the lower and upper atmosphere, are important sources of energy which
cause air motion. Furthermore, the rotation of the earth and the force of gravity
affects the movement of air. As a result, masses of warm air may be encountered
at fairly high altitudes and masses of cold air may be found where there would be
every reason to expect warm air.
RELATIVE MOTION
2.36.
Motion is movement. If an object changes its position it is in motion. Any object

can be located by its distance from adjacent objects; e.g., an object that has
moved has changed its position with respect to some other object that has a fixed
position; relative motion has taken place. Relative motion exists between the
wind and all objects fixed to the earth. The windsock is fixed with respect to the
earth and relative motion exists between the wind and the windsock. In this case,
the reference point is the earth.
2.37.
An aircraft must have relative motion between itself and the air in order to fly. The
velocity of this motion is called "the true airspeed (TAS)" and is measured in knots.
One knot is a speed of 1 nautical mile per hour. One nautical mile is 1852 m . If
an aircraft is flying at a speed of 75 kts and there is no wind, the ground speed of
the aircraft will be 75 kts; that is, the relative motion between the aircraft and the
ground will have a velocity of 75 kts. If the aircraft is flying at 75 kts and is
heading directly into a 75 kts wind, the aircraft will remain stationary with respect
to the ground. If an aircraft is flying at 75 kts airspeed against a 25 kts wind, it will
have a speed of 75 kts with respect to the air and a speed of 50 kts with respect to
the ground.
2.38.
Thus, we see that velocity is relative because all motion is relative and velocity is
the time of motion. True airspeed, represented by the symbol V, is the velocity of
the aircraft along its flight path with respect to the body of air through which the
aircraft is moving.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
3.
Objective 2: Recall Bernoullis theorem.
STUDY MATERIAL
3.1.
Professor Daniel Bernoulli experimented with a venturi tube to display the

effectiveness of his theorem. He found that the venturi tube is an effective means
to decrease pressure below that of the atmosphere at a specific altitude.
DEFINITION
3.2.
The sum of the three forms of energy present in a given mass of fluid equals a
constant. Pressure energy + Kinetic energy (due to motion) + Potential Energy
(due to position) = Constant.
3.3.
If this sum remains constant, it is clear that the increase of one will cause one/both
of the others to decrease in order to keep the same constant. A venturi is a tube
with a narrowing in the middle. See Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Bernoulli's principle.

VENTURI
3.4.
The static pressure is measured by placing "U"-tubes at various positions on the

venturi. These tubes are filled with fluid and the decrease of pressure on the
inside of the venturi sucks the fluid, assisted by the atmospheric pressure acting
on the outside. See Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: U-tubes illustrating static pressure decrease.

3.5.
The following pressure change occur:

3.5.1.
Static pressure decreases through the throat of a venturi.
3.5.2.
Velocity increases through the throat of a venturi.
3.5.3.
Temperature decreases through the throat of a venturi.
3.5.4.
Dynamic pressure increases through the throat of a venturi.
3.5.5.
Kinetic energy increases through the throat of a venturi.
3.6.
A simple demonstration, involving two stiff pieces of paper folded as shown will
show that the pieces of paper resemble the cross-section of a venturi.
Figure 2.3: Venturi.

3.7.
If you blow in the direction of the arrows, the two pieces of paper will draw
together. This is caused by the reduction of pressure between the sheets of
paper, assisted by the normal air pressure on the outside of these sheets of paper.
3.8.
The bottom half of the venturi resembles the shape of an aerofoil. If stream of air
passing over the venturi have to get past at the same time, they must speed up,
therefore creating a reducing in pressure above the aerofoil. It is this reduction of
pressure which provides a large proportion of the total lift of an aerofoil
(approximately 70%). The pressure below the aerofoil contributes the remaining
30%. See Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Airflow over the bottom half of a venturi.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
4.
Objective 3: Recall the glossary of terms.
STUDY MATERIAL
AEROFOIL
4.1.
An aerofoil is technically defined as any surface such as an aircraft wing, rudder or

elevator designed to obtain reaction from the air through which it moves. See
Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Aerofoil.

CHORD
4.2.
A chord may be defined as the reference line directly across an aerofoil from the
leading edge to the trailing edge. See Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Chordlines for different aerofoil.

ANGLE OF ATTACK
4.3.
The angle of attack is the acute angle between the chord and relative airflow
(R.A.F.) See Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Angle of attack.

LIFT
4.4.
The vertical component that acts at right angles to the direction of airflow is called
lift. See Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Lift.

DRAG
4.5.
The component of the total reaction which is parallel to the airflow is called drag.
See Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Drag.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
4.6.
The angle of incidence is the angle between the chord and the horizontal, with the
aircraft in rigging position. See Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Angle of incidence.

SPAN
4.7.
Is measured from wingtip to wingtip. See Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Span.

ASPECT RATIO
4.8.
Aspect ratio is the ratio between span and the chord. Suppose we have a wing of
100 sq. m plan area, it may be of 20m span and 5m chord, or even 50m span and
2m chord. As seen Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8: Aspect ratio.

FINENESS RATIO
4.9.
Fineness ratio refers to the amount of times the thickness (b) of an aerofoil can be
divided into its chord (a), as can be seen in the figure. The fineness ratio which
gives the least drag is a ratio between 3 to 4. The thickness (b) is normally at
maximum camber and usually approximately 1/3 of the chord length from the
leading edge of the wing.
Figure 3.9: Fineness ratio.

4.10.
A thick wing will have a low fineness ratio and a thin wing will have a high fineness
ratio.
F = Chord
Thickness
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
4.11.
The centre of pressure constitutes all the distributed pressure replaced by a single
resultant force which acts less than halfway back along the chord. The point on
the chord at which this resultant force acts is called the centre of pressure (C of P)
of the aerofoil.
Figure 3.10: Centre of pressure.

4.12. On Figure 3.11 you can see the pressure difference and how the C of P is
determined.
Figure 3.11: Manometers used for locating the c of p.

ILLUSTRATION OF THE BASIC AEROFOIL TERMS
14.
Figure 3.12 illustrates the basic aerofoil with its terms.
Figure 3.12: Aerofoil terms.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
5.
Objective 4: Recall the pattern of airflow.
STUDY MATERIAL
PATTERNS OF AIRFLOW
5.1.
In a steady streamlined flow, the speed direction and pressure may vary from point
to point in the flow, but at any point is constant with respect to time. This flow can
be represented by streamlines. It is the type of flow which will be found over the
various components of an aircraft. Steady streamlined flow may be divided into
two types:
5.1.1.
Laminar flow (Classical linear flow).
5.1.2.
Controlled separated flow.
LAMINAR FLOW (CLASSICAL LINEAR FLOW)

5.2.
The flow found over a conventional aerofoil at low angles of attack where the
streamlines will more or less follow the contour of the body and there is no
separation of flow from the surface. See Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Laminar flow.

CONTROLLED SEPARATED FLOW
5.3.
When, because of a sharp leading edge, flow separates from the surface (but
does not break down into a turbulent chaotic condition) it forms a strong vortex
which can be controlled, because it is stable and predictable over the rest of the
aerofoil as can be seen in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Controlled separated flow (vortex).

TURBULENT FLOW (UNSTEADY FLOW)
5.4.
In this type of flow, the flow parameters vary with time and the flow cannot be
represented by streamlines.
Figure 4.3: Turbulent flow.

5.5.
As the air flows around the aircraft, its speed changes.

In subsonic flow, a
reduction in the velocity of the streamline flow is indicated by an increased spacing
of the streamlines, whilst increasing velocity is indicated by decreased spacing of
the streamlines.
Associated with the velocity changes, there will be
corresponding pressure changes.
5.6.
The shape of the aircraft will determine the velocity changes and consequently, the
airflow pattern and pressure distribution.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
6.
Objective 5: Recall the flat plate theory.
STUDY MATERIAL
THEORY
6.1.
The effect produced by a flat plate moving through the air is illustrated in the
following sketch. When the air strikes the leading edge of the flat plate, the
passage of the air is obstructed and its velocity is reduced. Some of the particles
of air, flow over the upper surface and some flow under the lower surfaces, but all
particles of air must reach the trailing edge of the plate at the same time. See
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Airflow over a flat plate.

6.2.
Those particles that pass over the upper surface have to travel a longer distance
and therefore must move faster than those passing under the lower edge. In
accordance with Bernoulli's theorem, the increased velocity above the plate results
in a lower pressure than that existing below the plate. Since there is a difference
in pressure, the greater must prevail and thus, there is an upward force exerted on
the plate called "Lift".
LIFT
6.3.
If the region of very low pressure immediately above the plate is too large, the
particles of air do not flow smoothly downward to the rear, but they drop into this
region and behave wildly, causing turbulence and eddy currents. The loss of
velocity causes an increase of pressure above the plate and consequently a loss
of lift. If the turbulence is not too great, there is still enough difference between
the pressure above and below the plate to sustain lift.

ANGLE OF ATTACK
6.4.
The angle, between the plate and the airstream is the "angle of attack." It's formal
definition is rather technical and has been explained. When the angle of attack
changes, the lift and resistance to the forward movement of the plate, called drag,
changes. If the flat plate is placed in the airstream in such a position that it does
not materially change the direction of the streamlines, there is no lift, because
there is no difference between the velocity of the air flowing over the upper surface
and that flowing under the lower surface. Under these conditions there is no
difference in pressure between the upper and the lower surfaces of the plate. As
we have already observed, when the plate is inclined at a small angle of attack, lift
and drag become important. As we increase the angle of attack, the air stream
must increasingly change direction resulting in more differential and more lift
through a range of several degrees. See Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Lift increases.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
7.
Objective 6: Recall the aerofoil.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
7.1.
An aerofoil is technically defined as any surface, such as an aircraft aileron,

elevator, rudder or wing, designed to obtain reaction from the air through which it
moves. This lead to the discovery that a much greater lift, especially when
compared to drag, could be produced by using a curved surface instead of a flat
one, and thus the modern aerofoil evolved. The curved surface had the additional
advantage that it automatically provided a certain amount of thickness which was
necessary for structural strength. See Figure 6.1.
CURVATURE
7.2.
Curvature or Cambering accelerates the airflow, therefore keeping the airflow

laminar over the top surfaces.
THICKNESS
7.3.
Thickness eliminates the turbulence occurring behind the leading edge of a simple
curved plate and provides for internal bracing required in a modern aircraft wing.
Figure 6.1: Evolution of an aerofoil.

LIFT ON AN AEROFOIL
7.4.
Due to the shape of the aerofoil, the airflow speeds up over the top of the aerofoil
and, at the same time, the pressure drops. At the bottom of the wing, because of
the angle of attack, the pressure of the airflow increases and the velocity
decreases. All this happens strictly according to Bernoulli's Theory.
Figure 6.2: Venturi effect over the top of an aerofoil.

7.5.
A pressure differential is now created about the aerofoil section. When the airflow
moves through the atmosphere, it possesses kinetic energy. When the airflow
now passes over the curve of the aerofoil, it is sped up, so the kinetic energy
increases. Now, - due to the presence of the pressure differential - the kinetic
energy is transformed into a pulling force, acting upwards. See Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Pulling force acting upwards.

7.6.
As indicated in the sketch, these forces represent the total force acting upwards.
A resultant of these forces acting through the centre of pressure is called lift and it
represents 70% of the total lift.
7.7.
At the bottom of the aerofoil, the airflow is forced to bend away from its normal
path, thus increasing the internal pressure with a resulting drop in velocity. The

airflow now also presses against the bottom of the aerofoil due to the angle of
attack.
7.8.
Because the airflow is slowed down the kinetic energy is transformed into pressure
energy and it creates a force acting upwards through the aerofoil representing in
30% of the total lift. See Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Pressure energy creating a force acting upwards.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
7.9.
As the angle of attack is altered, lift and drag changes very rapidly. Experiments
show that this is due to changes in the distribution of pressure over the aerofoil.
See Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5: Pressure distribution for 4 angles of attack.

7.10. Figure 6.5 indicates the pressure distribution over an aerofoil at an angle of attack
of 4. Two points are particularly noticeable, namely:
7.10.1.
The decrease in pressure over the top surface is greater than the increase on
the lower surface.
7.10.2.
The pressure is not by any means evenly distributed- both the decreased
pressure on the upper surface and the increased pressure on the lower surface
marked mostly over the front portion of the aerofoil.
7.11.
Both these discoveries are of extreme importance to us in our efforts to

understand the science of flight.
7.12.
The first shows that, although both surfaces contribute, it is the top surface, by
means of its decreased pressure, which provides the greater part of the lift. At
some angles as much as 80% of the lift is obtained from the decrease in pressure
on the top surface.
7.13.
The second aspect that we learn from the pressure distribution diagram is that
both decrease and increase of pressure are both at their greatest near the leading
edge of the aerofoil. This means that if we were to replace all the distribution
pressure by a single resultant force, this single force would act less than halfway
back along the chord. The point on the chord at which this resultant force acts, is
called the Centre of Pressure of the aerofoil.
7.14.
It must be emphasised that in practice there would not always be a pressure

increase at the bottom, but sometimes a pressure decrease due to aerofoil shape;
size and attitude (combining on the lower surface). In such instance there would
be a downward falling force, instead of an upward force, but the value of the
downward force on the lower surface could be less than the upward force on the
top surface. Thus, the total sum would still be upwards. The following sketches
will explain this:
7.15.
At low incidence, the lift arises from the difference between the pressure
reductions on the upper and lower surfaces.
7.16.
At higher incidence, the lift is partly due to pressure reduction on the upper surface
and partly due to pressure increase on the lower surface. See Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: Pressure distribution for different angles of attack.

STALLING ANGLE
7.17.
Beginning with small angles of attack, the lift increases as the angle of attack
increases, until an angle is reached where the lift has a maximum value. This
angle corresponds to the transition point and is the angle of attack at which the

streamline flow begins to break down over the upper surface of the wing and forms
eddies at the trailing edge.
7.18.
On a normal subsonic section, no flow separation occurs at low incidence- the flow
being attached over the rear part of the surface in the form of a turbulent boundary
layer. As the incidence increases, boundary layers will begin to separate from the
surface near the trailing edge of the wing. As the angle of attack is further
increased, the separation point will move forward along the surface of the wing
towards the leading edge. As the separation point moves forward, the slope of
the lift incidence curve decreases and eventually an angle is reached at which the
wing is said to stall.
The flow over the upper surface of the wing is then
completely broken down and the lift produced by the wing decreases.
7.19.
This angle of attack is called the "stalling angle" which is approximately 16. At
this angle the drag has increased disproportionally beyond an acceptable figure.
See Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7: Lift/drag ratio curve.

DEFINITION OF STALLING ANGLE
7.20.
Stalling angle is the angle of attack at which the lift of an aerofoil is at maximum
and beyond which the lift will begin to decrease, owing to the airflow becoming
turbulent, instead of streamlined.
7.21.
An aircraft would also stall in horizontal flight when the airspeed is too low and it
loses altitude. The angle of attack would increase due to the change in relative
airflow and lead to stall with the corresponding low airspeed. This is also referred
to as "mushing". See Figure 6.8b.
Figure 6.8: "Mushing".

7.22.
Stall in Horizontal Flight.
7.22.1.
Airspeed insufficient to maintain level flight.
7.22.2.
Airspeed too low - wing stalls.
7.23.
When a pilot approaches a runway for landing, he should keep his angle of attack
and his airspeed to the correct proportions so that he won't stall the aircraft.

CENTRE OF PRESSURE MOVEMENT
7.24.
We have previously said that the centre of pressure (C of P) is located on the

chord of an airfoil and that its location, and the direction in which the resultant will
point, depends upon the shape of the airfoil section and the angle at which it is set
to the oncoming airstream. Throughout most of the flight range - that is, at the
usual angles of attack - the C of P moves forward as the angle of attack increases
and backward as the angle of attack decreases. The most forward position is
usually about three-tenths along the length of the chord behind the leading edge
for most airfoil sections, although this is by no means an infallible statement. See
Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9: Movement of centre of pressure.

7.25.
The above figures (a, b and c) indicates the increase in lift and drag as the angle
of attack is increased. (Although the drag has increased appreciably or, as can
be seen from the resultant change).
7.26.
Therefore, the following occurs with an increase in angle of attack:

7.26.1.
Centre of pressure moves forward.
7.26.2.
Lift increases.
7.26.3.
Drag increases.
7.26.4.
Change in resultant angle due to lift drag ratio change.
7.27.
Lift is dependant of the following:
7.27.1.
Angle of attack.
7.27.2.
Speed of airflow.
7.27.3.
Profile or shape of an aerofoil.
7.27.4.
Density of the air.
7.27.5.
Surface area of the aerofoil.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
8.
Objective 7: Recall drag.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
8.1.
Drag, as its name implies, is the evil aspect of an aircraft. It is to be kept to an

absolute minimum when designing an aircraft and further by regular maintenance
after manufacture as it can seriously affect fuel consumption and aircraft
performance. Drag comprises of various components and the overall picture can
best be seen in Table 7.1.
TOTAL DRAG
FUSELAGE
PARASITE
WING
SKIN
FROM
FROM
SKIN
INDUCED
FRICTION
DRAG
DRAG
FRICTION
DRAG
Table 7.1: Total drag table

TOTAL DRAG
8.2.
Total drag is the sum of the components of the aerodynamic forces which act
parallel and opposite to the direction of flight. Each part of total drag represents a
value of resistance to the aircraft's movement that is lost energy.
8.2.1.
An aircraft in flight will generate drag even when it is not generating lift, as in a
stall.
8.2.2.
When generating lift, the whole aircraft will generate additional drag which is
made up of various components.
PARASITE DRAG
8.3.
Parasite drag is caused by parts which do not contribute to lift, such as

undercarriages, the fuselage, struts, wire, pitot heads etc. The amount of drag
generated by these parts depend on the shape of the part, density of the air and
the airspeed. The faster the aircraft flies, the more rapidly this type of drag
increases. Therefore, it is important to keep the frontal area as small as possible
and to keep the shape as streamlined as possible. See Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1: Parasite drag graph.

SKIN FRICTION
8.4.
Air possesses, to a small degree, the property of viscosity (stickiness, or

resistance to flow). If the surface of the fuselage is rough, the air particles will
cling to it so the layer of air next to it will be retarded by the friction and drag will
result. This layer of air will, in turn, slow down the layer of air next to it and so on
until a point is reached where skin friction ceases. See Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Skin friction.

BOUNDARY LAYER
8.5.
The layer or layers of air in which the shearing action is taking place, that is to say
between the surface and the full velocity of the air flow, is called the Boundary
Layer.
8.6.
The boundary layer like the main air flow, may be either laminar (streamline) or
turbulent and the difference that these two types of flow make to the total skin
friction is of the same order as the effect of streamlining the main flow. It has
been stated that if we could ensure a laminar boundary layer over the whole
surface of a wing, the skin friction would be reduced to about one-tenth of its value
on a conventional type of wing. See Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Boundary layers.
TRANSITION POINT
8.7.
The usual tendency is for the boundary layer to start by being laminar over the
surface near the leading edge of a body, but there comes a point, called the

Transition Point, when the layer tends to break away from the surface and
becomes turbulent and thicker. As the speed increases, the Transition Point
tends to moves further forward, so more of the Boundary Layer becomes turbulent
and the Skin Friction becomes greater.
Figure 7.4: Transition point.

8.8.
To conclude, both the laminar and turbulent boundary layer thickens downstream.
Generally, the turbulent layer is ten times thicker than the laminar layer therefore it
gives much greater drag. For this reason one should try and maintain the whole
boundary layer laminar. Any roughness on the skin of the aircraft will lead to a
thicker layer and will give transition to turbulence. See Figure 7.4.
8.9.
Skin friction depends on the following:
8.9.1.
The surface condition.
8.9.2.
The speed of the airflow.
8.9.3.
The size of the object.
8.9.4.
The density of the local airflow.
FORM DRAG
8.10.
Definition. Form drag is that drag which is produced by the shape of the object
and its attitude to the relative airflow.
8.11.
The difference between surface friction and drag can be easily appreciated if a flat
plate is considered in two attitudes- first a zero incidence where all the drag is due
to friction, and second at 90 where all the drag is form drag due to the separation
of air.

8.12. The following sketches, considered from a flat plate to aerofoil shape, would show
how form drag could be decreased by streamlining. See Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5: Form drag illustration.

INDUCED DRAG
8.13.
Induced drag would mainly occur when the aircraft is producing lift and therefore is
a lift dependent drag. See Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6: Induced Drag

8.14.
Induced drag is made up of two components, namely wing tip and trailing edge
vortices
Trailing edge vortices.

8.15.
Trailing edge vortices are caused when the airflow over the bottom surface, under
pressure above that of atmospheric pressure, tends to move towards the tips
where atmospheric pressure is lower than the pressure over the bottom surface of
the wing. The airflow over the top surface, which is at a pressure below that of
atmospheric pressure, tends to flow towards the fuselage of the aircraft, because
atmospheric pressure tends to push the airflow in that direction. The airflow over
the bottom, moving towards the wing tips, and the airflow over the top moving
towards the fuselage, meet at different angles at the trailing edge of the wing,
causing a whirling motion behind the wing. When looking from the rear, this
whirling is clockwise on the port wing and anti-clockwise on the starboard wing.
See Figure 7.7.

Figure 7.7: Trailing edge vortices.

Wing tip vortices
8.16.
Wing tip vortices are caused when the airflow tends to creep, from the high
pressure area at the bottom surface of the wing to the low pressure area at the top
surface of the wing, around the wingtips. Because the wing moves through the air
at high speeds, this creeping of the air around the tips forms a spiral motion
behind the wing. When looking from the back, the spiral is in the clockwise
direction on the port (left) wing, and anti-clockwise on the starboard (right) wing.
See Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8: Wing Tip Vortices

8.17.
Wing tip vortices and trailing edge vortices can be minimised by tapering the wing
from the root to the tip, (looking from the top and front) by increasing the aspect
ratio of the wing, by increasing the fineness ratio of the wing, by fitting of wing
fences and tip tanks and by rounding off the wing tips. See Figure 7.9.
8.18.
Wing fences wash of trailing edge vortices that run from the fuselage to the wing
tip at the trailing edge to prevent flight control surface fluttering.

Figure 7.9: Minimisation of Induced Drag

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
9.
Objective 8: Recall the four forces.
STUDY MATERIAL
THE FOUR FORCES
9.1.
There are four forces acting on an aircraft in straight and level flight, namely, lift,
weight, thrust and drag. In level flight there must be no residual force tending to
move the aircraft from its straight and level path, i.e. the forces must be in
equilibrium.
THE POINTS OF ACTION

9.2.
With the aircraft in steady level flight the four forces and their points of action are
as follows:
9.2.1.
The resultant of the lifting forces of the wing (lift) which acts at right angles to
the path of flight through the centre of pressure (C of P). The use of the term
"Lift" in this sense is misleading, for under certain conditions of flight, such as a
vertical nose dive, it may act horizontally, and cases may even arise where Lift
acts vertically downwards.
9.2.2.
The weight of the aircraft which acts vertically downwards through the centre of
gravity (C of G).
9.2.3.
The thrust of the engine or propeller which may be taken to act approximately
parallel to the direction of flight. This assumption, although not strictly valid, will
suffice for the purposes of this chapter. Thrust acts through the centre of
pressure (C of P).
9.2.4.
The drag which acts horizontally backwards from a point which varies with the
flight attitude of the aircraft. Drag acts through the centre of gravity (C of G).
THE OPPOSING FORCES

9.3.
For straight and level flight, the opposing forces must be equal and opposite, so:
Lift = Weight
Thrust = Drag
9.3.1.
Lift must, therefore, be adjusted by altering the angle of attack until it is exactly
equal to the weight which it must support. See Figure 8.1.
9.3.2.
Similarly, thrust and drag must balance, for if thrust is greater, the aircraft will
accelerate; and if less, the speed will decrease. See Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: Forces acting on an aircraft in flight.

THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE FOUR FORCES
9.4.
The positions of the C of P and C of G are variable and under most conditions of
level flight they are not coincident:
9.4.1.
The C of P changes its position with a change in angle of attack.
9.4.2.
The C of G changes its position with a reduction in fuel or when stores are
dropped.
9.4.3.
The outcome is that the opposing forces of lift and weight set up a coupling,
causing either a nose-up or a nose-down pitching moment, depending on
whether the lift acts in front of, or behind the C of G, as illustrated.
9.5.
To ensure that any aircraft retains its stability within limits, it is usual during design
to position the centre of pressure behind the centre of gravity and the line of thrust
to act below the line of drag.
9.6.
This arrangement offers the possibility that the line of thrust and drag may exert a
correcting coupling for turning the aircraft tail down, with the centre of pressure
and centre of gravity turning the nose down.
These two couplings should
neutralise each other so that there is no residual moment tending to rotate the
aircraft.
9.7.
The main advantage of this arrangement is that, if the engine (thrust) fail, the
lift/weight coupling turns the nose down to put the aircraft into a gliding attitude.
Any correcting force that may be required to counter a nose heavy or tail heavy
attitude, is supplied by the tailplane and/or the elevator controls.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
10.
Objective 9: Recall the main components of an aircraft.
STUDY MATERIAL
FUSELAGE
10.1.
The fuselage is the body to which the wings and the tail unit of an aircraft is
attached and which provides space for the crew, passengers, cargo, controls and
other items, depending upon the size and design of the aircraft. It should have
the smallest streamline form consistent with desired capacity and aerodynamic
qualities of an aircraft.
10.2.
The fuselage must have points of attachment for the wing or wings, tail surfaces
and landing gear so arranged and installed that they can be inspected, removed,
repaired and replaced easily. The fuselage must be strong enough at the points
of attachment to withstand flying and landing loads. Finally, it should be shaped
to offer low resistance to the air and provide good vision for the pilot. See
Figure 9.2.
MAIN PLANES/WINGS
10.3.
The fuselage is fitted with a port (left) main plane and starboard (right) main plane,
viewed from the rear. Many have a centre plate (centre section) to which the
main planes are bolted, to support the aircraft in flight. They may also house fuel
tanks, bomb bays etc., and carry drop fuel tanks. The main planes which are of
aerofoil section, are sometimes referred to as the wing of the aircraft. See
Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Common wing forms.

HORIZONTAL STABILISER
10.4.
The horizontal stabiliser (tail plane) which stabilises to hold the aircraft in
horizontal flight, is attached to the rear end of the fuselage and may be a single
unit or separate port and starboard planes. The angle that the tail plane makes to
the airflow may be fixed, or a mechanism may be fitted that permits the angle to be
varied during flight.
VERTICAL STABILISER
10.5.
The vertical stabiliser (fin), may be built as part of the fuselage, or may be a
separate component bolted to it. The fin gives directional stability and tends to
hold the aircraft in a straight line of flight.
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

AILERONS
10.6.
The ailerons are control surfaces hinged to the rear of the main planes and are
used to make the aircraft roll to port or to starboard, by moving the control stick
sideways.
They are interconnected so that as the port aileron goes up, the
starboard aileron goes down, and vice versa.
ELEVATORS
10.7.
The elevators are control surfaces that are hinged to the rear of the tail plane and
are operated by moving the control column backwards or forwards.
Upward
movement of elevators (rearward movement of the control column) causes the
aircraft to climb whereas downward movement of the elevators causes the aircraft
to dive.
RUDDER
10.8.
The rudder is a control surface hinged to the rear of the fin, by which the aircraft is
made to turn to port or to starboard. It is operated by the rudder pedals in the
cockpit - left foot forward on the rudder bar turns the aircraft to port.
EMPENAGE
10.9.
The tail plane, fin, elevators and rudder form the tail unit, or empenage.

Figure 9.2: Aircraft structural components.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
11.
Objective 10: Recall the manoeuvres of the aircraft about the three axis.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
11.1.
Changes in the attitude of an aircraft in flight can take place in any one - or
combination of - the three major axis described in figure 10.1.
During
manoeuvres, considerable forces are at work on the airframe, and these may be
large enough to cause damage or even structural failure if the aircraft is
manoeuvred without consideration of the limits for which the airframe has been
designed.
Figure 10.1: Three axis.

THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS
11.2.
The longitudinal axis is a straight line, running from the nose to the tail of the
aircraft through the centre of gravity, and horizontal when the aircraft is in straight
and level flight.
11.3.
The aircraft may travel backwards and forwards along this axis. Backward motion
(such as the tail slide) is one of the most rare of all manoeuvres of an aircraft, but
(in compensation for this) forward movement along this axis is the greatest and is
the main feature of straight and level flight.

11.4. Any rotary motion of the aircraft about this axis is called "rolling." See Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.2: The longitudinal axis.

THE NORMAL AXIS
11.5.
The normal axis a straight line through the centre of gravity, and vertical when the
aircraft is in rigging position. It is therefore at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
11.6.
The aircraft may travel upwards or downwards along this axis, as in climbing or
descending.
Climb or descent is obtained chiefly by the inclination of the
longitudinal axis to the horizontal.
11.7.
Rotary motion of the aircraft about the normal axis is called "Yawing."
Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3: The normal axis.
See

THE LATERAL AXIS
11.8.
The lateral axis is a straight line through the centre of gravity at right angles to
both the longitudinal and the normal axis. It will be horizontal when the aircraft is
in rigging position and parallel to the line joining the wing tips.
11.9.
The aircraft may travel to left or right along the lateral axis. Such motion is called
side slipping.
11.10. Rotary motion of the aircraft about the lateral axis is called "Pitching."
Figure 10.4.
See
Figure 10.4: The lateral axis.

11.11. These axis must be considered as moving with the aircraft and always remaining
fixed relative to the aircraft, e.g. the lateral axis will remain parallel to the line
joining the wing tips in whatever attitude the aircraft may be. To take another
example, during a vertical nose-dive, the longitudinal axis will be vertical and the
lateral and normal axis horizontal.
THE MANOEUVRES
11.12. The manoeuvres of an aircraft are made up of one, or more of the following:
Manoeuvre
Rotated axis
Control surface used

a.
Rolling
Longitudinal
Ailerons(Lateral Control)
b.
Yawing
Normal
Rudder(Directional Control)
c.
Pitching
Lateral
Elevators(Longitudinal Control)

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
12.
Objective 11: Recall aircraft stability.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
12.1.
An aircraft in flight is subjected to local air disturbances that may deflect the
aircraft from its original path. Any aircraft that returns to its original path without
any efforts of the pilot is said to be stable. If it continues on the new path, or
diverges still further, it is said to be unstable. An aircraft may be stable under
certain conditions of flight and unstable under other conditions. For instance, an
aircraft which is stable during straight and level flight, may be unstable when
inverted and vice versa. The stability which is definitely due to some features
incorporated in the design of the aircraft, is sometimes called "Inherent Stability."
STABILITY
12.2.
Stability is often confused with balance and the student should be careful to
distinguish between the two. An aircraft which flies one wing low may often, when
disturbed from this attitude, return to it. Such an aircraft is out of its proper
balance, but is not unstable.
12.3.
The stability of an aircraft must be considered about all three axis. It is possible
for an aircraft to be stable about one axis, but unstable about another.
12.4.
Stability is dealt with under two main headings:
12.4.1.
Static stability.
12.4.2.
Dynamic stability.
12.5.
Static stability describes the immediate reaction of the body after disturbance.
Dynamic stability describes the subsequent reaction.
12.6.
The response is related to the original equilibrium state by use of the terms
positive-, neutral- and negative stability.
Positive stability indicates a return
towards the position prior to disturbance, neutral stability the taking up of a new
position of a constant relationship to the original, whereas negative stability
indicates a continuous divergence from the original state.

Figure 11.1: Static stability.

STABILITY DIAGRAM
Axis
Motion (About the Axis)
Stability
a. Longitudinal (x)
Roll (p)
Lateral
b. Lateral (y)
Pitch (q)
Longitudinal
c.
Yaw
Directional
Normal (z)
(r)
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY (STATIC)

12.7.
When the aircraft is flying in the normal way, the airflow will approach it directly
from the front, i.e. parallel to its longitudinal axis. Now, imagine the aircraft to be
deflected from its course owing to its natural momentum it will (for a short while)
tend to continue moving in its old direction; therefore, the longitudinal axis will be
inclined to the airflow and a pressure will be created on all the surfaces on one
side of the aircraft. See Figure 11.2.
Figure 11.2: Directional stability.

12.8.
If the turning effect of the pressure behind the centre of gravity is greater than the
turning effect in front of the centre of gravity, the aircraft will tend to return to its
original course.
12.9.
If, on the other hand, the turning effect in front is greater than that behind, the
aircraft will turn still further off its course. Notice that it is the turning effect, or the
moment, that matters and not the actual pressure. Therefore, it is not merely a
question of how much side surface is in front or behind the centre of gravity, but
also the distance from the centre of gravity of each side surface.

12.10. In other words, a small fin at the end of a long fuselage may be just as effective in
producing Directional Stability as a large fin at the end of a short fuselage. See
Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3: Short fuselage large fin design, long fuselage small fin design.
FIN AND RUDDER DESIGNS
12.11. The vertical stabiliser is a symmetrical aerofoil and it will produce an aerodynamic
force at positive angles of attack. In sideslip, therefore, the total side force on the
fin and rudder will be proportional to the lift co-efficient and the area. The lift coefficient will vary, as on any aerofoil, with aspect ratio and sweepback. At high
angles of sideslip, it is possible for the fin to stall. To avoid this the designer can
increase the stalling angle by increasing the sweepback, decreasing the aspect
ratio, or by fitting multiple fins of low aspect ratio.
12.12. The dorsal fin has a powerful effect on preserving the directional stability at large
angles of sideslip which would produce stall of the vertical fin. The addition of a
dorsal fin to the aircraft will allow the decay of directional stability at high sideslip in
two ways. The least obvious but most important, effect is a large increase in the
fuselage stability at large sideslip angles. In addition, the effective aspect ratio of
the vertical tail is reduced which increases the stall angle for the surface. By this
twofold effect, the addition of the dorsal fin is a very useful device. See
Figure 11.4.

Figure 11.4: Dorsal Fin

12.13. The high mach number of supersonic flight produce a decrease in lift curve slope
with the consequent reduction in tail contribution to stability. In order to have
sufficient directional stability at high mach numbers, the typical supersonic
configuration will exhibit relatively large vertical tail surfaces.
12.14. Ventral fins may be added as an additional contribution to directional stability, but
landing clearance requirements may limit their size or require the fins to be
retractable.
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY (STATIC)
12.15. The horizontal stabiliser usually provide the greatest stabilising influence of all the
components of the aircraft.
To appreciate the contribution of the horizontal
stabiliser to stability, inspect figure 11.5. If the aircraft is given a change in angle
of attack, a change in tail lift will occur at the aerodynamic centre of the tail. An
increase in lift at the horizontal tail produces a negative moment about the aircraft
C of G and tends to return the aircraft to the trimmed condition.
While the
contribution of the horizontal stabiliser to stability is large, the magnitude of the
contribution is dependent upon the change in tail lift and the lever arm of the
surface. It is obvious that the horizontal stabiliser will produce a stabilising effect
only when the surface is aft of the C of G.
For this reason it would be
inappropriate to refer to the forward surface of a canard (tail-first) configuration as
a horizontal "stabiliser." In a logical sense, the horizontal "stabiliser" must be aft
of the C of G and - generally speaking - the farther aft, the greater the contribution
to stability.

Figure 11.5: Longitudinal stability.
12.16. The main factors that affect longitudinal stability are
12.16.1.
design of the tailplane.
12.16.2.
position of the C of G.
LATERAL STABILITY (STATIC)

12.17. We have seen that pitching is motion about the aircraft's lateral axis and yawing is
motion about its vertical axis. Motion about its longitudinal axis is a lateral or
rolling motion. The tendency to return to the original attitude from such is called
lateral stability. See Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.6: Lateral stability.

12.18. In normal horizontal flight the lift will be vertically upwards and the weight vertically
downwards, the two opposing forces balancing and maintaining equilibrium. If,
however, the aircraft rolls over into a new position, the lift will become tilted, some
part of it acting vertically at some part of it acting sideways towards the lower wing.
The weight, on the other hand, will still act vertically downwards. Thus, there is
nothing to balance the sideways component of the lift force and the aircraft will
side-slip to, the side of the lower wing.
12.19. The side-slip, being a relative motion of the aircraft through the air, will naturally
cause wind to come from the opposite direction to the side slip. This wind will
strike the wings and all the side surfaces of the aircraft. This action will reverse
the roll due to the increased lift of the lowering wings larger angle of attack. See
Figure 11.7.

Figure 11.7: Vector action of forward and sideslip velocities.

12.20. Each different part of the aircraft will contribute towards the overall value of the
lateral stability and these contributions will be of different magnitude depending on
the condition of flight and the particular configuration of the aircraft. The more
important of these contributions are:
12.20.1.
Wing contribution due to the following:
12.20.1.1.
Dihedral.
12.20.1.2.
Sweepback.
DIHEDRAL
12.21. The effect of the geometric dihedral of a wing is a powerful contribution to lateral
stability.
As shown in figure 11.8 a dihedral wing will develop stable rolling
moments with sideslip. If the relative wind comes from the side, the wing into the
wind is subject to an increase in angle of attack and develops an increase in lift.
The wing away from the wind is subject to a decrease in angle of attack and
develops a decrease in lift. The changes in lift effect a rolling moment tending to
raise the windward wing.
Hence, dihedral contributes positively towards the
overall lateral stability of an aircraft when it goes into a sideslip.

Figure 11.8: Dihedral effect on lateral stability.

SWEEPBACK
12.22. Wing sweepback has the effect of producing an additional stabilising contribution
thus increasing the "effective" dihedral of the wing (10 of sweep has about the
same effect as 1 of dihedral). Figure 11.8 illustrates the principal effects on the
wing geometry of sideslip.
Angle of Sweep
12.23. The angle of sweep of the leading (low) wing is decreased and that of the trailing
wing is increased by the sideslip angle. A stable rolling moment is therefore
induced by the sideslip.
Aspect Ratio
12.24. On the leading (low) wing the span is increased and the chord decreased resulting
in an effective increase in aspect ratio. On the trailing (high) wing the span is
decreased and the chord is increased resulting in a reduction in aspect ratio. This
again produces a stable rolling moment because the more efficient (low) wing
produces more lift. See Figure 11.9.

Figure 11.9: Effect of sideslip on a swept platform.

12.25. Whatever the method of obtaining stability, once the rolling motion is completed
and the aircraft is flying with one wing low, correction only takes place after a
sideslip towards the low wing. It is the sideslip that affects the lateral stability.
12.26. Other stabilising methods of designs are:
12.26.1.
Anhedral or negative Dihedral.
12.26.2.
High mounted wing giving pendulum stability due to the suspended weight
below the wing.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
13.
Objective 12: Recall the control about the axis.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
13.1.
An aircraft is equipped with certain fixed and movable surfaces, or aerofoils, which
provide stability and control during flight. The fixed airfoils are the wings, the
vertical stabiliser (fin), and the horizontal stabiliser (objective 11). The moveable
airfoils, called control surfaces, are ailerons, elevators, rudder, and flaps
(discussed in objective 14). The ailerons, elevators, and rudder are used to
"steer" the aircraft in flight to make it go where the pilot wants it to go and cause it
to execute certain manoeuvres.
AILERON CONTROL (LATERAL CONTROL)

13.2.
When an aileron is lowered in flight, its angle of attack to the airflow is increased,
while that of the raised aileron is decreased. Due to the difference in angle of
attack, the lowered aileron generates more lift, not only from the greater angle of
attack, but also from the increased camber over the top of the wing. See
Figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1: Aileron movements on a change of angle of attack.

13.3.
If both ailerons should travel the exact same distance upwards and downwards
from a neutral position, the lowered aileron which moves down in a region of high
air pressure generates a greater reaction out of the airflow, and thus produces
more drag.

13.4. The following problems will also occur:
13.4.1.
Due to the fact that the drag is no longer balanced on the two mainplanes, a
bad yawing effect is produced in the direction opposite to that in which bank has
been applied.
13.4.2.
Also, if the aircraft is flying beyond the region of stall, the large movement of the
down-moving aileron may cause premature stall and, result in a loss of aileron
control.
13.5.
These problems could be overcome in different ways.

briefly.
We will discuss them
DIFFERENTIAL AILERON CONTROL

13.6.
Differential Aileron Control will cause the distance in travel of the up-going aileron
to be greater than that of the down-going aileron.
This is accomplished by
applying the theory of the ineffective crank angle (as discussed during piston
engine theory) as illustrated.
13.7.
The effect of this arrangement is that the drag is being decreased on the lowered
aileron and increased on the raised aileron so as to balance the value and
counteracting the bad yawing effect. See Figure 12.2.
Figure 12.2: Aileron differential control.

FRIZE AILERONS

13.8. Another method of counteracting the effect of aileron drag is by the employing of
Frize ailerons. These ailerons normally lie flush with the main planes, but when
moved to the up-position, the nose of the aileron protrudes into the airflow below.
At the same time the nose of the down-moving ailerons is screened by the main
plane. This action increases the drag of the up-moving aileron and makes it
nearly equal to the drag of the down-moving aileron.
13.9.
Owing to the possibility of "snatch" (being teared off by high-speed airflow),

ordinary Frize ailerons are seldom found on high speed aircraft. These aircraft
are fitted with blunt nose ailerons which have the same advantages as the Frize
type, but entry of the full portion of the nose into the airflow is more gradual,
therefore the effect of the airflow pressure acting on the nose is less drastic. Frize
type ailerons are most efficient when differentially controlled. See Figure 12.3.
Figure 12.3: Frize aileron.

SPOILER CONTROL
13.10. The spoiler is a plate that lies flush on the top surface of the wing and has no
effect on its performance, but is connected to the aileron controls in such a way
that when the aileron is moved up beyond a certain angle, the spoiler is raised
progressively in to the airflow. This will cause eddies (Eddy currents) over the top
surface of the aerofoil, resulting in a very appreciable decrease in lift and increase
in drag.
13.11. This means that the wing on which the aileron goes down obtains increased lift
and very little extra drag, while on the other wing the lift is "spoilt" and the drag
greatly increased.
Thus we have a large rolling effect in the right direction
combined with a yawing effect also in the right direction. See Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4: Spoiler control on a Jaguar aircraft.

WASH - OUT
13.12. A wash-out is a decrease in the Angle of Incidence towards the wing tips. This
means that when the centre portions of the wing are at their stalling angle, the
outer portions are well below the angle and therefore the aileron will function in the
normal way. The obvious defect of this arrangement is that the wash-out must be
considerable to have any appreciable effect on the control and the result will be a
corresponding loss of lift from the outer portions of the wing in normal flight.
ELEVATOR CONTROL (LONGITUDINAL CONTROL)
13.13. An elevator is defined as a horizontal, hinged control surface, usually mounted on
the trailing edge of the horizontal stabiliser of an aircraft, designed to apply a
pitching moment on the aircraft.
PITCHING MOMENT
13.14. A pitching moment is a force tending to rotate the aircraft about the lateral axis,
that is, "nose up" or "nose down". When the control stick or - wheel in the cockpit
of the aircraft is pulled back, the elevators are raised. The reverse action takes
place when the control stick or wheel is pushed forward. See Figure 12.5.

Figure 12.5: Elevator Action

EFFECTS AT LOW SPEED
13.15. During flight of an aircraft the operation of the elevators is quite critical, especially
at low speed. When power is off and the aircraft is gliding, the position of the
elevators will determine whether the aircraft dives, glides at the correct angle, or
stalls.
The pilot must know the stalling speed of the aircraft and keep the
elevators in a position that will enable the aircraft to maintain flying speed. A safe
gliding speed must be well above stalling speed : otherwise, a gust or quick shift in
wind velocity could cause the aircraft to stall.
STABILATORS
13.16. A special type of elevator that combines the functions of the elevator and the
horizontal stabiliser is called a stabilator. When this type of control is installed on
an aircraft, there is no fixed horizontal stabiliser. This type of control is normally
used on high speed aircraft to prevent fluttering which will be discussed in the
supersonic flight chapter.
RUDDER CONTROL (DIRECTIONAL CONTROL)
13.17. A rudder is a vertical control surface usually hinged to the tail post aft of the
vertical stabiliser and designed to apply yawing moments to the aircraft, that is, to
make it turn to the right or left about the vertical axis.
YAWING MOMENT
13.18. The movement of the rudder is controlled by rudder pedals operated by the feet of
the pilot. When the right pedal is pressed, the rudder swings to the right, this
causing an increase in dynamic air pressure on its right side. This increased
pressure causes the tail of the aircraft to swing to the left and the nose to the right.
See Figure 12.6.

Figure 12.6: Rudder Action

SKIDDING
13.19. Although it appears that the rudder causes the aircraft to turn, it must be pointed
out that the rudder itself cannot cause the aircraft to make a good turn. When the
rudder is applied to an aircraft in flight, the aircraft will turn, but it will continue to
travel in the same direction as before unless a correcting force is applied. Thus,
with rudder only, we find that the aircraft skids. In order to prevent this skidding in
a turn, we use the ailerons to bank the aircraft. Any one who drives a car will
know that a banked turn is much easier to negotiate at comparatively high speeds
in a car than a flat turn. It is the same with an aircraft. To prevent skidding in a
turn, the aircraft must be banked.
COMBINATION WITH ELEVATORS
13.20. Another factor to note concerning turns is that the steeper the turn, the more the
elevator will have to be used. Picture an aircraft in a 45 bank. The nose of the
aircraft must be held up with an up - elevator motion. We see that a properly
executed turn requires the use of all three of the primary controls.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
14.
Objective 13: Recall the balance of control surfaces.
STUDY MATERIAL
BALANCING OF CONTROL SURFACE
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE
14.1.
Although a balance tab will assist the pilot in moving a control surface, a similar
effect can be achieved by means of aerodynamic balance that consists of having a
part of the control surface in front of the hinge line. This front (balance) portion,
when meeting the airflow, will cause a pressure that tends to move the surface
over still further. Thus, the effect of the air loads acting on the control surface
behind the hinge line is balanced partially, thereby assisting the pilot when the
applicable flying control is being moved during flight. See Figure 13.1.
Figure 13.1: Three forms of aerodynamic balance.

NOTE :
The control surface is only partially balanced, otherwise (if fully balanced) the
pilot would be unable to experience "feel" of control.

MASS BALANCE (STATIC BALANCE)
14.2.
Control surfaces are often balanced in a different sense. A "mass" (usually a lump
of lead) is fitted in front of the hinge in such a way as to prevent the "flutter" of
control surfaces which is liable to occur at very high speeds of flight. This flutter is
a kind of vibration caused by the combined effects of the changes in air pressure
distribution over the surface as the angle of attack is altered and the elastic forces
are set up by the distortion of the structure itself.
See
Figure 13.2.
Figure 13.2: Mass (staic) balance.

CONTROL SURFACE TRIMMING
14.3.
Tabs are essentially small auxiliary control surfaces, usually hinged and
recessed into to the trailing edges of the main surfaces.
CONTROLLABLE TRIM TABS

14.4.
Controllable trim tabs are used by the pilot in flight, to adjust the control surfaces
enabling the aircraft to fly as desired without holding pressure on the main
controls. If the pilot had to apply continuous pressure to the flight controls over a
period of extended flight, it would be very tiring. By adjusting the trim tabs for the
conditions of flight, the pilot only has to apply a slight corrective pressure
occasionally to keep the aircraft on the proper course.
14.5.
The operation of a trim tab is illustrated in figure 13.3. When the elevator trim tab
is moved down by means of the cockpit control, the airstream develops lift that
tends to push the tab up. This force is transmitted to the elevator and moves the
elevator up. This change, in turn, causes the tail of the aircraft to move down and
the nose to go up. The elevator-trim tab control in the cockpit is usually a small
wheel or knob arranged in such a way that its plane of rotation is vertical and
longitudinal with respect to the aircraft. If the nose of the aircraft has to be raised,
the top of the wheel is moved rearward; if it has to be lowered, the top of the wheel
is moved forward.

Figure 13.3: Controllable Trim tab

14.6.
The trim control for the ailerons is a knob or wheel with a vertical and lateral plane
of rotation. If the right wing of the aircraft has to be lowered and the left to be
raised, the top of the knob or wheel is moved to the right. The reverse direction is
used to lower the left wing.
ADJUSTABLE TRIM TABS

14.7.
Adjustable trim tabs are similar to controllable tabs; however, they are adjusted
only when the aircraft is on the ground. If the pilot reports that the aircraft is noseheavy, tail-heavy or one - wing-heavy, the tab can be adjusted to correct the
condition. It is possible to adjust tabs of this type for one reason only, namely that
the aircraft will fly satisfactorily under conditions established for normal cruising
power and speed.
SERVO TAB (BALANCING TAB)

14.8.
A servo tab is directly operated by the primary controls of the aircraft. It is so

linked that when the primary control is moved, the tab is moved in the opposite
direction and the tab, in turn, develops forces which helps to move the main
control surface. This system is also used to reduce the effort required to move
the controls on a large aircraft.
14.9.
By connecting the tabs directly to the cockpit controls, the tab can be made to
deliver the hinge moment required to move the control surface. The pilot's control
input deflects the tab. The moment produced about the hinge line of the control
surface causes this surface to "float" to its position of equilibrium. The floating
control will then produce the required moment about the C of G of the aircraft.
The stick forces involved are those arising from the hinge moments acting on the
tab which are much less than those on the main control surface. See Figure 13.4.

Figure 13.4: Flight Control Trim Tab Types

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
15.
Objective 14: Recall lift devices & air brakes.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
15.1.
The purpose of high lift devices is primarily to decrease the landing and take-off
speed of modern aircraft so that shorter runways can be built and less braking
force is required during the landing roll.
SLOTS
15.2.
A slot is a high lift device as it improves lift. It is a nozzle-shaped passage

through a wing, designed to improve airflow over the wing at high angles of attack
and slow speeds. It is normally situated close to the leading edge and is formed
by a main- and an auxiliary airfoil, or slat. See Figure 14.1.
Figure 14.1: Fixed slot.

SLATS
15.3.
A slat (or sometimes called a leading edge flap), is a movable auxiliary aerofoil
attached to the leading edge of the wing, which - when closed - falls within the
original contour of the wing and which - when opened - forms a slot. There are
three major types, as can be seen in Figure 14.2:
15.3.1.
Droop slat - Leading edge bends downwards.
15.3.2.
Krger slat - leading edge nose fairing that is moved outwards.
15.3.3.
Automatic slat.

Figure 14.2: Droop slat and Krger slat.

AIRFLOW
15.4.
Smooth airflow is achieved by letting air flow through the slot in such a way that it
evens out the airflow over the top surface and thereby reduce turbulence. A
smooth airflow is forced to follow the contour of the camber of the aerofoil, thus
providing more lift until a larger angle of attack is reached.
This has a
disadvantage when landing as it affects visibility (Higher angle of attack makes it
difficult for the pilot to be able to see the runway over the nose of the aircraft). See
Figure 14.3.
Figure 14.3: Airflow improvement.

FLAPS
15.5.
Wing flaps reduces an aircrafts landing speed by increasing lift and drag, enabling
the aircraft to land on a shorter runway than it would normally require. The wing
flap increases the effective camber of the wing, although this is usually
accomplished with a substantial increase in drag. A flap hinged to the trailing
edge of the wing acts as an air brake when it is deflected sufficiently. This
enables the aircraft to approach the runway a steeper angle of descent for landing,
without increasing the airspeed.

15.6. A wing flap is defined as a hinged, pivoted or sliding airfoil - usually near the
trailing edge of the wing - designed to increase the lift, drag, or both when
deflected and is used principally for landing (although large aircraft use partial flap
selection for take-off).
DEPENDING ON THE DESIGN OF THE FLAP
15.7.
Lift can be increased with only a small increase in drag.
15.8.
Lift and drag can equally be increased, and
15.9.
For certain settings, drag, will increase more rapidly than lift.
THE ADVANTAGE OF USING FLAPS

15.10. The higher lift co-efficient that is obtained when using flaps, permits a lower
landing speed.
15.11. When deployed simultaneously with the air brakes, flaps permit a shorter landing
roll.
15.12. The use of flaps make it possible to have a steeper gliding angle without
subsequently increasing the air speed, thus permitting the aircraft to clear
obstacles during the landing approach and to make spot landings much more
accurate, as well as easier.
THE DISADVANTAGES OF USING FLAPS
15.13. Using flaps on an aircraft also implies certain disadvantages.
These
disadvantages should be understood by the pilot and the technician so that they
can operate and maintain the aircraft properly and safely. The disadvantages of
using flaps are as follows:
15.13.1.
Flaps add to the weight of an aircraft and increases the possibility of mechanical
failure (more parts = less dependable).
15.13.2.
Since the flaps normally extend along the trailing edge of the wing in between
the inboard side of both ailerons, it is possible that when fully extended - they
may have some affect on the lateral control of the aircraft. The amount of
affect depends on the size and type of flaps, as well as the design of the airfoil.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLAPS IN USE
The Plain Flap
15.14. Gives an increase in both lift and drag when lowered to about 50 to 90. The lift
remains almost constant, while the drag increases rapidly. See Figure 14.4.
Figure 14.4: Plain flap.

The Split Flap
15.15. Gives greater increase in both lift and drag than the plain flap. See Figure 14.5.
Figure 14.5: Split flap.

The Zap Flap
15.16. A type of split flap in which the hinge line moves rearward as the flap is lowered.
Gives greater increase in lift and drag than the previously mentioned types. See
Figure 14.6.
Figure 14.6: Zap flap.

The Fowler Flap

15.17. Including other types. They are known as LIFT FLAPS and increase lift to a
greater extent than drag by increasing both the wing area and the camber. See
Figure 14.7.
Figure 14.7: Fowler Flap

The Slotted Flap
15.18. The slotted flap has similar characteristics, but on account of the slot, the lift is
greater and continues to increase to a greater angle. See Figure 14.8.
Figure 14.8: Slotted Flap

THE USE OF FLAPS AND SLOTS
15.19. Ideally, the aerofoil section should be able to vary from a high lift to high speed
type during flight by varying the camber. The experimental laminar flow wing
might make this possible but for the time being, flaps and slots are used to change
the characteristics of an aerofoil section. These can be used separately or
together and on high speed aircraft there are essential to ensure safe flight. See
Figure 14.9.
15.20. The extra lift provided by flaps and slots can be utilised to give lower landing-, as
well as stalling speeds.

Figure 14.9: Combination of slots and flaps.

AIR BRAKES
15.21. Jet engine aircraft (having no propeller drag when the engine is throttled back)
have comparatively low drag and lose their speed slowly. The desired lower
speed eventually reached and slight downward flight path causes an immediate
and appreciable increase in speed.
15.22. An air brake is an integral part of the airframe and can be extended to increase the
drag of an aircraft at will, enabling the speed to be decreased more rapidly, or
regulated during a descent. Some aircraft lower the undercarriage partially or
completely to obtain the same effect. See Figure 14.10.

Figure 14.10: Air Brakes on a Super Sabre jet fighter.

DRAG PARACHUTES
15.23. To reduce the landing run and wear of the wheel brakes, some aircraft may also
be fitted with a parachute which is streamed immediately after touch-down and
acts as an air brake. See Figure 14.11.
Figure 14.11: Drag Parachute or brake/drag chute as used on a Mirage F1.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
16.
Objective 15: Recall supersonic flight.
STUDY MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
16.1.
Thus far we have discussed airflow and aerodynamic principles with respect to
subsonic airspeeds only. The behaviour of an aerofoil under subsonic conditions
is easily predictable. However, when we consider operations at transonic and
supersonic speeds, we find the reaction of an aerofoil altogether different from that
which is found at subsonic speeds. The reason for this change lies in the reaction
of the airflow itself.
16.2.
When discussing high-speed aerodynamics, we constantly refer to the speed of

sound. This can be understood when we consider that great changes take place
in the forces caused by the air flowing over an aircraft as the aircraft approaches
the speed of sound.
SPEED OF SOUND
16.3.
When a body moves through the air at a speed well below that at which sound
travels through air, there is a message sent into the oncoming air stream in
advance to say that the body is approaching. When this message is received, the
air stream divides to make way for the body and there is very little change (if any)
in the density of the air as it flows past the body. The air is thus "warned" of the
presence of the approaching aircraft. If we could "see the air" in front of an
approaching aircraft, this fact would be immediately obvious. The disturbance of
the air would begin perhaps 30 metres or more in front of the aircraft.
16.4.
What we have called a "message" or "warning" is in fact a wave propagation in the

air, set up by the areas of increased pressure present around the moving body.
16.5.
These pressures are sent out in all directions to the surrounding air by means of
"waves". These waves are similar to sound waves, and they travel at the speed
of sound, which is about 760 mph in air at sea-level conditions (15C). There is
no mystery in this relationship between pressure waves and sound waves
because sound - in fact - is a pressure wave set up by some local compression of
the air. The speed of sound is simply the speed of the distribution of the thinning
and compressions to a small extent that is present in the air.
16.6.
So, if a body travels through the air at the speed of sound there will be no time for
the "message" to be sent by the waves to travel ahead, and thus the air strikes
violently against the oncoming body.

PRESSURE WAVES FROM A MOVING SOURCE
Figure 15.1: Concorde accelerates to supersonic.

SOURCE MOVING AT SUBSONIC SPEED
16.7.
Figure 15.1 shows the pattern produced at a given instant in time. The soundwaves are emitted in all directions relative to the source, although they are closer
together ahead of the source than behind it. The waves maintain their separation
and there is no tendency for them to bunch.
SOURCE MOVING AT SONIC SPEED

16.8.
A different pattern is produced when the source is moving at the speed of sound.
The waves do not move ahead of the source; they bunch up and form an incipient
wave. This is now a formed limit to the influence of the source. As the incipient
wave is at right angles to the direction of movement of the source, the wave is
called an incipient wave. Because the air ahead gets no warning as the source
approaches at sonic speed we get a good idea as to how the waves pile up and
what causes the "shock". See Figure 15.1.

SOURCE MOVING AT THE SUPERSONIC SPEED
16.9.
At supersonic speeds another pattern is produced.

The source exceeds the
speed the pressure waves propagate and there is no more piling up of waves.
OBLIQUE MACH WAVE

16.10. As can be seen from figure 15.2, the wave is not straight anymore but bends back
and is called an oblique mach wave. The angle it makes is called the Mach
angle. The faster the source moves, the more the wave will bend back and the
mach angle will become smaller.
16.11. In the air this pattern is three-dimensional so the boundary becomes a surface
called the Mach-cone.
MACH NUMBER
16.12. At this stage it is necessary to introduce a term used in connection with high speed
flight -Mach number. The term is a compliment to the Austrian, Prof. Ernst Mach
(1838 - 1916), who was professor of history and theory of science at the University
of Vienna and who was observing and studying shock waves in 1876.
16.13. The Mach no (M) refers to the speed at which an aircraft is travelling in relation to
the speed of sound. Thus, a Mach no of 0,5 means that the aircraft is travelling at
half the speed of sound.
16.14. Because the speed of sound varies with altitude due to temperature change, it is
the ratio of the speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound that is important, rather
than the speed of the aircraft with respect to the air.
VARIATION OF THE SPEED OF SOUND
16.15. Temperature is a measure of molecular speed, therefore a change in temperature
in the atmosphere will result in a change in the speed of sound. The speed of
sound would decrease with a rise in altitude since it becomes colder. This will
only continue until the Stratosphere has been reached, since there is no
temperature change in this region. For example, at sea-level at 15 C mach 1
equals 661,7 knots, but at 12 200 m at a temperature of -56,5 C, mach 1 equals
573,3 knots. As seen in Table 15.1.

Table 15.1: Variation in temperature and speed of sound with altitude in the standard
atmosphere.
Altitude Feet
Temperature F / C
Speed of Sound Knots
Sea-level
50,0 / 15,0
661,7
5 000
41,2 / 5,1
650,3
10 000
23,3 / 4,8
638,6
15 000
5,5 / -14,7
626,7
20 000
-12,3. / -24,6
614,6
25 000
-30,2 / -34,5
602,2
30 000
-48,0 / -44,4
589,6
35 000
-65,8 / -56,3
576,6
40 000
-69,7 / -56,5
573,8
50 000
-69,7 / 56,5
573,8
60 000
-69,7 / -56,5
573,8
SHOCK WAVES
16.16. What actually happens during the change from incompressible flow to
compressible flow? The first indication would seem to be a breakaway of the
airflow from the surface of the body, usually some way back, setting up a turbulent
wave. This may occur at speeds less than half the speed of sound and has
already been dealt with when considering the boundary layer.
16.17. As the speed increases, the point of breakaway/transition point tends to creep
forward, resulting in turbulent airflow over the larger portion of the wing upper
surface and a thicker turbulent wave. See Figure 15.2.

Figure 15.2: Shock waves.

16.18. At certain speeds, the point where the acceleration of airflow is the greatest, it will
become sonic and the strong incipient shock wave will appear.
Figure 15.3: Shock wave on an aerofoil.

16.19. This can be represented by a line approximately at a right angle to the surface of
the body and signifying a sudden rise in pressure and density of the air. This is
also the start of the transonic range, where some parts are subsonic and other
supersonic. See Figure 15.3.
16.20. There is a tendency for the breakaway and turbulent wave to start from the point
where the shock wave meets the surface, which is usually at or near the point of
maximum "Camber", i.e. where the speed of airflow is greatest.
16.21. A point on the upper surface of a transonic wing, is shown about one quarter of
the full size. At the root of the main shock secondary waves are playing back and
forth and the boundary layer has broken away.
SHOCK STALL
16.22. At the speed at which the shock waves begin to appear, there is quite a sudden
rise in drag. The results of the turbulent flow and pressure changes are known as
Shock Stall, since it has many characteristics in common with the ordinary stall as well as a few important differences. To avoid confusion we shall refer to the
ordinary stall as the "High Incidence Stall", a name which in itself indicates the
main difference, since the Shock Stall can occur at any incidence or angle of
attack. As the speed increases still further, the shock wave tends to move back,
but in doing so becomes stronger and extends further out from the surface, while
there is even more violent turbulence behind it.

16.23. A shock wave is a barrier between low and high pressure. The high pressure
behind the shock wave is, to some extent, communicated through the sluggish
boundary layer over the surface of the aircraft which permits the pressure to be
transmitted forward under the root of the shock.
16.24. As noted previously this effects (and others) cause the boundary layer to separate
at the root of the shock and to become thicker and turbulent. As a result, a very
great increase in drag is experienced, which has given rise to the popular concept
of "sound barrier". The increase in drag is, in fact, so great that until 1953 no
production type aircraft could exceed the speed of sound, except in a dive.
Another effect which rapidly becomes predominant in the supersonic region, is the
energy-loss in the shock waves. See Figure 15.4.
Figure 15.4: Effect on the boundary layer.

16.25. In flight each shock wave is towed through the air by the aircraft and the lost
energy appears as heat.
16.26. As is rather to be expected, all this adds up to a sudden and considerable increase
in drag - it may be as much as a tenfold (10x) increase. This is accompanied by a
loss of lift and often, due to a completely changed pressure distribution, a change
in the position of the centre of pressure, which in turn may upset the balance of the
aircraft. At the same time the turbulent air flow behind the shock wave is about to
cause severe buffeting, especially if this flow strikes some other part of the aircraft,
such as the tailplane. As seen Figure 15.5.

Figure 15.6: Drag co-efficient diagram (Note fast increase in drag on entering the
supersonic range: Mach 1 and faster).

16.27. At each shock wave the following will apply:
16.27.1.
Density increases.
16.27.2.
Temperature increases.
16.27.3.
Increase in pressure
16.27.4.
Decrease in velocity.
16.27.5.
Slight change in direction of airflow.
16.27.6.
The region in front being supersonic and behind, -subsonic.
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER

16.28. It has become clear that different local speeds exist over an aerofoil due to the
camber. If it is accelerated through the air, a point will be reached where the local
speed at a certain part of the aerofoil (usually at maximum camber) will become
sonic which will then lead to the formation of the shockwave - this is called the
critical mach number (M-crit).
16.29. The critical mach number could vary from aircraft to aircraft due to different local
air speeds. It could vary between Mach 0,7 and 0,8, the end of the subsonic
range and beginning of the transonic range.
16.30. The M-crit of an aircraft should be as high as possible, because the higher the Mcrit, the shorter the transonic range. It is in this range that severe buffeting of the
aircraft takes place and a very large increased drag is produced due to shockwave
formation. Control problems, due to breakaway of airflow and shock separation,
become evident.
16.31. Subsonic and sonic variations in airflow over an aerofoil are the cause of major
difficulties encountered during the transonic range. However, if this range could
be kept as short as possible, it would mean that the airflow would sooner change
to supersonic flow.
SHOCKWAVE PATTERNS
16.32. Figures 15.6 and 15.7 show the complete transition of a symmetrical aerofoil at
zero angle of attack from subsonic, through transonic, to supersonic.
Figure 15.6: Flow over an aerofoil at M=0,6.

16.33. Flow is still subsonic and there is a turbulent wake from the boundary layer.

16.34. Figure 15.8 shows the formation of the incipient shock wave, the supersonic flow
ahead and subsonic flow at the back and the start of the transonic range when
M-crit has been reached. Note that if the aerofoil was inclined, the incipient shock
would have first started at the top.

16.35. As more regions become sonic on the aerofoil, the shock wave moves back, but
becomes stronger due to the successive piling up of pressure waves. The flow
behind is still subsonic. As seen in Figure 15.9.

16.36. At this stage the original shock wave attaches itself to the trailing edge, but
becomes oblique and forms a fishtail series. The source is now supersonic. This
is now a mach wave and the region behind also supersonic.
16.37. At this speed a new wave is formed (the bow wave) that approaches the leading
edge.
This is due to the pressure disturbances propagated from the leading
edge but they cannot make progress as the air stream approaches them at their
own propagation speed. Therefore, the bow wave comes nearer to the leading
edge and the subsonic region behind it becomes smaller. See Figure 15.10.
Figure 15.10: Flow over an aerofoil at M=2,0

16.38. At this stage we are through the transonic range and all the flow is supersonic.
The bow wave and tail wave will remain on the leading and trailing edge. As we
go faster, the mach waves will lean over more and the angle will become smaller.
CONTROL PROBLEMS
16.39. Reference has already been made to the unpleasant things that may happen to
aircraft as they go through the speed of sound - violent changes of trim, up or
down, oscillations, buffeting, etc. Under these circumstances it is essential for the
pilot to have complete control and so be master of the aircraft and its movements.
Unfortunately, this is by no means easy to provide - for several reasons.
16.40. Consider, for instance, the ordinary tailplane and elevator configuration.
At
subsonic speeds, an elevator depends for its effectiveness on the complete
change of flow which occurs over both tailplane and elevator. When the elevator
is raised or lowered, the actual forces which control the aircraft are in fact much
greater on the tailplane than on the elevator itself. As soon as a shock wave is
formed on the tailplane (the most likely place for its formation is at the hinge
between tailplane and elevator) any movement of the elevator cannot effect the
flow in front of the shock wave, so we have to rely entirely on the forces generated
by the elevator itself to effect control. But, the elevator will be in the turbulent flow
behind the shock wave and so, may itself be very ineffective in producing the
control forces required. At higher speeds, when the shock wave moves back over
the elevator, the opposite problem may occur and the forces on the elevator may
be so great that it becomes almost immovable. See Figure 15.11.

Figure 15.11: Elevator Control Problems.

16.41. The answer to these problems has been found in the all moving slab type of
tailplane and in making it power-operated, usually by making use of hydraulics. In
this way we have an adjustable tailplane and an elevator in the form of what is
known as a stabilator, being a combination of a stabiliser and elevator. See
Figure 15.12.
Figure 15.12: All moving tailplane.

16.42. With an all moving surface, the airflow ahead of the shock wave can be changed
and this will enable the pilot to have better control. We must remember that the
lift co-efficient has reduced marginally in the transonic range due to the adverse
pressure distribution behind the shock wave. This will result in a smaller trailing
edge control surface producing a lesser effect. The stabiliser, which is much
bigger, will overcome this problem.

16.43. But, this is not the only high-speed control problem. Another is the possibility of
reversal of controls, owing to the distortion of the structure by the massive forces
on the control surfaces. This is most likely to happen on the ailerons. Suppose,
for instance, that the starboard aileron is lowered in order to raise the starboard
wing. If the force on the aileron is very great, it will tend to twist the wing in such a
way as to reduce it's angle of attack and so reduce its lift instead of increasing the
lift on the wing. The netto result being that the wing will fall instead of rise. The
aileron is thus acting on the wing just as a control tab is intended to act on a
control surface. This is little consolation to the pilot and it doesn't take much
imagination to realise his horror when a movement of the control column has
exactly the opposite effect to that intended. Nor is it an easy problem for the
designer to solve, since the extra weight involved in providing sufficient stiffness,
especially on heavily swept-back wings, may be prohibitive. The same trouble
can arise with the elevators and the answer again is in using all moving power
operated surfaces.
16.44. The introduction of these controls has in itself caused a new problem in that the
pilot no longer "feels" the pressure resisting the movement of the controls. This
"feel" was always a safety factor in that it made the pilot conscious of the forces he
was applying. In fact, there was some advantage in that there was a limit to what
he could do to the aircraft, owing to the sheer limitation of his strength.
16.45. So important is this matter of feel that when power-operated controls are used, it
has been necessary to incorporate artificial or synthetic "feel". This is made even
more real by grading it so that it varies, not only with the movement of the control
surface, but with the density of the air and the airspeed. Quite apart from the
safety aspect, this artificial "feel" gives the pilot a sense of control over the aircraft.
VORTEX GENERATORS
16.46. Even though most modern jet airliners do not fly at the speed of sound, there are
certain areas on the aircraft where the airflow velocity will be greater than mach 1.
This is particularly true over the upper surface of the wing where, because of the
curvature of the wing, the air velocity must increase substantially above the
airspeed of the aircraft. A short distance back from the leading edge of the wing
the air thus reaches supersonic speed. At the rear part of supersonic area where
the airflow returns to subsonic speed, a shock wave is formed. To the rear of this
shock wave air is very turbulent, and this area of the wing is, in effect, partially
stalled. This, of course, causes a substantial increase in drag.
16.47. In order to reduce the drag caused by supersonic flow over portions of the wing,
small airfoils called vortex generators are installed perpendicular to the surface of
the wing. The vortex generators are mounted in complementary pairs. Because
of the low aspect ratio, they develop a strong tip vortex. The tip vortex cases air to
flow upward and inward in a circular path around the ends of the small aerofoil.
The vortex generated has the effect of drawing high-energy air from outside the
boundary layer into the slower-moving air close to the skin. The strength of the
vortex is proportional to the lift developed by the generator. To operate effectively,
the generators are mounted forward of the point where separation begins.
16.48. Drag reduction achieved by the addition of vortex generators can be seen in the
drag-rise curve. Since the effect reduces the shock-induced drag associated with

the sharp rise in the curve at speeds approaching Mach 1, the curve is pushed to
the right.
16.49. In addition of the vortex generators actually increases overall drag very slightly at
lower speeds. However, the gains at cruise speeds more than balance the losses
experienced at lower speeds. Sinces the aircraft spends most of its flight time at
cruise speeds, the nett gain is significant. See Figure 15.13 and 15.14.
Figure 15.13: Vortex generators on a wing.
Figure 15.14: Vortex generators arranged

in pairs.

17.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
17.1.
South African Air Force: LMU 114, Volume 2, Part 1, Section 1 and 2, Second
Edition: Airfframe Notes for Fitter Aircraft.
17.2.
South African Air Force: LMU 114, Volume 2, Part 1, Section 1:

Technical Training. Introductory Phase for Fitter Aircraft.
17.3.
U.S. Department of Transportation.

Federal Aviation Administration 1976.
Airframe Handbook. U.S.A. Aviation Publishers. GP 10EB/32. ICN 7610-18438-4178.
17.4.
Aviation Technology Series. Aircraft Basic Science. Fifth Edition Bent/Mc Kinly.
17.5.
Royal Air Force Manual, Volume A. The Principles of Flight. Ministry of Defence.
April 1971.
17.6.
A Without Formulae Book. Flight without Formulae. How and Why an Aeroplane
Flies Explained in Simple Language. Third Edition. A.C. Kermode C.B.E., M.A.,
F.R.Ae.S. 1960.
Manual of

SELF TEST
18.
Self test for Module 03 Fixed Wing Theory of Flight.
QUESTION 1
Indicate which of the following statements is correct by making next to the correct
statement:
1.
The atmospheric layer nearest the earth is known as:

a.
b.
c.
d.
The tropopause.
The stratosphere.
The troposphere.
The gaseous layer.
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
A decrease in air density causes an increase in air pressure.

Humidity increases density.
A decrease in air pressure causes a decrease in air density.
An increase in air temperature causes an increase in air density.
3.
a.
On humid days, an aircraft experiences greater difficulty in becoming

airborne than on dry days.
On dry days an aircraft needs a longer runway to get airborne than on humid
days.
Humidity has no effect on an aircrafts take-off distance or -ability.
On humid days, air becomes heavier.
b.
c.
d.
4.
In the divergent part of a venturi relative to the direction of airflow, the following will
tend to take place:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Temperature will decrease.

Pressure (Static) will increase.
Velocity will increase.
Pressure (Static) will decrease.
QUESTION 2
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false:
1.
The boundary layer can sometimes be turbulent.
2.
The center of gravity shifts with a change in angle of attack.
3.
There is always an increase in air pressure at the bottom of an aerofoil.
4.
True airspeed relates to the velocity of an aircraft with respect to the ground.

QUESTION 3
Indicate which of the following statements is correct by making a cross next to the correct
statement:
1.
Over the top of an aerofoil, the:

a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
At the bottom of an aerofoil:

a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
Air velocity increases.

Contribution to total lift is approximately 70 %.
Kinetic energy is transformed into pressure energy.
Internal pressure decreases.
The stalling angle is that angle at which,

a.
b.
c.
d.
4.
Velocity of the air decreases.

Kinetic energy decreases.
Air pressure increases.
Kinetic energy is transformed into an upwards-pulling force.
Lift is at a maximum.
Lift decreases.
Drag is at a maximum.
Thrust decreases.
The arrangement of the four forces is such that if thrust fails,

a.
b.
c.
d.
The nose of the aircraft will lift up.

The aircraft will loose altitude.
The aircraft will remain in the same attitude.
The aircraft will changes its flight path.
QUESTION 4
1.
Wingtip vortices will be increased by reducing the aspect ratio of the wing
concerned.
2.
If an aircraft flies at a constant height and velocity, the four forces (lift, drag, thrust
and weight) are said to be in equilibrium.
3.
Longitudinal control is accomplished by means of the ailerons.

QUESTION 5
Complete the following table:
Manoeuvre
Pivoted axis
Control surface
used
a. Rolling
b. Yawing
c. Pitching
QUESTION 6
Indicate which of the following statements is correct next to the correct statement:
1.
The port side means (viewed from cockpit)

a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
Differential aileron control causes the following:

a.
b.
c.
d.
3.
The left hand side.

The rear.
The top.
The right hand side.
The ailerons to move in opposite directions.

The downward moving aileron will travel through a greater range of degrees
than the up moving aileron.
Ease of movement of the primary flight controls.
The opposite as stated in (b) above.
Partial flap selection on most flaps would cause:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Drag and lift to remain constant.

Lift to decrease, and drag to increase.
Drag to decrease, Lift to increase.
Both drag and lift to increase.

QUESTION 7
1.
The lift/drag ratio changes with different angles of flight.
2.
With an increase in altitude, the air temperature will decrease, subsequently
causing an increase in air density.
3.
For an aircraft to fly there must be relative motion between itself and the ground.
4.
The pressure variations are most noticeable on the front portion of an aerofoil.
QUESTION 8
Write a short answer:
1.
State the four factors which can influence skin friction.
2.
Name three different airflow patterns.
QUESTION 9
Make a neatly labelled sketch of a basic aerofoil, including all the applicable terms:
QUESTION 10
Define the following:
Temperature
Atmospheric pressure
Density
Inertia
Aerofoil

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MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

MODULE 03 FIXED WING THEORY OF FLIGHT

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

Training Venue. 68 Air School.

Setting. Classroom condition.

Time Allocated. Three days theoretical instruction.

Attainment requirements. 70% to be obtained for knowledge test.

You will at all times adhere to safety precautions.

It is compulsory for you to complete this module successfully, to enable you to

Objective 01. Recall the principles of flight.

Objective 02. Recall Bernoullis theory.

Objective 03. Define the glossary of terms.

Objective 04. Recall the patterns of airflow.

Objective 05. Recall the flat plate theory.

Objective 06. Recall the aerofoil.

Objective 07. Recall drag.

Objective 08. Recall the four forces.

Objective 09. Recall the main components of an aircraft.

Objective 11. Recall the aircraft stability.

Objective 12. Recall the control about the axis.

Objective 13. Recall the balance of control surface.

Objective 15. Recall the supersonic flight.

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

An understanding of the basic principles of aerodynamics is as important to the

Aerodynamics as explained in this chapter may also be termed theory of flight,

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Figure 1.1: Distribution of gases in the atmosphere.

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

Air pressure can be expressed as follows:

The third form of measurement is very nearly standard in meteorology and is

Figure 1.2: Measurement of atmospheric pressure.

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

Figure 1.3: Example of mechanical type altimeter

Definition. Density is a term that means "mass per unit volume."

Air is invisible, and posessess considerable weight.

Density varies in direct proportion to pressure.

The higher the air pressure

Density varies inversely proportional to temperature. A decrease in temperature

Changes in density affects the aerodynamic performance of an aircraft. With a

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

Figure 1.4 : The ISA (International Standard Atmosphere)

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

32.18 lb/ cubic feet

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

Definition. Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the air.

Air is capable of absorbing a certain amount of water vapour. This amount of

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

This law is sometimes referred to as "The law of inertia". If a body is moving at a

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

If an aircraft is flying against a headwind, it is slowed down. If the wind is coming

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (I.S.A.)

If the actual performance of a certain aircraft is measured under certain conditions

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

Motion is movement. If an object changes its position it is in motion. Any object

MANUAL FOR APPROVED PERSON TRAINING

Objective 2: Recall Bernoullis theorem.

Professor Daniel Bernoulli experimented with a venturi tube to display the

Figure 2.1: Bernoulli's principle.

The static pressure is measured by placing "U"-tubes at various positions on the

Figure 2.2: U-tubes illustrating static pressure decrease.

The following pressure change occur: