Advanced Materials

Introduction, classification and engineering

applications of ceramic, glasses, polymeric,
thermosets, thermoplastics and composites.

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Amorphous vs. Crystalline

Structure
Amorphous Structure:
Crystalline Structure: Salt
Glass

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(NaCl)

What is Glass?

Fusion of sand (SiO2), soda (Na2CO3) & lime (CaO) that produces a
transparent solid when cooled.
A 3D network of atoms which lacks the repeated, orderly arrangement
typical of crystalline materials.

Physical properties: hard, elastic, brittle, non-conductor of electricity,

density, refractive index, etc.
Chemical: resistant to all but fluorine and very strong bases.

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What Types of Glass Are There?

The primary uses for glass are in windows, containers, light bulbs and
eyewear.

Borosilicate Glass (pyrex): 5% borax (Na2B4O7) is added to resist

breaking when heated or cooled.

Colored Glass: metal oxides or colloidal iron (Fe) & sulfur (S) are
added to change its color.

Lead glass: Pb increases refractive index & density

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What Types of Glass Are

There?

Float glass: made by a float glass process; molten glass is floated on a

pool of tin while cooling. Commonly found in doors and windows.

Pyrex heat resistant

Laminated glass: used in windshields, two sheets of glass with plastic

between them.

Tempered safety glass: used in car side windows and designed to break
into tiny pieces; potassium (K) replaces sodium (Na) on the surface.

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Overview of Tempered Glass:

Tempered glass is made using special heated furnaces, which
heat the annealed glass to a uniform temperature of
approximately 700C. When the glass exits the furnace, it is
rapidly cooled. This rapid cooling puts the glass surface into a
state of compression while the center core remains in tension.
Mechanical Strength of Tempered Glass = 4 x Mechanical
strength of Annealed Glass
When tempered glass is broken, all
the stored energy is released at
once and the glass breaks into
small pieces.

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Laminated Glass: Car Front

Windshields

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Overview of Laminated Glass

Laminated glass, regard as Safety glass, consist of two or
more panes of glass with one or more layers of polyvinyl
butyral (PVB) sandwiched between them and treated. The
glass panes can be basic float glass or tempered or heat
strengthened panel. If the glass is broken fragments tend
to adhere to the PVB interlayer thereby reducing the risk of
injury from falling glass and helping to resist further impact
or weather damage.

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Refractive index
The glass fragments are immersed in another magic liquid (one
whose refractive index is known), the liquid is then adjusted until
the index reaches that of the glass. When this happens the
Becke Line has completely disappeared.

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Becke line Indication of Refractive

Index

12

Notice the halo of

light on the inside
perimeter of the
glass sample.
When the Becke line
is inside the
perimeter of the
glass fragment, the
refractive index of
the glass is higher
than the refractive
index of the
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surrounding

Dr. Neeru Bhagat

 Notice the halo of

Becke line Indication
of
Refractive
light (Becke line) is
Index
outside the
perimeter of the
glass fragment.
When the Becke line
is outside the
perimeter of the
glass sample, the
refractive index of
the medium is
higher than the
refractive index of
the glass.
13

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Becke Lines

Glass has higher refractive index-note white line inside

Glass has lower refractive index-note white line outside

Becke Lines from

Glass

Becke line on outside

Becke line on inside

I of glass (1.525) > RI of medium (1.6)

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RI of glass (1.525 < RI of

medium (1.34)
15

Polymers

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16

Hydrocarbon
Molecules
The covalent bonds in each molecule of
paraffin compounds
(C H
) are strong,

but only weak hydrogen and van der

n

2n+2

Waals bonds exist between molecules,

and thus these hydrocarbons have
relatively low melting and boiling
points.
However boiling temperatures increase
with increasing molecular weight
Isomerism: Hydrocarbon compounds
with same composition may have
different atomic arrangements.
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Dr. Neeru
Bhagat
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normal
butane (melting
point: -0.5 C) and isobutane: (melting

Polymer molecules
Molecules in polymers are effective in
comparison to hydrocarbon molecules.
Polymer molecules are in the form of
long and flexible chains and the
backbone of each chain is a string of
carbon atoms; many times each carbon
atom singly bonds to two adjacent
carbon atoms on either side. Each of the
two remaining valence electrons may be
involved in side bonding with atoms or
radicals
These long molecules are composed of
structural entities
called mer
units,
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which are successively repeated along

Chemistry of Polymer molecules

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Chemistry of Polymer
Molecules
Hydrocarbon ethylene (C2H4) which is a gas at
ambient temperature and pressure, subjected
catalytically to appropriate conditions of
temperature and pressure, will transform to
polyethylene, which is a solid.
Active mer is formed by the reaction between
an initiator or catalyst species and ethylene
mer unit.
Polymer chain is formed by sequential addition
of polyethylene monomer units to this active
iniator-mer center.
If all the hydrogen atoms in polyethylene are
replaced by fluorine, the resulting polymer is
polytetrafluroehtylene (PTFE or Teflon)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a slight variant of
polyethylene, in which every hydrogen is
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Bhagat
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replaced with Dr.aNeeru
Cl atom.

POLMER MICROSTRUCTURE
Polymer = many mers

mer
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
Polyethylene (PE)

mer
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H Cl H Cl H Cl

mer
H H H H H H
Adapted
C from
C Fig.
C 14.2,
C Callister
C 6e.
C
H CH 3 H CH 3 H CH 3

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polypropylene (PP)

Adapted from Fig. 14.7, Callister 6e.

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2

Molecular weight

Molecular weight, Mw:

Mass of a mole of chains.

smaller Mw

larger Mw

Tensile strength (TS):

--often increases with Mw.

--Why? Longer chains are entangled (anchored) better.

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Molecular shape
Single chain bonds are capable of
rotation and bending in three
dimensions.
Polymers consist of large number of
molecular chains, each of which may
bend, coil and kink. This leads to
extensive intertwining and
entanglement of neighboring chain
molecules, responsible for
characteristics of polymers such as
large elastic extensions displayed by
rubber materials.
Region of a chain segment that has a
double bond is rotationally rigid. Also
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aBhagat
bulky or large 23
side
group of atoms restricts rotational

Molecular structure
Linear polymers

Mer units are joined together end to end in

single chains.
Extensive van der Waals and hydrogen
bonding exists between chains
Some common polymers are: polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polymethyl
methacrylate, nylon and flurocarbons

Branched polymers

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Side branch chains are connected to the

main ones, and result from the side
reactions that occur during the synthesis of
polymer
Chain packing efficiency is reduced with the
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Bhagat
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formation of
side
branches which results
in
lowering of polymer density.

Molecular structure

Crosslinked polymers

Adjacent linear chains are joined one to

another at various positions by covalent
bonds.
The process of crosslinking is achieved
either during synthesis or by nonreversible
chemical reaction at elevated temperature.
Rubber elastic materials are crosslinked
(vulcanization).

Network polymers

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Trifunctional mer units, having three active

covalent bonds, form three dimensional
networks
A polymer that is highly crosslinked
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25
Epoxies andDr. phenol-formaldehyde
belong to
this group

POLMER MICROSTRUCTURE

Covalent chain configurations and strength:

secondary

bonding

Linear

Branched

Cross-Linked

Network

Direction of increasing strength

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Classification of Polymers
Linear polymer - Any polymer in which molecules
are in the form of spaghetti-like chains.
Thermoplastics - Linear or branched polymers in
which chains of molecules are not interconnected
to one another.
Thermosetting polymers - Polymers that are
heavily cross-linked to produce a strong three
dimensional network structure.
Elastomers - These are polymers (thermoplastics
or lightly cross-linked thermosets) that have an
elastic deformation > 200%.

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under
license.

Schematic showing linear and branched polymers. Note that branching can occur in any type of polymer (e.g.,
thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers). (a) Linear unbranched polymer: notice chains are not straight lines and not
connected. Different polymer chains are shown using different shades and design to show clearly that each chain is not
connected to another. (b) Linear branched polymer: chains are not connected, however they have branches. (c)
Thermoset polymer without branching: chains are connected to one another by covalent bonds but they do not have
branches. Joining points are highlighted with solid circles, (d) Thermoset polymer that has branches and chains that are
interconnected via covalent bonds. Different chains and branches are shown in different shades for better contrast.
Places where chains are actually chemically bonded are shown with filled circles.

Comparison of the three polymer categories

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Thermoplastic Polymers
Thermoplasts soften when heated and harden
when cooled processes that are totally
reversible
As the temperature is raised secondary
bonding forces are diminished (by increased
molecular motion) so that relative movement
adjacent chains is facilitated when a stress is
applied.
Irreversible
degradation
results
when
temperature of thermoplastic polymer is
raised to the point at which molecular
vibrations become violent enough to break the
primary covalent bonds.
Most linear polymers and those having some
branched structures with flexible chains are
thermoplasticDr. Neeru Bhagat
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Thermosetting Polymers

Thermosets become permanently hard when

heat is applied and do not soften upon
subsequent heating.
During initial heat treatment, covalent
crosslinks are formed between adjacent
molecular chains and these bonds anchor the
chains together at high temperatures.
Most of the crosslinked and network polymers,
which include vulcanized rubbers, epoxies,
and phenolic and some polyester resins are
thermosetting.
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THERMOPLASTICS VS THERMOSETS
Thermoplastics:

--little cross linking

--ductile
--soften w/heating
--polyethylene (#2)
polypropylene (#5)
polycarbonate
polystyrene (#6)

T
mobile
liquid

viscous
liquid

crystalline
solid

Callister,
rubber
Fig. 16.9
tough
plastic

Tm
Tg

partially
crystalline
solid

Molecular weight
Thermosets:

Adapted from Fig. 15.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 15.18 is from F.W.
Billmeyer, Jr., Textbook of Polymer Science, 3rd ed., John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1984.)

--large cross linking

(10 to 50% of mers)
--hard and brittle
--do NOT soften w/heating
--vulcanized rubber, epoxies,
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polyester resin, Dr.
phenolic
resin

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7

TENSILE RESPONSE: ELASTOMER

(MPa)
CASE
60 xbrittle failure

plastic failure

40

20
0
0
initial: amorphous chains are
kinked, heavily cross-linked.

elastomer

final: chains
are straight,
still
cross-linked

Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig.
15.1, Callister 6e.
Inset figures along
elastomer curve
(green) adapted from
Fig. 15.14, Callister
6e. (Fig. 15.14 is
from Z.D. Jastrzebski,
The Nature and
Properties of
Engineering
Materials, 3rd ed.,
John Wiley and Sons,
1987.)

Deformation
is reversible!

Compare to responses of other polymers:

--brittle response (aligned, cross linked & networked

case)

--plastic responseDr.(semi-crystalline
case)
Neeru Bhagat

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6

T AND STRAIN RATE: THERMOPLASTICS

(MPa)

Decreasing T...

--increases E
--increases TS
--decreases %EL

80 4C
60

Increasing
strain rate...
--same effects
as decreasing T.

40

20C

Data for the

semicrystalline
polymer: PMMA
(Plexiglas)

40C

20
0
0

60C
0.1

0.2

to 1.3
0.3

Adapted from Fig. 15.3, Callister 6e. (Fig. 15.3 is from T.S.
Carswell and J.K. Nason, 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on
the Mechanical Properties of Organic Plastics", Symposium on
Plastics, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
PA, 1944.)
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8

Shape-Memory
Alloys

Can be deformed into any shape at room

temperature but when heated will return to
original shape.
A typical one is 55% Nickel 45% titanium.
Used as sensors, eyeglass frames, stents,
relays, pumps, switches, connectors, clamps,
fasteners, and seals.

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Amorphous Alloys (Metallic

Glasses)

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No long-range crystalline structure. Have no

grain boundaries and the atoms are packed
randomly and tightly.
First obtained in the 1960s.
Typically contain iron, nickel, and chromium,
which are alloyed with carbon, phosphorus,
boron, aluminum, and silicon.
Have excellent corrosion resistance, good
ductility, and high strength.
Being developed to have twice the strength
has high strength
steels so they can 37be used
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in large structures.

Metal Foams

Foam-like substances that metal is only 5% to

20% of its volume.
Very light weight.
Used in aerospace applications.
Also used as filters and orthopedic implants.

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Nanomaterials

Materials with grains, fibers, films, and composites

having particles that are 1-100 nm in size.
First investigated in the 1980s.
Have qualities superior to those of traditional
materials such as strength, hardness, ductility,
wear resistance, and corrosion resistance.
Used in cutting tools, ceramics, powders for
powder-metallurgy processing, next generation
computer chips, flat panel displays for laptop
computers and televisions, spark-plug electrodes,
igniters and fuels for rockets, medical implants,
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39
and
high-energy-density batteries.