1.

Methodology Employed in Assessing Field Dependence/Independence

Learning styles
The way we learn things in general and the particular approach we adopt when dealing with
problems is said to depend on a somewhat link between personality and cognititon; this link is
referred to as cogitive style. When cognitive styles are related to an educational context, they are
generally referred to as learning styles, cognitive, affective and physiological traits that are
relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning
environment (Keefe, 1979).
In theory, there are many learning styles as there are learners, and the practical
implications of learning styles for teaching learning interaction are numerous. Nevertheless,
only a few of the possible number of styles have received the attention of researchers in recent
years, one of the most-well researched areas is Field Independence (FI) of Field Dependence
(FD) refers to how people perceive and memorize information (Chapelle, 1995).
Field Independence and Field Dependence
Field dependence and field independence, as stated by Witkin (1973), is a cognitive style, which
is in turn defined as a characteristic self-consistent mode of functioning found pervasively
throughout an individual's perceptual and intellectual activities. In style of experiencing and at
level of intellectual functioning, a field-dependent person tends to be global and impressionistic,
whereas a field-independent person tends to be analytical, structured and articulated. This means
that where relationship with the surrounding field is concerned, a field dependent person tends to
blend items together into a fused and impressionistic whole, while a field-independent person is
able to perceive items as discrete from their backgrounds or to reorganize a field when it is
organized and, when there is relatively little inherent structure in the field, to impose structure on
it and so perceive it as organized.

A student with a field independent (FI) style tends to create his or her own structure in
problem solving and is therefore an individualist rather than one who engages in interpersonal
deliberations. This FI learner tends to attain the best success in classroom language learning
according to much of the past research. The field dependent (FD) learner is the opposite: he or
she tends to accept the structure and assistance provided by others and approaches problem
solving in a more social or collaborative way (Jonassen & Grabowski, 1993). Listed below are
the principal characteristics of the two cognitive styles and the implications of each for learning
(Ellis, 1993; based on Hawkey, 1982).

Field independence

Field dependence
1. Personal orientation

1. Impersonal orientation
reliance on internal frame of reference in
processing information

reliance on external frame of

reference in processing information

2. Analytic
2. Holistic
perceives a field in terms of its
component parts; parts are distinguished
from background

perceives field as a whole; parts are

fused with background
3. Dependent

3. Independent
the self view is derived from others
sense of separate identity
4. Not so socially aware
4. Socially sensitive
greater skill in interpersonal/social
relationships

less skilled in interpersonal/social

relationships

Students can enhance their learning power by being aware of style areas in which they feel less
comfortable. They also need to foster their intellectual growth by working on their less part.
Similarly, teachers can identify strong style patterns in their classes and make effectives use of

such information by devising lesson plans which accommodate individual learning style
preferences.

Cognitive styles and learning are so important that they may hold important implications
for education in general. Cognitive styles represent the core elements of the teaching and
learning process as they influence the academic achievement of learners.the model uses the
GEFT to assess wether a leaner is a field independent(analytical thinker) or field dependent
(global thinker). FD learners process information globally. These learners are less analytical and
they do not pay much attention to details and view the perceptual field as a whole. Learners have
a tendency to resist analysis or decomposition. FD learners use social frames of reference to
determine their own attitudes, feelings and beliefs. They prefer group projects and need more
assistance from the educator.
FI learners are highly analytical in perceiving and processing information. Field
dependence and field independence is a dimension of cognitive style that influences students
learning styles. They prefer situations that allow them freedom in working towards their goal
and solving problems, as well as working individually. The characteristics of FD and FI can be
summarised as shown in Table 1 with regard to teaching styles.
Table 1: Teaching styles of field dependent and field independent learners

Teaching Styles
Field dependent
Prefers teaching situations that allow
interaction and discussion with other learners

Field Independent
Prefers impersonal teaching situations such as
lecturers. Emphasise cognitive aspects of
instruction.

Uses questions to check on student learning Uses questions to introduce

following instruction.
following learner answers.
Uses learner-centred activities

topics

Uses a teacher-organised learning situation

and

Viewed by learners as teaching facts

Provides less
evaluation

feedback,

avoids

Viewed by learners as
application of principals.

encouraging

the

negative Gives corrective feedback, uses negative

evaluation

Strong in establishing a warm and personal Strong in organising and guiding student
learning environment
learning

Researches on Field Dependence/ Independence in English Reading

Blanton (quoted by Khodadady, 2012), investigated the influence of cognitive style on
standardized reading tests. Cognitive style had more impact on students performance on a
standardized test of reading comprehension. Type of the tasks used in the test had a profound
effect on the performance of the field-dependent students. She concluded that field-dependent
students performed better this type of reading tests were multiple-choice un timed than the other
kinds of tests and in fact this type of reading test provided more accurate estimation of their
reading comprehension skills and decreased differences in test performance between fielddependent and independent students.
Salmani (2007) examined the relationship between field-dependence and independence in
English reading performance. Based on the results, cognitive styles had the strongest effect on
test performance when test takers were most proficient. The results also revealed that success
with more holistic or more analytic reading tasks correlated with FD/I cognitive style.

2.0 Teaching and Learning Activities

Reading strategy training (especially for field independent learners): Crossing Out
Unfamiliar Items
This lesson plan has been devised to teach learners to develop the habit of forgoing unfamiliar
items for main idea comprehension and may be used most effectively as a segment of a series of
lessons, each structured around a specific reading strategy. Naturally, this lesson plan can have as
its theme a variety of topics and is given here merely as a sample from which teachers might
draw ideas: any number of topics can be substituted for the one given here. Teachers should
choose a reading context they feel would be of general interest to their learners.
Main Focus Objectives: build learner confidence as regards ability to understand difficult texts.
Assist learners in adopting and using reading strategies which will boost their reading rate
proficiency while increasing their overall reading comprehension.
Necessary Materials: some basic visual props (pages from an art magazine), news article related
to lesson theme which is to be divided in half, ohotocopies for students, clock.
Incidental Objectives:
1) Help field independent learners overlook problem area in order to focus on main idea.
2) Increase learner interest in reading rate proficiency

3) Increase learner motivation to engage in reading more often

Warm-up Activity: The Nature

As a visual aid, the teacher may choose to walk quietly around the classroom holding up a few
examples of art where shades of nature. Another option is to read off a few lines of poetry or
popular song about the good manners.

Activity 1: Timed Reading

teacher hands out text: an excerpt from a recent magazine article on how different cultures
respond to good manners.
Read though the passage quickly, bu not so fast that you miss the overall meaning. Im going to
time the reading and keep time on the board. Note how long it takes you to read and understand
the text." Class reads the text while the teacher times the students.

Activity 2: Crossing Out Unfamiliar Items

"Here is another passage from the same article. This time, while you read take your pencil and
cross out all the unfamiliar words you encounter and continue reading. Again, write down how
long it takes you to read through the passage." Class reads the second text while the teacher
keeps time.

Activity 3: Analysis
There are many ways to catch the main idea of the passage even without understanding all the
vocabulary. Students tend to read the reading texts without stopping to look up all the unfamiliar
words in the dictionary. Students can use their pencils to cross out unfamiliar words. Now, this is
really the key point of this reading strategy, thay you develop the ability to focus on
comprehension rather than allowing you to repeatedly get stuck on unfamiliar vocabulary and
thereby lose the flow of the discourse.
Activity 4: Context Clues

At this point, the teacher might wish to engage the class in identifying the specific context
clues in the second passage which helped facilities main idea reading comprehension. This is
done in pairs or small groups. This is an ideal opportunity to introduce them to this important
reading strategy.

Activity 5: Research Assignment

Students research a magazine, newspaper, or internet article in English related to the nature. This
could include anything from early development, historical investigation or some learner
reflections or writing. After having read the article theyve selected or reflected long enough,
students next write a brief summary. Giving the students more time to prepare and extending
classroom times may give more flexibility to the students to react to the assignments. Questions
demanding independent thought should be included in assessments because higher education
should demand this more. When students perceive the way marks are allow for independent
thinking, they will realise the important of changing their learning styles to match the demands
of higher education.Students also may reflect their thinking styles or their reading knowledge
through essays, reports and writing form.
Activity 6: Kinaesthetic, visual and auditory modes of thinking

People use their five senses to gather information and then channel it through three separate
routes, called representational systems, to make sense of it. These systems are visual, auditory
and kinaesthetic (touch, feelings, taste and smell). Individual have a preference for one of these
systems, and communications to these people can be improved by relating it to their unique
models of the world. Teacher can play reading materials through audio or video visual. This can
help the students to understand the reading material very well.

3.0

Evaluation of teaching and activities

The educators ability to use appropriate media for teaching and learning.These media allow
real-time collaboration and everyday teaching and learning. In this study, students reported that
their educators are not yet in a position to embrace social media in learning and teaching.
The use of social media encourages collaboration, creativity and mastery of ideas and
concepts. This approach also encourages non-linear learning. Interaction using social media
provides students with a sense of belonging and creates bonds between the students and their
peers, and between students and the educator. Social media can be used as an effective teaching
tool and it has the following advantages:
Increasing learning motivation - lecturing is the least effective method of student learning.
Social media allow students to be more motivated because they participate in the learning
activity. For example, showing a video allows students to view it in their own time and reflect on
the presentation before they respond. The reflection time may produce a more complete
understanding of the content. Technology can make learning a more immersed, engaging and
relevant experience
Collaborative learning - collaboration is a common feature because the educator, students and
peers rely on other experts or professionals to present current accurate content, unique material
and links for teaching and learning. These professionals will provide more complete information

than the educator alone. Discussion groups can be created for class projects or tweet about a
concept and the educator can keep track of students participation, provide guidance and monitor
progress.
Location and timing of learning - when links to resources, assignments are available,
students will not be tied to location or a time schedule for learning. This allows students held up
to read and understand content that they will respond to outside of the physical classroom. The
students become more independent.
Increased communication - the flow of information help students get to practice the written
communication skills they will regularly use in the world of text communication. Furthermore,
the communication is no longer coming from the educator to students but a two-way
communication link is established. Social media allow the posting of reminders, upcoming
events, schedules changes, posting of documents for easy access to students. Technology helps
students feel connected.
Therefore, educators need to make better use of technologies that student value and this can
easily be integrated into their learning experiences. These technologies should be used in a more
transformative ways, such as participatory and collaborative interactions, and for high level
teaching and learning that is engaging and relevant to students lives and future professional
development. Educators need to move strategically toward blended learning environments to
meet students preferred styles of learning. They should offer many different ways for students to
engage in learning to use technology and to meet differentiated needs.
FD and FI students tend to favour different learning approaches. The learning approach
favoured by one kind of a student might simply not work for another student. In addition,
whether one approach will lead to better learning outcomes than the others seems to depend on
three fundamental aspects. These are: the specific characteristics of the learning tasks, the
particular circumstances of the learning tasks and the particular circumstances under which
learning takes place. Therefore, it is not unreasonable to assume that educators should be aware
of the ways in which FD and FI students learn concepts. This is so because such awareness can

assist educators to become more effective in adapting and aligning instructional procedures to the
needs of these different kinds of learners. Educators may also find ways of helping students
diversify their learning strategies.

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