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AN INTRODUCTION
TO QUANTUM
COMMUNICATION
AN INTRODUCTION
TO QUANTUM
COMMUNICATION
VINOD K. MISHRA
DEDICATION
I dedicate this book to the sacred memory of my parents and teachers, to
my wife Kamala, and to my curious daughters Meenoo, Aparajita, and
Ankita.
ABSTRACT
Quantum mechanics is the most successful theory for describing the
microworld of photons, atoms, and their aggregates. It is behind much of
the successes of modern technology. It has deep philosophical implications to the fundamental nature of material reality. A few decades ago, it
was also realized that it is connected to the computer science and information theory. With this understanding were born the new disciplines of
quantum computing and quantum communication.
The current book introduces the very exciting area of quantum
communication, which lies at the intersection of quantum mechanics,
information theory, and atomic physics. The relevant concepts of these
disciplines are explained, and their implication for the task of unbreakably
secure communication is elucidated. The mathematical formulation of various approaches has been explained. An attempt has been made to keep the
exposition self-contained. A senior undergraduate with good mathematics
and physics background should be able to follow the current thinking about
these issues after understanding the material presented in this book.
KEYWORDS
Information Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Shannon Entropy, Quantum
Coding, Entanglement, Quantum Information
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
1.
1.1
Shannon-Hartley Theorem
2.1
Wave function
Schrdingers Equation
1.2
2.
XIII
Probability Function
Superposition Principle
2.2
EinsteinPodolskyRosen Paradox
10
2.3
Some Inequalities
12
2.4
Idea of Entanglement
12
2.5
13
2.6
Decoherence
13
2.7
14
x CONTENTS
3.
4.
17
3.1
17
3.2
18
19
Shannon Entropy
19
Renyi Entropy
19
Collision Entropy
20
Min-Entropy
20
Tsallis Entropy
20
Sharma-Mittal Entropy
21
3.3
21
3.4
24
3.5
25
3.6
Entanglement Measures
26
3.7
Entanglement Processing
29
30
31
32
33
35
36
36
4.2
36
4.3
37
4.4
39
4.5
40
4.6
42
4.7
43
4.8
Practical QKD
44
CONTENTS xi
5.
6.
45
5.1
45
5.2
47
5.3
Quantum Teleportation
48
5.4
50
5.5
51
5.6
52
53
6.1
53
6.2
55
6.3
55
6.4
56
6.5
57
58
REFERENCE
63
INDEX
65
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1.
18
Figure 4.1.
35
41
Figure 5.1.
OSI model
45
Figure 5.2.
47
Figure 5.3.
48
Figure 5.4.
49
Figure 6.1.
60
Figure 4.2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I deeply thank Dr. Ashok Goel for being the impetus behind writing this
book and Dr. Kurt Jacobs for going through the manuscript.
CHAPTER 1
WHY QUANTUM
COMMUNICATION?
Communication in the form of written and spoken languages is a hallmark
of human societies. Even lower life-forms and nonliving entities communicate non-linguistically. The basic building blocks of matter consist of
quarks and leptons, and they communicate by exchanging the force quanta
of gluons and photons respectively. Among the living entities, cells communicate via biochemical molecules. Languages are the most important
communication tools on which our distinctive human societies are based.
They also include nonverbal varieties like sign languages, semaphores, etc.
Still when we speak of communication in the context of technology,
we actually mean telecommunication. It started with telegraphs based on
Morse code, progressed through radio and wireless, and finally transformed into the Internet. Technically, communication involves transmission and reception of messages using electromagnetic waves in free space,
photonic pulses in optical fiber, or currents in copper wires. Several of
their attributes like currents, voltages, amplitudes, frequencies, etc., are
used for carrying messages of importance to both machines and humans.
1.1
CLASSICAL COMMUNICATION AND ITS
LIMITS
Efforts to develop a theoretical understanding of telecommunications
started quite early. A very important problem was to determine the maximum amount of information that could be sent over an information channel in presence of noise. It took the genius of Claude Shannon (Shannon
1948) to solve this problem, and as a result, launch Information Theory as
B( n, k ) =
n!
k !( n k )!
(1.1)
This is also known as Bernoulli process. For n , Sterlings asymptotic formula for factorials can be used to show that this process gives rise to
a Gaussian distribution. In this limit the discrete variables (n, k) change into
a continuous variable denoted by x.
h[ p( x )] = log
1
= log p( x ).
p( x )
(1.2)
(1.3)
(1.4)
Here, the logarithm is taken to the base 2, and this entropy is measured
in the units of bits. The word bit is a shortened form of binary digit. This
function has mathematical properties expected from an entropy-like function well-known in Statistical Mechanics.
SHANNON-HARTLEY THEOREM
A given information channel is a physical medium through which information travels from source to destination in presence of noise. Capacity C
(in Hz or bits/s) of such a channel is defined as the maximum rate at
which this information can be transmitted. Let us assume the following
about this channel.
S
C = B log2 1 +
N
(1.5)
To rewrite this theorem in an alternative and useful form, let us assume the following.
E R
R
log2 1 + b .
B
N0 B
(1.6)
Eb
2R / B 1
.
R/ B
N 0 min
(1.7)
This gives the minimum possible normalized average energy per bit
satisfying Shannon-Hartley theorem.
R < C: This is the usual situation. Then this theorem states that
there exist error correcting codes such that the probability of error
at the receiver, or equivalently the difference C R, can be made
arbitrarily small. The theorem only proves the existence of such
codes and does not give a way to find them. Finding such codes is
an important endeavor of Applied Mathematics. At present time,
some of the known codes like Reed-Solomon codes, Low Density
Parity Check (LDPC) codes, and Turbo codes come arbitrarily
close to the Shannon capacity limit.
R > C: In this case, error will increase; so increasing R beyond C
does not serve any useful purpose.
R = C: The theorem does not address this possibility.
1.2
INDEX
A
Alumina, 60
Aluminum, 60
B
BB84 protocol, 4243, 44
Bells inequality, 12, 5556
Bell state measurement (BSM),
12, 56
Bernoulli process, 2
-barium borate, 54
Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy, 20
Bracket, 9
C
Calderbank-Steane-Shor (CSS)
code, 40
Channel coding, 36
Classical 7-bit Hamming code, 40
Classical communication
limits, 5
network, review of, 4547
noisy-channel coding theorem, 4
probability distribution, concept
of, 2
Shannon entropy, 23
Shannon-Hartley theorem, 34
Classical information, 2223
ClauserHorneShimonyHolt
(CHSH) inequality, 12
Collapse of wave function, 9
Collision entropy, 20
Communication, 1
classical. See Classical
communication
quantum. See Quantum
communication
Concurrence, 2728
Conditional entropy, 34
Correlations, definition of, 11
Cryptography, 5
in classical and quantum, 4042
D
Data compression. See Source
coding
Decoherence, 1314
Diamond lattice, with nitrogen
vacancies, 61
DOD model, 4647
E
E91 protocol, 43, 44
Einstein, Albert, 10
EinsteinPodolskyRosen
paradox, 1011
Element of reality, 10
Entanglement
distillation and purification,
2930
of formation, 2829
idea of, 1213
measures, 2629
processing, 2930
66 INDEX
property of, 10
swapping, 29, 51
Entanglement-assisted quantum, 23
J
Joint entropy, 34
Josephson junction, 5961
F
Fidelity, 2627
Flying qubit sources, 5354
L
Light propagation, in optical fiber,
1415
Low Density Parity Check
(LDPC) code, 4
G
Gedanken experiment, 10
Greenberg-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ)
States, 30
H
Hamming code, 40
Heisenberg uncertainty principle,
42
Helmholtz equation, 14
Hidden variable theories, 10
Holevo-SchumacherWestmoreland (HSW)
theorem, 21, 2223
I
Incident photon, 54
Information entropy, 23, 1819,
3334
collision entropy, 20
min-entropy, 20
Renyi entropy, 1920
Shannon entropy, 19
Sharma-Mittal entropy, 21
Tsallis entropy, 20
von Neumann entropy, 19
Information theory, 12
entanglement
measures, 2629
processing, 2930
entropies for, 1821
qubit
no-go theorems for, 2425
single, mathematical
representation of, 1718
M
Marginal entropy, 33. See also
Shannon entropy
Min-entropy, 20
Multimode Fiber (MMF), 14
N
Nitrogen vacancies, diamond
lattice with, 61
No-broadcast theorem, 24
No-cloning theorem, 24, 39
No-communication theorem, 25
No-deleting theorem, 24
No-go theorems, 2425
Noisy-channel coding theorem, 4
Noisy quantum channel, 2223
No-teleportation theorem, 24
NV centers, 61
O
Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model, 4547
Optical fiber, light propagation in,
1415
Orbital angular momentum
(OAM), 54
P
Peres-Horodecky criterion, 3132
Photonic qubits
in free space, 5354
from spontaneous parametric
down conversion, 54
INDEX 67
Photons, 7
incident, 54
loss codes and parity codes, 40
polarization states, 43
single, 53
Podolsky, Boris, 10
Probability distribution, concept
of, 2
Probability function, 9
Q
Quantum capacity, 23
Quantum Channel (Q-CH)
capacity theorems for, 22
classical and quantum of, 26
ideal, 25
Quantum coding
in quantum communication,
3536
Quantum Error Correction
Codes, 3740
source coding theorem, 3637
Quantum Coherent Information
(QCI), 26
Quantum communication (QC)
classical communication
limits, 5
noisy-channel coding theorem, 4
probability distribution,
concept of, 2
Shannon entropy, 23
Shannon-Hartley theorem, 34
crystallography in, 4042
general model for, 2526
information theory for
entanglement measures, 2629
entanglement processing, 2930
entropies for information, 1821
no-go theorems for qubits, 24
25
single qubit, mathematical
representation of, 1718
physical basis of
basic quantum mechanics for,
710
decoherence, 1314
EinsteinPodolskyRosen
paradox, 1011
idea of entanglement, 1213
inequalities, 12
light propagation in optical
fiber, 1415
quantum Zeno effect, 13
quantum coding in, 3536
role of, 5
Shannon-like capacity theorems
for, 2123
Quantum Communication
Network (QCN)
basic architecture, 4748
distributed quantum nodes, 57
quantum repeater, 5657
qubit
detection and measurement,
5556
flying sources, 5354
stationary sources, 55, 5861
Quantum decoherence, 1314
Quantum dots (QD), 61
Quantum Error Correction Codes
(QECC), 3740
Quantum key distribution (QKD)
protocols
based on entanglement, 4344
based on Heisenberg uncertainty
principle, 42
network layers of, 4748
practical, 44
standard setup, 41
Quantum Lossless Source Coding
Theorem, 37
Quantum Mechanics (QM), 5
for quantum communication, 710
Quantumness, 14
68 INDEX
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