Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Page 1
The fixed aerofoils are the wings or mainplanes, the horizontal stabiliser or
tailplane and vertical stabiliser or fin. The function of the wings is to provide
enough lift to support the complete aircraft. The tail section of a conventional
aircraft, including the stabilisers, elevators and rudder, is occasionally known as
the empennage.
Page
2
Horizontal Stabiliser
The horizontal stabiliser is used to provide longitudinal pitch stability and is usually
attached to the aft portion of the fuselage. It may be mounted either on top of the
vertical stabiliser, at some mid-point, or below it.
Conventional horizontal stabilisers are placed aft of the wing and normally set at a
slightly smaller or negative angle of incidence with respect to the wing chord line.
This configuration gives a small downward force on the tail with a value
dependent on the size of the stabiliser and its distance from the Centre of Gravity
(CG).
Horizontal Stabiliser
Figure 2
Page 3
T-Tail Arrangement
The T-Tail arrangement places the complete stabiliser/tailplane and elevator
assembly at the top of the vertical stabiliser. The use of this system not only
makes the fin and rudder more effective by the so-called end-plate effect but also
ensures pitch control is not affected by wing turbulence, (except during an
unwanted deep-stall condition).
However, this configuration has the disadvantage that the whole empennage
structure will be heavier than normal, due to the strengthening required to combat
the greater bending loads produced by this layout.
On some aircraft, the complete tailplane can be moved through several degrees
angle of attack to provide a trimming facility as an alternative to trim tabs.(later).
TTail Arrangement
Figure 3
Page
4
B2 Flying Wing
Figure 4
Page 5
Vertical Stabiliser
The vertical stabiliser for an aircraft is the aerofoil forward of the rudder and is
used to provide directional stability.
A problem encountered on single-engined propeller driven aircraft is that the
propeller causes the airflow to rotate as it travels rearward. This strikes one side
of the vertical stabiliser more than the other, resulting in a yawing moment. These
aircraft may have the leading edge of the stabiliser offset slightly, thereby causing
the airflow to pass around it in such a manner to counter the yaw.
Page
6
Moveable control surfaces are normally divided into Primary and Secondary
controls.
The primary control surfaces include the elevators, rudder, ailerons and roll
spoilers. The secondary control surfaces consist of trim controls (tabs), high lift
devices (flaps and slats), speed brakes and lift dumpers (additional spoilers).
Note: Traditionally, spoilers have not been included as primary controls, but those
which operate in conjunction with the ailerons during roll, are considered to be
primary in the JAR 66 syllabus, so this is how these notes will define them.
The primary control surfaces are used to make the aircraft follow the correct flight
path and to execute certain manoeuvres.
The secondary controls are used to change the lift and drag characteristics of the
aircraft or to provide assistance to the primary controls.
Page 7
Aileron Controls
Figure 7
Page
8
The ailerons are usually operated in conjunction with the rudder and/or elevator
during a turn and are rarely used on their own. A co-ordinated turn is one that
occurs without slip or skid. Too little bank will cause the aircraft to skid outwards,
too much bank will cause the aircraft to slip downwards.
Roll Control - Spoilers
The use of spoilers as a primary control, will be to operate asymmetrically in
conjunction with aileron movement and are normally referred to as Roll Spoilers.
Roll spoilers are mounted on the top of the wing just inboard of the outboard set of
ailerons.
Page 9
Elevator Controls
Figure 9
Stabilator Controls
Figure 10
Page
10
Canards
Some earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer, had horizontal surfaces
located ahead of the wings. This configuration, with the forward surface usually
referred to as a canard or foreplane, has been used on occasions, up to the
present day.
Conventional aircraft have the tailplane located at the rear of the fuselage which
provides a small, stabilising down force. This means that the wing has to produce
slightly more lift to balance this down force. As we have seen, in order for a wing
to produce lift it must also generate drag.
With the tailplane located at the front of the aircraft, the stabilising force is directed
upwards. This contributes to the total lift of the aircraft, thereby reducing drag from
the lift producing wing.
Page 11
Page
12
Rudder controls
Figure 13
Page 13
Another example are ruddervators normally used on aircraft fitted with a 'V' or
Butterfly tail. These surfaces serve the purposes of both rudder and elevator.
Ruddervator Controls
Figure 14
1.1.3 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
Aerodynamic lift is determined by the shape and size of the main lifting surfaces of
the aircraft. In order to produce the outstanding performance achieved by a large
modern, swept wing, passenger jet such as the Boeing 777, the wing is designed
to give optimum lift to support the aircraft whilst in cruise (typically Mach 0.87).
This has meant, that to be able to control and land the aircraft weighing around
200-tonne on runways of reasonable length, the landing speed needs to be slower
than the clean stalling speed of the aircraft. In order to achieve this, more lift is
required and this is obtained from so-called high lift devices.
These are divided generally into leading edge devices, namely slots, slats and
Krueger flaps and trailing edge devices including plain, slotted and fowler flaps.
They will increase lift and as a result, reduce the stalling speed. Consequently the
landing speed, (about 1.3 times the stalling speed), will also be reduced, since
drag is also increased with large angles of trailing edge flap deployment.
Page
14
Droop Aileron
Figure 16
1.1.4 DRAG INDUCING DEVICES
There are several situations where the aircraft must slow down fairly quickly. With
slower, high drag, light aircraft, simply closing the throttle allows the high drag of
the airframe and the idling propeller to slow the aircraft down, to gliding speed
prior to landing approach, for example.
As previously stated, a modern airliner is an extremely smooth, low drag design
which, if only the throttles are retarded, will continue in level flight for many miles
before slowing down. Furthermore, if the nose were lowered more than a degree
or so, the aircraft will begin to accelerate again.
MODULE 11 - Theory of Flight
Page 15
In order to overcome the problems of low drag on large aircraft with high
momentum, the designers have introduced a variety of drag inducing devices.
These include spoilers, lift dumpers, speed brakes and in unusual circumstances,
lowering the landing gear and operating in-flight thrust reversers.
Spoilers and Lift Dumpers.
Spoilers and Lift Dumpers are usually hinged panels located about mid-chord
position on the upper surface of the wing. Hydraulically operated, they produce a
large amount of turbulence and drag when deployed, resulting in a reduction of lift.
Lift Dump Spoilers
Figure 17
Spoilers, have a variety of uses, all of which involve spoiling the lift of the wing.
Some of the following facilities can be combined, so that one set of panels can
have more than one job.
Firstly, they can be the primary roll control of the aircraft as described previously.
Secondly, the spoilers can be used in a symmetrical, part-deployed position,
allowing the aircraft to slow down quickly in the cruise, or descend at a much
steeper rate without accelerating. On some aircraft, the deployment angle of the
spoiler panels can be varied by changing the position of the control lever in the
flight compartment.
Lift dumpers are, as their name describes, are spoiler panels incorporated solely
to dump lift. They are normally deployed after landing, destroying the lift of the
wing and producing high drag, to assist in stopping the aircraft efficiently and
thereby allowing the wheel brakes to be operated more effectively.
Speed Brakes
Page
16
Whilst it is true that the in-flight use of spoilers may be referred to as selecting the
'speed brakes', the term more accurately describes devices which are solely for
the production of drag without any change of trim. The rear fuselage mounted
'clamshell-type doors which open up on the BAe 146 and Fokker 70/100 aircraft
are true speed brakes (or air brakes) and have the following major advantage over
the use of spoilers for producing drag.
When the wing mounted spoilers are deployed, vibration or rumble is often felt in
the passenger cabin, which some people may find disturbing. The aft mounted
speed brakes not only produce high drag at any airspeed, but their selection is
virtually vibration free. Also, lift will be completely unaffected, thus permitting their
deployment on approach and making a go-around much safer. (This will be
covered later in powerplants).
Page 17
These devices are usually fitted to aircraft with swept wings. Total airflow over a
swept wing, splits into two components, one moving across the wing chord
parallel to the airflow and the other flowing spanwise towards the wing tip.
The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the leading edge of the wing and
extending rearwards. They are designed to control the spanwise flow of the
boundary layer air over the top of the wing. Also they will straighten the airflow
over the ailerons, improving their effectiveness and straighten the air nearer the
wing tip, resulting in less 'spillage' of air from beneath the wing to the top, thereby
producing less drag. (See Winglets later).
Wing Fences
Figure 19
Airflow Control Devices Saw Tooth Leading Edges
This form of airflow control is more common on military aircraft than modern
commercial airliners. The saw tooth or notch is simply a small increase in wing
chord on the outer portion of the wing. The step where the change occurs, tends
to form an invisible 'wall' of high velocity air, which flows over the wing and
straightens the spanwise flow. It functions in much the same way as the wing
fence but removes the extra drag and weight penalty.
Page
18
Winglets
Figure 21
1.1.6 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the aerofoil surface (the
boundary between metal and air). If measured, the air velocity in the layer will
vary from zero directly on the surface, to the relevant velocity of the free stream at
the outer extremity of the boundary layer.
Normally, at the leading edge of the wing the boundary layer will be laminar, (in
smooth thin sheets close to the surface), but as the air moves over the wing
towards the trailing edge, the boundary layer becomes thicker and turbulent. The
region where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition
point. .As airspeed increases, the transition point tends to move forward, so the
designer tries to prevent this thus maintaining laminar flow, over the top of the
wing for as far back as possible. Methods of boundary layer control are as follows:
Page 19
Vortex Generators
Figure 22
Page
20
Stall Wedges are small, wedge-shaped strips mounted on the leading edge of the
wings at about one third span. The are designed to disrupt the boundary layer
airflow, at large angles of attack approaching the stall, thus ensuring the airflow
breaks away,(stalls), at the root end of the wing first.
Additionally they produce a similar effect to a wing fence at smaller angles of
attack resulting in a smoother airflow over the ailerons, thus retaining optimum roll
control.
Stall Wedges
Figure 23
Boundary Layer Control - Leading edge Devices
Other devices to prevent laminar separation at the low speed end of the range
and thus control boundary layer air are leading edge droop flaps and Kreuger
flaps. They can be a droop snoot or permanent droop type, or can be adjusted
during flight.
Page 21
During a flight an aircraft will develop a tendency to deviate from a straight and
level hands-off attitude. This may be due to changes in fuel state, speed, load
position or flap/landing gear selection and could be countered by applying a
continuous correcting force to the primary controls. This would be fatiguing for the
crew and difficult to maintain for long periods, so trim tabs are used for this
purpose instead.
Trim tabs move the primary control surface aerodynamically in the opposite
direction to the movement of the tab. To correct an aircraft nose down out of trim
condition, the elevator tab is moved down, resulting in the elevator moving up, the
tail of the aircraft moving down, so that the nose comes up, correcting the fault.
Fixed Trim Tabs
A fixed trim tab may be a simple section of sheet metal attached to the trailing
edge of a control surface. It is adjusted on the ground by simply bending it up or
down, to a position resulting in zero control forces during cruise. Alternatively, the
tab is connected to the primary control by a ground-adjustable connecting rod.
Finding the correct position for both types is by trial and error.
Page
22
Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever, switch, etc., with the actuation of the tab
by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic means. Trim facilities are normally provided
on all three axes.
Servo Tab
Figure 27
Page 23
Balance Tabs
Balance tabs assist the pilot in moving the primary control surface. The flight deck
controls are connected to the primary control surface whereas the balance tab,
hinged to the trailing edge of the primary surface, is connected to the fixed
aerofoil. For example, the elevator balance tab, will be connected by an adjustable
rod to the horizontal stabiliser and is so arranged, that it tends to maintain the tab
at the same relative angle to the stabiliser when the pilot moves the elevator.
Aerodynamically, therefore, the tab is moving in the opposite direction to the
control surface and assists its movement. Adjusting the length of the connecting
rod will alter the displacement of the effective range of the tab about the mid-point
datum.
Some types of balance tab have more than one point of attachment and it is
possible with these so called geared balance tabs, to alter the range of tab
deflection.
The function of a balance tab can also be combined with that of a trim tab, by
adjusting the length of the balance tab connecting rod from the flight deck. This is
usually achieved by installing a form of linear actuator in the rod and is termed a
trim/balance tab
(Geared balance and trim/balance tabs will be covered later in the notes).
Balance Tab
Figure 28
Anti-Balance Tabs
Anti-balance tabs operate in a similar way aerodynamically as balance tabs but
with a reverse effect. The difference is in the way it is connected to the fixed
aerofoil. It is routed so that the tab moves, relative to and in the same direction as,
the primary control surface. The effect is to add a loading to the pilot effort, making
it slightly heavier and thus providing feel, to prevent the possibility of overstressing the airframe structure.
Anti-Balance Tab
Figure 29
Spring Tabs
At high speed, control surfaces operated directly from the flight deck, become
increasingly difficult to deflect from neutral, due to the force of the aerodynamic
loads caused by the airstream around them.
Page
24
Spring Tab
Figure 30
1.1.8 MASS BALANCE
All aircraft structures are distorted when loads are applied. If the structure is
elastic, as all good structures are, it will tend to spring back when the load is
removed, or its point of application is changed.
Since a control surface is hinged near its leading edge, the centre of gravity (C of
G) will be behind the hinge and as a consequence, there will be more weight aft of
the hinge line than in front of it .
In the case of an aileron for example, should the air load distort the wing upwards,
it is likely that the aileron will lag behind and distort downwards. This effectively
produces an extra upward aerodynamic force which pushes the wing up even
further.
Page 25
Due to its elasticity, the wing will spring back and the aileron will lag again but this
time upwards, aerodynamically forcing the wing down further than it would
normally go due to elastic recoil alone. Now the cycle is repeated and a high
speed oscillation will result. This unwanted phenomenon is referred to as flutter.
Flutter can be prevented if the C of G of the control surface is moved in line with,
or slightly in front of, the hinge line. The normal way of achieving this is to add a
number of high density weights, either within the leading edge of the surface itself
or externally, ahead of the hinge line. The addition of these weights, normally
made from lead or depleted uranium, is closely controlled and calculated to
ensure that the exact balance is obtained.
This procedure of adding weights is referred to as mass balancing of the controls.
Page
26
Horn Balance
Figure 33
Page 27
Earlier in the course the effects of subsonic air were considered. As airspeed
increases, the aerodynamic effects of airflow passing over an aircraft, go through
a series of changes, which will now be considered.
Page 29
The propagation of the pressure waves from a stationary object has been
discussed above.
When an aircraft begins to move through the air at subsonic speeds, (a speed
less than pressure wave propagation speed) the waves still travel forward and it is
as if a message is sent ahead of the aircraft to warn of its approach.
On receipt of this message, the air streams begin to divide to make way for the
aircraft but there is very little, if any change in the density of the air as it flows over
the aircraft. This warning message can be detected perhaps 100metres in front of
the aircraft.
Consequently, anyone standing ahead of the aircraft, would hear it coming and be
able to detect the change in the nature of the pressure waves as the aircraft
passed by. It would be similar to the change in the pitch of the siren of a passing
emergency road vehicle.
This is often referred to as Doppler shift or Doppler effect.
Page
30
At subsonic speeds, the study of aerodynamics is simplified by the fact that air
passing over a wing experiences only very small changes in pressure and density.
The airflow is termed incompressible as, when it passes through a venturi, the
pressure changes without the density changing
At higher speeds, the change in air pressure and density becomes significant and
is called the compressibility effect. When air enters a venturi at supersonic
speeds, the airflow slows down and must compress in order to pass through its
throat. Once a fluid compresses, its pressure and density will both increase.
Subsonic Airflow
Figure 38
Supersonic Airflow
Figure 39
Page 31
The transonic flight range encompasses sound wave velocity and consequently is
the most difficult realm of flight since some of the air flowing over the aircraft,
particularly the wings, is subsonic and some is supersonic. As the aircraft
approaches the speed of sound, the pressure waves ahead of it will be travelling
at the same speed as the aircraft and are therefore relatively stationary. They
accumulate to form a continuous pressure wave and consequently will result in
the removal of any advance warning of the approach of the aircraft.
Page
32
Once the aircraft is supersonic, all parts of it are considered to be above the
speed of sound and therefore travelling faster than the rate of propagation of the
pressure waves. An infinite number of pressure waves are produced and form a
cone, the inclination of which will change as the aircraft speed changes.
Mach Cone
Figure 41
Mach Number
As previously mentioned, Mach number is the ratio of the true airspeed of the
aircraft and the local speed of sound at that altitude. An aircraft travelling at
exactly the speed of sound is said to be travelling at Mach 1.
It follows therefore that an aircraft travelling at twice the speed of sound would be
travelling at Mach 2 and at half the speed of sound, Mach 0.5, etc,.
The following definitions regarding airflow and mach number apply:
Subsonic Flow Mach Numbers below Mach 0.75
Transonic Flow Mach Numbers between Mach 0.75 and Mach 1.2
Supersonic Flow
Hypersonic Flow
Mach 5.0
Page 33
Page
34
Supercritical Wing
Figure 43
Adverse Transonic Effects
Even though the onset of compressibility is gradual, it begins to have a significant
effect as the Critical Mach number is approached. Unwanted adverse effects
including, buffeting, shock waves, increase in drag, decrease in lift and movement
of the centre of pressure occur.
If uncontrolled, these effects could result in the aircraft becoming difficult to fly and
to behave in a similar manner to a low speed high incidence stall, even though the
aircraft is at high speed and low angle of incidence.
Compressibility Buffet
Previously discussed has been the build up of the pressure wave in front of the
aircraft as it approaches Mach 1, including the fact that other parts of the airframe,
in particular the wing, are likely to reach Mach 1 well before the complete aircraft
does.
When this occurs the smoothness of the airflow over the wing is severely affected.
This region, as well as those on the flying control aerofoils, experience violent
vibration and so-called compressibility buffeting of the airframe. If allowed to
continue, control loss or possible structural damage can occur.
Shock Wave
Previously in the notes, the build up of pressure waves and the change from
incompressible to compressible flow as the aircraft or an aerofoil surface
approaches the speed of sound, has been discussed. Transonic flight presents
major design problems for the aerofoil in particular, because only a portion of the
airflow passing over the wing becomes supersonic.
When an aerofoil moves through the air at a speed below its critical Mach number,
all of the airflow is subsonic and the pressure distribution is predictable.The first
indication of a change in the nature of the flow will be a breakaway of the airflow
from the aerofoil surface as described previously in boundary layer control. Any
turbulence resulting from the separation, will cause an increase in drag and a
corresponding reduction in the amount of lift. As speed begins to increase, the
point of separation moves forward, extending the turbulent wake.
Page 35
Figure 44
However, as flight speed reaches and exceeds the critical Mach number, the
airflow over the top of the wing speeds up to supersonic velocity and a shock
wave starts to form.
The velocity of the air leaving the shock wave remains supersonic, so both the
static pressure and the density of the air increase adding to the high drag/ low lift
condition. Additionally, some of the energy in the airstream will be dissipated in the
form of heat.
As the aircraft speed continues to increase, the wave will extend outwards and
begin to move aft towards the trailing edge of the wing. A second wave begins to
form on the lower surface, as the airflow here also speeds up to supersonic
velocity
Page 37
As the airspeed reaches the upper end of the transonic range, both shock waves
move aft, become stronger and will eventually attach to the wing's trailing edge.
Page
38
As can be seen in figure 50, the transonic region has a great affect on the lift and
drag. Both values rise until Mach 0.81, when shock induced separation drastically
reduces the coefficient of lift. As speed approaches Mach 0.99, a bow wave is
forming and airflow over the wing is slowed to subsonic speeds, resulting in an
increase in lift coefficient and a reduction of drag.
Page 39
Page
40
Area rule is an aerodynamic technique used in the design of high speed aircraft.
If drag is to be kept to a minimum at transonic speeds, aircraft must be slim,
smooth and streamlined. In general terms it means that the wings, fuselage,
empennage and other appendages have to be considered together when working
out the total streamlining. This is necessary so that the cross-sectional area of
successive slices of the aircraft from nose to tail, conform to those of a simple
body of streamline shape.
Area rule is defined as: For the minimum drag at the connections,
(wing/fuselage), the variation of the aircrafts total cross-sectional area along its
length, should approximate that of an ideal shape having minimum wave drag.
Without area rule, the greatest frontal cross-sectional area of the fuselage would
occur where the wings are attached to the fuselage. Therefore, one method of
achieving area rule in this situation, is to reduce the cross-sectional area of the
fuselage, thereby cancelling out the increase caused by the wings.
Alternatively, the fuselage cross-section could be increased with the use of
enlarged sections behind and in front of the wings to eliminate sudden changes in
the cross-sectional area and achieve the same result.
Area Rule
Figure 52
Page 41
Engine intakes on aircraft that operate in the subsonic flight range only can be of
almost any form.
The main criteria is that the airflow reaching the compressor stage of the engine
during cruise ideally does not exceed Mach 0.5. This is normally achieved by the
careful design of the intake ducts.
Obviously, if the aircraft never exceeds Mach 0.5, a parallel intake duct could be
employed, but if the aircraft is to cruise at airspeeds in excess of this, yet below
Mach 1, a divergent duct must be utilised to slow the airflow at the compressor
down to Mach 0.5.
If the aircraft is designed to cruise above Mach 1, the air entering the intakes will
be supersonic and will behave in accordance with the rules of supersonic flow. In
this case a convergent duct would be necessary to slow down the airflow to the
compressor.
However the aircraft must fly through the transonic range in order to reach
supersonic speed so both types of duct will be necessary.
One way to overcome the problem is to have moveable doors which change the
intake duct shape from divergent to convergent cross-section as the aircraft
passes through Mach 1. See figure 53. This technique can be found on the
intakes of Concorde.
Other methods to control airflow reaching the compressor is to make use of the
fact that air passing through a shock wave slows down to a lower speed. This type
of intake design is usually characterised by the bullet fairing, which on some
aircraft can translate in and out of the intake to reposition the shock wave during
low or high supersonic flight speeds. See Figure 54
Page
42
Page 43
In order to fly at high speed in the transonic range without encountering the
problems caused by the production of shock waves, the Critical Mach number
needs to be as high as possible. As has already been shown, one way is to have
as thin a wing as possible. This of course is an acceptable solution in theory, but
in practice there will be structural integrity problems, such as wing loading,
strength and flexibility.
Another way of raising the Critical Mach number without the structural limitations
is by the use of swept wings. Sweepback not only delays the production of the
shock wave, but reduces the severity of the shock stall should it occur. The theory
behind this is that it is only the component of velocity over the wing chord which is
responsible for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock wave to
develop. The other velocity component which travels spanwise causes only
frictional drag and has no effect on shock wave production.
This theory is borne out by the fact that when it does appear, the shock wave lies
parallel to the span of the wing. Therefore only that part of the velocity
perpendicular to the shock wave, i.e. across the chord, is reduced by the shock
wave to subsonic speeds.
The greater the sweepback, the smaller will be the component of velocity affected,
resulting in a higher Critical Mach number and a reduction in drag at all transonic
speeds. Additionally sweepback results in a thinner mean aerodynamic chord
which raises the Critical Mach number even more.
Effects of Sweepback
Figure 55
Page
44
2.1 ACCIDENTS
Page 1