" Aditya Singh Rathour" Water Harvesting Bringing Green Revolution To Rain-Fed Areas

WATER HARVESTING
Brining Green Revolution to Rainfed Areas
Proceedings of the International Symposium

Held on 23 to 25 June 2008
at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Editors
Dr. Arumugam Kandiah

Visiting Professor, TNAU
Dr. K. Ramaswamy
Professor, TNAU
Regional Programme Specialist, UNESCO
and
A. Sampathrajan
Dean, Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, TNAU
Volume I
Published Jointly by
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
and
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
New Delhi Office, New Delhi
July 2008
Copyright :
UNESCO
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ISBN
First Impression
Published by
Printed at
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978-81-89218-41-6
2011
UNESCO, New Delhi
Bal Vikas Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.
PREFACE
With a global withdrawal rate of 600 700 km3/year, groundwater is the worlds most extracted raw
material. Particularly in rural areas of developing countries, in arid and semi arid regions and in the inlands,
groundwater is the most important source of drinking water. Irrigation systems in many parts of the world
strongly depend on groundwater resources. Groundwater is also a reliable resource for industry. However,
managerial control over groundwater resources development and protection is often lacking and that has
led to uncontrolled aquifer exploitation and pollution. Intensive aquifer use affects springs, stream base-flow,
groundwater table, piezometric level, groundwater storage, surface water - groundwater interface, wetlands
and land subsidence. Groundwater vulnerability to the human impacts is therefore recognized as a serious
worldwide social, economic and environmental problem.
It has been estimated that about 80 countries, constituting 40% of the worlds population, are suffering
from serious water shortages and that within 25 years two thirds of the worlds population will be living
in water-stressed countries. Although long been seen as the only option to improve crop productivity and
thus the quality of life of millions of people, development of irrigation is not always possible because of the
inherent climatic constraints in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world. It is now a well understood fact
that expansion of irrigation, although technically possible, is not always cost-effective or environmentally
friendly. Thus development of rainfed agriculture is not only necessary to improve the food security but also
is a necessary prerequisite for the sustainable development of the world.
UNESCO is working to create the conditions for genuine dialogue based upon respect for shared values
and the dignity of each civilization and culture. The world urgently requires global visions of sustainable
development based upon observance of human rights, mutual respect and the alleviation of poverty, all of
which lie at the heart of UNESCOs mission and activities. UNESCO has a mandate to advance hydrological
sciences and their application for improving water security. UNESCO is therefore uniquely placed to work
with other concerned partners to popularize and better study water harvesting technologies. Through its
International Hydrological Programme (IHP), and especially through its Water and Development Information
for Arid and Semi-Arid Areas (GWADI) initiative, UNESCO remains committed to sharing its know-how,
cooperating with others and building new partnerships. In its VIIth Phase, IHP is extensively working in the
field of rainwater harvesting, not only to consolidate existing knowledge, but also to develop cheaper and
more appropriate technologies for water harvesting.
I am confident that this set of proceedings of the International Symposium on Water Harvesting - bringing
green revolution to rainfed areas will serve as good reference to those who are genuinely committed to bring
green revolution to rainfed areas.
Parsuramen
Armoogum Parsuramen
Director and UNESCO Representative to
Bhutan, India, Maldives and Sri Lanka
List of Contributors
1.
A. Balakrishnan, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
2.
A. Sarangi, Senior Scientist, Water Technology Centre, IARI, New Delhi, India
3.
A. Subba Rao, Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462038, Mathia Pradesh,
India
4.
A.K. Misra, Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462038, Mathia Pradesh,
India
5.
A.K. Tripathi, Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462038, Mathia Pradesh,
India
6.
A.K.Sinha, Professor, Department of Geology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India
7.
Arun Balamatti, AME Foundation, No. 204, 100 Feet Ring Road, Banashankari 3rd Stage, 3rd Phase, 2nd
Block, Bangalore 560 085
8.
B.K. Gavit, Associate Scientist, Maharashtra Remote Sensing Applications Centre- Nagpur, Maharashtra,
India
9.
Bharat R Sharma, International Water Management Institute, New Delhi Office, New Delhi, India
10. C S Kallimani, AME Foundation, No. 204, 100 Feet Ring Road, Banashankari 3rd Stage, 3rd Phase, 2nd
Block, Bangalore 560 085
11. C.A. Madramootoo, Dean of Faculty, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, SteAnne-De-Bellevue, Montreal, Canada
12. C.Jayanthi, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
13. C.R. Shanmugham, Programme Advisor, DHAN Foundation, Madurai, India
14. C.Vennila, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
15. C.Vijayalakshmi, Department of Crop Physiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
16. D. Manohar Jesudas, Professor and Head, Department of Farm Machinery, Agriculture Engineering College &Research Institute , Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
17. G. Sujata, Scientist/ Engr-SD, National Remote Sensing Agency-Hydrabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
18. Gunnar Jacks, Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, KTH, Stockholm, Sweden
19. Harnath Jagawat, NM Sadguru Water and Development Foundation (NMSWDF), Dahod, Gujarat, India
20. I.Muthusamy, Professor, Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agriculture
University, Coimbatore, India
21. Ian Gale, British Geological Survey, Wallingford, Oxon, UK
22. Indra, Lecturer, E.S.College of Engineering & Technology Villupuram, India
23. J.Diraviam, AME Foundation, No. 204, 100 Feet Ring Road, Banashankari 3rd Stage, 3rd Phase, 2nd Block,
Bangalore 560 085
24. J. Venkitapirabhu, Associate Professor (Agrl.Extn.), ODL, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore,
India
25. K.V. Rao, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, India
26. K. Arulmozhiselvan, Professor of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
27. K. Ramaswamy, Professor, Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Agriculture Engineering College and Research Institute , Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
28. K.G. Mandal, Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462038, Mathia Pradesh,
India
29. K.Kathirvel, Professor, Department of Farm Machinery, Agriculture Engineering College & Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
30. K.M. Hati, Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462038, Madhya Pradesh,
India
31. K.Palanisami, Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development Studies (CARDS), Tamil Nadu Agricultural
32. K.Palanisami, Director, CARDS, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India,
33. K.R. Koundal, Joint Director, IARI and Project Director, Water Technology Centre, IARI, New Delhi, India
34. Koichi Fujita, Professor, CSEAS, Kyoto University, Japan
35. K.P.R. Vittal, Central Arid zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, India
36. Lakshmi Devi, Lecturer, E.S.College of Engineering & Technology Villupuram, India
37. M. Karthikeyan, Team Leader, DHAN Foundation, Madurai, India
38. M. Madhu, Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute and Research Centre,
Udhagamandalam 640 004, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
39. M. Palanisamy, Programme Leader, DHAN Foundation, Madurai, India
40. M. R. Rajagopalan, Secretary, Gandhigram Trust, Gandhigram, Dindigul, India
41. M.A. Fyzee, Scientist/ Engr-SE, National Remote Sensing Agency-Hydrabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
42. M.Jegadeesan, Visiting project Researcher, CSEAS, Kyoto University, Japan
43. M.Raghu Babu, Assitant Professor, APAU, Bapatla, India
44. Madar Samad, International Water Management Institute, South Asia Regional Office, Hyderabad, India
45. N.Sritharan, Department of Crop Physiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore India
46. N.Varadaraj, Regional Director, Central Ground Water Board, Chennai, India
47. O.P.S. Khola, Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute and Research Centre,
Udhagamandalam 640 004, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
48. P. Balasubramaniam, Associate Professor (Agrl.Extn.), ODL, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
49. P. Pathak, International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Pathancheru, Andra Pradesh, India
50. P. Singh, International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Pathancheru, Andra Pradesh, India
51. P G.Lavanya, Head of Division, Agricultural Policy and Planning Division, State. Planning Commission,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
52. P.K. Mishra, Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Research Centre, Bellary,
Karnataka India
53. P.K.Singh, Associate Professor, Department of Soil and Water Engineering,CTAE, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
54. P.K.Selvaraj, Professor (SWC), Agricultural Research Station, TNAU, Bhavanisagar, India
55. R. Vengatesan, M.Sc.(Ag) Scholar (2005-2007) in Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Department
of Soil and Environment, Agricultural College, Madurai, India
56. R. Vijayaraghavan, Professor and Head, KVK, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
57. R.K. Singh, Indian Institute of Soil Science, Nabibagh, Berasia Road, Bhopal-462038, Mathia Pradesh,
India
58. R.K.Haroon, Planning Officer, Agricultural Policy and Planning Division, State Planning Commission,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
59. R.Sakthivadivel, IWMI Senior Fellow & Visiting Professor, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
60. R.Thangamani, Executive Engineer, Hydrology Division, Central Water Commission, Chennai, India
61. S. Gunasekaran, Team Leader, Holistic Water Development Project, Gandhigram Trust, Gandhigram,
Dindigul, India
62. S. K. Gupta, Scientist - D, Central Ground Water Board, Western Region, Jaipur; India
63. S. Mohan, Professor, Environmental and Water Resources Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai, India
64. S.L. Patil, Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Research Centre, Bellary,
Karnataka India
65. S.Manivannan, Senior Scientist (SWCE), ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Ela,Old Goa, Goa, India
66. S.Mohamed Ghouse, Principal, E.S.College of Engineering & Technology,Villupuram and Former Chief
Engineer, Agricultural Engineering Department, Nandanam Chennai, India
67. S.P. Wani, International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Pathancheru, Andra Pradesh, India
68. S.Senthilvel, Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development Studies (CARDS), Tamil Nadu Agricultural
69. Sayyed Ahang Kowsar, Emeritus Senior Research Scientist, Fars Research Center for Agriculture and
Natural Resources, Iran
70. Subshree, Lecturer, E.S.College of Engineering & Technology Villupuram, India
71. T. Selvakumar, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
72. T.P.Natesan, Senior Hydrogeologist, TWAD Board, Chennai
73. T.Ramesh, Centre for Agricultural and Rural Development Studies (CARDS), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India
74. T.Ramesh, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India
CONTENTS
S.No.
Chapter Name
Page No.
Parallel Session
Theme 1: Water Harvesting at the Farm level
1-67
Management of Aquifer Recharge The key to sustainable rural groundwater

supply? Ian Gale
3-11
In situ Rainwater Harvesting and Related Soil & Water Conservation

Technologies at the Farm Level, P.K.Mishra
12-33
Low Cost On-Farm Indigenous and Innovative Technologies of Rainwater

Harvesting, R.K.Singh
34-41
Integrating In-situ Soil Moisuture Conservation Techniques and Supplementary

Irrigation for Sustainable Farming in Dryland Areas, K.Ramaswamy
42-49
Conservation of Rainwater and Sustainaility of Productivity through Imporved

Land Management and Cropping System in a Vertisol of Central India,
K.M. Hati, A.K. Misra, K.G. Mandal, A.K. Tripathi, A. Subba Rao,
R.K. Singh, S.P. Wani, P. Singh and P. Pathak
50-56
Implements for Water Harvesting and In-stiu Mositure conservation,

D.Manohar Jesudas and K.Kathirvel
57-61
Effect of In-situ Conservations practices on runoff, soil loss and yield

performances of chshew in Goa, S.Manivanan
62-67
68-108
Drought Mitigation through Floodwater Harvesting for the Artificial Recharge

of Groundwater: Prudence vs Large Dms, Sayyed Ahang Kowsar
69-72
9.
Tank Systems for Water Harvesting, R.Sakthivadivel
73-78
10.
Water Harvesting and Ground Water Recharge, N.Varadaraj
79-87
11.
Potential of Water Harvesting as a Tool for Drought Mitigation, S.Mohan
88-94
12.
Impact of cost effective water harvesting techniques on artificial groundwater

recharege through open wells and recharge from natural streams,
K.Ramaswamy
95-103
Rain water harvesting, recharging and skimming techniques suitable for

saline ground water tracts of South India Case study,
I.Muthusamy and M.Raghu Babu
104-108
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Parallel Session
Theme 2: Water Harvesting at Micro-watershed Level - continuation
8.
13.
Parallel Session
Theme 3: Enhancing Water Productivity in Rainfed Areas
14.
15.
16.
109-153
Crop Management Options to Enhance Water Productivity of Rainfed Area,

S.Natarajan, C.Sudhalakshmi, R.Jagadeeswaran and R.Venkitaswamy
111-112
Opportunity for Enhancing Crop Water Produtivity in Rainfed Areas::

An Assessement for Rainfed Areas of India, Bharat R Sharma,
K V Rao and KPR Vittal
113-118
Improving Productivity in Dryland Groundnut Framing LEISA Otucomes

from South India, Arun Balamatti, J Diraviam and C S Kallimani
119-128
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Water Productivity at Different Scales Under Canal, Tank and Well Irrigation
Systems, K.Palanisami, T.Ramesh and S.Senthilvel
129-134
Integrated Farming System for Increasing Agricultural Wter Productivity,

C.Jayanthi, T.Ramesh and C.Vennila
135-138
Generation of regional water harvesting potential scenarios using

CLIMGEN model, A. Sarangi, C.A. Madramootoo and K.R. Koundal
139-142
Improving Water Productivity in Maize by Nutriseed Holder Techinque under

Micro Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation, K. Arulmozhiselvan and R. Vengatesan
143-148
Aerobic Rice for mitigating water scarity: Physilogical approaches,

C.Vijayalakshmi, N.Sritharan and P.K.Selvaraj
149-153
Parallel Session
Theme 4: Policies, Institutions and Socio-Economic Aspects
154-188
22.
Socio-Economic Issues in Watershed Development Programs, Madar Samad
155-159
23.
Community Resource Management: Much needed strategy in Tank

Irrigation system in India, M. Jegadeesan and K. Fujita
160-168
Indigenous Knowledge use in Dryland, P. Balasubramaniam,

R. Vijayaraghavan and J. Venkitapirabhu
169-173
Priciples and Policty Perspective of Rain Water Harvesting,

P.G.Lavanya and R.K.Haroon
174-182
Impact of National Watershed Programmed for Rainfed Agriculture. A case

study in Tamilnadu, A.Balakrishnan and T.Selvakumar
183-185
Holistic Watershed Development A practical Approach for

Creating an Enabling Environment to Promote Waer Harvesting,
M.R.Rajagopalan, S.Gunasekaran
186-188
24.
25.
26.
27.
Parallel Session
Theme 5: Role of Research, Extension and Education
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
Natures own water harvesting- Groundwater recharge in some

different environments, Gunnar Jacks
Water Harvesting A look at the past and vision for the future,
R.Thangamani
Water Resources Management and Sustainability of Drinking Water
Resources TAWD Experience, T.P.Natesan
Artificial Recharge and Aquifer storage in Lower kantli River Basin Rajasthan,
India A Case Study, S. K. Gupta
Capacity building Human resources and institutional development in
support of soil and water conservation in India, O.P.S. Khola and M. Madhu
Otureach programmes on water harvesting and land development for
sustainable agricultural dryland watersheds, C.R. Shanmugham,
M. Palanisamy and M. Karthikeyan
189-236
191-194
195-196
197-202
203-212
213-222
223-231
232-236
Role of Research, Extension and Education in Water Harvesting

A case study - Groundwater recharge in hard rock regions of Coimbatore district,
Tamil Nadu, India, D.Tamilmani, A.Raviraj and S.SanthanaBosu
Theme 1
Water Harvesting at the Farm level
1
MANAGEMENT OF
AQUIFER RECHARGE
THE KEY TO SUSTAINABLE
RURAL GROUNDWATER
SUPPLY?
Ian Gale
absorption of floodwaters to reduce their destructive

capacity and the control of subsidence.
Objectives of MAR
MAR describes intentional storage and treatment
of water in aquifers. The term artificial recharge is also
commonly used, but adverse connotations of artificial
suggest that it is time for a new name. Managed Aquifer
Recharge is also intentional as opposed to the incidental
impacts of land clearance, irrigation and leakage from
water mains and sewerage systems.
Managed Aquifer Recharge should be regarded

as one method to manage water resources in conjunction
with a wide range of others, including surface storage,
exploitation of groundwater, demand management,
wastewater reuse etc.
Managed Aquifer Recharge Techniques
Managed Aquifer Recharge is carried out all over

the world for all kinds of reasons and, in its simplest form
involves constraining surface runoff and encouraging
infiltration to aquifers through the construction of
earthen field bunds. A large percentage of schemes
are developed to store water for future use, for drinking
water supplies and agriculture.
Numerous schemes exist to enhance recharge

of groundwater and they are as varied as the ingenuity
of those involved in their construction and operation.
These schemes are designed with the prime objective
of enhancing recharge (intentional recharge) but aquifers
can also be recharged unintentionally (incidental
recharge) whilst undertaking other activities, for
example irrigation. Intentional methods are aimed at
enhancing groundwater supplies but may also achieve
other purposes such as flood mitigation and reduced soil
Other reasons to manage aquifer recharge

include the control of saltwater ingress, the augmentation
of low river flows, reduction of runoff and soil erosion,
3
erosion. Here the focus is on intentional recharge, the

methodologies applied being broadly grouped into the
following categories:
Infiltration or Recharge Ponds or

Basins
An infiltration basin is either excavated in the
ground, or it comprises of an area of land surrounded
by a bank, which retains the recharge water (e.g. storm
water), until it has infiltrated through the base of the
basin. If the aquifer material is fine, rapid clogging will
occur. In this case, covering the bottom and sides with
an approximately 0.5m thick layer of medium sand can
delay the clogging process and extend the recharge
periods in the facility (Huisman and Olsthoorn, 1983).
The same technique should be used on a fissured-rock
aquifer, to prevent deep penetration of suspended solids
or algae, which could result in irreversible clogging.
v Spreading methods
v In-channel modifications
v Well, shaft and borehole recharge
v Induced bank infiltration,
v Rainwater harvesting
Many schemes require low levels of technology
and can be (and have been for centuries) implemented
with little engineering knowledge. Although simple in
principle the efficient operation of spreading basins and
infiltration schemes needs a good knowledge of the
physical, hydraulic, geochemical and microbiological
processes in operation and how to mange them for
optimum performance. Similar issues need to be
addressed in roof top rainwater harvesting. For further
details on these types of schemes, e.g. construction,
restoration, operation etc. the reader is referred to
(Central Ground Water Board, 2000),
(CGWB/
UNESCO, 2000), (National Institute of Hydrology,
1998), (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2001),
(OHare et al., 1982), (Huisman and Olsthoorn, 1983),
(Pacey and Cullis, 1986) and (United Nations, 1975).
The depth of the basin should be shallow enough,

to allow rapid draining in cases where cleaning of the
basin by drying and scraping is necessary. Water levels
should be managed to prevent growth of vegetation or
accumulations of algae and consequent resistance to the
flow of water. The area of land available for infiltration
basins and the infiltration rate determines the volume of
recharge achievable.
v Clogging of the basin floor is the predominant
problem during recharge, creating a filter skin on the
bottom and sides of the spreading basin. To counteract
this, the following methods should be considered:
v Apply a rotational system of water spreading and
drying and subsequent scraping of the basin. Drying
kills algal growth, and this, combined with scraping of
the basin bottom, restores infiltration rates.
v Construct ridges on the floor of the basin and
control the water level to winnow fines to settle in the
troughs, thus maintaining infiltration rates on the sides
of the ridges.
v Mechanical treatment of the recharge water by
primary sedimentation to remove suspended solids.
Settling efficiency can be increased by addition of
flocculating chemicals
v Chlorination of the recharge water to prevent
microbial activity Mechanical treatment of the soil by
ploughing to increase permeability
v Lining the basin with a layer of medium sand to act
as a filter to remove suspended solids.
Spreading Methods
Water spreading is applied in cases where the
aquifer to be recharged is at or near to the ground
surface. Recharge is achieved by infiltration through
permeable material at the surface, which is managed
to maintain infiltration rates. In situations where there
is a reliable source of good-quality input water, and
spreading infiltration can be operated throughout the
year, then hydraulic loadings of typically 30 m/yr can be
achieved for fine texture soils like sandy loams, 100 m/
yr for loamy soils and 300 m/yr for medium clean sands
and 500 m/yr for coarse clean sands (Bouwer, 2002).
Evaporation rates from open water surfaces range from
about 0.4 m/yr for cool wet climates to 2.4 m/yr for
warm dry climates so form a minor component of the
water balance.
Where the source of water is sporadic from
seasonal flow containing high loads of suspended
solids, management of the recharge structure becomes
increasingly important in order to minimize clogging to
maintain infiltration rates and keep evaporation from
open water to a minimum.
Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT)

Planned reuse of water will become increasingly
important as demand from users and the environment
4
close to ground surface. The wastewater contains

industrial pollutants of many types; in Leon the effluent
from the tanning industry is a significant component.
The main impact on the groundwater quality in the
irrigated area is the presence of poor-quality water to
depths of 50 to 100 m with chloride concentrations
of 800 to 1000 mg/l in the upper portions. Many of
the other pollutants in the wastewater are removed or
attenuated in the distribution system and the soil zone.
This helps to prevent pollutants such as organic carbon,
nutrients, heavy metals and pathogens form reaching
the groundwater body. The main threat to groundwater
is increasing concentrations of chloride being drawn to
the municipal supply wells in the area (Chilton et al.,
1998).
results in wastewater becoming regarded as an asset rather

than a disposal problem. Practical research undertaken
over the last few decades, notably in Phoenix, Arizona,
Bouwer, (2002), has investigated hydraulic, operational
and bio-geochemical processes involved in wastewater
recharge and recovery. Water quality improvement is
often the primary objective to remove all suspended
solids and micro-organisms. Removal of nitrogen
species through denitrification is also a key benefit as
is the reduction in concentration of dissolved organic
carbon through biological processes. Phosphates and
metals can also be removed but are retained in the soil.
Controlled Flooding
In areas of relatively flat topography water may
be diverted, with the help of canals, from a river and
spread evenly over a large surface area. A thin sheet of
water forms which moves at a minimum velocity to avoid
disturbance of the soil cover. Highest infiltration rates
are observed on areas with undisturbed vegetation and
soil cover (Todd, 1959).
In-Channel Modifications
Percolation Tanks Behind Check-Dams
An inexpensive way of spreading water can be
achieved by the construction of check-dams across a
streambed with the construction material being in situ
river alluvium. To avoid annual erosion or destruction of
these structures a concrete spillway is often constructed
and, to contain and channel surface runoff, bunds are
also built. Associated field bunds retard the water flow
to the stream and thus create an opportunity for this
water to infiltrate into the ground as well as reducing soil
erosion.
Incidental Recharge
It is important to take incidental recharge into
account as it can form a significant component of the
water balance of a catchment. Leakage from water,
wastewater and storm-water systems in urban areas can
contribute significantly to groundwater recharge, in some
cases resulting in rising groundwater levels and flooding.
Irrigation excess water from irrigation canals and fields
have historically caused water logging and salinization
problems. However, where managed beneficially this
incidental recharge can become an asset. For example,
in the Indo-Gangetic Plain groundwater levels rose by
about 6 m over a ten-year period and the water has been
increasingly scavenged for irrigation water outside the
surface water irrigation season. IWMI, 2002 estimate
that about 60% of the water applied to rice paddy is
utilised, the balance percolating to groundwater. Recent
studies demonstrated that large canal irrigation systems
can be modified to augment groundwater recharge.
An example: the AGRAR study, India (Gale et al.,

2006)
In order to quantify the impacts of check dam

recharge structures on the hydrology of a catchment
and the hydrogeology in the immediate vicinity, three
research sites were instrumented and monitored. These
sites were selected to be representative of a range of
hydrological as well as socio-economic environments.
Satlasana, Gujarat (VIKSAT). The Aravalli Hills
which surround the villages studied form a well-defined
catchment of approximately 20 km2. The area is semi-arid;
the average annual rainfall is around 650 mm, with rainfall
occurring from late June until the end of September.
There are typically 30 to 35 days of rainfall in a year.
The main aquifer in the catchment is formed by
shallow weathered and fractured granitic rocks. These
are overlain in the upper regions of the valley floor by
thick layers of sediment (15-20 m) weathered from the
hillsides. The main part of the valley floor is moderately
undulating.
The use of urban wastewater for irrigation can

have additional problems and benefits. Use of municipal
wastewater for agricultural irrigation is widely established
in Mexico. Around cities such as Leon and Mexico
City itself, groundwater levels are falling rapidly where
abstraction to meet demand from a rapidly expanding
population, exceeds recharge. However, where the
wastewater is used for irrigation, the water tables are
5
Kolwan Valley, Maharashtra (ACWADAM). The

Kolwan Valley is located on the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats and, as a result, rainfall is 1800 mm/a
on average, although highly variable. The rain occurs
mainly during a single monsoon season, generally from
June to October.
The detailed local geology comprises a series of eight
basalt units (lava flows). Each unit has a compact, less
weathered lower section and a fractured/jointed, more
weathered upper section; the latter having the capacity
to store more groundwater, being more permeable and
therefore a much better aquifer. The check dams at
Chikhalgaon are all located on the upper section of one
of the basalt units.
Kodangipalayam, Tamil Nadu (TNAUWTC). The Kodangipalayam watershed consists
of two micro-watershed with a total area of 5.0 km2.
Rainfall occurs in two seasons as a result of the southwest
monsoon (June to September) and the northeast
monsoon (October to December). The regional average
total annual rainfall is 650 mm, measured at Sulur (7
km from Kodangipalayam). The area is underlain by
shallow weathered crystalline hard-rocks (charnockites,
migmatites and banded gneisses) which have relatively
low groundwater storage capacity.
Sand Storage Dams

Sand dams are best sited in undulating terrain
under arid climatic conditions, where runoff is often
experienced as flash floods. The dams are typically
constructed in sandy, ephemeral riverbeds in well-defined
valleys. A dam wall is constructed on the bedrock,
across the width of the riverbed to slow down flash
floods or longer ephemeral flow events. This allows
coarser material to settle out and accumulate behind the
artificial dam wall. The dam wall can be raised after each
successive flood event, the height of the wall thereby
determining the flood flow and the amount of material
accumulating. However, sufficient overflow should be
allowed for finer material to get carried away (Murray
and Tredoux, 1998).
Subsurface Dams
Subsurface dams may be used to detain water in
alluvial aquifers. In ephemeral streams where basement
highs constrict flow, a trench is constructed across the
streambed keyed into the basement rocks and backfilled
with low permeability material to constrain groundwater
flow. The groundwater is recovered from wells or
boreholes.
Recharge Releases
The findings
Where flow is very flashy and contains large

amounts of suspended solids, the water may be lost
to the catchment or to the sea before it can be given
the opportunity to infiltrate to replenish the aquifer.
Constructing of larger dams on ephemeral streams
to capture and store this flow to reduce the sediment
load followed by controlled release of the water into
the downstream reaches where groundwater recharge
occurs. A good example of this practice is the OMDEL
scheme in Namibia.
The additional water that the recharge structures

are contributing to the aquifer was quantified and an
indication of the distance to which the impacts can be
seen were estimated. A measure of the effectiveness of
the recharge structures is how this additional recharge
compares with the natural groundwater recharge across
the whole of the study areas. The studies show remarkably
similar results despite the considerable differences in
catchment area, rainfall (both quantity and distribution),
geology and useage.
Wells, Shafts and Boreholes
The equivalent depth (4.8 to 12 mm) of additional

rainfall recharged represents only a small percentage
(0.6 to 1.4%) of the available rainfall but is calculated to
be a significant percentage increase to that recharged
naturally, 13 to 23 %. Check dams therefore can make
significant contributions to recharge but need to be
distributed so there is sufficient rainfall to be captured,
i.e. some dams never appear to fill except in exceptional
circumstances. Account also needs to be taken of the
redistribution of recharge at the catchment scale as larger
tanks, down stream may be deprived of water.
Open Wells and Shafts

These structures are used to recharge shallow
phreatic aquifers and where the surface layers are of
low permeability and hence spreading methods are not
effective. Wells that have run dry are often used for
this purpose. Coarse material is sometimes used to fill
pits or trenches to act as a filter and can be replaced if
clogging becomes severe.
Settlement of the suspended solids in the
recharge water is needed prior to recharge in order to
6
adjacent to the surface water body (OHare et al., 1982).

Provided that the permeability of the stream or lakebed and aquifer are high and the aquifer is sufficiently
thick, large amounts of groundwater may be abstracted
from a well or a gallery without serious adverse effects
on the groundwater table further inland (Huisman and
Olsthoorn, 1983).
reduce the potential for clogging of pores, particularly

if the source is storm water. Subsequent abstraction
may flush fines out of pores and go some way towards
recovering the recharge capacity. The significance of the
contribution made by this method needs to be compared
to the quantity of recharge occurring naturally, but it
could be valuable where shallow, low-permeability layers
constrain infiltration from the surface.
A particular variant of this method is used in

coastal zones and is known as inter-dune filtration.
Here the valleys between coastal sand dunes are flooded
with water from rivers to infiltrate into the underlying
sediments and create a recharge mound. The mound
can play an important role in preventing saline intrusion
as well as providing a source of water that is abstracted
further inland. This technique has been used for
centuries and is highly developed along the coast of The
Netherlands where rivers are the source of water for the
recharge. In other schemes, storm and urban wastewater
(e.g. S.Africa) and treated wastewater (Factory 21, Los
Angeles) are the sources of water.
Use of wells has the potential to introduce not

only suspended solids directly into the aquifer but also
chemical (nitrates, pesticides, etc.) and bacterial (including
faecal) contaminants. The spreading structures described
earlier have the advantage that the water infiltrating from
the surface passes through soil and alluvial deposits
which can act as extremely effective filter/treatment
mechanisms.
Drilled Wells and Boreholes

Well or borehole recharge is used where thick,
low permeability strata overlie target aquifers, in order to
recharge water directly into the aquifer. Recharge wells
are also advantageous when land is scarce (OHare et al.,
1982). However, recharge water quality requirements
are usually significantly higher for borehole injection
than for groundwater recharge by means of spreading. A
detailed description of this method is beyond the scope
of this document, but can be found in (Pyne, 1995.
Pyne, 2005). Where the well/borehole is used for both
injection and recovery (Aquifer Storage Recovery: ASR),
costs are minimised and clogging is removed during the
recovery cycle. Water can be injected into a borehole
and recovered from another, some distance away, to
increase travel time and benefit from the water treatment
capacity of the aquifer. This is referred to as Aquifer
Storage Transfer and Recovery (ASTR)
A key objective of these types of schemes is

to improve the quality of the often poor-quality source
water and much research has been undertaken to
understand and optimise the management of suspended
solids, clogging and the attenuation of dissolved solids,
including organic compounds, using physical, chemical
as well as biological processes.
Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting, in its broadest sense is
the collection of runoff for productive use and usually
involves the concentration of rainfall from a larger area
for use of storage in a smaller area as soil moisture or
groundwater. Roof-top rainwater harvesting is a special
case being increasingly used in urban areas for tank
storage, urban irrigation and groundwater recharge.
Induced Bank Infiltration
Dry Land Farming
Riverbed infiltration schemes commonly consist

of a gallery or a line of boreholes at a short distance
from, and parallel to the bank of a surface water body.
Pumping of the boreholes lowers the water table adjacent
to the river or lake, inducing river water to enter the
aquifer system. To assure a satisfactory purification of
the surface water in the ground, the travel time should
exceed 30 to 60 days (Huisman and Olsthoorn, 1983).
In semi-arid regions, dry land farming systems

utilise between 15 an 30% of rainfall, the majority
evaporating (30 50%) and the remainder going to
surface runoff (10 25%), and groundwater recharge
(10 30%). Interventions ranging from field bunds,
contour ploughing and rock weirs in drainage channels
to floodwater diversions into bunded cropping areas all
aim to reduce runoff and concentrate the water to be
stored in the soil profile or the deeper aquifer. Whichever
system is used, the aim is to significantly reduce surface
runoff and evaporation in order to enhance agricultural
The factors controlling the success of induced

infiltration schemes are a dependable source of surface
water, of acceptable quality, and the permeability of
the river or lake-bed deposits and of the formations
7
production and, often

groundwater recharge.
unintentionally,
can be used to improve the quality of water as it recharges,

through physical and biochemical processes.
enhance
Roof-Top Rainwater Harvesting
Storm-Water Runoff
Roof-top rainwater harvesting can conserve

rainwater for either direct consumption or for recharge
of groundwater. This approach requires connecting the
outlet pipe from a guttered roof-top to divert rainwater
to either existing wells or other recharge structures or
to storage tanks. Drainpipes, roof surfaces and storage
tanks should be constructed of chemically inert materials
such as plastic, aluminum, galvanised iron or fibreglass,
in order to avoid contaminating the rainwater.
Urban areas generate significant quantities of

storm-water runoff. The runoff is highly variable in
quantity with peak discharges occurring after heavy
rainfalls. In order to obtain a more consistent supply,
infiltration and storm-water retention ponds, grassed
areas, porous pavements and wetlands are recommended
for watershed areas (Murray and Tredoux, 1998). The
best quality runoff water in urban areas is from roof-tops
and increasingly initiatives (e.g. all government buildings
in India) are being made to direct this water immediately to
groundwater recharge through infiltration galleries wells
and boreholes. This not only replenishes urban aquifers
that are often over-exploited, but also, introduces good
quality water into often-polluted groundwater.
Where the water is used for direct consumption, the initial

water from a rain shower is often allowed to run to waste to
flush accumulated dirt off the collection area and gutters.
The main sources of contamination are pollution from
the air, bird and animal droppings and insects. Bacterial
contamination may be minimized by keeping roof surfaces
and drains clean but cannot be completely eliminated.
Advantages of collecting and storing rainwater in urban
areas is the reduction of demand on water supply systems
as well as reducing the amount of storm-water run-off and
consequent urban flooding.
In rural areas, intense rainfall can generate

surface runoff from agricultural fields. In some areas
(e.g. Saurashtra, India) this runoff is channeled into large
diameter hand dug wells to directly recharge the aquifer.
Holding bunds are sometimes constructed to reduce
the suspended sediment load, but not the dissolved
contaminant load. For this reason direct recharge to
open wells is to be discouraged in preference to infiltration
through a soil or sand layer which can be managed to
remove some dissolved constituents.
Sources of Recharge Water

A prerequisite for artificial recharge of
groundwater is the availability of a source of water of
suitable quality, in sufficient quantity. Several sources
of water can be considered for use as recharge water,
namely surface water, runoff water, wastewater or water
for potable supply.
Wastewater
Wastewater as a source is of predictable volume
with a fairly uniform rate of flow over time and of
constant, but inferior quality (Murray and Tredoux,
1998). Wastewater requires significant treatment before
being considered to be of acceptable quality for aquifer
recharge and to minimise the extent of any degradation
of groundwater quality (Bouwer, 1996). The compounds
of concern depend on the wastewater source, i.e.
industrial or domestic wastewater. Wastewater as a
source offers a significant potential for all non-potable
uses. However, with proper pre- and post-treatment or
dilution with native groundwater, potable use also can
be a viable option (Bouwer, 1996).
Surface Water
Surface water can be a consistent source of
recharge water depending on the climatic situation.
Under humid conditions moderate variability in river flows
can be expected, and perennial rivers are predominant.
Under arid or semi-arid conditions ephemeral rivers
prevail.
In lakes, water is not flowing significantly and
is clear with little or no suspended material. In the
absence of pollution by waste discharges or agricultural
runoff, and with little algal growth, lake water may be
used for spreading directly without any pre-treatment
(Huisman and Olsthoorn, 1983). Water from polluted
rivers or lakes, in particular those with industrial-waste
discharges, should go through pre-treatment processes
prior to recharge. In some situations infiltration basins
Potable Water
Potable water is a major source of recharge
water used in Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR)
schemes. High-quality treated water is injected through
wells, usually into confined aquifers to create a bubble
8
enjoying de facto rights of access only. In some

countries steps have been taken to codify customary
rights, though (more typically) the state is reluctant
to transfer access rights to local communities or
individuals.
v Public administration, increasingly in
collaboration with local communities. Moves towards
forming natural resource management partnerships
with communities or user groups for particular
resources are found in many countries. In India,
for example, this is now the preferred model for
watershed development - in which artificial recharge of
groundwater plays an important part.
of potable water in the aquifer. These bubbles can

be created in non-potable aquifers by displacing the
native water and have proved to be a cost-effective and
environmentally sustainable method for resolving a
wide variety of problems (Pyne, 1995 and 2005). The
schemes are usually constructed near treatment works,
the source of the recharge water, to save cost and to
utilise surplus treatment capacity.
In arid areas, such as the Gulf region of the
Middle East, were water demand exceeds the availability
of water from renewable resources, freshwater from
desalination plants is used to bridge this gap. To ensure
water availability during emergencies, for example,
when desalination plants are out of commission, large
freshwater storage capacities are required. Field trials have
been undertaken to evaluate the feasibility of introducing
desalinated water into aquifers to build up this freshwater
reservoir (Mukhopadhyay and Al-Sulaimi, 1998). Due
to the high quality of the desalinated water, no major
geochemical compatibility problems are expected as the
water can be treated to minimise any potential reactions
with the aquifer material; for example the pH can be
adjusted to be non-aggressive.
v Local government, operating independently

of government departments, but drawing on services
from them. In many African countries (e.g. Ghana;
Malawi; South Africa), local government is now taking
on responsibilities in water supply and sanitation
provision, not as a provider but as a facilitator in a
demand driven process. In India, where administrative
decentralisation is now a core feature of watershed
development (under the partnership model described
above), growing attention is focusing on the interface
with political decentralisation through the Panchayati
Raj local government reforms.
Why the emphasis on decentralisation? In many
countries, state led approaches to natural resource
management have been monolithically blamed for the
degradation of natural resources. As a consequence,
the state is advised to adopt a facilitative rather than
a leadership role. Decentralisation and participatory
management are clearly linked.
Participatory
management can be defined as a process whereby those
with legitimate interests in a project both influence
decisions which affect them, and receive a proportion
of any benefits which may accrue (ODA, 1995). It is
now generally accepted that to enhance and sustain the
productivity of natural resources, those engaged in and
affected by managing the resource must participate in
planning its rehabilitation and management.
Institutional Issues
In order for aquifer recharge schemes to be
successfully implemented and managed as a component
of wider watershed management strategies, the
institutional, regulatory, economic and livelihoods
structures need to be taken into account. A variety
of approaches has been employed for implementing
natural resource management activities such as artificial
recharge, with responsibilities resting (to varying degrees)
with the state, local government, development agencies,
NGOs and local people. A dominant institutional theme
emerging over the last two decades in natural resource
management has been decentralisation, in tandem with
efforts to promote a more bottom-up, participatory
planning process (Carney and Farrington, 1998). As the
poor are disproportionately dependent on common pool
resources, improvements in decentralised management
- whether in equity of rights and responsibilities, in
resource productivity, or in its sustainability can
contribute substantially to their livelihoods.
Summary and Conclusions

The benefits to society of using groundwater have
been clearly demonstrated, particularly in arid and semi
arid regions. Aquifers provide a store of groundwater,
which, if utilised and managed effectively, can play a
vital role in poverty reduction and livelihood stability.
Access to groundwater reduces vulnerability to drought,
increases agricultural yields and contributes to societal
Three distinct institutional approaches have

varying legitimacy and potential capacity to contribute
to such improvements (Farrington et al., 1999).
v Informal, often traditional user groups, generally
9
economic implications is important for sustainable

implementation and management of schemes.
equity where shallow groundwater levels mean access

for everyone. Maintaining water resources and shallow
groundwater levels through augmentation by Managed
Aquifer Recharge contributes to, and maintains the
above benefits when used as one mechanism in a broader
watershed management strategy.
Managed Aquifer Recharge is becoming a vital

component of watershed management strategies by
optimising the use of water resources (often available
only sporadically) through storage of water in depleted
aquifers for subsequent recovery and use. Managed
Aquifer Recharge often provides the cheapest form of
new safe water supply for towns and villages. Uptake
has been constrained by lack of understanding of
hydrogeology and/or knowledge of MAR but it has the
potential to be a major contributor to UN Millennium
Goals for Water Supply, especially for village supplies in
semi-arid and arid areas.
Where water table aquifers have been overexploited for irrigation and rural or urban use, decline in
water levels are eventually accompanied by a deterioration
of water quality. Managed Aquifer Recharge with surplus
runoff through surface infiltration structures will usually
provide high quality water that will not only replenish
resources but can also improve groundwater quality
through dilution. Where low-permeability layers are at
the surface water needs to recharged through wells or
boreholes. The beneficial effects of filtration through
soil are lost with these methods and additional pretreatment is required.
MAR is part of the groundwater managers

toolkit, which may be useful for replenishing depleted
aquifers, controlling saline intrusion or land subsidence
as well as improving water quality through filtration and
chemical and biological processes. On its own it is not a
cure for over-exploited aquifers, and can merely enhance
volumes of groundwater abstracted. However it may
play an important role as part of a package of measures
to control abstraction and restore the groundwater
balance.
Techniques for applying Managed Aquifer

Recharge range from simple field bunds, to capture
storm water, to deep injection of highly treated water
into confined brackish aquifers. Understanding the
hydrogeological, chemical and microbiological processes
that apply, combined with the institutional and socio-
10
References
American Society of Civil Engineers, 2001. Standard Guidelines for Artificial Recharge of Ground Water. EWRI/
ASCE 34-01, American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE, Reston, Virginia, USA.
Bouwer, H., 1996. Issues in artificial recharge. Water Science and Technology, 33(10-Nov): 381-390.
Bouwer, H., 2002. Artificial recharge of groundwater: hydrogeology and engineering. Hydrogeology Journal, 10:
121-142.
Carney, D. and Farrington, J., 1998. Natural Resource Management and Institutional Change. Routledge Research/
ODI Development Policy Studies.
Central Ground Water Board, 2000. Guide on artificial recharge to ground water, Central Ground Water Board ,
Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi.
CGWB/UNESCO, 2000. Rainwater harvesting and Artificial Recharge to groundwater - A guide to follow, Central
Ground Water Board, India. UNESCO, IHP Programme.
Chilton, P.J. et al., 1998. Groundwater recharge and pollutant transport beneath wastewater irrigation: the case
study of Leon, Mexico. In: N.S. Robins (Editor), Groundwater pollution, aquifer recharge and vulnerability.
Geological Society, London, pp. 153-168.
Farrington, J., Turton, C. and James, A.J., 1999. Participatory Watershed Development: Challenges for the TwentyFirst Century. OUP, New Delhi.
Gale et al., 2006. Managed Aquifer Recharge: an assessment of its role and effectiveness in watershed management.
British Geological Survey Commissioned Report CR/06/107N. Available at http://www.iah.org/recharge/
projects.html#AGRAR
Huisman, L. and Olsthoorn, T.N., 1983. Artificial Groundwater Recharge. Pitman, Boston.
Mukhopadhyay, A. and Al-Sulaimi, J., 1998. Creation of potable water reserve in Kuwait through artificial recharge. In:
Peters, J H et al. (Editor), Artificial Recharge of Ground Water. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, Amsterdam,
pp. 175-180.
Murray, E.C. and Tredoux, G., 1998. Artificial Recharge - A Technology for Sustainable Water ResourcesDevelopment.
842/1/98, Water Research Commission, Pretoria.
National Institute of Hydrology, 1998. Review of Artificial Recharge Practices. SR-5/97-98, National Institute of
Hydrology, Jal Vigyan Bhawan, Roorkee, India.
ODA, 1995. A Guide to Social Analysis for Projects in Developing Countries, Overseas Development Administration.
HMSO, London.
OHare, M.P., Fairchild, D.M., Hajali, P.A. and Canter, L.W., 1982. Artificial Recharge of Ground Water. Status and
Potential in theContiguous United States. Norman, Oklahoma.
Pacey, A. and Cullis, A., 1986. Rainwater Harvesting - The collection of rainfall and runoff in ruralareas. IT
Publications.
Pyne, R.D.G., 1995. Groundwater recharge and wells: a guide to aquifer storage recovery. Lewis Publishers.
Pyne, R.D.G., 2005. Aquifer Storage Recovery. A guide to groundwater recharge through wells. Second edition. ASR
Systems Press, Gainsville, Florida 32602 USA.
Todd, D.K., 1959. Annotated Bibliography on Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Through1954. 1477, U.S.
Geological Survey.
United Nations, 1975. Ground-Water Storage and Artificial Recharge. 2, United Nations, New York.
11
2
In situ Rainwater Harvesting
and related Soil & Water
Conservation Technologies at
the Farm Level
P.K. Mishra and S.L. Patil
make these areas marginal for intensive agriculture.

Land degradation in drylands due to water erosion,
loss of soil fertility, ground water depletion and loss of
vegetation, results in the decline of both economic and
environmental potential in these regions.
Introduction
Almost 6.1 billion ha (40%) of the earths
total land surface is dry. Out of this, nearly 5.2 billion
hectares are Arid, SemiArid and dry Subhumid
lands that are collectively referred to as drylands. It is
estimated that 70% of partially productive drylands are
threatened by various forms of degradation, impacting
the wellbeing and future of one-sixth of the world
population (Harahsheh, 2002). Lack of food security
poses a particular burden on people and nations in
the dryland regions of the world, particularly in tropical
areas of Africa and Asia that are experiencing rapid
population growth and/or high population density.
Global food demand is expected to be more than double
by 2050 because of population growth and increased
per capita consumption. While the challenge cannot
be met through increased agricultural production alone,
increased production is essential as part of the solution.
However, in many cases including India, production
capacities of dryland countries are deteriorating in the
face of rapid population growth, misdirected agricultural
practices, and widespread of land degradation (Rao,
et al., 2007). The environmental conditions of the
worlds/Indias drylands and unpredictability of rainfall
The demand for fresh water is increasing

globally at an accelerated rate especially for agriculture
and various other sectors including domestic, energy
and industrial uses. The accelerated demand for
rainwater can be met through the efficient rainwater
conservation. In the world about 73% of the cropland
is rainfed. In India, about 60% of the cultivated area
is rainfed and contributes nearly 40% of the total
production (mainly coarse cereals, oilseeds, pulses and
fruits etc.). In addition to major livestocks production
systems, about 93% of cultivated area under sorghum,
94% under pearlmillet, 79% under corn, 87% under
pulses, 76% under oilseeds, 64% under cotton and
59% under tobacco in India predominates drylands
(Singh et al., 2007). The rainfed/dryland eco-system
in India is characterized by erratic rainfall and frequent
droughts. In such situations, in situ rainwater
conservation plays a greater role for maintaining/
increasing crop productivity. In the rainfed areas,
12
demand-oriented or supply-oriented. Strategies such as

creation of storage, long distance transfer and control
of water loss through evaporation are the common loss
of water in its efficient use before it reaches the sea.
the rainwater harvesting and management assumes

greater priority. It is therefore essential to conserve the
rainwater in situ. Therefore the excess runoff is to
be stored in farm ponds/tanks/water storage structures
constructed along the water courses for reusing the
surface water or recharging the ground water depending
on the geological formations. The stored runoff is to
be recycled as a protective irrigation or continuous
irrigation to meet the optimum water requirements of
the crops. This results in increased crop productivity
in the region/State/Country and meets the demands
of the increasing human/bovine food requirements
(Mishra et al., 1994).
Water and soil conservation practices for

agricultural lands includes, in situ or interterrace
rainwater conservation practices, conservation of
rainwater at terrace level through bunds and guiding
the excess runoff for safe disposal through grassed
waterways to the farm ponds/tanks/dams for its
storage and recycling to the agricultural lands. These
are called hard ware measures, which are of permanent
type provided for improvement of relief, physiography
and drainage features. These are executed with major
Government support with the purpose to check soil
erosion, regulate overland flow and reduce peak flow.
The present approach to reduce runoff by adopting
suitable in situ management practices includes,
tillage practices comprising primary tillage operations
i.e. summer or deep ploughing either every year or
once in three years depending upon the soil type,
land smoothening to avoid local depressions, frequent
harrowing and secondary tillage practices with frequent
intercultivations. The other rainwater conservation
practices include, adoption of small section bunds or
vegetative barriers on contour, contour sowing, opening
ridges and furrows across the slope, tied ridging, zing
terracing, scooping, compartmental bunding, broad bed
and furrows, broad bed and ridge, vertical mulching and
dead furrow formation in every row or at 3 m interval
on contour depending upon the rainfall situations in
black and red soils. In addition, evaporation control/
in situ rainwater conservation measures using mulches
i.e. soil, sand and vegetative mulches have resulted in
greater benefits especially in winter (rabi) crops in deep
black soils. Apart from these management practices,
increasing the infiltration rate and moisture retention
capacity of soil by improving their physical conditions
with application of amendments and organic materials
is of greater importance in the integrated approach
for rainwater conservation in rainfed/dryland areas.
Adoption of these options depending upon the rainfall,
soil type, and land topography/slope would reduce
runoff and increase in situ rainwater conservation in
rainfed and dryland areas and reduce the ill effects of
occasional dry spells (Mishra et al, 1999). All these
measures are software measures which are mostly
responsible for initiation rainwater conservation and
management and are easily and voluntarily adopted by
In India, low yields and crop failures in these

drylands often lead to food and fodder scarcity resulting
in a nearfamine situation that further accelerate the
process of land degradation. Alfisols, Entisols, Vertisols
and associated soils dominate the SAT areas (Virmani,
et al., 1991). These soils are generally highly degraded
with low water retentive capacity, and have multiple
nutrient deficiencies. In the drylands of Indian human
population is likely to reach 600 millions by 2025
from the present 410 millions. Similarly, the livestock
population is likely to exceed 650 million by 2025 from
the present 509 million. On the other hand, the area
under dryland crop production may decrease to 85
million ha by 2025 from the present 97 million ha.
Thus, from such a significantly reduced cultivated area,
crop production must increase from the present 0.8
to 1.0 t ha1 to 2.0 t ha1 by 2025. Furthermore, the
quality of the produce must improve the meet the global
market standards. Also, the cost of production needs
to be reduced in order not only to improve the farmers
net income but also remain globally competitive. This
would help in maintaining the food security in the years
ahead.
Rapid increase in human and bovine population
in India has resulted in greater pressure on the natural
resources especially rainwater and top fertile soil. It
means that conservation of these resources, especially
water, is the top priority of the day. In other words,
the water resources of our country have to be put for
better beneficial use with available technologies at our
command. The excess surface water that flows to the
sea should be stored and used efficiently for drinking,
irrigation, industrial use, navigation etc. without
affecting the hydrological cycle. Water conservation
basically aims at matching demand and supply of water.
The strategies for water conservation may be either
13
the farmers as they can be made integral part of the

agronomic measures/package of practices. In situ
rainwater conservation is a vital component of dryland
crop management practices. Earlier efforts were mainly
concentrated on strengthing and formation of bunds
across the slope. This resulted in reducing soil erosion
rather than achieving uniform rainwater distribution in
the soil profile. Present emphasis is mainly concentrated
in increasing the opportunity time of water penetration
to soil through land configurations, and applications of
amendments and organic materials. With appropriate
demonstration and action learning exercise the in
situ rainwater conservation measures can be easily
popularized. Several indigenous technical knowledge
(ITKs) relating to in situ rainwater conservation measures
are in practice, befitting the agro-ecological settings.
These ITKs can be converted to medium technical
knowledge (MTK) by addressing the researchable and
extension issues.
The research efforts on rainwater management have

resulted in identification of several useful technologies
for in situ rainwater conservation. However, the
choice of the most appropriate practices is a function
of the soil type, rainfall characteristics, and topographic
features. Hence, in situ rainwater conservation plays
a greater role for stabilized/sustained crop yields in the
SemiArid Tropics of India. This can be achieved with
appropriate tillage and in situ rainwater conservation
practices at the individual farm level. In this paper the
in situ moisture conservation measures including ITKs
are discussed.
v Tillage Practices
v Vegetative Barriers
v Mulching
v Land Configuration
v Crop Residue Management
v Soil Amendments
The SemiArid tracts are mostly characterized

with red and black soils. The problems associated with
different soil types are different in physical, chemical and
hydrologic terms. The red soils have low water holding
capacity, higher infiltration and crusting tendency. In
black soils even though the water holding capacity is
high, low infiltration rate results in greater loss of soil
and rainwater. In medium to deep black soils the crack
formation results in wetting of subsoil with first showers.
In the years of low rainfall, the soil profile wetting is not
uniform and results in a dry layer in the profile. This
ultimately results in lower crop yields. Major part of
the countrys rainfed agriculture is fed by the Southwest
monsoon in addition to the Northeast monsoon
especially for the black soils region of Deccan pleatau of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Hence,
its onset, continuity, intensity, volume and withdrawal
patterns have a tremendous influence on the agricultural
production. High intensity rains produce volumes of
water beyond the intake capacity of the soil and may
leave the soil dry at lower depths. With intermittent
long dry spells this situation affects rainfed crops
adversely, even in areas with moderate to high rainfall.
Thus improving soil surface conditions to increase
infiltration and improving water-holding capacity are
two basic requirements in drylands. The inter-terrace
management practices for in situ conservation of
rainwater and ensuring its uniform distribution within
the field and throughout the crop growth period assume
paramount importance in dryland crop production.
Tillage Practices
Cultivation of soil helps to increase pore space
and also keeps the soil loose so as to maintain higher
level of infiltration. Musgarve and Free (1936) found
that cultivation of the surface greatly enhanced water
intake of soil particularly in the beginning of storms. In
the absence of cultivation, the highly crusting red soils
produce as much or even more runoff than the low
permeable Vertisols under similar rainfall situations.
Larson (1962) stated that pulling a tillage implement
through soil results in the total porosity and thickness
of the tilled area being greatly increased temporarily.
Surface roughness and micro depressions thus created
play greater role in higher retention of water (Unger
and Stewart, 1983). Different tillage operations are
carried out to incorporate crop residues, conserve
the rainwater in situ, recharge soil profile, prepare
smooth seed bed for greater seeds to germinate with
better root system, to reduce conserved soil water
loss (secondary tillage) and its efficient utilization and
control weeds/pest or diseases and increase the crop
yields (Patil, 1998, Thyagaraj, 1999 and Vittal et al.,
1983). Generally the primary tillage operations are
carried prior to sowing to prepare the smooth seedbed
and secondary tillage are carried out to control weeds,
reduce evaporation and support the plants through
earthening up.
In general tillage operations make the soil
receptive to rainfall through increased infiltration
14
normal tillage in the Alfisols at ICRISAT, Hyderabad,

India (Table 4). The positive effect of deep tillage on
rainwater conservation, better root development and
increased crop yields were observed for 2 to 5 years
after tillage depending upon the soil texture and rainfall.
The beneficial effects of off season tillage (Sanghi and
Korwar, 1987) are much pronounced (Table 5) during
the low rainfall/drought year (43% increase in yield) as
compared to mild drought year (31% increase in yield)
and near to the normal rainfall year (24% increase in
yield).
rate. Deep tillage with plough followed by chiselling

(Channappa, 1994) opens the hard layers and increase
the infiltration rate and water storage capacity and
finally results in better crop growth with higher yields
in the red soils at Bangalore, Karnataka, India (Tables 1
and 2). Similarly, in the red soils in the farmers fields at
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India, the deep ploughing with
chisel plough + disc plough + cultivator increased the
soil water in the profile at different stages of sorghum
growth as compared to soil cultivation with cultivator
once or twice i.e. reduced tillage operations (Manian et
al., 1999). Primary tillage carried out in the Alfisols
at Hyderabad, ICRISAT, India, (Pathak and Laryea,
1995) improved the soil physical properties with better
root development (Table 3). In the Alfisols in SAT of
India, the residue management represents only a minor
part of the cropping system; reduced/minimum tillage
concepts are at a disadvantage in dryland cropping. It
was also observed that deep tillage reduced the runoff,
soil loss and increased the soil water in the red soil
profile with increased sorghum yield by 26% over
Table 1:
Crust management in Alfisols

The crust formation in Alfisols is a major
constraint in seedling emergence/germination and
reduces the soil and rainwater conservation and results
in greater soil and water losses. The crust formation
can be managed through reduction in silt and clay
content in the top surface soil layer. This was attributed
to a positive relationship between the occurrence
and strength of the crust with silt and clay content in
Soil water storage in the profile as influenced by deep tillage in red soils
Depth (cm)
Soil water percentage (%) (after 81 mm rainfall)
0-15
15-30
30-60
60-90
Ploughed area
Unploughed area
10.74
13.22
12.27
13.33
3.59
7.13
8.59
Dry
Source: Channappa, 1994
Table 2: Effect of mould board ploughing on ragi yield, Bangalore, India

Grain yield (q ha1)
Treatments
Local practice of 2-3 wooden ploughing
One additional mould board ploughing in July
1981
1982
Mean
12.2
16.7
10.4
15.7
11.3
16.2
Source: Channappa, 1994
Table 3: Effect of subsoiling on root density (cm cm3) 89 days after emergence of maize (Deccan Hybrid
103) on an Alfisol, ICRISAT Centre, rainy season 1984
Root density (cm cm3)
Soil depth (cm)

00-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
Source: Pathak and Laryea, (1995)
15
Subsoiling
Normal tillage
S.E.+
0.55
0.29
0.20
0.15
0.12
0.14
0.42
0.21
0.09
0.10
0.06
0.05
0.072
0.022
0.034
0.028
0.016
0.039
Table 4: Effect of normal and deep primary tillage on sorghum yield, runoff and soil loss
on Alfisols at ICRISAT Centre (1983)
Tillage practices
Sorghum yield
(kg ha1)
Normal tillage (mould board plowing 12 cm deep)

Deep tillage (cross chiseling 25 cm deep )
2160
2720
LSD (P=0.05)
386
Runoff
(mm)
Soil loss
( t ha1)
285
195
3.27
2.86
44.0
0.702
Source: ICRISAT, (1983)
Table 5:
Effect of off-season tillage on yields of sorghum in red soils of Hyderabad

Grain yield (kg ha1)
Tillage practices
No off season tillage
Off season tillage
Percent increase due to off season tillage
Rainfall in growing season (mm)
1977
1978
1979
Mean
1950
2430
24
595
934
1336
43
391
1052
1965
31
508
1312
1910
46
Source: Sanghi and Korwar, (1987)
onset of the rainy season, which does not permit timely

sowing and management of crops. There is common
threat of flooding when intense rains are received, and
the possibility that rainy season cropping may reduce
soil moisture available in profile for growing postrainy
season crops are also some of the reasons for fallowing
Vertisol during the rainy season (Pathak, 2004).
the surface soil. This indicates that for Alfisols non

turning tillage system is better than tillage with turning
plows (inversion brings soil from argillic horizon which
contains much higher clay and silt).
In Alfisols crust formation is a major problem
from sowing up to the crop canopy formation. During
this period higher runoff was observed even when soils
were dry. The shallow tillage imposed as additional
intercultivations were effective in breaking the crust and
increasing infiltration rate in addition to the reduced
runoff and soil loss. The significant increase in crop
yields due to additional shallow intercultivations was
observed only in normal and low rainfall years (Pathak
and Laryea, 1995).
In the Vertisols the effect of tillage was more

pronounced in terms of rainwater conservation and
recharge of soil profile especially during drought years
as compared to normal and above normal rainfall
situations. In the deep black soils of Bijapur, Karnataka,
India, deep tillage conserved higher amount of soil
water in top 0.60 m soil depth as compared to medium
and shallow tillage from sowing up to harvest in winter
sorghum. Higher soil water with deep tillage was
attributed to increased infiltration rate and decreased
bulk density. This results in better development of root
and shoot in winter sorghum with deep tillage. Deep
tillage recorded higher sorghum yield over medium and
shallow tillage (Table 6). The increase in sorghum
yield with deep tillage was 27% over medium and 57%
over shallow tillage during drought year (199495)
as compared to increase in yield by 17 and 34% over
medium and shallow tillage during normal year (1995
96). These results clearly indicate that the effect of
deep tillage is more pronounced in conservation of
rainwater, better plant growth and increased yield
during drought year as compared to normal year (Patil
and Sheelavantar, 2006).
Tillage in Vertisols
The most important physical constraints
to rainfed crop production on Vertisols includes (i)
narrow range of soil water content for tillage, (ii) high
erodibility, (iii) tendency to become water-logged and
(iv) poor trafficability (Kampen and Burford, 1980).
Vertisols are hard when dry and have very plastic
consistency when wet. Tillage at an inappropriate soil
moisture content leads to compaction of the sub-soil.
Traditionally, rainy season fallowing is quite common
on these soils. Reasons for rainy season fallowing of
Vertisols are the difficulties that the farmers encounter
in preparing the hard dry soil prior to the onset of the
rainy season and/or the sticky nature of the wet soil after
16
soil erosion; reduce the overall cost of gully control, to

protect the banks against damage caused by waves and
animals. In combination with earthen bunds or loose
boulder structures, vegetative barriers are more effective
in conservation of natural resources and increasing the
crop productivity.
Even in the deep black soils of Bellary,

Karnataka, India, the conventional tillage conserved
greater rainwater and increased the soil water in the
profile and winter sorghum yields by 13 and 8% over
reduced and low tillage, respectively (Patil, 2007 and
Patil and Mishra, 2008). Similar results were also
observed in the Vertisols of Solapur with conventional
tillage recording higher yields of winter sorghum
over reduced and low tillage (AICRPDA, 2006). The
water use efficiency (WUE) of winter sorghum in the
conventional tillage increased from 8 to 10% over low
tillage. The sunflower yield increased by 21 and 33% in
conventional tillage over reduced and low tillage in the
deep black soils of Bellary during winter season of a dry
year (200708). Due to higher rainwater conservation,
conventional tillage resulted in increased WUE by 16%
over reduced tillage and 25% over low tillage (Patil and
Mishra, 2008).
Vegetative barriers include rows of perennial

grasses, hedges, wind brakes and shelterbelts etc. on
contours. Barriers across the gully in rows with different
species: consisting of close growing grasses, shrubs and
fast growing trees that may have some value as fuel,
fodder, etc. are preferred. Locally existing vegetative
species are more useful as their establishment is easy
and local people are well versed with their management.
It was observed that growing hedge rows (creating a
vegetative barrier) along the contour or on a grade,
reduced the runoff and soil loss; at the same time provided
additional fodder during off seasons. The effectiveness
Table 6: Effect of tillage practices on infiltration rate, bulk density, root growth
and grain yield of winter sorghum in the Vertisols of Bijapur, Karnataka, India.
Tillage practices
Infiltration rate
Bulk density
3
Root length
(mm h )
(Mg m )
(cm)
1994-95
Deep tillage
9.7+0.6
1.23+0.03
67.0
1919
1835
1877
Medium tillage
8.0+0.5
1.27+0.02
57.6
1509
1562
1635
Shallow tillage
6.1+0.7
1.31+0.05
41.7
1223
1368
1296
S.Em+
42
47
32
LSD (P=0.05)
164
186
103
1996-96 Pooled
Source: Patil and Sheelavantar, 2006
Vegetative Barriers
of vegetative barriers in conserving rainwater depends

upon rainfall, soil type and the growth of vegetative
barriers. In the shallow red soils of Anantapur (mean
annual rainfall 570 mm), Vetiver alone increased the
groundnut yield by 11% and with contour cultivation the
yield increased up to 39% with greater conservation of
rainwater. While at Bangalore, in deep red soils (mean
annual rainfall 890 mm), combination of graded bund
and Vetiver performed better and conserved soil and
water resource. In the shallow red soils of Hyderabad
(mean annual rainfall 750 mm), Cenchrus or Vetiver
barriers along with a small section bund recorded higher
yields over conventional mechanical measures.
Traditional mechanical bunds i.e. contour and

graded bunds are effective in reducing runoff and soil loss.
At some places due to poor maintenance these bunds
have flattened over the years and became ineffective in
conserving rainwater. Hence, research efforts have,
therefore, been directed to develop vegetative measures
to supplement mechanical measures.
Biological
measures of conservation have drawn greater attention
in recent years because of their long life, low cost and
low maintenance needs. Vegetation established on
contours obstructs the flow of surface water, as a result
soil particles settle on the upstream side and filtered
clear water oozes through the barrier more uniformly
at a reduced velocity. This results in higher infiltration
and more uniform distribution of water. Vegetative
barriers would act as a barrier and reduce velocity of
the water flow, filter and retain some silt, arrest the
In the black soils of Deccan Pleateau at Bellary,

the vegetative barrier proved effective in conserving soil
and rainwater and increasing the soil water availability
in the profile. The increased water availability (Average
of 3 land slopes) has resulted in the better plant growth
17
and potash from soil. More importantly, mulching

improves the burrowing activities of earthworms and
improves airmoisture balance in the soil. Besides
improving the physical properties of the soil, like better
drainage in clayey soil, mulch returns to the soil the
with increased grain yield of winter sorghum by 35%

over control (Table 7). The vegetative barrier reduced
the runoff by 36% and soil loss by 41% over control (Av.
of 8 years for 100 mm rainfall). The vegetative barrier
was more effective (Rama Mohan Rao et al., 1999
Table 7: Effect of vegetative barrier on resource conservation and sorghum grain yield in
black soils at Bellary, India (198889 to 199697, Av. of 8 years for 100 mm rainfall)
Treatments
Slope
Average
0.5%
1.0%
1.5%
Up and down cultivation (control)
49.65
54.81
59.14
55.53
Vegetative barrier
22.69
39.86
44.10
35.55 (36%)
Runoff (mm)
Soil loss (kg ha1)

Vegetative barrier
1053
2167
1712
1644
500
1372
1027
966 (41%)
911
685
475
690
1149
848
787
928 (35%)
1
Grain yield (kg ha )

Vegetative barrier
Source: Rama Mohan Rao et al. (1999 and 2000)
micro nutrients taken from it. Thick mulch spread

over the field conserves moisture in the soil, reduces
the evaporation loss and improves the water holding
capacity of the soil. As a result supplemental water
demand of the crops is reduced.
and 2000) at higher slope (1.5%) and increased winter

sorghum grain yield by 66% at 1.5% slope, 25% at 1.0%
slope and 26% at 0.5% slope (Table 7).
At Bellary with 500 mm mean annual rainfall
the exotic Vetiver was less effective than the native
grass (Cymbopogan martinii). The Vetiver requires
higher rainfall (>650 mm) and can perform better in
well drained red soils with neutral pH as compared to
low rainfall with higher pH (>8.5) at Bellary. The native
grass (C. martinii) is also not grazed by animals and
can be used for thatching, in addition to its medicinal
use.
Surface mulch (Organic and soil mulch)

in deep black soil
Deep black soils in the SemiArid Tropics in
India are kept fallow in kharif and hence they remain
bare by the time intense rains occur in September/
October. Beating action of the rain causes structural
deterioration which reduces the further intake rate.
Besides, the high evaporation losses in the absence
of crop canopy in the initial stages of crop growth, the
greater runoff and soil loss results in formation of cracks
in the soil by mid November to early December and this
further accelerates evaporation losses. If these are not
controlled, soil water stored in the profile gets lost early
and crops dry prematurely.
Mulching
Mulching is the covering of the cultivated field
with unused organic matter (grown in situ or Exsitu)
with a little additional investment. Mulches are the
important organic materials that not only dissipate the
kinetic energy of the rain drops and prevent soil erosion
(splash erosion) but also facilitate infiltration and reduce
runoff and evaporation losses. Besides, this has the
major advantages of (i) suppressing weed growth by
preventing penetration of sunlight to the ground and
(ii) conserving soil and rainwater in situ. By mulching
and residue incorporation the biomass is returned to
the soil to feed the microbes which help the plants to
draw nitrogen and carbon from air and phosphorous
Application of surface mulch at sowing (Rama

Mohan Rao et al., 1985) was found to have a profound
positive effect on grain and straw yields (Table 8). Crop
residues such as sorghum and maize stubbles, dry
grass, wheat straw and pigeonpea stalk, can be used
as surface mulch. These mulches prevent moisture
loss and prolong the moisture retention period. In
18
Table 8: Winter sorghum yields as influenced by moisture conservation practices

Treatment
Straw yield (kg ha1)
1052
1375
1719
2138
1400
1914
2405
2953
Control
Control + Surface mulch
Vertical mulch (4 M)
Vertical mulch (4 M) + Surface mulch
Source: Rama Mohan Rao et al., 1985
Table 9: Effect of surface mulch (5 t ha1) on yield sorghum (t ha1) at Solapur

197071
Treatment
Control
Sorghum stubbles
Redgram stalk
Wheat straw
Dry grass
197172
197273
Mean
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
0.27
0.56
0.80
0.65
0.73
2.05
2.89
3.86
4.05
3.28
0.69
0.63
0.89
0.73
0.76
2.86
2.08
4.98
3.09
5.48
1.22
1.88
1.95
1.70
2.16
5.40
8.44
7.72
8.89
8.49
0.72
1.02
1.21
1.04
1.22
3.43
4.49
5.52
5.34
5.75
Source: Patil et al. (1981)
with a bullock-drawn harrow (Table 10). Creating dust

mulch up to a depth of 10 cm resulted in 8% more
grain yield (1833 kg ha1) over organic mulch and 96%
increase in yield over control in winter sorghum (Table
Vertisols at Solapur, India, (Av. of 3 years) crop residue

incorporation increased sorghum yield by 50 to 70%
(Table 9).
Table 10: Influence of dust mulch on water use efficiency and grain yield of pearl millet at Bellary
Moisture used (cm) Water use efficiency (kg ha1 cm1) Grain yield (t ha1)
Treatment
Dust mulch through harrowing
No mulch
27.8
22.4
67.4
30.7
1.74
0.81
Source: Rama Mohan Rao et al. (1985)
Table 11: Winter sorghum yields as influenced by dust and surface mulches
Treatment
Straw yield (kg ha1)
934
1760
1243
1833
1510
2.43
2.95
2.95
2.95
2.78
Control
Organic mulch
Intercultivation up to 5 cm depth
Dust mulch
11). Mulches (organic and soil) increased the sorghum

grain and straw yields by 63 and 20% over control
and proving their applicability especially during below
normal/scarce rainfall situations in the black soil region
during post rainy season for the crops cultivated on
residual soil water (Rama Mohan Rao et al., 1985).
Due to the scarcity of organic materials, low cost

method of frequent intercultivation between crop rows
are adopted to create dust mulch or soil mulch through
tillage during crop growth. The dust mulch is a useful
operation that helps in breaking soil crust (especially
in red soils). It augments high infiltration and breaks
the capillary movement of water to the top layer and
minimizes evaporation losses from the soil surface.
Research studies at Bellary have indicated the possibility
of doubling the water use efficiency and crop yields
by providing dust mulch through repeated harrowing
Vertical mulch
Soil water is the main limiting factor for
successful crop production in the rainfed agriculture
with inadequate rainfall and/or poor distribution. The
problems become much more severe when soils are also
19
Table 12: Sorghum grain (kg ha1) and straw yields (t ha1) as affected by spacing of mulches
Treatments
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
Mean
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
Grain
Straw
2m
523
2.19
1641
3.03
1495
2.94
1027
3.68
1172(40)
2.96(37)
4m
412
2.02
1692
3.25
1775
3.02
1246
3.85
1381(53)
3.04(41)
8m
236
1.48
1614
2.86
1770
3.73
1122
3.64
1186(42)
2.93(36)
Cracks filled with straw
198
1.46
1310
2.70
1240
2.08
982
3.51
929(11)
2.44(13)
Control
017
0.95
1120
2.65
1123
1.89
1085
3.15
836(-)
2.16(-)
459
0.39
N.S.
0.99
N.S.
N.S.
LSD(P=0.05)
Rainfall situations
Drought year
Normal year
Moderate
drought year
Normal year
Mean over years
problematic. The crop productivity in Vertisols can be

increased with increased intake rates as nearly 25% of
rainfall during crop growth goes as runoff. Adoption
of vertical mulch in black soils conserved soil water
and increased the winter sorghum yields to the greater
extent in the dry/drought years as compared to wet/
normal or above normal rainfall years (Rama Mohan
Rao et al., 1978 and Ranga Rao et al., 1978).
Compared with low yields in control plots (grain: 20 kg
ha1 ; straw: 0.95 t ha1), mulches spaced at 2, 4 and
8 m produced 390 kg ha1 of grain and 1.90 t ha1 of
straw in the extremely dry conditions of 19721973
(Table 12). However, the increase in grain and straw
yields in wet conditions in 19731974 was 47 and
15%, respectively. Average over dry and wet years,
vertical mulch resulted in 45 and 38% higher grain and
straw yields. Higher sorghum yields were attributed
to higher soil water content near the mulch and the
favorable effects of mulch extended to 1.5 m on either
side of the mulch row.
Sand mulching
Sand mulching has been practiced by the
farmers in some pockets of Northern Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh. Experiments conducted at Dryland
Centre Bijapur and Main Research Station Dharwad
(Karnataka State) indicated distinct advantages with
sand mulching (Anon. 2000 and Sudha, 1999). The
benefits were directly proportional to the quantity of
sand applied or mulch thickness (Table 13). Benefits
of sand mulching were attributed to the reduction in
runoff and increased wetting front. Hagman (1984)
attributed improved crop yields in sand mulch compared
to non-mulched soil to the increased soil temperature,
conservation of rainwater in situ, reduced evaporation
and controlled wind and water erosion which in turn
increased water content at different stages of crop
growth. In the Koppal, Gadag and Bagalkot districts of
Karnataka State, sand mulching increased the cropping
intensity to 200% especially in the years of drought in
this low rainfall region (around 600 mm) with bi-modal
Table 13: Effect of sand mulch on soil water (cm) and pod yield of groundnut
Soil depth (cm)
30 DAS
90 DAS
Pod yield (kg ha1)
No mulch
0-15
16-30
31-60
3.56
3.60
7.56
4.99
5.14
11.29
960
Sand mulch (5.0 cm)
0-15
16-30
31-60
0-15
16-30
31-60
4.87
5.38
11.13
4.95
5.42
11.72
5.66
5.80
12.74
5.67
5.86
12.83
1376
0-15
16-30
31-60
0.87
1.48
2.75
0.29
0.62
NS
219
Sand mulch (7.5 cm)
CD 0.05
Source: Sudha, 1999; Note: DAS: Days after sowing
20
1276
The simple technology of contour cultivation

at Bellary, India was more beneficial (92% increase in
yield) over up and down cultivation (Farmers practice)
during drought year.
distribution. In this region in the medium to deep

black soils, farmers who practiced sand mulching could
cultivate a short duration greengram compared to non
mulched areas. In addition, winter sorghum yields in
the postrainy season increased by 60 to 70% with sand
mulching as compared to non-mulched areas. The
utility of sand mulch therefore needs intensive study.
Scooping
Scooping out soil to form small basins with basin
listers or with similar implements, helps in retaining water
on the surface that recharges the soil profile. At Hagari
in Bellary district, inter-cultivation by hoes (with ropes
tied around the prongs) was practiced successfully for
scooping purpose in a cost effective manner. Scooping
helped in reducing the runoff by 50% and soil loss by
65%. The winter sorghum grain yield increased by about
11 to 12% at Bijapur. This method has been found to
be effective with compartment formations in the fields.
A study conducted at ICRISAT (Pathak and Laryea,
1995) revealed that the scoops reduced seasonal runoff
by 69% and soil loss by 53% when compared to the flat
land surface. There was a significant increase in pearl
millet grain yield by scooping practice (2.42 t ha1) over
flat seed bed (1.79 t ha1).
Land Configuration
Soon after the execution of soil conservation
structures (terrace level) in the field, it is essential to
take up land smoothing in the inter bund area as inter
terrace land treatment. This facilitates filling up of
depressions and to remove the humps so as to enable
the rainwater to spread uniformly in the field. Land
configuration of the inter bund area can be modified for
temporary inter plot harvesting of water and facilitate
higher infiltration. These modified configurations could
be implemented prior to or after the onset of monsoon
and continued till sowing or even adopted after sowing
and maintained till harvest.
Contour Cultivation
Bedding System
Carrying out all the field operations and sowing

the crops across the slope following the contours
(contour cultivation) provide a series of miniature
barriers to water when it moves along the slope and
also reduces runoff and soil loss and increases soil
water and nutrient storage in the soil profile. The
simple contour cultivation in the farmers fields in red
soils of Kabbalanala watershed near Bangalore revealed
the increased soil water in the profile during cropping
season from 35th week up to 43rd week over farmers
practice of up and down cultivation (Fig 1). Contour
cultivation conserved the rainwater and reduced the
runoff and soil loss and increased the yields of sesamum,
fingermillet and groundnut in the red soils of Bangalore.
The moisture conservation effect of contour cultivation
was more felt when crops were supplemented with NPK
fertilizers (Krishnappa et al., 1994and 1999) (Table
14). The conservation of rainwater is more beneficial
during drought years especially at the reproductive
stages of the crop growth. The effectiveness of this
practice was compared with up and down cultivation in
the farmers fields over a period to 4 years (Table 15).
Contour cultivation resulted in 35 and 22% increase
in grain yields in sorghum and setaria, respectively in
black soils and 66% increase in sorghum grain yields in
red soils over up and down cultivation (Rama Mohan
Rao et al., 1985).
This is a system having furrow at every few rows

of crops across the slope on a grade of 0.2 to 0.4%.
The bed width could be 3 to 6 m depending on the
crops, soil type, and rainfall. This is suitable for narrow
spaced row crops. Even if a few rows are lost due to
the furrow, the yields are made up due to better in situ
rainwater conservation. There is no water stagnation
in the bedding system. Hence, this system acts both
as disposal system during high intensity rains and as a
conservation measure during low rainfall situations.
The bedding system of land management
(Channappa, 1994) with a furrow opened at the time
of sowing the crop at 1.5 to 3 m intervals was found
to increase/stabilize yield levels over years by 8 to 10%,
apart from better rainwater management at times of
low as well as high intensity rains. Modified technique
known as paired row pigeonpeafingermillet intercrop
with a furrow in between the pigeonpea rows and 8
to 10 rows of finger millet was found to be the best
intercrop as well as inter-terrace management practice
for the red soil regions of Karnataka State, India. The
relative performance of different bedding systems, i.e.
flat bed (FB), broad bed and furrows (BBF), narrow bed
and furrow (NBF) and raised-sunken bed (RSB), was
studied in black soils at Indore. The results indicated
21
Fig. 1. Soil water in profile as influenced by farmers practice and contour cultivation.
Table 14:
Influence of contour cultivation and fertilizer use on yields (t ha1) of crops
Crop/cultivation practice
No NPK
Recommended NPK
Cultivation along slope
0.22
0.33 (49)b
Contour cultivation
0.29
0.46 (61)b
(28)a
(38) a (107)c
0.55
0.79(44)b
Contour cultivation
0.69
1.24 (89)b
(25) a
(58) a (126)c
0.57
0.87(53)b
Contour cultivation
0.73
(55) a (137)c
(28)a
1.35(85)b
Sesame
Finger millet
Groudnut
Source: Krishnappa et al., (1994); Figures in parentheses denote: a = % change over cultivation along the slope: b = % change over
no NPK; and c = % change over cultivation along the slope and no NPK.
Table 15: Contour cultivation vs. up and down cultivation (1957-61)

Mean yield (kg ha1)
Contour
Up and down
cultivation
cultivation
Crops
% increase
Black soils
Rabi sorghum
Setaria (H-2)
Grain
285
211
+35
Straw
1607
1209
+33
Grain
195
159
+22
Straw
430
390
+10
Red soils
Kharif sorghum (K-340)
Grain
812
189
+66
Straw
6097
3824
+59
Source: Rama Mohan Rao et al., 1985
22
that the maximum maize yields (2.01 t ha1 and water

use efficiency of 8.81 kg ha1 mm1) were observed in
BBF system followed by RSB and FB systems. The
BBF can be more intensively adopted using tropicultor
developed at ICRISAT. This system of bedding is also
getting more adoption in the farmers fields in the
Indore region of Madhya Pradesh, India, for soybean
cultivation in the Vertisols as it is useful in draining excess
rainwater during high rainfall years and conserving and
mitigating drought during drought years. In the black
soils of Bellary also bedding system proved effective in
conserving the rainwater, increasing the soil water in
the profile and increased the winter sorghum grain yield
by 23.7% and safflower yield by 7.7 % as compared to
flat sowing (Average of 8 years).
greater during 19922000 (drought year) as compared

to normal year of 200001. The effect of border strip
was more pronounced during drought year in better
conservation of rainwater than normal year (Table 16).
When border strips were supplemented with terrace
level measures i.e. graded bunds, the yields of sunflower
and sorghum increased further up to 38 and 42%,
respectively. These results clearly indicate the benefit
of border strips in the Vertisols of Deccan Plateau in
South India (Patil et al., 2004).
Zingg Terracing
Zingg terracing is adopted in low to medium
rainfall areas in black soil with contour/graded bunds.
The lower one third portion of inter bunded area is
leveled to spread the runoff water in a large area.
Usually water intensive crops are cultivated in the leveled
portion (receiving area) while dry crops are cultivated
in the unleveled (donor) area. This practice is more
useful during drought years. In the leveled one third
portions, normal crop can be harvested even during
severe drought year and it is possible to cultivate two
crops during normal year. This will not only increase
the cropping intensity and also increase the crop yields
in the region. In the Vertisols of Bijapur, lay out of
field with Zingg terrace increased the winter sorghum
and safflower yields by 4 and 30%, respectively over
control (Anon., 1989 and 1990). The effect of Zingg
terrace was more felt in the leveled portion than the
unleveled portion. In the leveled portion the yields
of winter sorghum and safflower increased by 25 and
44%, respectively over control (Table 17) .
Contour/Graded Border Strips

Leveled strips (10 to 12 m wide) are formed
across the slope either on contour or on a grade
depending on the annual rainfall. The system is
efficient in ensuring uniform distribution of rainwater
on the surface and in the soil profile, and increases
the crop yields up to 20 to 30%. However, the lay out
of border strips needs technical expertise and higher
initial investment as the amount of earth work involved
is more. In addition, when the land slope is high and
the cutting depth increases more than 15 cm, it may
result in a drastic fall in productivity in the initial years.
These border strips are more suited on lands having <
2% slope.
In the black soils of P.C. Pyapili Watershed

(Anantapur district, Andhra Pradesh) lay out of farmers
Table 16: Impact of rainwater conservation practices on crop yields (kg ha1) in the watershed
Treatment
19992000
Sunflower
Control
20002001
Pooled
Sorghum
Sunflower
Sorghum
Sunflower
Sorghum
626
910
474
450
550
680
Graded bund alone
702
(12%)
1012
(11%)
529
(12%)
530
(18%)
616
(12%)
771
(13%)
Border strips + graded bund
888
(42%)
(26%)
1274
(40%)
(26%)
631
(33%)
(19%)
655
(45%)
(24%)
760
(38%)
(23%)
965
(42%)
(25%)
Source: Patil et al., 2004; Figures in the parenthesis indicate % increase over control.
Compartmental Bunding
fields with graded border strips conserved the rainwater,

recharged the soil profile and reduced the runoff and
soil loss and increased the yields of sunflower and
winter sorghum by 23 and 25% respectively (Mean of
2 years). The increase in yield with border strips was
Compartmental bunding is usually adopted in

deep black soil areas for in situ harvesting of rainwater.
The field is laid out into compartments of 6 m 6 m
to 10 m 10 m using bund former. The harvested
23
Table 17:
Effect of Zingg terrace on winter sorghum and safflower yields during winter season
Winter sorghum (kg ha1)
(198889)
% increase
Levelled portion
1190
25
720
44
Unlevelled portion
949
635
27
Entire plot
989
650
30
Contour bund (Check)
950
500
Treatments
Safflower (kg ha1)

(198990)
% increase
Zingg terrace
Source: Anon., 1989 and 1990
water in these compartments facilitates high infiltration

rate resulting in more soil water retention in the profile.
This system is adopted in deep black soils to harvest
rainwater received during the rainy season. It helps in
better crop production during the postrainy season.
during 200001 (moderate drought year) as compared

to 200102 (above normal rainfall year) and 200203
(severe drought year) indicating that every unit of water
was more efficiently utilized to produce grain yield
(Table 18). The results (Patil, 2003) of three years
mean indicated that the WUE increased by 13% (8.26
kg ha1 mm1) over flat bed (7.34 kg ha1 mm1). In the
Vertisols of Bijapur, lay out of field with compartmental
bunding conserved more rainwater and increased the
winter sorghum yield by 23% over flat sowing (Patil
and Sheelavantar, 2004). The water use efficiency
was greater by % with compartmental bunding over flat
sowing (Patil, 1998).
In a field study on Vertisols at Bellary from

2000 to 2003 indicated that the moisture conservation
through in situ moisture conservation practices i.e.
compartmental bunding and ridges and furrows
increased the soil water in the profile and grain and straw
yield of winter sorghum (Patil, 2005). The magnitude
of increase in grain yield was 28% in compartmental
bunding during 200001 was attributed to efficient
utilization of water, especially conserved water to
Ridges and furrows
produce grain yield even though it was moderate
Cultivation of crops under ridge and furrow
drought year. Water use efficiency (WUE) was higher
Table 18: Water use efficiency of sorghum as influenced by moisture conservation practices
Water use efficiency (kg ha1mm1)
Treatments
20002001
20012002
20022003
Pooled
8.57
7.24
6.20
7.34
Compartmental bunding
9.86
(15)
8.20
(13)
6.71
(8)
8.26
(13)
Ridges and furrows
10.77
(26)
7.86
(9)
6.82
(10)
8.48
(16)
S.Em.+
0.54
NS
In situ moisture conservation practices

Flat bed
0.14
0.53
0.20
NS
C.D. at 5%
Source: Patil (2003).
Table 19: Effect of ridging on cowpea and ragi yields

Grain yield (q ha1)
Treatment
Cowpea
Ragi
Flat on a grade sowing
7.76
34.84
Flat on a grade sowing but later ridging up
7.54
36.66
Sowing of beds (135 cm for cowpea and 150 cm for ragi)
6.73
32.83
Source: Channappa (1978) and Annual Report of AICRPDA, Bangalore Centre, 1978
24
is more advantageous (Table 19). Formation of ridges

and furrows in the Vertisols of Bijapur, India, conserved
more water and increased the grain yields of winter
sorghum by 26% and water use efficiency by 25% (Patil
and Sheelvantar, 2004).
system across the major land slope with a gradient of

0.2 to 0.4% in land having 1 to 3% slope will conserve
more rainwater in situ. This is suitable for widely
spaced crops with 60 cm or more row spacing. A field
length of 60 to 90 m is optimum for cultivation of crops
with ridges and furrows. In the Vertisols of Bellary,
ridges and furrows were more effective in conservation
of rainwater and increased more winter sorghum grain
yield during drought year (20002001) as compared
to normal years of 20012002 and 200203 (Table
17). The mean WUE increased by 16% (8.48 kg ha1
mm1) with ridges and furrows over flat sowing. Studies
conducted on moisture conservation for cowpearagi
double cropping system in the red soils at Bangalore
revealed that ridging up after flat on a grade sowing
Table 20:
An evaluation of furrows for managing soil and

water loss in an Alfisol under simulated rainfall (Mishra
et. al, 2008) shows that across slope treatments with
row spacing of 60 cm is as effective as 30 cm spacing
in containing runoff and soil loss. The interaction of
row spacing and rainfall intensity has no significant
effect on resource conservation. Opening of furrows
down the slope is an inefficient method for conserving
water and soil. Cultivators need to be educated to plow
and sow across slope following contours.
Runoff, soil loss and soil properties as influenced by crop residue incrporation
Treatments
Average of 4 years
MWD
(1998-99 to 2001-02) (Microns)
Runoff
(mm)
Soil loss
(kg ha1)
T-1-Sorghum without disturbance

(control)
142
4940
582
T-2-Sorghum + Dolichos (Dolichos

cultivated for grain and residue
incorporation at harvest)
127
3934
T-3-Sorghum + Dolichos
(Dolichos cultivation and residue
used as mulch at 45 DAS)
129
T-4- Sorghum + Dolichos

(Dolichos incorporated into the
soil at 45 DAS )
T-5-Sorghum with intercultivation
(Twice soil disturbance)
LSD (P=0.05)
Organic C
(g kg1)
Available nutrients
0-15 cm (kg ha1)
N
3.7
165
12
427
688
3.9
199
16
448
4339
685
3.8
198
15
442
122
3751
696
4.0
202
16
483
132
4491
589
3.6
183
13
499
35
0.03
26
NS
NS
Source: Nalatwadmath et al. (2006); DAS=Days after sowing.
Table 21: Grain yield and sorghum grain equivalent as influenced by residue management
(Mean of 4 years1998-99 to 2001-02)
Treatments
Grass yield
(kg ha1)
Straw yield
(t ha1)
Sorghum grain
equivalent
1469
2.64
1807
T-2-Sorghum + Dolichos (Dolichos cultivated for grain and residue

incorporation at harvest)
167+495
3.01
4248
T-3-Sorghum + Dolichos (Dolichos cultivation and residue used as

mulch at 45 DAS)
2121
3.27
2535
T-4-Sorghum + Dolichos (Dolichos incorporated into the soil at

45 DAS )
2301
3.61
2756
T-5Sorghum with intercultivation(Twice soil disturbance)
1916
3.05
2303
397
T-1-Sorghum without disturbance (control)
LSD (P=0.05)
Source: Nalatwadmath et al. (2006)
25
Crop Residue Management
along with Dolichos for grain purpose as compared

to the rest of the treatments. The results of 4 years
study indicated that it is better to cultivate Dolichos
along with sorghum for seed purpose and incorporate
the residues of Dolichos at harvest for better resource
conservation and greater returns (Nalatwadmath et al.,
2006).
Red sandy loam soils become hard on drying

and result in loss of rainwater and runoff and adversely
affect the crop yields in the rainfed area. Red soils
are usually poor in organic matter. Increasing organic
matter content helps in extra retention of rainwater and
in increasing crop yields. At Bangalore, incorporation
of maize residue at 4 t ha1 continuously for three years
had its good effect in 1980, a dry year. The moisture
content at sowing time in residue incorporated plots
was 11.2 and 14.0% in 015 and 1530 cm depths
compared to 8.9 and 13.4%, respectively in plots
without residue. The ragi yield from the plots with
residue was 3497 kg ha1 compared to 1982 kg ha1
from control plots. Incorporation of crop residues i.e.
paddy husk or powdered ground shells is recommended
to increase the infiltration rate and conserve rainwater
in the profile. Application of paddy husk at 5 t ha1
increased soil moisture by around 2% and improved
the soil properties. The final infiltration rate increased
from 8.2 to 11.0 cm h1. Application of paddy husk
increased the sorghum (1st year), castor (2nd year) and
sorghum (3rd year) grain yields by 33, 23 and 14%
respectively (Singa Rao, 2004).
Soil Amendments
A soil amendment is any material added to a
soil to improve its physical properties, such as water
retention, permeability, water infiltration, drainage,
aeration and structure. The goal is to provide a better
environment for roots.
Gypsum Application
Unless the infiltration rate is improved through
improvement of structure, moisture conservation
continues to be a problem in the deep black soils with
higher clay content (>50%) especially in the Bellary
soils of Deccan Plateau. Studies in this direction have
indicated a severe water intake problem in soil having
Exchangeable Sodium percentage greater than 7.0.
This problem could be overcome by reducing ESP to
less than 7 through gypsum application at Bellary,
India (Anon.,1981) (Table 22).
In the Vertisols of Bellary, runoff and soil loss

was reduced and soil water in profile increased with
Table 22: Effect of gypsum application on infiltration rate (mm h1)

Treatment
Crop season
1974
1975
1976
1978
1959
Gypsum
4.10
4.60
4.50
5.50
7.20
No gypsum
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.00
1.00
Source: Anon. (1981)
incorporation of Dolichos at 45 DAS in the Sorghum

+ Dolichos cultivated for grain purpose as compared
to Dolichos used as mulch or sorghum cultivated
without Dolichos. The soil physical properties i.e.
mean weight diameter and organic carbon and nutrient
availability (N, P and K) was higher in plots with
Dolichos incorporation or cultivated for grain or used
as mulch along with sorghum as compared to cultivation
of sorghum alone (Table 20). Even though sorghum
grain yield was higher with Dolichos incorporation at
45 DAS (T4) the treatment with Dolichos cultivated
for grain purpose recorded 495 kg ha1 additional
Dolichos grain yield in addition to 1674 kg ha1 of
grain sorghum (Table 21). Sorghum grain equivalent
was significantly higher (3248) in sorghum cultivated
Tank Silt Application

Desiltation of tank silt and its application to the
croplands improves the tank water holding capacity i.e.
recharges the groundwater, improves the water holding,
soil physical and chemical properties and crop yieldsthat is reuse and recycling of natural resources. Tanks
are eco-friendly and farmers-friendly and deposit of
gold mine in the form of tank silt. Recycling of tank
silt rejuvenate the tanks and meets the water (thirsty)
and nutrients (hungry) of the rainfed crops besides
improving the soil properties in a cost-effective manner
and in addition, recharges the groundwater. There is
also a possibility of substituting inorganic fertilizers with
26
rainfed cultivation; their low water storage capacity is

a major constraint in crop production. Application of
available tank silt or heavy textured soil in the top 50 cm
depth resulted in decrease bulk density and increased
soil water content by 6.5 to 23.5%. The improved
soil water and nutrient status with application of tank
silt/clay increased the tomato and ladys finger yields
by 10.8 and 10.5%, respectively in the Ranga Reddy
District of Andhra Pradesh (Singa Rao, 2004).
silt as an organic amendment for improving soil quality

and its resilience to moisture stress during dry spells in
rainfed areas. However, the quality of silt varies with
each tank, which is primarily, a function of soil type
and land use of the catchment. In general, tank silt
application supplies all the nutrients to the crops unlike
fertilizers that supply one, two or three at most. By the
application of tank silt it reduces the demand for the
straight fertilizers. Application of tank silt improves the
crop yields on sustainable basis and brings the dynamic
changes in the land use pattern in the region (CRIDA,
2006; Dhan, 2004 and Osman et al., 2001 and
2007).
Mishra, et al., (2001) studied the changes in

physical, chemical and hydraulic properties of bentonite
and soil (Alfisol) mixtures in different proportions and
reported interesting results which may be considered
while deciding the proportions of soil amendments.
Addition of bentonite to soil (i.e. 1:10 mixture and
higher by volume) would seal the entry of water through
the mixture, hence not suitable for crop growth. Bulk
density increases up to 1:5 (bentonite: soil) mixture and
decreases with decrease in bentonite preparation till
1:50 mixture. Dispersion ratio and surface cracking
increased with the addition of bentonite to the native
soil.
Application of tank silt to cotton increased

the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) from 1.43 to 1.86 and in
chillies with silt BCR was higher by 11% (2.54) over
control (2.28). In a study of ICRISAT, Padmaja et al.
(2003) have registered 1.17 as average benefit-cost ratio
(for removing tank sediment and estimating value of
sediment containing different nutrients) indicating that
desilting operations are not only economically viable
but also, have additional benefits like environmental
protection, increased soil microbial bio-diversity,
improved soil quality and increased water storage
leading to self-sustained land use planning.
Recommended Treatments for in situ

Moisture Conservation
The research results at both the research
Stations and in the farmers fields indicate that the in
situ rainwater conservation practices reduce the runoff,
soil and nutrient losses and recharge the profile both
during rainy and postrainy season and increase the
In Andhra Pradesh nearly 40% of the total

cultivated area is light textured red sandy loam to loamy
sand. Clay content is low (< 15%) with low water holding
capacity (5 to 10 cm m1 depth) and are susceptible
to leaching losses. Nearly 80% of the soils are under
Table 23: Data of the experiments/demonstrations in the farmers fields at different

Dryland Centres/locations on in situ moisture conservation practices
Location
Crop
Suitable inter-terrace land treatments
Bijapur
Safflower
Chickpea
Rabi Sorghum
Compartmental bunding, Ridges and furrows
Tied ridging
Akola
Pigeonpea
Opening furrow at 30 DAS after every two weeks
Bellary
Rabi Sorghum
Chickpea
Safflower
Compartmental bunding, Ridges and furrows

Bedding system
Kovilpatti
Rabi Sorghum
Sholapur
Chickpea
Bangalore
Pigeonpea
Ridges and furrows

Furrow at 3 m interval
Anantapur
Groundnut
Dead furrow at 3 m interval

Contour cultivation
27
yields of different crops especially during drought years.

The suitable in situ moisture conservation practices for
different crops at different dryland Centres of India are
mentioned in table 23.
Researchable Issues
The potential ITKs on in situ water conservation
reviewed by Mishra, et. al. (2002) are presented in
table 24. The specific researchable issues pertaining
to different ITKs adopted in different rainfed regions of
India are presented in table 25. A systematic scientific
study may change the Indigenous Technical Knowledge
to Modern Technical Knowledge (MTK). The research
results will benefit both farming community as well
as the extension agencies i.e. the Government or
non-Government organizations in up scaling the
technology.
ITKs on Soil Moisture Conservation

In the context of agriculture, indigenous technical
knowledge (ITK) is defined as the traditional knowledge
that farmers have gained through inheritance from
their ancestors. It is a farmers derived science and
represents their creativity, innovations and skills. This
knowledge pertains to various cultural norms, social
roles or geographical conditions. This knowledge and
farming practices have their own scientific importance
as they have stood the test of time and have proved to be
efficacious to the individual farmers. In India, since time
immemorial these indigenous techniques are in practice
for conserving natural resources (Agarwal and Narain,
1999) and maintaining soil productivity on sustainable
basis for greater crop yields. It is the time to indicate
that some of these ITKs need modifications in different
farming situations across the country. The present
farming situations warrants the consideration of the
ITKs in formulating projects with detail analysis of the
missing links in research. Rainwater conservation begins
from seedbed preparation. Although farmers practice
many indigenous technologies in soil and rainwater
conservation, the documentation and refinement of
these technologies are the major thrust areas in research
for greater crop productivity that ultimately improves
the economic conditions of the farming community.
Some of the simple ITKs documented on in situ soil
moisture conservation adopted in different parts of
India are presented in table 24.
Up-scaling of ITKs
Prevailing ITKs should invariably be given
priority. All the projects on resource conservation and
management should focus on the viable and appropriate
ITKs relating to soil and water conservation. Exposure
visit and farmer-to-farmer interaction results in
refinement and greater adoption of these technologies.
The stakeholders such as farmers, NGOs, extension
officials, scientists, administrators, policy makers and
peoples representatives may popularize the ITKs
through different programmes for improving soil
and crop productivity on sustainable basis. There is
also a need for scientist-farmer interaction for largescale adoption of the ITKs. The ITKs on in situ soil
and moisture conservation are not up scaled and are
attributed to the constraints in adoption and unawareness
of the effectiveness of such practices in different agroecological settings. The present documentation process
has definite bearing on the future course of action in
framing new projects.
Table 24: Some simple ITKs on in situ soil moisture conservation followed in India
Indigenous in situ soil moisture conservation measures
Regions of adoption/practice
Deep ploughing in summer for harvesting early shower in situ
Black soil region of Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu
Pre monsoon harrowing (blade harrow) for breaking soil surface

crust for capturing early showers
Red soil region of Andhra Pradesh
Short term fallowing during mid May and June to conserve early
rains
Red soils of Anantapur District in Andhra

Pradesh
Across slope furrowing as a part of seeding operation in sorghum

and castor crop rotation
Red soils in Ranga Reddy District of Andhra

Pradesh
Shallow interculture in rabi sorghum to minimize soil cracking
Deep black soil in Bellary, Karnataka
28
v The documentation exercise should be in-built in

extension and research especially in natural resource
management.
v The suitable ITKs may be adopted and validated
other Agro-ecological regions.
v The documented ITKs should be translated in all
regional languages and published for the benefit of
farming communities.
2.
Validation of appropriate indigenous technologies
across diverse agro-ecological settings to qualify as
modern technical knowledge through vigorous onfarm research/testing with farmers participation and
involving NGOs.
3.
Limited energy efficient farm mechanization for
timely operations of in situ conservation measures at
farm level.
4.
Water and nutrient balance studies to quantify
water use efficiency and validate hydrological and crop
models.
v Suitable modifications of the ITKs through onfarm research would help developing appropriate and
acceptable technologies for different Agro-ecological
environments.
5.
Role of in situ moisture conservation through
better understanding of Soil-Water-Nutrient-Plant
relationships for greater crop and water productivity.
6.
Creation of enabling environment through
appropriate Government policies and subsidies to
the farming communities adopting in situ rainwater
conservation and better crop residue management that
reduces land degradation and decreases the fertilizer
and energy requirements.
Conclusions
This is a brief review of different in situ
moisture conservation measures followed particularly
in Indian semi-arid regions predominated with red
and black soils. Many other location specific moisture
conservation measures are followed in other parts of
India and the world. However the principles of moisture
conservation remain the same. In the context of in situ
rainwater conservation and management the following
emerging issues need to be addressed for sustaining the
agricultural productive environment.
7.
Economics of different in situ conservation
measures for selecting eco-friendly, economical
advantageous and socially acceptable technologies.
1.
In situ rainwater management as influenced by
the temporal climate shift scenario and popularization
of weather advisories.
29
Table 25: Researchable issues in potential ITKs on in situ moisture conservation measures
Indigenous in situ water conservation measures
Researchable issues
Furrow opening in standing crops for rainwater

conservation
1. Modification of implement with different serrated blades and

introducing additional tines
2. Effectiveness in conserving soil moisture
Wider row spacing in pearl millet for rainwater

conservation and weed control
1. Plant geometry and population research in different rainfall

situations
Crop residue management for improving soil organic

matter and water holding capacity
1. Quantification soil and water conservation and yield

advantage
2. Better or improved implements for crop residue incorporation
3. Alternate ways of composting and application
Mulching in turmeric cultivation for rainwater

conservation
1. Quantification of soil loss, improvement of soil quality and

water availability
2. Use of alternative organic material to Sal leaves as mulch
Broad bed and furrow practice for rainwater

conservation and runoff disposal
1. Width of broad bed needs to be evaluated for different crops

and rainfall situations
2. Identification of suitable low cost tractor/bullock drawn
implement for layout of BBF
Set-row cultivation for soil and rainwater conservation

and improvement of soil properties
1. Quantification of rainwater conservation and water use

efficiency (WUE) of the crops
2. Improvement in soil health and crop yield over years
Summer/pre monsoon tillage for harvesting early

rainfall, weed control and initiate timely seeding
1. Identification of appropriate tillage implements for soil and

water conservation
2. Evaluation of root:shoot ratio and quantification of WUE of
crops
Formation of Gurr for rainwater and soil conservation
1. Effect of bullock and tractor drawn Gurr on runoff reduction,

soil water conservation and crop productivity
Green manuring practice for water conservation and
1. Growing of green manure crop and its management in soil

health improvement improving soil health and crop productivity
2. Economic evaluation of the system by addressing issues of
sustainability
Tank silt application to improve soil fertility and water

holding capacity
1. Method and quantity of tank silt application in different soils

2. Improvement in soil water and fertility with tank silt application
and its effect on crop productivity
3. Cost effect ivene ss of si lt applicat ion e special ly w it h
Governments programme of tank desiltation.
Source: Mishra, et. al. (2002)
30
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33
3
Low Cost On-Farm Indigenous
and Innovative Technologies
of Rainwater Harvesting
R.K. Singh
there are significant difference between farmers and

scientists perceptions regarding soil erosion control
(Chamber, 1991; Kerr and Sanghi, 1992). Many SWC
interventions are not successful because they are not
sufficiently rooted in the priorities and perceptions of
local farmers (Gupta, 1991; Reij, 1991 and Fujisaka,
1989).
Introduction
India has been one of the few countries of the
world which showed awareness of the need to conserve
and care for the watershed resources of land, water,
plants and animals in an integrated manner and the
government has invested heavily on soil and water
conservation (SWC) measures on watershed basis and
many big projects are currently in operation. The results
to date of government SWC programmes have been
disappointing (Vaidyanathan, 1991). SWC measures
installed under special programmes have rarely been
maintained; on the contrary, there are many instances
where farmers have destroyed these works soon after
the departure of the implementing agency. Recent
studies have shown, however that in many regions
farmers lack of interest in SWC programmes has not
been due to their lack of concern about erosion, but
because the design of recommended technologies has
not been suitable for their small farms (Kerr and Sanghi,
1992 and Reij, 1991). It is now becoming clear that
In this context, it is also not out of place to

mention that programme planners have time to time
introduced number of SWC measures/ rainwater
harvesting technologies which are not being tested in
the specific areas under particular soil, slope, rainfall,
socio-economic conditions and need of the people.
Similarly, some of the most adoptable and effective
technologies are not being given due importance and left
aside because they are slightly costlier, though for such
effective technologies farmers could easily be motivated
for their reasonable contribution. Studies have revealed
that over the generations, farmers themselves have
developed numerous indigenous SWC methods specific
34
to particular soil, slope, rainfall and socio-economic

conditions (Kerr, 1991). It has also been observed in
the area that farmers prefer to pay part of the cost
of these indigenous practices even in villages where
recommended SWC practices are offered with heavy
subsidies.
2. Stone Bunds
Stone bunds; are most commonly used indigenous
practice in highly sloping lands of limited depth of
soil for the purpose of increasing crop productivity in
rainfed areas. Simple stone bunds of varying sizes are
constructed across the slope.
Low cost indigenous technologies of rainwater

harvesting have potential to increase the productivity of
arable lands by enhancing crop yields and by reducing
the risk of crop failure in arid and semi arid regions,
where water shortage are common because of scanty
of rainfall and its uneven distribution. In arid and semi
arid regions, the occurrence and distribution of rainfall
are not only uneven but also erratic, marked by prolong
rainless days. The rainfall fails especially at the time
when it is required most for agriculture during the year.
Under these circumstances, the concept of low cost
community oriented indigenous rainwater harvesting
technologies both long term and short terms seem to
be the only alternative by which water scarcity problem
can be mitigated and agricultural production can be
increased substantially. The solution therefore, lies is
harvesting rainwater through capturing, storing and
recycling it and later using it during prolong perched
period.
In such type of terraces bunds are formed

gradually by allowing erosion on the upper parts
of sloping fields and arresting the soil by creating
vegetative/ stone barrier on field boundary. By adopting
this practice, land with limited depth of soil can safely
be put under cultivation without further degradation in
sloping areas. In this case the cost of construction is
reduced and the decrease in yield in the regular bench
terracing is minimized. Downward movement of soil is
induced by up and down slope cultivation during first
2-3 years. Presently, such terraces are known as Peurto
Rican Terraces.
3. Stone wall terraces (SWT)
In some of the highly sloping areas where soil
depth is a limiting factor and also in the cultivable Valleys;
stone wall terraces are very common particularly in those
areas where stones are readily available in the area. Like
stone bunds the stone wall barriers are also put across
the slope for developing terraces on down hill slopes
and particularly in valleys. Downward movement of
soil is induced in similar fashion as stated above. Cross
section of SWT is decided by the farmers taking into
account the slope of the land, rainfall etc. This practice
is also adopted in order to create additional cultivable
lands by cutting the hill slopes and to concentrate the
soil eroded from the adjoining lands at an appropriate
site.
INDIGENOUS TECHNOLOGIES OF
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
/ RAINWATER HARVESTING
1. Earthen field bunds
Very commonly found indigenous SWC technique
where the farmers construct field bunds almost uniformly
on field boundaries, which rarely correspond exactly
to contour for minimizing soil erosion; demarcating
field and ownership boundaries; producing fodder
for animals and other items of economic importance
(through suitable vegetative cover); protecting against
trespassers and stray animals (through a combination of
high bunds and thorny barriers); creating new fields or
micro-environments (to reduce risk in rainfed agriculture);
making field operations convenient, facilitating land
partitioning for inheritance, etc.
4. Rough Stone Slab Bunds

It is found to be very effective, adoptable and
low cost indigenous technology in moderately sloping
(0-5%) arable lands where the small stone slabs are
easily available at or near the site. In this system 30-45
cm high bunds of rough stone slabs (5-10 cm) thick and
45-60 cm long are put across the slope, uniformly all
along the field boundaries. Stone slabs are thoroughly
embedded in soil one after the other in dug out furrows
of 15-30 cm depth.
In order to make them more effective and in

achieving the desired benefits of SWC to the extent of
farmers expectations, these bunds may be constructed
by keeping the required top height same throughout the
bund with a provision of waste weir at suitable site.
5. Rough Stone Bunds

In the absence of the slabs simple stone pieces
35
of 10-20 cm thick, 45-60 cm long and of varying

widths are also used. In due course of time the small
gaps in between two slabs/ stones are being covered
by naturally occurring grasses; also acting as filter strip.
Some of the farmers prefer to have such bunds against
smaller cross sectional earthen bunds because in this
system only a narrow strip of land goes out of cultivation
and maintenance is almost nil.
more. Initially a low height broad based losse rock dam

is constructed. The base width is decided keeping in
view the rainfall pattern and expected runoff. Over the
years the height of these barriers is being increased and
new patch of cultivable land is crated within the gullies/
eroded valleys. The height of the dam is increased till
the nallah/ valley section reaches to the extent where
the gradient remains stable. In some of the areas such
bunds have 3-5m or more height. TSDD is also being
act as a temporary drop structure.
6. Vegetative Peripheral Bunds/ Barriers

Peripheral or boundary bunds/ barriers of
Agave sislana locally known as Ram bans/ Gul bans is
a commonly used indigenous SWC technology in arid
and semi-arid regions and the established bunds are
found to be very effective. Barriers of Agave are also
very commonly used technique in many of the areas to
stabilize the periphery of fields situated on the banks of
big nalla or rivers.
9. Diversion Ditches
Diersion ditches are small channels with bank
on the down slope side having desired grade towards an
outlet for safe disposal of runoff from upper reaches in
the natural nallah, to prevent runoff from entering lands
of lower reaches which are already protected by some
kind of soil conservation measures and to separate
arable lands from non-arable lands. It is also one of the
commonly used indigenous SWC technology, in hilly
terrain of southern and also in other parts of Rajasthan
state where a good amount of cultivated land exists
in the lower reaches. To protect these lands from the
damages caused by runoff water and channeling along
gradient towards nallah, such diversion drains are being
constructed. The cross-section and type of ditches are
mainly based on experiences. There are different types
of drains considering amount of runoff and other factors.
These are as follows:
7. Smaller Cross-Sectional Earthen Bunds

Covered with Flat Stones or Pieces of Stone
Slabs
In some of the hilly areas in moderately sloping
lands; smaller cross-section earthen bunds of about 3045 cm height are constructed across the slope almost on
contours for enhancing in-situ moisture conservation
and also for checking soil erosion from arable lands. The
top level is strictly maintained at uniform level throughout
the bund length and the top is covered with flat stones
or pieces of rough stone slabs to keep the bunds safe
from raindrop impact and also from occasional damages
caused by over topping. Sometimes all the three sides of
the bund are covered/ pitched with stones. As per the
requirements of the area, a provision for safe disposal of
excess runoff is also kept. The farmers used to maintain
these bunds very carefully. In some of the areas these
bunds are also established for controlling/ stabilizing
gullies.
v Excavated ditches with required gradient in the

base.
v Excavated ditches supported by a suitable sized
losses stone bund on down slope side. Required
gradient is provided in the excavated ditch.
v Only loose stone bunds are installed and desired
gradient is provided by scraping land after leaving 1530 cm berm in the base on upper side of slope.
10. Stone Wall for Nallah Bank Protection
8. Temporary Sediment Detention Dams

(TSDD)
This practice is adopted in those conditions

where bank erosion is a problem particularly in arable
lands. this technique is primarily used only in those
areas where stones are available at sites or very near
to sites . suitable cross sectional wall of loose stone is
constructed all along the bank or only at vulnerable
sites. Erection of such protection wall is done starting
from the bed of nallah keeping appropriate foundation
.Height of such walls depends on the depth of flow of
water in nallah. Some times these are also reinforsed
On of the ways adopted in hilly areas of southern

Rajasthan to concentrate eroded soil at appropriate
location is the construction of temporary sediment
detention dams. In such areas most of the badly eroded
lands are found in deep and narrow valleys, where due
to high concentration of runoff the rate of soil erosion
is very high. Under these situations construction of
TSDD is adopted by the farmers. Suitable locations are
those where the possibilities of sediment trapping is
36
by planting suitable vegetative material such as Agave,

Jatropha, Mahadi etc.
waters. Surface runoff is the major source of feeding

the ponds/ talabs. Villagers also adopt some design
criteria viz., determination of capacity, size and shape
of embankments, provision of emergency spillways and
provision for controlling seepage.
11. Dhora Pali

Field bunding is one of the common practices of
SWC locally known as Dhora pali bund of about 0.5
sq.m. or even of more crosss-section is constructed on
field boundaries in arid zone . Some times waste weirs
are also provided at suitable site. These areas are mainly
put under kharif crops. In due course of time these
bunds get stabilized by naturally occurring local grasses.
Some times seed of Dhaman grass are also sown during
rainy season for stabilization. Venkateswarlu (1991) also
reported that existing SWC practices in arid Rajasthan
include large peripheral bunds about 1 m height and 7075 cm wide at base .In some of the area these bunds are
strengthened with munj grass / agave.
14. Talai - A Small Water Harvesting

Structure
Talai is an indigenous water harvesting
technique in semi arid regions of India particularly for
creating water point for cattle. In this system an earthen
embankment of very low height may be of 1-2 m is made
at suitable location in a nallah/ natural drainage line,
where natural depression exists. The earth required in
making embankment is also taken out from the existing
depression for increasing storage capacity. Presently
this system is advocated and recommended in name of
SUNKEN PONDS particularly in NWDPRA projects.
12. Kana Bandi (Mulching)
15. Dry Stone Masonry Pond
In desert areas to keep the arable land productive,

efforts are being made to protect the area from wind
erosion. Kana bandi is done in the fields after kharif
crops are harvested particularly in those fields, which
are prone to erosion. The local material like sania,
khinp, prunnings of ker, ber, khejri and phog and also
local grasses such as sewan/munj are embedded in soil
leaving about 30-40 cm length of the material vertically
on the ground in line 2-5 m apart. This practice checks
the soil erosion to a great extent. Some times kana
bandi is done in square or rectangular manner (checker
board fashion, 2 to 3 m2) particularly for stabilization
of sand dunes after rainy season, the grass seeds are
sown on the leeward side of the mulch. The grass
grows and gradually replaces the mulch and control the
movement of sand. During kharif this organic material is
incorporated in the soil, thereby also in help increasing
organic matter content.
Dry stone masonry pond, between 1.5 and 2.5

m high, are constructed to collect and store water. In
this type of structure the upstream and downstream
walls are constructed 3-4 m apart by dry stone masonry
after excavating a foundation of appropriate depth. The
space in between these two walls is filled with locally
available murrum or soil with proper compaction. The
filling is done in layers of 20-30 cm. height along with
wetting and compaction. The earth fill is kept 10-20 cm
above the top of the wall to provide an extra provision
for natural settling over a period of time. Proper
compaction is one of the important considerations to
check seepage through the embankment and to ensure
the stability of the structure. The length of the head wall
extension depends on the specific site conditions. The
height of such structures is restricted up to 2.5 m to
avoid overturning due to water pressure. The width of
the wall at the bottom is kept 1.5 m and at the top it is
only 0.5 - 0.6 m. The reduction in width is maintained
uniformly from bottom to top in the inner edge of the
wall. The upper portion of the wall (0.30 - 0.5 m high)
is constructed with cement mortar to avoid damage to
the walls by stray cattle or human activities.
13. Village Pond/ Talab

A common rural rainwater harvesting
technology through the semi-arid region of Rajasthan
is the construction of pond/ nadis/ tank etc. Pond is
constructed at suitable sites mainly for domestic use and
also for recharge of groundwater. Suitable site for an
economic viewpoint is selected by the villagers where the
largest storage volume is obtained with the least amount
of earth fill. Such conditions are generally found where
the valley is narrow, side slopes are relatively steep and
the slope of the valley floor will permit a large deep
basin. Such sites tend to minimize the area of shallow
16. Ponds (Nada)

These large ponds are of two categories denoting
both ownership and use. The nadas belonging to the
Panchayat is for the specific purpose of proving drinking
water for animals while the private ones which have been
constructed on kabile kasth lands are used for irrigation.
37
These farm ponds are generally constructed by a group

of farmers, whose land remain temporarily submerged
and after monsoon, i.e. in rabi season crops are sown as
tank bed cultivation, when the water has evaporated or
percolated. Stored water is some times drained through
some indigenously developed surplussing arrangements
for sowing of rabi crops.
by digging a hole of 3.0 to 4.25 m diameter in the

ground and plastering it with lime mortar to a thickness
of about 6 mm followed by a cement plaster of 3 mm
thick. The top is covered with ber thoms. The useful life
of such structure is about 3 years. The catchments are
made in variety of ways using locally available sealing
materials like pond silt, murrum, coal ash, gravel, etc.
Traditional tankas are temporary and are subjected
to leakage. Moreover the catchment areas are not in
accordance with the amount of rainfall received and
runoff generated. The thorn cover does not prevent
the water pollution and evaporation losses, capacity of
such tankas are also not sufficient to fulfill the demands
of a family for water throughout the year.
17. Nadi (Semi-arid/ Aravali Region)

Nadi is a small traditional water harvesting
structure constructed at appropriate site to harvest the
runoff water of relatively impervious non arable uplands
for the purpose of drinking water for animals and ground
water recharge of open dug wells situated in the lower
reaches. These are also constructed to store water in
the monsoonal nallahs in the upper reaches for various
purposes and primarily for recharge of groundwater. The
depth of such nadis generally do not exceed 3 meters.
These structure are constructed in two ways depending
upon the available funds. In the first system both side of
earthen embankment of appropriate width is supported
by dry stone masonry walls. In the second system the
upside wall is pakka or masonry using lime or cement
mortar. Masonry wall and earth fill is done in arc shape
having curvature in the raised by the locally available
soil/ murmur. Layer wise wetting and compaction of
soil is practiced. The width of earthen embankment and
stone walls are decided by the villagers considering the
size, topography and other conditions of the catchment
areas. A properly designed waste weir of surplussing
arrangement is also provided at suitable site.
The CAZRI has designed an improved tanka, of

21000 liters capacity, which gets filled up with annual
rainfall of 125 mm. The water is sufficient for a family
of 6 persons throughout the year for drinking. It has an
useful life of 25 years as it is constructed using cement
masonry. The catchment area needed for this capacity
is 778 m2.
20. Khadin
From a study of farmers water conservation
practices it is evident that they are acutely conscious of
the value of rainwater and try to use it to grow at least one
good crop during the year. Khadin is one such system,
which is extensively used in arid and semi-arid regions
of Rajasthan. It is an indigenous water harvesting cum
run off farming structure. Khadin system is site specific
needing a large natural, high runoff potential catchment
in proximity of plain valley land with deep soils. The
ratio of khadin catchment area, depending on type of
catchment is 1:12 to 1:15. These are constructed on
low lying lands where crops are raised by conserving
rainwater from the rocky catchments. Cultivation in
khadin is done by rationing runoff water over low lying
areas through construction of bund across the slope on
the lower boundary line of khadin land. Cross-section of
the bund depends upon the soil type, area of khadins and
discharge form catchments. The water thus collected is
allowed to percolate after which an assured post rainy
season crop is grown. Sometimes crops are grown in
kharif or rabi depending upon the rainfall and runoff
received in the khadins. For areas that will always be
dependent on rainwater, this water harvesting practice
has great relevance. Now the SWC scientists/ engineers
have also considered this indigenous techniques as an
important and usefull water harvesting practice and
18. Nadi (Arid Regions)

In arid zone construction of Nadi is an age-old
practice of water harvesting. These are small excavated
or embankment village ponds, harvesting the meager
precipitations to mitigate the scarcity of drinking water.
These nadis hold water from two months to a full year after
rains depending on the catchment characteristics, the
amount of rainfall received, its intensity and distribution.
Each village has one or more of such structures,
depending on the demand of water and availability of
suitable sites. Capacity of such nadis are reduced in due
course of time due to sediment deposition.
19. Tanka
Tanka, the most prevailing rainwater harvesting
structure in the Indian desert, is a local term for the
underground system. The traditional tanks are made
38
been actively involved in developing village gauchar

(common pasture lands), using ideas technical and
socially oriented generated by the local people
themselves. Importantly, this NGO has developed an
innovative concept the Chauka system for reducing
runoff and preventing soil erosion to augment in-situ
moisture conservation, with gratifying success.
developed design criteria. Kolarkar et al. (1983) also

reported that khadins or submergence tanks are the
indigenous form of inundation farming in arid regions.
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES OF
RAINWATER HARVESTING
1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
4. Double Wall Cement Masonry Structure
Rooftop rainwater harvesting technique is

applied mainly for the domestic purposes or groundwater
recharging in the rural and urban areas. In this technique
the rainwater of the roof is either collected in the
underground tanks or diverted to the wells/ tube wells
for groundwater recharging. Since the collected water
is generally free from soil pollution, it can be used for
drinking as well as domestic purposes. This technique
is highly suitable for the low rainfall areas where number
of runoff producing rainfall storms is limited and there is
scarcity of drinking water.
This type of structure looks like an anicut. Both

the upstream and downstream walls of the structure
are constructed with cement masonry. The height of
the structure and catchment area is usually restricted
upto 2.5 - 3.0 m and 100-150 hectares, respectively.
The base width of upstream and downstream walls
is generally taken as 1.0 m and 0.8 m, respectively,
whereas the top width of upstream and downstream
walls is restricted to 0.60 m and 0.45 m, respectively.
The width of walls may be increased depending on the
site conditions and volume of water to be stored. For
low-height structures (1.0 to 1.5 m) the base width of
both the walls may be reduced by 20 cm. The width of
the concrete bed is generally taken as 20 cm more than
the base width of the masonry walls. The downstream
wall or the falling side is tapered. The space in between
these two walls is filled with locally available murrum or
soil with proper compaction. The filling is done in layers
of 20-30 cm height alongwith wetting and compaction.
Proper compaction is an important consideration to
ensure the stability of the structure.
2. Sub-soiling
Subsoiling is a system of deep tillage by which
the subsoil is loosened and disturbed but is not inverted
or brought to the surface. The term sub-soiling has
also been applied by some workers to any cultivation
carried out in the soil below normal ploughing depth.
Subsoiling is possible with the help of deep soil loosening
equipment, viz., chisel plough and subsoiler. Subsoiling
is a totally mechanized operation. At present, subsoilers
available in the market can be operated with any tractor
equipped with a hydraulic lift. On suitable soils, chiseling
is applicable if restrictive soil layers are less than 45 cm
deep, whereas subsoiling is applicable if restrictive soil
layers are more than 45 cm deep (Fig. 6.6). Contour
subsoiling is possible on upto 30% slope but is most
satisfactory on slopes below 22-25% (Nag, et. al., 1989,
Singh and Mahnot, 1995, Singh and Mahnot, 2004).
5. Plastic Lined Farm Pond

Plastic lined farm ponds are particularly suitable
for those areas where large quantity of water is lost
through seepage, especially where the soil is gravelly
and porous. In earthen dams there is also a common
problem of seepage through the embankment. Under
such circumstances, to check the seepage from all such
types of farm ponds/ earthen dams, plastic lining is
a feasible solution. Polythene sheets of 200 micron
may be used as lining material for seepage control in
the ponds. The sheets are spread at the bottom and
on the upstream side, upto the top width of the pond.
An average 10 cm thick soil layer is also kept above
the sheet to keep the sheet in proper place, to check
external damage and to protect it from exposure to the
sun. A permanent and most effective lining material is
brick and cement masonry, but it is costlier than other
lining materials.
3. Chauka System
In Rajasthan, Gram Vikas Navyuvak Mandal,
Laporia (GVNML) has been very active in undertaking
measures for improving the productivity of pasture and
grazing lands significantly in their project area. All this is
in keeping with the goal of GVNML, which is to support
integrated rural development on a sustainable basis.
Since its inception, GVNML has been active in organizing
and mobilizing rural communities to carry out activities
such as repair of tanks, plantation programmes, health,
education, and pastureland development, and soil and
water conservation. Among others, GVNML has now
39
involved may be carried out by manual labour since

the excavation depths are generally not more than 3-6
m. Subsurface dams are generally constructed at the
end of the dry season, when there is little water in the
aquifer. There is usually some flow, however, and this
must be pumped out during the construction work.
After the construction of dam, the trench is refilled
with the excavated material. It is important that the
refill is properly compacted by mechanical means and
watering.
6. Subsurface barriers
Subsurface barriers are used to retain or arrest the
seasonal subsurface flows and facilitate the abstraction
of water through lined shallow wells, especially during
periods of water scarcity. The objective is to place an
impermeable barrier - either of clay or masonry across
the river-bed, from the surface down to the bedrock or
other solid impervious layer.
A trench of the required width is dug across
the flow direction of the ground water. The earthwork
40
References
Chambers, R. (1991). Farmers Practices, Professionals, and Participation. In Kerr, J.M. (ed.) Farmers practices
and soil water conservation programmes. Summary proceedings of a workshop. 19-21 June. ICRISAT,
Patancheru, India.
Fujisaka, S. (1989). A method for Farmer-Participatory Research and Technology Transfer, Upland Soil Conservation
in Philippines. Experimental Agriculture 25 : 423-433.
Gupta, A. (1991). Reconceptualising development and diffusion of technologies for dry regions. In Prasad C. and P.
Das (ed.) Extension strategies for rainfed agriculture. Indian Society of Extension Education, New Delhi.
Kerr, J.M. (1991) Farmers Practices and Soil and Water Conservation Programmes : Summary proceedings of
workshop. 19-21 June, 1991. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.
Kerr, John and Sanghi, N.K., (1992) Indigenous soil and water conservation in Indias semi-arid tropics. Gatekeepr
Series 34, IIED, London, U.K.
Kolarkar, A.S., Murthy, K.N.K. and Singh, N., (1983) Khadin A method for harvesting water. Journal of Arid
Environment, 6:5966.
Nag, K.N., Chandra, A., Mahnot, S.C., (1989) Mechanization Techniques for accelerating afforestation programme
on denuded hillocks. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America 20(3) : 78-80.
Reij, C. (1991) Indigenous soil and water conservation in Africa. Gatekeeper Series No. 27, IIED, London, U.K.
Singh and Mahnot, (2004) Mechanical Soil Working Techniques for Soil and Water Conservation on Moderately
Sloping Wasteland, Small Farm Mechanization published by ISAE, Rajasthan, pp 98-101.
Singh, P.K. and Mahnot, S.C. (1995) Feasibility and cost effectiveness of mechanical soil working techniques for
soil and water conservation measures on moderately sloping wastelands. Ind. J. of Power and River Valley
Development July-August : 106-109.
Vaidyanathan, A. (1991) Integrated Watershed Development : Some major issues. Founders Day Lecture. Society
for Promotion of Wasteland Development, New Delhi.
41
4
Integrating in-situ soil moisture
conservation techniques and
supplementary irrigation for the
dry land farming-a modeling study
from Tamil Nadu
K. Ramaswamy
adopted. If, an effective water harvesting measure with

suitable intercrop of medicinal plants or any other competitive crops is arrived at, the technology could be adopted by the farmers for obtaining additional remuneration.
Introduction
Drylands in India constitute 68.4 per cent of the
cropped area out of the total cultivated extent of 162.03
million hectares. In Tamil Nadu, 55.0 per cent of the
cropped area is left under drylands which accounts for
3.1 million hectares. Due to the higher attention given to
irrigated agriculture during green revolution, the care for
rainfed agriculture has been considered to be minimum.
To meet the growing demands for food, the scope for
further addition to area under agriculture is possible only
through the exploitation of drylands. Bringing the vast
stretch of drylands under green cover particularly with
hardy tree crops is the immediate need for the ecological
restoration.
By taking considering of the above points in

mind, a study has been undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of various in-situ micro water conservation
techniques for various dryland fruit trees by developing
and testing a suitable root zone water balance model for
dryland crops.
Materials & Methods

Field trials were conducted with five fruit trees in
different villages of Coimbatore district: Mango (Thondamuthur), Tamarind (Ajjanur), Sapota (Chettipalayam),
Guava (Chettipalayam) and Amla ( Kethanur). Insitu soil
moisture conservation treatments (micro catchments
for trees) were imposed with randomized block design
(RBD) which mainly consists of various types of microcatchments for trees viz, V- catchments, Semicircular
bund compartmental bund, and a control plot without
any treatment. Design sizes of microcatchments were
Drought hardy crops especially perennial fruits

with deep root systems are capable of surviving extreme
radiation and temperatures and provides income security, nutritional and food security. Amla, Jamun, Ber,
Karonda, Wood apple, etc., are the fruit crops suitable
for drylands. At present, under dry land conditions, fruit
orchards have been developed with crops that stand
water stress. However, effective micro water harvesting
practices and utilization of interspaces have not been
42
AET = D.PET/(1-p) ASW.D, D < ( 1 - p )

ASW.D
where,
D = depth of root zone (cm) based on the crop,
= Average moisture content per unit depth (mm/cm),
calculated based on FAO guidelines of water harvesting

as given in the following equation (2.0).
Micro-Catchment size
Based upon the design procedure of FAO guidelines on water harvesting (Critchley and Siegert, 1991),
the ratio of the microcatchment area to cultivated area is
given by the following relationship.
AET = Actual evapotransporation,

PET = Potential evapotransporation
p = Soil moisture depletion factor,
ASW = Maximum available soil water per unit
(2.0)
depth
Where,
Based on the assumptions listed above, the water balance in the effective root zone on the ith day of any
month is given by:
C=
Total size of microcatchment (m2)
CA = Area exploited by the root system (m2)
CWR = Annual water requirement (mm)
DR = Design rainfall (cm)
RO = Runoff Co-efficient
EF = Efficiency factor
iD = i-1D AETi, i = 2, 3, .
(2.2)
where, i-1D is the soil moisture depth of i-1th day, and
AETi is the actual evapotranspiration of ith day.
For continuous days,
i+1D = iD + Ri+1 + Ii+1 Pi+1 AETi+1 (2.3)
The values of each parameter in the above equation for all the fields were calculated. For Thondamuthur
(Mango) field, the area exploited by the root system , CA
was taken as 12.57 m2 , considering a radius of 2m. The
annual crop water requirement was calculated based on
the ET of the crop.
Ri+1 represents the infiltrated volume of rain water on i+1th day, Ii+1 represents the supplemental irrigation applications on i+1th day, and Pi+1 is the excess
water percolated out of the root zone on i+1th day.
where, Pi = Ri + Ii (FC i-1D), if Ri + Ii (FC i-1D)
P = 0, otherwise.
(2.4)
ET crop (Mango) = ETo (Reference ET) Kc

where Kc- Crop coefficient = 4.24 mm/day
Here the rainfall was assumed to have the values

of infiltrated volume found out from the infiltration rates
for the given rainfall time. As the present model was to
compute the root zone water balance in bunded field
plots under dryland conditions, the infiltrated volume of
rain Ri in the equation (2.4) adopted under the following conditions is as follows:
Based upon the design rainfall at 50% probability as 615 mm with ET crop as 4.24 mm/day RO = 0.8,
EF = 0.65, the microcatchment size was arrived as 36m2
including the planted area. The bunding was done in
the staggered arrangement. Similarly, all other selected
crops, the design sizes of catchments were arrived.
Soil moisture content was periodically monitored
month-wise at 15 and 45 cm depth and statistically analyzed to understand effectiveness of various conservation
treatments. Yield data was monitored after one year of
imposing treatments.
Condition I: Intensity < Average infiltration rate of

soil
Development of a root zone water

balance model
where, SMC = Soil Moisture Content,

FC = Field Capacity, and
PWP = Permanent Wilting Point of the soil.
Ri = R1 = Basic infiltration rate of soil if SMC > FC

(i)
(ii)
Ri = R2 = Average infiltration rate of soil if FC =SMC= PWP
and Ri = R3 = Maximum infiltration rate of soil if SMC < PWP (iii)
(2.5)
Based upon the results of experiments conducted world wide, the model proposed by the Doorenbos
& Kassam (1979) was adopted for finding the root zone
water balance on daily basis by taking into account of
actual Evapotranspiration of the crop. Scarcity moisture
days were worked out below 45cm root zone depth.
AET = PET, D (1-p) ASW.D
The infiltration time was taken as the duration

of the storm and the infiltrated volume of rain water
R was calculated as the product of the duration of the
storm and the basic, average or maximum infiltration
rate based on the existing soil moisture conditions (i), (ii)
or (iii) of equation (2.5).
(2.1)
43
Condition II: Intensity > Average infiltration rate of

soil
The water balance in this situation was given
by:
iD = CIi-1 - AETi, i = 2,3,.
Model predicted Vs field observed soil

moisture data in different treatments
(2.6)
where, CIi-1 = cumulative infiltration on the i-1th day,

given by modified Kostiakovs
(Kostiakov-Lewis type) equation: CI = Btep + q (2.7)
where, te = sum of duration of rainfall and average time
of infiltration of ponding water after rainfall ceases,
B, p and q are constants.
In the above equation 2.7, the time te is considered as follows:
Fig. 1. Soil Moisture in Control
te = Duration of rainfall + average time of infiltration of ponding water after rainfall ceases
The average time of infiltration of ponding water
after rainfall ceases in the above equation was calculated by quantifying the volume of water ponded to the
height of the bunds provided for the field plot or the micro catchment of the treated plot divided by the average
infiltration rate.
Results & Discussion
Fig.2. Soil Moisture in V-Catchment
The prediction behaviour of the model output

and field observations in respect of soil moisture was
depicted in the figures 1 to 4 for the selected mango field
under study. From these figures, the following inferences
could be drawn:
v During the study period, the trend of the soil
moisture content predicted from the model for different
months was similar as that of the observed values both
under control and treatmental plots.
v The soil moisture contents in the treatmental plots
were always higher than the control plot both in the
predicted and observed values .This might be due to
the fact that the effective runoff control was created
by the micro-catchments, thereby more opportunity
for higher infiltration volume and hence better in-situ
moisture conservation.
Fig. 3. Soil Moisture in Crescent bund
There was a close agreement between the predicted and the observed values as seen from the figures
and also from the results of the non-parametric Chisquare statistical test, showing there was no significan
variation between the model and the observed data.
Fig.4.
44
Soil Moisture in Compartmental bunding
Runoff
The runoff was obtained as output on the days
when the rainfall intensity exceeded the average infiltration rate of the soil. The runoff was predicted from
the model for the Thondamuthur field on two dates and
the predicted runoff volumes for the 45cm and the entire depth of the root zone were the same. Then those
predicted values were compared with the observed field
values of runoff as given in table 1.
in the Thondamuthur field, for both 45cm and the entire

Fig.5. Sandy Clay loam (Thondamuthur)
Scarcity Moisture Days Computation

Table 1: Runoff volumes for Thondamuthur
(Mango) field
Treatment
Control
V Catchments
Crescent bunds
Compartmental
bunds
Scattered trenches
Predicted runoff (m3) Observed runoff (m3)

14.30
11.21
11.29
12.35
11.13
11.21
11.30
13.19
11.12
11.56
Scarcity moisture days were defined as those

days having soil moisture below permanent wilting point
at 45cm depth applied to normal field crops.
From the root zone soil moisture balance computation, the soil moisture content below permanent point
for two different locations at 45 cm depth in various
treatments are given below ( Table.2)
The percentage of scarcity moisture days of two
locations (Thondamuthur and Chettipalayem field) is
Table 2: Scarcity moisture days in different moisture
conservation treatments (days)
Fig.6. Sandy loam (Chettipalayam)

root zone depth, the control had more number of scarcity soil moisture days than the micro-catchments like
V-catchments, crescent bunds and compartmental bunds
irrespective of the depth considered in the root zone.
This might be due to the fact that the bunded microcatchments were able to conserve more moisture than
the other treatments.
The supplemental watering given for successful growth of the crop was also accounted and the total
depth of water utilized including effective rainfall was incorporated.
Some experiments in farmers field
The sites selected for the research study were

located at Thondamuthur and Chettipalayam, in CoimTreatments
Thondamuthr
Chettipalayam
Sandy clay loam (days) Sandy loam (days) batore district of Tamil Nadu, India. Thondamuthur lies
to the western part of Coimbatore near to the Western
Control
54
100
Ghats. It has a sandy clay loam soil type. The area
V- catchments
32
76
has a mean monthly minimum temperature of 21oC
Crescent bund
33
83
and a maximum of 31oC. The mean annual rainfall is
Compartmental bund 33
83
628.15mm (Appendix I). The water table was very deep
(70-90m) (Ground Water Status Report, 1994). Here,
a farmer field with dryland Mango plantation was selected for the study. The root zone depth of the Mango
shown in the following Fig.5 and 6.
crop was 120cm. The area of the field was 2.2 hectares, bunded from all sides. The crop grown here was
Out of the total operational period of 150 days 11 years old. The field was left dry and it depended on
45
Table 3:
S. No.
Location of field trials
Location of the village
Soil type
Dryland
fruit crop
1.
Kembanur (Thondamuthur block)
Alfisol
Mango
2.
Ajjanur (Coimbatore west)
Vertisol
Tamarind
2.2
3.
Chettipalayam
Alfisol
Sapota
1.8
4.
Chettipalayam
Alfisol
Guava
1.0
5.
Kethanur (Palladam block)
Alfisol
Amla
2.0
rainfall for water.
Area
(ha)
Age of the
tree ( years)
2.8
11
rainfed condition thereafter. The crop was in withering

condition, when the moisture conservation treatments
were established. Then it showed improvements in its
growth after the receipt of monsoon rains (NovemberDecember) during the year. This experimental facility
has also been utilized for the present field investigation
with reference to testing the root zone water balance
model. This field was also laid with the same moisture
conservation treatments under the SLUB Scheme operating in the Department of Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering.
In-situ moisture conservation treatments with

microcatchments given in the field were V-catchments,
semi-circular bunds, compartmental bunds, scattered
trenches and one as a control plot under a State Land
Use Board (SLUB) Scheme on maximizing land and water use efficiency in dryland horticultural systems operating at the Department of Soil and Water Conservation
Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. There
was a problem of moisture inadequacy; periodical plant
withering and no intercrops were able to be grown in
between the large amount of interspace available for intercrops. Any attempt to improve the moisture status in
the field through microcatchment techniques will likely
yield a possibility of taking intercrops like pulses/medicinal plants thereby enhancing the income per unit area.
Effects of moisture status with root zone water balance
modeling will give the possibility or otherwise of this
idea.
Crop Performance and Economics with

Inter Crops
Yield and growth attributes were monitored and
final analysis was summarized in terms of water use efficiencies and benefits cost ratio.
Integration of Supplemental
irrigation
Medicinal inter crops attempted in all five locations were Senna - Cassia angustifolia, Periwinkle
- Catheranthus roseus, Thulsi - Ocimum sanctum,
Keelanelli-Phyllanthus amara
In order to take soil moisture dryness below wilting point percent moisture at the end of monsoon periods and summer period, a series of dug out ponds
were constructed in low lying points of each field and net
working of water flow from one to the other has been
done along with supplemental pitcher irrigation.
Another field at Chettipalayam was also selected

which lies to the eastern part of Coimbatore. It had a
sandy loam soil, with medium depth of 0.7 to 1.2m. The
area had a mean monthly minimum temperature of 25oC
and maximum of 34.5oC. The mean annual rainfall of
the region is 450.12mm. The area lies in the dryland
region and the crops are mainly rainfed. A farmer field
with dryland Guava plantation was selected for the study.
The root zone depth of the crop was 100cm. The field
was having an areal extent of one hectare, bunded from
all sides. In this region, the water table was very deep
in the range of 90-100m falling in the hard rock terrain
(Ground Water Status Report, 1994). The Guava plantation was 4 years old, initially provided with drip irrigation facility for one year for establishment and left with
This exercise has been done in 350 ha area

under participatory Action Research with private and
public lands under Technology development scheme of
DoLR, GOI.
A series of dug out ponds with size varying
from 10 m3 to 25 m3 of 6 nos. were constructed with
a low cost soil- cement or soil lime mixture stabilization
and compaction technique for seepage control and to
use stored water for supplemental irrigation for Amla,
Rosewood and Mahagony plants. As the water applied
per month is 32m3, the total water storage capacity required for 400 plants per ha is estimated to be 200m3. In
this, seepage, evaporation and other losses amounting
46
Table 4: Intercrop Yield Increases with Treatments

Intercrops
Economic parts
Max. yield
Control
Senna
Leaf (t/ha)
Seed(kg/ha)
3.1
105.0
2.0
81.0
Root (t/ha)
Stem (t/ha)
Leaf (t/ha)
2.3
3.1
3.3
1.1
2.1
1.7
Leaf (t/ha)
Stem (t/ha)
9.5
16.3
5.5
8.1
Periwinkle
Thulsi
Table 5: Benefit-Cost Ratio

Crops combination
(Thulsi /Perwinkle)
B-C ratio
Anola
Guava
Sapota
Tamarind
Mango
4.4 5.7
2.3 3.4
1.9 2.7
1.1 1.9
1.1 1.3
Table 6: Cost of Micro catchments

S.No.
Treatment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Cost/ha
V-ditches
Semicircular bund
Compartmental bund
Scattered trench
Basin listing
Broad bed furrow
Vegetative barrier
Coirpith compost
6000
4000
4500
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
During monsoon/rainy periods the dug-out

ponds serve as water harvesting / collection structures.
In this experiment, three filling with transported tank
water was applied in the dug-out ponds and there was a
filling with rainy water for one time. The dug-out ponds
to 60% of the total storage for 2 months was accounted.

Hence, filling of the dug- out ponds once in two months
during summer months is sufficient to cater the water
needs of the plant. This Water application during first
two years of establishment given below.
Table 7:
(Rs)
Water Application during first two years of establishment
Water application / plant/ week
= 20 lit.
Water applied / month /ha ( 400 plants)
= 32 m3
Water application / plant / 8 months in a year
640 lit/ annum
Water was not applied for 4 months monsoon period Water application / ha for 8 months
= 256 m3
Area of water application at each plant
= 1.57 m2
Annual depth of application
= 40.76 cm
Effective rainfall
= 43 cm
Total depth of water utilized
= 83.76 cm
47
are so arranged in such away that the surplus water from

one pond will go to other through interlinked channels.
The cost of dug-out pond with low cost lining works out
to Rs.80 per m3. The expenditure of water storage dugout tank per ha is Rs.16, 000/.
of the dry periods.

v Number of supplemental watering could be reduced
depending up on the soil conditions.(by 50-65%).
v This results in reduction of recurring cost to about
50% in conventional watering.
v Quick growth and better viguor of plants have been
observed without any mortality of plants.
This would facilitate a few low tier crops like
water melons, gourds could be grown for initial periods
which would meet part of (50-75%) maintenance system
(water cost) at least for a 2-3years. The labour cost of
watering works out to Rs 5000/= per ha per annum
excluding the transport cost from source.This transport
cost of water works out upto Rs 8000/- @ Rs 40/m3
for entire summer period excluding in situ rain water
utilization.
Total water storage for 400 plants per ha worked

out as 62.5 to 100m2 depending upon the location specific factors, by assuming reasonable 2 m depth. These
pits are located in moderate to low lying points of the
area as for as possible. Experience of these dug-out
ponds with various locations reveal that water lost for
30-45 days only depending up on the type of soil and
its stabilization with compaction at bottom and cementing material plastering on sides. The performance under black-cotton soil with soil-cement lining is extremely
poor which was done in one of the nearby locations of
the project area. The soil lime mixture was working well
with clay soils.
Modern Plastic Lining Technology
Pitcher Irrigation
The modern technologies like plastic lining with

different thickness depending upon depth of water storage could be adopted for controlling seepage and percolation losses and to store water atleast for 90-100 days
for supplemtal irrigation. An observational study conducted in three locations and the following standardization on conservative side which leads to adoptation in a
National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP)
in nine focus districts of Tamil Nadu state.
The plastic pot pitchers with a hole and 70 cm

length 6mm HDPE pipe with a micro pin hole outlet has
been used for this technique by marking locations near
the plant and making 50 cm deep pit with a diameter
of 45cm.Initial observations on two soils with Periyanaikanpalayam and Somayampalayam series were taken
and the data obtained is as follows.
The water filled once in each pot having a capacity of 18 lit lost for 30-36 hours. The cost of pitchers
at the rate of 400 Nos/ha including laying cost workout
Maximum no. of supplemental irrigations : 2 to 3

Capacity of the pond : 2500 m3 (25 lakh Lit )
Table 8: Soil moisture status under Pitcher irrigation

Soil type
Periyanaikan Palayam
Somaiyampalayam
Field capacity (%)
Wilting point (%)
24.2
6.6
14.5
3.1
Available moisture (%)

9.7
3.5
Table 9: Soil moisture depletion (50 %) under manual and Pitcher irrigation
(days from watering)
Soil type
Periyanakayan palayam
Somayampalayam
Manual
Pitcher
10
7
15
11
Rs.10, 000/-.
Cost of storage @ Rs.100 per 1000 Lit : Rs.2.5 lakhs

Cost of portable sprinkler system : Rs.0.5 lakhs
Total cost : Rs.3.0 lakhs
Plastic lining (LDPE) 250 micron (<2m depth)
The following advantages have been noticed in

this approach.
v Better soil moisture regime without stress for most
48
consistent in all multi location trials laid at five different

locations. The model predicted soil moisture relatively
better during dry times compared to moist periods prevailing as soon as the receipt of the rainfall. This might
be due to the moisture redistribution process in the soil
after the receipt of the infiltrated rain water, which was
not considered in the model.
500 micron (> 2m depth)
Summary & Conclusion

The design and laying of micro catchments according to land slope, soil type and crop water require-
The moisture conservation and establishment of

plants in dry lands is crucial for which additional watering mechanisms like pitcher irrigation combined with a
net work of dug-out ponds provided its worthiness when
these techniques are tried on with micro catchments
like V-Shaped bunds or Crescent bunds around trees
or compartmental bunding on field plot boundaries.
Though the integration of these three techniques cost
Table 11: Average size of catchments and irrigated area of farm ponds under Coimbatore
conditions
Catchments area (ha)
5
5
Irrigated area (ha)

1
2-2.5
Technology
Clay lining of the pond + surface irrigation of stored water
Plastic lining of pond + portable sprinkler irrigation
25
about Rs 35,000 / per ha, this enables productive and

remunerative results with high value horticulture and forestry plantations. There is a potential scope to introduce
the above dryland horticulture based model integrating
insitu soil moisture conservation techniques and supplementary irrigation in many semi-arid regions.
ments would meet the proposed moisture status along

with enhancement in yield attributes. The root zone soil
moisture budget analysis showed that there is an inevitable need of supplemental watering which could be done
by proper size of dug-out ponds located at the technically feasible points. The results obtained are almost
Reference
Critchley, K.N., and C.N.Siegert .1991. FAO guidelines on water harvesting, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Doorenbos , J. and A.H.Kassam, 1979. Yield response to water. Irrg. And Drainage paper No:33, FAO, Rome ,
Italy.
Ramaswamy, K and Thangaraj, T. 2002. Water harvesting Technologies for Dryland Horticulture Technology Bulletin,
Horticulture College & Research Institute, Periyakulam, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
49
Conservation of Rainwater
and Sustenance of Productivity
Through Improved Land
Management and Cropping
System in a Vertisol of Central
India
K.M. Hati, A.K. Misra, K.G. Mandal, A.K. Tripathi, A. Subba Rao, R.K.
Singh, S.P. Wani, P. Singh and P. Pathak
the rainfall for sustaining crop production. This is possible through adoption of improved land management
practices, which will decrease runoff and soil erosion
and concomitantly improve crop yield in deep Vertisols.
Introduction
For sustainable crop production system under
rainfed condition, the conservation of rainwater and its
efficient recycling are imperative. The rainwater can be
conserved either in-situ i.e. in the soil itself or ex-situ
in natural or man made structures wherefrom it can be
used for supplemental irrigation. In-situ rainwater conservation can be carried out either though tillage or
landform management (Singh et al., 2000). Among the
various landform management practices like raised and
sunken bed, ridges and furrow etc. developed for Vertisols, broad-bed and furrow (BBF) system is very promising in controlling surface runoff, reducing the soil loss
through erosion and increasing infiltration (Pathak et al.
1985; Singh et al. 1999). The BBF landform management system reduces the velocity of runoff water and
thus increases opportunity time for water to infiltrate
and reduces sediment losses. Further, during the period
of heavy rainfall the furrows allow excess water to drain
safely from the plots and thus avoid water congestion to
the crop (Kampen, 1982). There is an urgent need to
manage the water resources of Vertisols of Central India
to control soil erosion and to improve use efficiency of
Stagnation of productivity of soybean based production systems due to erratic distribution of monsoonal
rain and incidence of new insect-pests and diseases is
leading to under-utilization of land, water, nutrient and
climatic resources. Under this situation the crop diversification in the rainy season can be a viable option for
stabilizing and enhancing productivity of the system. In
winter season, it has been found that chickpea performs
better than high water and nutrient requiring wheat crop.
In addition, harvesting of run off water in storage pond
and its efficient utilization through supplemental irrigation to the rainy season crop in case of early withdrawal
of monsoon and pre-sowing irrigation to the winter crop
holds the promise for increasing the total system productivity and stability. In fact, insufficient attention on rain
water harvesting and its recycling hampers efficient utilization of nutrients by crops. In order to ensure a pay-off
from nutrients, all round augmentation of water resource
with watershed as a unit of development is imperative. In
50
rainfall event (Pathak, 1999). Automatic pumping sediment sampler fabricated at International Crop Research
Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad,
India was used to monitor the temporal changes in sediment losses from each runoff events. The samplers collected runoff water with suspended sediments passing
through the H-flume and stored in plastic collection
bottles at 20 minutes interval. The sediment was flocculated by adding 10 N HCl. Then these were dried in
oven to estimate the suspended particle content. The
sediment concentration obtained from each bottle was
used for the calculation of total sediment losses associated with each runoff events. Soil water content up to
a depth of 90 cm at 15 cm interval was determined
thermo-gravimetrically at regular interval during the crop
growth period in 2003 and 2004. The water content
of individual soil depth determined on weight basis was
multiplied with corresponding bulk density and depth of
the soil layer to obtain the profile water storage. Analysis
of variance (ANOVA) was carried out using split plot design (Gomez and Gomez, 1984) for comparing means
of main and interaction effect using least significant difference with 5% significant level.
this back drop, an experiment was conducted with the

following objectives, (i) to assess the effect of landform
treatments on loss of rain water through runoff and loss
of soil through erosion, (ii) to study soil water dynamics,
and (iii) to evaluate the productivity of five soybean and
maize based sole and intercropping systems in a vertisol.
Materials and methods

A field experiment was conducted for four years
from 2003-04 to 2006-07 on broad bed and furrow
(BBF) and flat on grade (FOG) land treatments with
five different cropping systems viz. Soybean- chickpea,
maizechickpea, soybean/ maize intercropping chickpea, soybean/ pigeon pea intercropping and maize/
pigeon pea intercropping and two irrigation levels on
a micro-watershed at the experimental farm of Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh (23018
N, 77024 E, 485m above mean sea level). Soil of the
experimental site was deep heavy clay (Typic Haplustert). The climate of the experimental site was hot subhumid type with a mean annual rainfall of 1130 mm
and potential evapo-transpiration of 1400 mm. The
BBF landform was prepared with the help of a tractor
drawn BBF former along the key lines drawn based on
a topographic survey. The width of the broad bed was
1.0m with 0.5m wide furrows on either side of the bed.
In the first year (2003-04) pigeonpea monocrop was
taken in lieu of maize/pigeon pea intercropping. In rainy
season crops were grown rainfed while in winter season
chickpea was grown with two irrigation levels, (i) one
pre-sowing (PS) irrigation to chickpea (I1) and (ii) one PS
+ one irrigation to chickpea at flowering stage (I2). The
irrigation was provided from the water harvesting pond
of the watershed. Recommended doses of NPK fertilizer
were applied to each crop and farmyard manure (FYM)
@ 5 t ha-1 was applied once in a year to the rainy season
crop. The N:P:K doses for soybean, maize, pigeonpea
and chickpea were 30:26:25, 120:26:33, 30:26:33,
30:26:33 kg ha-1, respectively. Crops were harvested
manually at their physiological maturity and grain yield
was recorded from net plot harvest.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Seasonal Rainfall, Runoff, and Soil Loss
The amount of rainfall received during the four
years of experimentation was highly variable. Total rainfall received during the rainy season of 2003 between
June to October was 1058 mm, which was slightly
higher than the long-term average rainfall of 1005 mm
for this season, while in 2006, the rainfall received during the rainy season was 1513 mm, which was 50%
higher than the average rainfall. During the rainy season
of 2004 and 2005 seasonal rainfall was lower than the
long-term average rainfall. In 2004, the distribution of
rainfall was also not uniform during the season. In the
month of June, rainfall was only 8.5% whereas, July and
August received 83% and September and October received very less rain. Thus the performance of soybean
crop was adversely affected because of the soil moisture
deficit during the pod development stage of the crop.
Moreover, the soybean crop was heavily infested by the
insect-pests and yield reduced drastically. In 2005, the
onset of monsoon was very late; the month of June
received only 26.7 mm i.e. 2.8% of the seasonal total
rainfall and most of the rain was received in the month
of July (55.7%) whereas the share of August was only
18.4% of the seasonal total in the year.
Runoff from each landform treatment was measured with automatic runoff recorder (Thalimedes) installed on a H-flume constructed at the lowest contour
point. The height of the water passing through the Hflume was continuously recorded by a float operated
shaft encoder with digital data logger which was later interpreted in terms of runoff volume associated with each
51
Runoff and soil losses from the field area under

broad-bed and furrow (BBF) and flat on grade (FOG)
landform treatments were monitored during the kharif
seasons. In all the every year, seasonal runoff from the
BBF plot was less than that from the FOG (Table 1). This
might be attributed to the reduced speed of runoff from
BBF plot due to uniform slope, which have resulted in
higher opportunity time for water to infiltrate in BBF than
FOG treatment. The runoff was 15.4-33.2% and 20.357.7% of seasonal rainfall from BBF and FOG landform
treatments. The run off under both BBF and FOG was
much higher during the rainy season of 2006 because
of unusually high rainfall. The soil losses through runoff
from BBF and FOG were higher in high rainfall years;
the extent of soil loss was to the tune of 1956 and 2837
kg ha-1 from BBF and FOG, respectively in 2003 and
3503 and 6365 kg ha-1 in the corresponding treatments
in 2006. However, the soil losses were relatively less,
657 and 1466 kg ha-1 from BBF and FOG, respectively
in 2004. BBF landform treatment reduced soil loss to a
greater extent (31 to 55%) than its reduction in runoff
volume (24 to 32%) as compared with that of FOG over
the years. This can be ascribed to lower concentration
of sediments in runoff water coming from the BBF than
from FOG as velocity of flow of the runoff water was
generally lower in BBF. Pathak et al. (1985) and Srivastava and Jangwad (1988) have also shown that runoff
and soil loss were remarkably reduced in BBF land surface management treatment in a long-term watershed
study in Vertisol.
period was considerably higher in the sole pigeon pea

and soybean/pigeon pea intercropping treatment compared to sole soybean, sole maize and soybean/maize
intercropping treatments (Table 2). Depletion of moisture was maximum (60.4 mm) from the sole pigeon pea
treatment on BBF. Similar results were recorded under
both BBF and FOG landform treatments. This might
be due to higher extraction of moisture by pigeon pea,
which was approaching maximum vegetative stage during that period, compared to the other two crops, which
were near maturity at that time.
In 2004 water storage in the profile decreased
slightly during the first week after sowing and thereafter
it increased in all the plots in the month of July with
the increase in rainfall. Up to the middle of August, soil
water contents remained near field capacity. During this
period, treatment effects on water storage were not clear
and it followed the rainfall distribution pattern. Among
the two land surface management treatments, BBF often
retained slightly higher water in the profile than the FOG
treatment. This might be due to higher infiltration and
better retention of water in BBF than FOG treatment.
Singh et al. (1999) also reported higher water storage in
BBF during rainy season in soybean-chickpea rotation
on a Vertic Inceptisols. After withdrawal of monsoon,
from second week of September in 2004, monitoring of
profile water at weekly interval was carried out to study
the moisture extraction pattern by different cropping
systems during this drying period. Like the earlier year
the depletion of water during this period was considerably higher in soybean/pigeonpea and maize/pigeonpea intercropping systems compared with sole maize,
sole soybean and soybean/maize intercropping systems
in both BBF and FOG land management treatments
(Table 3). This was due to higher extraction of water
from the profile by pigeonpea crop which was near full
vegetative stage during that period, while the other two
crops viz. maize and soybean were near maturity at that
time. Besides this, the deep root system of pigeonpea
extracted more water from deeper soil layers than the
other crops.
Soil Water Dynamics and Moisture

Extraction by Crops
Water storage in the soil profile up to 90 cm
depth during rainy season of 2003 and 2004 was determined gravimetrically throughout the crop growth
period. The data revealed that the water storage during 2003 ranged between the field capacity and permanent wilting point (PWP) in all plots. This was because
of uniform distribution of rainfall in the rainy season.
Even in later phase of crop growth moisture storage in
the root zone remained higher than the PWP moisture
storage. The average moisture storage in the later part
of crop growth (after 64 DAS) was higher in BBF than
FOG treatment, but this was not conspicuous in the
early growth period. After the withdrawal of monsoon
a continuous monitoring of soil moisture extraction was
made for two weeks to study the moisture depletion pattern during a drying cycle. The results showed that the
depletion of soil moisture during the two weeks drying
Yield of Rainy Season Crops

The grain yield of soybean in sole soybean treatment varied due to differential rainfall amount and its distribution during the years of experimentation. In 2004,
the grain yield of soybean was typically low in both
broad bed and furrow (BBF) and flat on grade (FOG)
land treatments because of less rainfall. However, results
52
revealed that the grain yield of soybean in sole soybean,

soybean/maize intercropping and soybean/pigeon pea
intercropping systems under BBF was greater than that
under FOG for every year of the experimentation. On
an average over four years, BBF registered 12.7-18.0%
greater grain yield of soybean than FOG under sole soybean. The soybean yield in sole soybean and soybean/
pigeon pea intercropping was similar, but it reduced in
soybean/ maize intercropping. This was mainly due to
competition between the crops for light and nutrients in
soybean-maize cropping system. But soybean/pigeonpea intercropping the yield of soybean was not affected,
as pigeonpea was a slow growing crop compared to
maize and soybean and its growth peaked up after harvest of soybean and maize. Thus competition between
the intercrops was less. Similar trend was observed in
total biomass production of crops for sole and intercropping systems under BBF and FOG land treatments.
maize intercropping > sole soybean, while in 2005-06

and 2006-07, SEY showed the following order maize/
pigeon pea intercropping > soybean/ pigeon pea intercropping > sole maize = soybean/maize intercropping >
sole soybean.
Grain Yield and Water Use Efficiency of

Chickpea
In the winter season chickpea was grown in three
cropping systems where pigeonpea was not included and
with two irrigation levels. The grain yield of chickpea
was greater in BBF than FOG in all the four years of experimentation (Table 5). In both the land configuration,
yield variation of chickpea was not significant among
three cropping systems where it was grown. Thus, the
residual effect of previous crops on the performance of
chickpea was not significant. However, irrigation treatments showed significant variation in the performance
of chickpea. The grain yield of chickpea in I2 (one presowing + one post-sowing irrigation) was significantly
greater than I1 (pre-sowing irrigation) in both the land
configuration.
Grain yield of maize in sole maize treatment under BBF was 11.8-16.0% greater than the same treatment under FOG land configuration. In soybean/maize
and maize/pigeon pea intercropping systems, grain yield
of maize was also greater in BBF than FOG. Similar
trend was observed in total biomass production of maize
for different sole and intercropping systems. In 2003-04,
though maize population in soybean/maize intercropping was similar to the sole maize, maize yield was reduced in intercropping by 203 and 244 kg ha-1 in BBF
and FOG, respectively. For other years, maize yield in
soybean/ maize intercropping was lower than the sole
maize because of reduced plant population, almost half
of the sole maize population. In maize/ pigeonpea intercropping, maize population was imilar to the sole maize,
as pigeonpea was intercropped with maize as in the
additive series; thus maize yield was not reduced. This
trend was observed in every year since 2004-05.
Water use efficiency (WUE) was estimated as

grain yield divided by seasonal evapotranspiration (ET).
Seasonal ET was estimated by water balance method,
assuming water loss through runoff and deep drainage
during the crop-growing season as negligible. WUE of
chickpea was more under BBF than FOG (Table 6). In
the year 2003-04, WUE in BBF was significantly higher
in I1 than I2 irrigation treatment but in FOG the difference among the irrigation levels was not significant. Residual effect of the previous crop has not shown any
significant effect on the WUE of chickpea in both BBF
and FOG land configuration. In the years 2005-06 and
2006-07, WUE of chickpea was significantly higher in
I2 than that in I1 irrigation treatment in BBF. This was
probably due to higher increase in seed yield of chickpea
compared to corresponding increase in ET with increase
in irrigation amount in BBF; however, in FOG irrigation
level has not shown any significantly effect on the WUE
of chickpea in 2005-06.
Soybean equivalent yield (SEY) of rainy season

crops was higher in BBF than FOG (Table 4). Higher
yield of crops in BBF might be ascribed to higher retention of moisture in the grain filling stage, less water
congestion, better aeration in the rooting zone. Selvaraju et al. (1999) and Wani et al. (2003) also reported
a higher crop yield under BBF land treatment in Vertisols. In 2003-04, SEY of systems were in the order:
soybean/pigeon pea intercropping > sole pigeonpea
> sole soybean > soybean/maize intercropping > sole
maize both in the BBF and FOG. In the year 2004-05,
the order was: maize/pigeon pea intercropping > soybean/ pigeonpea intercropping > sole maize > soybean/
Total System Productivity as Soybean

Equivalent Yield (SEY)
Irrespective of irrigation to chickpea and cropping systems, results revealed that total system productivity (TSP) as soybean equivalent yield was greater in
BBF than FOG; and TSP was higher in I2 (pre-sowing
plus 1 post sowing irrigation) than I1 (pre-sowing irri53
gation). Among the 5 cropping systems, there was significant difference in the total productivity of systems
(Table 7). Soybean-chickpea system was found to be
the least productive except in the first year (2003-04).
After 2003-04, system productivity was not favourable
for the soybean-chickpea system, because of constantly
lower yield of soybean over years, and at the same time
maize yield was considerably higher. Consequently, the
systems involving maize crop, either as sole or intercrop
(as in maize-chickpea, soybean/ maize intercroppingchickpea and maize/ pigeonpea intercropping systems)
gave higher productivity than other systems under both
BBF and FOG land treatments. Even the TSP was higher in maize/ pigeonpea intercropping systems where
there was no subsequent chickpea crop. In the event of
non-availability of irrigation water to chickpea, maize/
pigeonpea intercropping is better system than sole soybean. Thus, these three cropping systems viz. maizechickpea, soybean/ maize intercropping-chickpea and
maize/ pigeonpea intercropping i.e., diversification from
the sole soybean, hold the promise for increasing productivity in the on-station watershed.
Conclusions
The runoff and soil loss from broad-bed and furrow (BBF) are less than that from flat land treatment.
Besides this, BBF also helps in safe drainage of excess
rainfall and reduces chance of water congestion to the
rainy season crops while it retains higher moisture during
the later phase of crop growth after withdrawal of monsoon and produced higher crop yield than the traditional
flat land sowing system. Farmers may adopt BBF land
configuration for growing of crops like soybean, maize,
pigeonpea and chickpea. The study provides an option
for crop diversification from the present predominant
soybean based cropping systems to cropping systems
where maize is a component, either as sole or intercrop
for this region. Water lost as surface run-off could be
conserved in watershed ponds and used as supplemental
or life-saving irrigation.
References
Gomez, K.A. and Gomez, A.A., 1984. Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. 2nd ed. Wiley Interscience.
New York.
Kampen, J., 1982. An approach to improved productivity on deep Vertisols. Information Bulletin No. 11, International
Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, A.P., India.
Pathak, P., 1999. Runoff and soil loss measurement. In: Wani, S.P., Singh, P., Pathak, P. (Eds.), Methods and
Management of Data for Watershed Research, Technical Manual No. 5, International Crop Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, A.P., India, pp. 15-40.
Pathak, P., Miranda, S.M., El-Swaify, S.A., 1985. Improved rainfed farming for semi-arid tropics Implications for
soil and water conservation. In: El-Swaify, S.A., Moldenhauer, W.C., Andrew, L. (Eds.), Soil Erosion and
Conservation. Soil Conservation Society of America, pp. 338-354.
Selvaraju, R., Subbian, P., Balasubramanian, A., Lal, R., 1999. Land configuration and soil nutrient management
options for sustainable crop production on Alfisols and Vertisols of southern peninsular India. Soil Tillage
Res. 52, 203-216.
Singh, H.P., Venkateswarlu, B., Vittal, K.P.R., Ramachandran, K., 2000. Management of rainfed agro-ecosystem.
In: Yadav, J.S.P., Singh, G.B. (Eds.), Natural Resource Management for Agricultural Production in India.
International Conference on Managing Natural Resources for Sustainable Agricultural Production in the 21st
Century, New Delhi, February 14-18, 2000, pp. 669-774.
Singh, P., Algarswamy, G., Pathak. P., Wani, S.P., Hoogenboom., G., Viramani, S.M., 1999. Soybean- chickpea
rotation on Vertic Inceptisols I. Effect of soil depth and landform on light interception, water balance and
crop yields. Field Crops Res. 63, 211-224.
Srivastava, K.L., Jangwad, L.S., 1988. Water balance and erosion rates of Vertisol watersheds under different
management. Indian J. Dryland Agric. Res. Develop. 3, 137-144.
Wani, S.P., Pathak, P., Jangawad, L.S., Eswaran, H., Singh, P., 2003. Improved management of Vertisols in the
semi-arid tropics for increased productivity and soil carbon sequestration. Soil Use Manage. 19, 217-222.

54
Table 1: Seasonal rainfall, runoff, and soil loss from different land configuration,
broad-bed and furrow (BBF) and flat on grade (FOG)
Year
Rainfall
(mm)
2003
1058.0
2004
798.2
2005
946.0
2006
1513.0
Runoff
(mm)
Soil loss
(kg ha-1)
BBF
FOG
BBF
FOG
163.0
(15.4%)
124.0
(15.5%)
177
(18.7%)
502
(33.2%)
214.9
(20.3%)
183.3
(23.0%)
246
(26.1%)
873
(57.7%)
1956.0
2836.9
657.0
1466.0
1402.0
3123.0
3503.0
6365.0
Values within parentheses indicate the percent of seasonal rainfall
Table 2: Depletion of soil moisture during a drying cycle after the withdrawal of monsoon
in 2003 as affected by land surface management treatment and cropping system
Cropping systems
Moisture depletion from 0-90 cm depth (mm)
Sole soybean
Soybean/maize intercropping
Sole maize
Sole pigeon pea
Soybean/pigeon pea intercropping
LSD (P=0.05)
BBF
FOG
40.8
37.7
33.3
60.4
51.2
11.3
42.4
35.6
35.0
57.3
55.8
10.5
Table 3: Depletion of soil moisture during a 28 days drying cycle after the withdrawal of monsoon in
2004 as affected by cropping system under BBF and FOG land treatment
Cropping systems
Moisture depletion from 0-90 cm depth (mm)
Sole soybean
Soybean/maize intercropping
Sole maize
Maize/pigeon pea intercropping
Soybean/pigeon pea intercropping
LSD (P=0.05)
BBF
FOG
62.3
59.0
55.6
70.3
74.5
6.2
59.3
56.0
52.6
76.6
71.5
7.5
Table 4: Soybean equivalent yield (SEY) of rainy season crops

Cropping system
Soybean equivalent yield (SEY)
(kg ha-1)
BBF
2003-04
FOG
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
Sole soybean
1831b
641e
1527d
1178d
1581b
543e
1337c
1029e
Sole maize
1212c
2072c
3163c
2590c
1084c
1778c
2726b
2325c
Soybean/maize
intercropping
1791b
1378d
3244c
2315c
1566b
1194d
2791b
2083d
Soybean/ pigeon
pea intercropping
2615a
2369b
3532b
3134b
2262a
2027b
2912b
2778b
Maize/ pigeon pea

intercropping*
1907b
3385a
4513a
3951a
1646b
2975a
4112a
3659a
*There was pigeonpea sole crop in the year 2003-04
55
Table 5:
Cropping system
Yield of chickpea as influenced by irrigation and previous crops
Grain yield of chickpea (kg/ha)

BBF
Irrigation
I1
I2
Cropping systems
Soybean-chickpea
Maize-chickpea
Soybean/maize -chickpea
FOG
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
1893b
2116a
1297b
1557a
795b
1203a
1087b
1500a
1259b
1588a
1202b
1397a
715b
980a
936b
1423a
2040a
2062a
1913a
1468a
1385a
1429a
1076a
969a
952a
1326a
1254a
1301a
1340a
1453a
1478a
1349a
1258a
1292a
920a
797a
824a
1181a
1162a
1195a
Table 6: WUE of chickpea as influenced by irrigation and previous crops

Cropping system
WUE (kg ha-1 mm-1)

BBF
2003-04
FOG
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
Irrigation
I1
12.38a
9.13a
5.05b
6.75b
8.72a
8.97a
4.74a
6.46b
I2
10.37b
8.00b
6.06a
7.66a
8.58a
7.65b
4.83a
7.81a
11.56a
8.64a
5.73a
7.32a
8.18a
8.44a
5.13a
7.15a
Cropping systems
Soybean-chickpea
Maize-chickpea
11.63a
8.40a
5.41a
7.06a
8.88a
8.08a
4.52a
7.20a
Soy/maize
intercropping-chickpea
10.92a
8.66a
5.53a
7.24a
8.87a
8.40a
4.71a
7.06a
Table 7: Total system productivity as soybean equivalent yield (SEY)

Cropping system
Total system productivity as SEY
(kg ha-1)
BBF
FOG
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
I1
2818b
2747b
3857b
3551b
2257b
2425b
3370b
3165b
I2
2929a
2903a
4196a
3900a
2422a
2542a
3591a
3576a
Soybean-chickpea
3530a
2109d
3019c
3044c
2698a
1894c
2613c
2691c
Maize-chickpea
2931b
3457a
4507a
4354a
2295b
3036a
3832a
3959a
Soybean/maize -chickpea
3385a
2807b
4564a
4145ab
2798a
2485b
3933a
3765b
Soybean/pigeonpea
2615c
2369c
3532b
3134c
2262b
2027c
2912b
2778c
Maize/pigeonpea*
1907d
3385a
4513a
3951b
1646c
2975a
4112a
3659b
Irrigation to chickpea
Cropping systems
*There was sole crop of pigeonpea in the year 2003-04
56
6
Implements for Water
Harvesting and Insitu Moisture
Conservation
D.Manohar Jesudas and K.Kathirvel
Introduction
Land is a major important non-renewable natural resource.
The availability of land area per person in Tamil Nadu
is only about 60 per cent of the national average. Tamil
Nadus population is about 7 per cent of the countrys
population but the net sown area in Tamil Nadu is only 4
per cent of that for the country. The density of population
in Tamil Nadu is 572 as against the national average of
221 per sq.km. All these are pointers to indicate that the
land resources should be utilized to the optimum extent
possible. Since the available land area is limited and
finite, the necessity to improve the productivity of the land
and to increase the income of the farmer have become
important. While considerable importance has been given
to increase the productivity of the irrigated lands under
green revolution, adequate attention has not been given
to increase the productivity of the rainfed areas.
In Tamil Nadu the rainfed / dryland is about 3.2 - 3.5
mHa. i.e. about 60 per cent of the sown area. The rainfed
agriculture water / moisture is the limiting factor. Rainfall
is the only source of water for these lands and hence it is
necessary to maximize its retention. Further the following

are the problems in these lands.
Inadequate soil moisture is the chief constraint in
drylands, where the annual rainfall is 500 mm to
700 mm. It is not evenly distributed and highly variable
and erratic.
The soils are light / medium textured. Their water holding
capacity are low.
The lands are often rolling topography. Rainwater runs
off quickly, carrying during among soil and fertilizers.
Subsoil hard pan is formed due to continuous cultivation
of crops using implements upto certain depths constantly
and due to the precipitation of clay in the subsoil
horizon.
All put together lowered the infiltration and percolation
rates, nutrients, movement and free air transport within
the soil profile. It prevents the root proliferation and
limits the volume of soil available for nutrients uptake
resulting in depleted less fertile surface soil. Due to
this, the contribution of subsoil fertility to crop growth
is hampered.
57
The first step in land-use planning is to provide for the

maximum retention of water / rain that falls on the land.
This means as much percolation of rainfall as possible
in soil where it falls, controlled removal of excess rainfall
and protection of the soil. It is to be emphasized that
conservation and optimization of the use of rain water
so that it stays in the soil profile for long periods and is
released slowly for the use of crops, become important
steps for improved dryland farming. Such utilization
of rainfall is accomplished through the correct cultural
practices and certain engineering structures.
Moisture conservation techniques at micro-level. a.
vegetative barriers, b. forming ridges and furrows, c.
broad bed and furrows, d. forming basins, e. the ridging /
random tie ridges, f. forming ponds and. water spreading
are advocated. Due to the labour scarcity and cost of
labour, these practices are not being adopted and hence
development and use of implements becomes necessary.
In addition, the subsoil hard pan is to be removed. To
over come these problems and to conserve soil moisture
the following implements were developed and evaluation
trials were conducted in problem soils and in different
parts of dry farming areas
The first step in land-use planning is to provide for the
maximum retention of water / rain that falls on the land.
This means as much percolation of rainfall as possible
in soil where it falls, controlled removal of excess rainfall
and protection of the soil. It is to be emphasized that
conservation and optimization of the use of rain water
so that it stays in the soil profile for long periods and is
released slowly for the use of crops, become important
steps for improved dryland farming. Such utilization
of rainfall is accomplished through the correct cultural
practices and certain engineering structures.
The Department of Agriculture is recommending
the following land shaping techniques for moisture
conservation at micro-level. a. forming ridges and
furrows, b. broad bed and furrows, c. forming basins, d.
the ridging / random tie ridges, e. forming ponds and f.
water spreading. But due to the labour scarcity and cost
of labour, development and use of implements becomes
necessary. In addition, the subsoil hard pan is to be
removed. To over come these problems and to conserve
soil moisture the following implements were developed at
TNAU for using them in dry farming areas.
WATER HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS
1. Chisel Plough
Deep tillage using chisel plough is essential for improving
the yield of crop especially under dry farming. Deep
tillage shatters compacted sub soil layers and aids in
better infiltration and storage of rainwater in the crop root

zone. The improved soil structure also results in better
development of root system and the yield of crops and
their drought tolerance is also improved. Deep tillage is not
practiced in India due to the unsuitability of the existing
deep tillage tools for operation with 35-45 hp tractors.
The developed implement has a sturdy but light structure
made of 3 mm thick hollow rectangular tubular mild
steel sections. The frame has been designed based on
computer analysis of the structure to ensure its strength.
The implement is simple in construction and has only
three components viz. frame, standard and share. The
share has a lift angle of 20 degree, width of 25 mm and
a length of 150 mm. The implement is protected by a
shear pin which prevents damage from over loading.
Salient Features of The Unit
The implement could be used for deep tillage upto a depth
of 40 cm for bursting of the sub-soil hard pan, improving
the drainage and aerating the soil.
Reduces the bulk density of soil (0.20 to 0.4 Mg / m3)
Two fold increase in hydraulic conductivity of sub-soil
Conserves around 30 to 40% more soil moisture
Roots proliferation is improved by 40 to 45%
Nutrient mobility especially N and K increased by 20 to
30% and 30 to
40% respectively
Enhances the crop yield by 15 to 20%
Residual effect can be realized for three seasons
Easily operated by any 35 to 45 hp tractor
2. Influence of Deep Tillage on In-situ Moisture
Conservation in Dry Farming
The subsoil hard pan is formed due to the illuviation of
clay to the sub soil horizon in red soil, due to the higher
exchangeable sodium content of clay complex in black
soil, and due to continuous cultivation of crops using
heavy implements into certain depth constantly. All put
together lowered the infiltration and percolation rates,
nutrients movement and free air transport within the soil
profile which effects crop growth and yield. An attempt
was made to over come this problem by conducting
experiments with different tillage implement combinations
at different places. The result showed that there was
significant differences between the treatments in plant
height, leaf area , root length and yield. Chisel plough plus
coirpith application showed its superiority over the other
treatments. The in-situ moisture conservation was more
in the chisel plough plus coirpith treatment. There was
50 per cent increase in the permeability of the soil due
to the vertical storage of moisture. The moisture pattern
in the case of Chisel plough + Disc Plough + Cultivator
showed drastic improvement in soil moisture storage. The
58
root length in this treatment reached a maximum depth

of 25 cm. In Chisel plough + Disc plough + Cultivator,
50 per cent yield increase was obtained, leaf area index
increased by 44 per cent and root length increased by
13 per cent. Chisel plough played an important role in
root growth and hence increased yield.
3. Basin Lister as an Attachment to Power Tiller
Generally, yield levels are determined by the amount of
precipitation above the basic minimum required to enable
the crops to achieve maturity. It is therefore, important in
dry land farming to have even a relatively small amount
of water stored in soils prior to sowing of crops. Listing is
the process of formation of alternate furrows and ridges
on land to conserve soil and moisture. Hence a basin
lister has been developed for use of power tillers in dry
farming.
The principle of operation of the equipment is that the
basin listing is done by lifting the ridger through a cam
and follower arrangement. The cam is mounted to the
wheel axle and oscillates the U shaped follower frame
hinged at the front of the power tiller chassis on both
sides. The ridger tyne is pivoted near the hitch pin of the
power tiller and provided with a slider in the transverse
direction. The cylindrical slider accommodates itself inside
the corresponding slot on each side of the follower frame.
When the follower is lifted, the ridger tyne is also lifted
along with it by allowing the slider to move longitudinally
in the slot. A dead weight box is also attached to the cam
follower frame and additional dead weights are added
for perfect balancing and uniform penetration. A spiked
wheel with castor action provided with support arms from
the power tiller handle ensures uniform basin formation
by controlling the depth of operation and also removes
the drudgery of the operator. The unit is rear mounted
and fitted to the hitch bracket assembly of the power tiller.
The draft requirement is 75 kg which is within drawbar
capacity of the power tiller.
Salient Features
By basin listing, increased moisture retention of 10 per
cent is achieved
Significant increase in yield of 10 per cent is observed in
both main and inter crop
The basins formed prior to the sowing of crop in dry
farming at regular intervals conserve adequate soil
moisture for the utilization of crop at its critical stages
Net benefit by way of increased yield due to power tiller
basin listing
An area of 0.6 ha can be covered per day
The cost of the unit is Rs. 5000.
4. Basinlister / Broadbed Former Cum Seeder Attachment

to Cultivator
The basin lister consists of three trenchers of width 30
cm, cams, cam shaft, cam follower, ground wheels and
frame. The penetrating portion of the trencher bottoms
are provided with a replaceable share point. Each trencher
fitted with a cam follower gets lifted up by the cams at
equal intervals. The cams are mounted on a common
axle at 120 degree difference and supported by ground
wheels. The power to rotate the cam is transmitted from
one of the ground wheels. To reduce wheel slippage,
spring tension has been provided. The basin lister unit is
attached to the standard nine tyned cultivator. The seed
box along with cup feed type seed metering mechanism
is mounted on the cultivator frame and the seeds are
dropped in between the basins. Seeds are sown in 4 rows
at 45 cm apart. Power to operate the seed metering discs
is taken from the ground wheel through a clutch. The
seed to seed distance can be changed by changing the
sprockets provided in the metering shaft. The operator
can stop the dropping of the seeds by disengaging the
clutch provided.
The same implement can be used to form broad
beds separated by furrows by removing he basin lister
attachment from the cultivator. The unit consists of two
sheet metal floats fixed on both sides of the cultivator
tynes to form the broad beds separated by furrows at
intervals of 180 cm.
Salient Features
The basins/ broad beds and furrows formed prior to the
sowing of crop in dry farming at regular intervals conserve
adequate soil moisture for the utilization of crop at its
critical stages
Increased moisture retention of 10 per cent is achieved
Significant increase in yield is observed in both main
and inter crop
An area of 3.5 ha can be covered per day
The cost of the unit is Rs. 15000 (without cultivator).
5. Tractor Drawn Channel Former
In drylands irrigation channel former can be used for
forming compartmental bunding at regular intervals for
conserving rain water. This is done by human labour
which consumes more time and cost. To over come this
problem a tractor drawn channel former to form irrigation
channels was developed. The main frame of size 22 cm
x 65 cm is made of 5.0 cm x 2.5 cm M.S. channels. The
channel forming portion consists of two inner blades of
size 100 cm x 25 cm and two outer blades of size 130
cm x 25 cm. The front portion of the two inner blades
are joint together such that they forms an angle of 30 in
59
between them. At the junction of these two inner blades

a cultivator shovel is fixed to penetrate into the soil. The
inner blades can be mounted 5 to 10 cm lower than the
outer blades so that they forms a furrow at a lower depth
than the surface of the bed for the flow of irrigation water.
The two outer blades are placed one on each side of the
inner blades and at an angle of 60 to the direction of
the travel. The soil collected in 105 cm width is formed
as bund of size 35 cm on both the sides of the irrigation
furrow formed by the inner blades. The unit was evaluated
for its performance in forming irrigation channels at 5
m intervals. When the tractor is operated at 3 to 4 km
forward speed, the area covered varies from 1.2 ha to
1.5 ha/hr. The field efficiency varies from 70% to 80%
depending on the condition of the soil and field size.
Salient Features of The Unit
Cost of the Unit
:
Rs.6,000/
Coverage
:
9.0 ha/day of 8 hrs
Cost of forming irrigation channel at 5 m interval by
(i) channel former
:
Rs.150/ha
(ii) manual labour
:
Rs.350/ha
Saving in cost
:
Rs.200/ha
Saving in time
:
11 man days/ha.
The necessity to improve the productivity of the land
and to increase the income of the farmer have become
important since the available land area is limited and
finite. While considerable importance has been given
to increase the productivity of the irrigated lands under
green revolution, adequate attention has not been given
to increase the productivity of the rainfed areas. The
development of in -situ moisture conservation implements
will help in a long way in increasing the productivity in
rainfed agriculture.
6. Coir Pith Applicator
Deep loosening of soil and placement of coir pith in the
subsoil layers improves the root zone, which will not re
compact during subsequent years. The unique property
of coir pith to hold 7 to 8 times its weight of moisture
helps to improve upon the moisture status of the root zone.
The coir pith also acts as an amendment, which helps
to build up a biologically active root zone comprising the
subsurface layers. Hence, a coir pith mulching applicator
was developed as an attachment to the tractor drawn
chisel plough to place the coir pith at a depth of 15-25
cm below the ground level which ensures that the coir pith
filled trenches are not disturbed by subsequent ploughing
thereby preventing the dispersion and disintegration of
coir pith. The cost of the unit is Rs.9,000. The salient
features of the unit are: uniformity of application is 90%;
higher moisture storage (41%) is observed in subsoil-
mulched plots as compared to the control; and yield of

crop grown under subsoil-mulched plots are significantly
higher.
LAND LEVELLING IMPLEMENTS
1. Terracer Cum Leveller
Land levelling is expected to bring permanent improvement
in the value of land. Levelling work is carried out to modify
the existing contours of land so as to achieve certain
objectives desired for efficient agricultural production
system. These objectives include (i) efficient application
of irrigation water, (ii) improved surface drainage, (iii)
minimum soil erosion (iv) increased conservation of
rain water specially on dry lands and (v) provision of
an adequate field size and even topography for efficient
mechanization.
The unit consists of 1.0 m wide curved mild steel blade
with a steel cutting edge at the bottom. The unit is
attached to the front of the power tiller with the help of a
mounting plate. Two solid side support arms made of 25
x 12.5 mm mild steel flat holds the unit rigidly during the
operation. The position of the blade with reference to the
power tiller chassis can be varied by adjusting the screw
provided between the mounting plate and the centre of the
leveller. The lifting of the blade can be made by tail wheel
adjustment of the rotary tiller while keeping the tilt angle
constant. Two side guards are provided to avoid spilling
of soil on both sides of the blade. Bottom skids made of
2 mm mild steel sheet are provided below the blade for
maintaining uniform load. The width of the blade is 1000
mm with a height of 320 mm. The leveller unit was field
evaluated for contour bunding and land levelling works
and the salient features of the unit include
Simple in design and construction
Ease of operation and transport
Increases the versatility of power tiller
Efficient performance in land levelling with transportation
efficiency of 86.6% and field performance index of
0.87.
Cost of the unit is Rs.3,000/-.
Cost of moving 1 m 3 of soil to 1 m distance is
Rs.3.30.
2. Tractor Drawn Blade Terracer
Blade terracer is an implement used for operations like
earth levelling, bunding, filling pits, making wide drain and
roads, back filling, etc. For application of scientific water
management technique, levelling is being increasingly
adopted along with the accelerated growth of farm
mechanization. Blade terracer is commonly used for
this urpose. The unit consists of a frame, blade, mould
board, mould board frame, blade tilt, scarifier, side plates,
60
stabilizer kit and a pitch adjusting screw. Size of the

terracer may be between 1.5 to 3.5 m, determined by the
length of the blade and the length of extension blade.
3. Dozer Blade
Commercially available tractor front mounted dozer blades
and bulldozer with front mounted blades are used for
heavy earth moving purposes.
Conclusion
The present situation of migration of labour to various
scholastic jobs and thrust for more production to feed
the increasing population makes dryland cultivation a
tiresome one. This situation necessitates the introduction

of a suitable machines for dryland farming. In the dynamic
and fast changing agricultural scenario of the country,
particularly diversification in the cropping pattern and
commercialization of agriculture more efficient and simple
implement / equipment are required by the farmers. The
potential of dry farming lands can be increased in the near
future by adopting a suitable package of practices aimed
at optimizing utilization of available moisture through
improved soil and water management by utilizing the
improved designs of moisture conservation implements.
References
Anonymous. 1987. Annual Report. All India Coordinated Research Project on Farm Implements and Machinery,
Coimbatore Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Anonymous. 1988. Annual Report of All India Coordinated Research Project on Farm Implements and Machinery,
Coimbatore Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Channappa, T.C. 1994. In-situ moisture conservation in arid and semi arid tropics. Indian Journal of Soil
Conservation, 22(1-2) : 26 - 41.
Durairaj, C.D., K.Kathirvel, R.Karunanithi and K.R.Swaminathan. 1992. Development of a basin lister actuated by
tractors hydraulic system.

61
7
Effect of in-situ moisture
conservation practices on runoff,
soil loss and yield performance
of Cashew (Anacardium
occidentale) in Goa
S. Manivannan
in the world. The Indian production of cashews contributes to around 4.6 lakhs tons per annum. The present
level of productivity in Goa is only about 466 kg ha -1,
which is very less as compared to national average (810
kg ha-1). Experience shows that the major factors for low
productivity are loss of fertile soil due to erosion and
inadequate moisture in root zones of trees due to excess
runoff. Several workers have reported runoff, soil and
nutrient losses under different agro-ecological situations
in India (Rai and Singh, 1986; Kale et al. 1993). Runoff and soil losses increased with increase in land slope
and varied with agronomic cover crops in North Konkan
region (Kale, et al. 1993). Badhe and Magar (2004) reported that trapezoidal shaped staggered trenches were
more effective in reducing surface runoff, soil and nutrient losses under hilly terrain in lateritic soils of Konkan
region of Maharashtra. On gentle slopes, vegetative barriers in different forms can sufficiently reduce runoff and
soil loss (Bhardwaj, 1994). Similarly, the surface runoff and soil loss was reduced by vegetative barriers in
sloppy land (Subudhi and Senapati, 1996; Subudhi et
al.,1998). However, studies on combination of mechanical measures with vegetative barriers for reducing soil
Introduction
The State of Goa covers an area of 3702 sq.
km and accounts for about one per cent of the total
geographical area of the country. The slope gradients
range from 5 to 20 percent and occasionally go up to
40 per cent. Majority of the soil series are coarse to
medium textured and well - drained with poor water
holding capacity. Plantation crops like cashew, mango,
arecanut, coconut etc. are predominantly occupying the
steep slopes of lower coastal ghats and central undulating uplands of Goa. Many of the hilly areas in Goa are
practically denuded and are still being denuded. With
the result of erosion a large quantity of the fertile soil
is transported from the fields. Most of the hilly areas in
Goa are under perennial horticultural crops with cashew
as predominant crop, which is occupying an area of
54,858 ha (Anonymous, 2005). India is the second largest producer of raw cashew in the world but conquers
the 1st place among the largest producing countries of
cashew kernels and also in the maximum area covered
that figures to be 7.70 lakh hectares currently. The country provides with around 55 % supply of cashew kernels
62
was recorded for three years period from 2005 to 2007.

Economic viability of different conservation measures
was also analyzed.
and water losses in cashew plantations are very limited.

Hence, an attempt was made to evaluate the effect of
different in-situ moisture conservation measures on runoff, soil loss reduction and impact on yield performance
of cashew trees.
Materials and Methods
Runoff
A time replicated trial was conducted at Research

Farm of ICAR Research Complex for Goa, representing
the undulating uplands and lateritic soils of Goa State
for a period of six years (2001-02 to 2006-07). The
area has a warm tropical climate with an average annual
temperature of 26.4C and soil temperature regime is
isohyperthermic. The Southwest monsoon yields a total
annual precipitation of about 2892 mm from June to
October from an average of 122 rainfall events. The soil
of the experimental site was acidic (pH -5.4 to 5.7) having organic carbon content of 1.1 per cent, available N
- 86 to 96 kg ha-1, P < 10 kg ha-1 and K 172 to 254 10
kg ha-1 . The mean slope of the experimental site was 14
% and gravel content of the soil varied from 48 to 58 %.
The experimental area was divided into runoff plots (75
X 22 m) and the following treatments were imposed.
The mean runoff of six years revealed that minimum runoff of 320.6 mm was produced in plots with
continuous contour trenches and vegetative barrier of
S. scabra and G. maculata followed by 391.2 mm
in staggered contour trenches with S. scabra and G.
maculata and 426.1 mm in crescent shape trenches
with S. scabra and G. maculata and 523.4 mm in S.
scabra and G. maculata against the mean runoff of
595.3 mm produced in the control plot. Similar trends
were reported (Badhe and Magar, 2004) while comparing the effect of various mechanical measures viz.,
ring terracing, platform terracing and staggered contour
trenching under cashew plantations. Runoff per cent under continuous contour trenches with vegetative barrier
of S. scabra + G. maculata reduced to 10.9 per cent
of total rainfall from 20.3 per cent under control thus
showing reduction of 46.3 per cent. Similarly, staggered
contour trenches with S. scabra and G. maculata
and crescent shape trenches with S. scabra and G.
maculata showed a reduction of runoff by 35 and 29.0
per cent, respectively (Table 1). This reduction in runoff
under different bioengineering measures was attributable
to their effect, which reduces runoff velocity and increases infiltration opportunity time for water.
T1 - Continuous Contour Trenching (CCT) +

Vegetative Barrier [Stylosanthus scabra + Glyricidia
maculata]
T2 - Staggered Contour Trenching (SCT) + Vegetative Barrier [Stylosanthus scabra + Glyricidia
maculata]
T3 - Crescent Shaped Trenches (CST) +Vegetative Barrier [Stylosanthus scabra + Glyricidia maculata]
Soil and Nutrient Losses

The annual soil loss was monitored for five years
period (2002-2006) and furnished in Table 2. More soil
loss was recorded in all the treatments during the year
2002 and reduced in subsequent years. This may be
due to the disturbance of topsoil by planting operations
in initial year. As the soil stabilized in subsequent years,
the soil losses were reduced. Overall, conservation practices reduced the soil loss by 3.1 to 6.5 t ha1 per year.
Continuous contour trenches with vegetative barrier of
S. scabra + G. maculata showed significant reduction
in average soil loss (1.8 t ha1) followed by staggered contour trenches with S. scabra and G. maculate (2.7 t
ha1) and crescent shape trenches + S. scabra and G.
maculata (2.9 t ha1) as compared to the control plot,
while a soil loss of 8.3 t ha1 was recorded under the
control plot.
T4 - Stylosanthus scabra + Glyricidia maculata alone as vegetative barrier

T5 Control (without any conservation measures)
Cashew (Goa 1) was planted at 6 m X 6 m
spacing as a main crop during the year 2001. The runoff
in each treatment was regularly measured for a period of
five years (From 2002 to 2006) by a series of multi-slot
devisors. The total runoff collected per day in all the
runoff tanks in each experimental plot was thoroughly
mixed and a one-liter runoff sample was taken for analysis and estimation of soil loss and nutrient loss. Soil and
water conservation efficiency of different conservation
measures was worked out by comparing the runoff and
soil loss of treated and untreated plots. Yield of cashew
63
hectare obtained during the three years period under all

the conservation measures are furnished in Table 4. All
the insitu moisture conservation measures significantly
increased the nut yield per tree as well as total yield when
compared to control plot. The data were statistically analyzed and the treatments were found significant.
Data on nutrient losses revealed that all the conservation measures reduced nutrient losses as compared
to control plot. The mean values indicate that minimum
nitrogen loss was 11.7 kg ha -1 in the treatment of continuous contour trenches with vegetative barrier of S.
scabra + G. maculata followed by 15.8 kg ha-1 in the
plot with staggered contour trenches and S. scabra +
G. maculata while the maximum nitrogen loss (29.1 kg
ha -1) was recorded in control plot. Similarly, potassium
losses were minimum (17.9 kg ha-1) in the treatment
of continuous contour trenches with S. scabra + G.
maculata followed by 21.7 kg ha-1 in the treatment of
staggered contour trenches with S. scabra + G. maculata as against the maximum potassium loss of 42.2 kg
ha -1 recorded in control plot. Phosphorus loss varied
from 0.1 to 0.2 kg ha-1 in all the treatments, which may
be due to low availability of phosphorus in the experimental site as well as the nature of phosphorus which
does not move in runoff as fast as other nutrients. The
soil and nutrient loss data shows that the continuous
contour trenches with vegetative barrier of S. scabra
+ G. maculata was the best conservation practice to
reduce the soil and nutrient loss among all the conservation treatments.
Maximum cashew nut yield of 6.80, 3.50 and

5.20 q ha-1 were recorded in treatment comprising of
continuous contour trenches with S. scabra + G. maculata during fourth, fifth and sixth years, respectively.
This was followed by 5.60 q ha-1 (fourth year), 2.80 q
ha-1 (fifth year) and 3.90 q ha-1 (sixth year) in SCT with
S. scabra + G. maculata treatment. The increased
cashew nut yield of 3.2, 1.9, and 1.2 q ha-1, respectively were recorded during sixth year in the treatments
of CCT, SCT and CST with vegetative barriers. Live barrier of S. scabra + G. maculata alone could increase
the yield of 0.5 q ha-1 during sixth year. The lowest cashew nut yields of 3.0, 1.6 and 2.0 q ha-1 during fouth,
fifth and sixth years, respectively was observed in control
plot where no conservation measure was adapted. This
showed that the soil and water conservation measures
helped to reduce surface runoff, soil and nutrient losses
and increased the yield of crop under lateritic hilly terrain of the region.
Soil, Water and Soil & Water Conservation

Efficiencies
Economic Feasibility of Conservation Measures
Soil conservation efficiency, water conservation

efficiency and soil and water conservation efficiency
were worked out during each year and the values are
given in Table 3. The mean values of water conservation efficiency of continuous contour trenches with S.
scabra + G. maculata, staggered contour trenches
with S. scabra + G. maculata and crescent shape
trenches with S. scabra + G. maculata were 46.2,
35.2 and 29.4 percent, respectively. Maximum mean
SCE of continuous contour trenches with S. scabra +
G. maculata, was 79.6 per cent. By and large the highest soil and water conservation efficiency was observed
in continuous contour trenches with S. scabra + G.
maculata (62.9 per cent).
Net present worth (NPW), Benefit-cost ratio

(BCR) and Internal rate of return (IRR) were also worked
out by accounting for the cost and benefits for a period
of 10 years and are given in Table 5. Maximum NPW of
Rs. 1, 64, 900 / ha was obtained under cashew cultivation with continuous contour trenches with S. scabra
+ G. maculata followed by Rs. 1,27,190 / ha under
cashew cultivation with staggered contour trenches
S. scabra + G. maculata. The lowest NPW (Rs. 43,410
/ ha) was obtained from the cashew field cultivated
without adapting any soil and water conservation measure. BCR was maximum (5.07) in continuous contour
trenches with S. scabra + G. maculata followed by
the treatment comprising of staggered contour trenches
with S. scabra + G. maculata (4.64) and crescent
shape trenches with S. scabra + G. maculata (4.46).
Similarly, maximum IRR of 13 per cent was obtained in
the treatment of continuous contour trenches followed
by 12.5 per cent of IRR in the treatments comprising of
staggered contour trenches with S. scabra + G. maculate. The least BCR (2.79) and IRR (10 per cent) were
Yield Performance of Cashew

The cashew plants commended yielding from
fourth year of plantation. Cashew yield was recorded
from fourth to sixth years of plantation (2004-05, 200506 and 2006-07). Average nut yield per tree and total
yield per hectare area were recorded and the effect of
conservation measures on these parameters was analyzed. Cashew nut yield per tree and the total yield per
64
obtained from the cashew field cultivated without soil

and water conservation measure.
in commencing enough soil moisture that would continue to be available to plants for a period of 6 months
after the cessation of the monsoon and increase the
cashew yield to 2.5 times than conventional practices.
BCR and IRR were higher under the continuous contour
trenches with S. scabra and G. maculata (5.07
and 13 per cent, respectively). Hence, the continuous
contour trenche with vegetative barriers was the best
in-situ moisture conservation measures as compared to
all other conservation measures for runoff and soil loss
reduction and increase in cashew yield.
Conclusions
Results revealed that in-situ moisture conservation measures with vegetative barriers are effective in
reducing the runoff, soil water and nutrient losses in new
cashew plantations. Continuous contour trenches with
vegetative barrier of S. scabra + G. maculata reduced
runoff by 46 % over all the practices. This treatment led
to the retention of 6500 kg of soil and 12 kg of N, 0.2
kg of P and 18 kg of K per ha. This practice would result
References
Anonymous. 2005. Estimation of area average yield and production of various crops in Goa State for the year 200405. Directorate of Agriculture, Government of Goa, Panaji.
Badhe, V.T. and Magar, S.S. 2004. Influence of different conservation measures on runoff, soil and nutrient loss
under cashewnut in lateritic soils of South Konkan region. Indian J. Soil. Cons., 32(2): 143-147.
Bhardwaj, S.P. 1994. Vegetative barriers as an effective economic and eco-friendly measure of erosion control on
agricultural lands. In: 8th ISCO Challenges and Opportunities, New Delhi, India: Pp. 204-205.
Kale, S. R, Salvi, V. G, Varade, P.A. and Kadrekar, S. B., 1993. Effect of different per cent slopes and crops on
runoff, soil and organic Carbon loss in latteritic soil of West Cost Konkan - Maharashtra, Annual Convention,
Indian Society of Soil Science, Dehradun.
Prasad, S.N., R.K. Singh, Shakir Ali and A.K. Parandiyal. 2005. Comparative performance of grass barriers on erosion
and crop yields in medium black soils of Kota. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 33 (1): 58-61.
Rai, R.N. and Singh, A. 1986. Effect of hill slopes on runoff, soil loss and nutrient loss and rice yield. Indian J.
Soil Cons., 14 (2): 1-6.
Subudhi, C.R. and P.C. Senapati. 1996. Runoff and soil loss under different vegetative measures in Kalahandi district
of Orissa. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 24 (2):82-83.
Subudhi, C.R., P.C.Pradhan and P.C. Senapati. 1998. Effect of vegetative barrier on soil erosion and yield of rice in
Eastern Ghats. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 26 (2): 95-98.
65
Table 1:
Percentage of runoff to rainfall under different conservation measures
Year
Runoff (mm)
CCT + VB
SCT + VB
CST + VB
VB alone
Control
2002
8.3
9.5
9.2
11.9
16.3
2003
12.8
15.4
17.4
21.4
23.2
2004
9.1
10.3
12.2
14.6
16.1
2005
13.0
16.4
17.2
21.3
24.0
2006
11.4
14.6
15.9
19.4
21.7
Mean
10.9
13.2
14.4
17.7
20.3
Table 2: Annual soil loss as influenced by different bio-engineering measures

Soil loss (t ha-1 yr -1)
Year
CCT + VB
SCT + VB
CST + VB
VB alone
Control
2002
3.1
4.3
4.3
8.5
12.9
2003
2.3
3.4
3.8
6.9
10.4
2004
1.5
2.7
4.2
7.9
2005
1.1
1.7
1.8
3.4
5.3
2006
0.8
1.5
1.6
4.9
Mean
1.8
2.7
2.9
5.2
8.3
Table 3:
Year
Water, soil and soil and water conservation efficiencies of different conservation measures
Treatment
CCT + VB
SCT + VB
CST + VB
VB alone
43.3
25.1
24.0
28.2
26.6
29.4
27.0
7.7
9.5
11.3
10.9
13.3
66.7
63.5
62.0
66.0
67.3
65.1
51.8
33.7
46.8
35.8
38.8
41.4
55.0
44.3
43.0
47.1
47.0
47.3
39.4
20.7
28.2
23.6
24.8
27.3
Water conservation efficiency (per cent)

2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Mean
49.3
45.0
43.5
46.0
47.3
46.2
41.9
33.6
36.2
31.6
32.9
35.2
Soil and water conservation efficiency (per cent)

2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Mean
76.0
77.9
81.0
79.2
83.7
79.6
66.7
67.3
65.8
67.9
69.4
67.4
Soil and water conservation efficiency (per cent)

2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Mean
62.6
61.4
62.2
62.6
65.5
62.9
54.3
50.5
51.0
49.8
51.1
51.3
66
Table 4: Cashew yield under different conservation measures during

the fourth, fifth and sixth year of plantation
Total yield (q ha-1)
Nut yield per tree (kg)

Treatment
CCT + VB
SCT + VB
CST + VB
VB alone
Control
CV
CD p (0.05)
2004-05
(IV th year)
2005-06
(Vth year)
2006-07
(VIth year)
2004-05
(IVth year)
2005-06
(Vth year)
2006-07
(VIth year)
2.5
2.0
1.8
1.3
1.1
15.6
0.51
1.2
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.6
17.1
0.28
1.9
1.4
1.2
0.9
0.7
15.9
0.37
6.8
5.6
4.9
3.5
3.0
15.2
1.36
3.5
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
16.4
0.76
5.2
3.9
3.2
2.5
2.0
15.0
0.96
Table 5: Net present worth, benefit cost ratio and internal rate of return
of different conservation measures adopted for cashew crop
Conservation measures
Continuous Contour Trench + S. scabra + G. maculata
Staggered Contour Trench + S. scabra + G. maculata
Crescent Shape Trench + S. scabra + G. maculata
S. scabra + G. maculata alone
Without conservation measures
67
NPW
(Rs. / ha.)
BCR
IRR (%)
1,64,900
1,27,190
1,09,130
69,090
43,410
5.07
4.64
4.46
3.74
2.79
13.0
12.5
11.0
10.0
10.0
Theme 2
Water Harvesting at Micro-Watershed
Level-Continuation
8
Drought Mitigation through
Floodwater Harvesting for
the Artificial Recharge of
Groundwater: Prudence vs Large
Dams
Sayyed Ahang Kowsar
(BP)! Thus, depleting the very last resort, we have to face

a precarious water shortage in the most severe drought
in a living memory.
Introduction
Iran was the land of floods, droughts and qanats
until 1945, when the inappropriate technologies, cable
tool and powerful pumps invaded our groundwater
resources. The arrival of rotary drilling machines in the
late 60s blew coup de grce to our aquifers (Kowsar,
1991; Mohammadnia and Kowsar, 2003). Not only the
lowering of the watertable beneath the qanat galleries
made more than 20,000 of them nonfunctional, but also
caused saline water intrusion into freshwater aquifers
and land subsidence in many plains a common place
phenomenon. Kassas (1987) is of the opinion that
the falling watertable in arid areas, where most water
needs are supplied through underground resources, is a
variation of drought. Therefore, we are doubly trapped
in the agricultural and hydrological droughts of our own
making, and the climatic drought that Nature has forced
upon us. Judging our precipitation history from the
studies of Vita-Finzi (1979) on the alluvium deposition in
the Tehran area, we have over-exploited in less than 60
years most of the groundwater that Nature had bestowed
upon us between 38,000 to 6,000 years before present
It is inconceivable that our compatriots, especially

the policy-makers, are unaware of our climatological
history. About 90% of our country is semi-arid, arid
and hyper arid. Recurrent and prolonged droughts in
such environments are a rule rather than an exception.
These periods are usually interrupted by flood-producing
downpours that devastate the drought-stricken people,
particularly nomad herders who inhabit the low-laying
area surrounding water holes. With all these risks, the
desert-dwellers have adapted themselves to the vagaries
of the climate following the Genesis Strategy. The
following historical account is the wake up call for the
rulers of drought-prone countries.
The gradual warming of the climate, which
attained its optimum range about 8,000 years ago,
and perhaps abundant precipitation, brought about
the prerequisites for the formation of human societies.
Matthews (1976) postulated that high precipitation
from 8,000 to 5,000 years ago blessed the present
69
African Sahara and the Arabian desert, and provided

the groundwork for the evolution of great civilizations in
the Fertile Crescent, which extended from Palestine
to the Persian Gulf (northern parts of present-day Saudi
Arabia). Then, an 800-year drought (5,000-4,200 BP)
transformed all this area into a desert, and forced the
Semites to migrate to the Levant (present-day Syria). This
droughty period affected the Sind Valley and obliterated
the Harapan Civilization. This vast area, which was once
covered with forests, is now so dry that rainfed farming
is impossible over most of it; only a name remains from
an outstanding civilization that peaked 5,300 year
ago (Linton, 1955). Frequent droughty periods, which
occurred from 2500 to 1600 BP, destroyed the North
African agriculture and forests of Lebanon and Galilee
(Matthews, 1976). Prolonged droughts cause famine,
mass starvation, immigration, and finally, termination of
the affected civilizations.
and Australia during 1965-1967. Two consecutive poor

monsoons resulted in grain crops about 20% below
average. China has suffered 1,828 famines from 108
BC to 1911 AD, of which the number of deaths for the
1876-1879, 1892-1894 and 1928-1929 periods were
9-13, 1, and 3 million, respectively. In the great drought
of 1921-1922 grain production was less than one-half of
an average crop for 2 consecutive years; between 1.25
and 5 million people starved in the former Soviet Union,
particularly in the Ukraine and Volga region (Anon.,
1973; Anon., 1978).
Nicholson (1978) studied 5 centuries of climatic
variations in the Sudano-Sahelian region by analyzing
lake-level variations and stream regime changes.
Reconstruction of past climates, particularly precipitation
events, revealed that the famines of the 1681-1687,
1738-1756 and 1828-1839 periods were due to severe
droughts. According to the travel account of Browne
(Nicholson, 1978) in 1799, the now dry Bahr el-Ghazal
valley of Chad was flooded at that time, since he had
traveled the distance between Lake Chad to Borkou by
canoe. The level of Lake Chad receded to its lowest in
500 years during the 1828-1839 period.
Although the most obvious cause of famine is

prolonged droughts, other natural phenomena and
human-mediated disasters should not be forgotten.
Freezing weather, floods, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, outbreaks of plant and animal pests and
diseases, epidemics, wars, and wrongful policies of
governments and colonialists are also instrumental in
the occurrence of famine. Keeping these exceptions in
mind, the records of famine may be used to reconstruct
previous droughts.
The 1968-1973 drought resulted in 500,000

deaths in 8 African countries in 1973, from Mauritania
in the west to Ethiopia in the east, where 200,000
starved (Anon., 1983; Anon., 1983). Again, about 1
million people starved during the 1984-1985 drought
in Ethiopia (Johnson, 1990); the loss in cattle in the
1983-1984 drought numbered 1.5 million (Biswas et al.,
1987).
The first authentic written record is based on

the Stele of famine from 5,500 BP discovered on a
tomb in the Nile that describes the lack of Nile flood for
7 years and the vast misfortune caused by the drought
(Anon., 1973, p.58-59). The 7 good and 7 lean years
during the time of Prophet Joseph, which probably
occurred around 1675 BC, have been mentioned in the
Bible and the Glorious Koran (the Chapter of Joseph,
verses 43-49). Failure of Nile flood for 7 years (10641072) resulted in cannibalism in Egypt (Anon., 1973:
58; Anon., 1978). Droughts in India during the 917918, 1148-1159, 1344-1345, 1396-1407, 1630,
1661, 1669-1670, 1769-1770, 1783, 1790-1792,
1803-1804, 1837-1838, 1861, 1866, 1868-1870,
1874, 1876-1878, 1896-1897, 1899-1901 and 19431944 periods caused starvation of millions. Three to 10
million deaths occurred in the drought of 1769-1770 in
Bengal, India, which, at the highest estimate, was onethird of the population. India would have suffered a major
famine in 1966-67 were it not for the importation of 26
million tons of grain to that country by the U.S., Canada,
Persian historians and poets have reported the

accounts of famines in Iran and parts of the Old World.
Ferdowsi (940-1020) discussed the 7-year drought during
the reigns of Kaykavoos and Pirooz, son of Yazdgerd, and
the 4-year drought during the reign of Bahram-e-Goor
(throned 421, died 438). Saadi (1209-1295) mentioned
the drought during the time of Khalifa Omar-benAbdolaziz and also in Lebanon in 1245. The History of
Sistan (Anon., no date) described the story of drought in
835 in Afghanistan and Sistan. Naser Khosrow (10031088) reported the droughts in Qazvin (1046), Mecca
(1047-1048), and Isfahan (1052). Hamdollah Mostoufi
(1329) and Abdollah Vassaf (died in 1330) reported the
drought of Qazvin in 1217, and that of 1284-1286 in
Fars, respectively; about 100,000 people starved in the
Fars famine. Chardin (1643-1713) observed the 1669
Isfahan famine first hand. Fasaii (1895) reported the
70
famines of 1729, 1747, 1866-1867 and 1871 in some

parts of Iran, and Khanshaqaqi (1974), told of the 1871
drought in Tehran when the British envoy extraordinary
provided relief funds from India and personally distributed
bread among the needy. The famines of 1866-1867 and
1871, and also the very high prices of food in 1878
reported by Fasaii were due to the recurrent droughts
during the 1860-1880 period that Andreas and Stolze
published their report on drought in Iran in 1885 (Reza
et al., 1971).
main causes of this disaster. Construction of the Kohak

Diversion Dam on the Hirmand during 1965-1966,
which misfired and diverted the Iranian share of the flow
towards Afghanistan, was another reason for the ruin of
numerous farms in the Sistan region.
Short-duration droughts, in which the rainfall
is less than the mean annual precipitation, mainly
cause livestock and cattle loss due to a relative lack of
nutritious forage and subsequent diseases that befall
them. Although these events do not cause famine and
starvation, the financial loss to farmers and herders is
enormous. The drought period that peaked in 1891
caused the loss of 50 million sheep in Australia (Arnon,
1972: 106). During the same period, the rainy 1870s
in the American Great Plains was followed by a decade
of drought (Dregne, 1977). Iran, India, and Russia
experienced famine during the same decade. What would
happen if this misfortune repeats itself? ... wherefore
take example, you who are endowed with sight (The
Glorious Koran, Chapter 59 [Emigration], verse 2), More
recently, the livestock population of Algeria, which had
risen to 8 million, was reduced to 2 million in 1945
owing to a few lean years (Arnon, 1972: 99).
En masse migration of the rural population,

abandonment of villages, and their eventual ruin are
usually caused by droughts. The famine of 1869-1871
left many homesteads abandoned. The population
of Qom, which was 25,382 in 1867, was reduced to
14,000 by 1874 (Lambton, 1953).
Living conditions in Sistan, an extremely arid
region in Iran, wholly depend on the precipitation on the
Hirmand Watershed, our relationships with Afghanistan,
and the general policy of the Iranian Government. The
1948 drought in Afghanistan resulted in heavy losses
to cattle herders in the Sistan area (Lambton, 1953).
Flooding of Hirmand in 1949 caused a few years of
drought. Extensive reed beds and rangeland, which were
usually grazed by the cattle and livestock, dried out. This
misfortune intensified poverty. Breaching of levees and
failure of irrigation systems due to flooding were the
Table 1:
Wet years with abundant flood-producing rainfalls

occur frequently in dry areas too. The Land of Iran has
repeatedly experienced devastating flooding, a number
of which from 937 to 1950 are reported in Table 1.
Some of the notable flooding events of Iran from 937 to 1950 (after Melville, 1984)
Date
Locality
Remarks
937
Sari
All buildings destroyed; inhabitants fled to foothills; local officials warned not to act
oppressively
Collapse of a bund (dyke or dam) north of the city; poor harvest the next year; city walls rebuilt
by 1040-41
Huge area of Sistan and Hirmand delta affected; Zarang under water for three months; over
300 people died in province
Further flooding washes away most of Sistans grain
Catastrophic flood after 5 days [of] continuous heavy rain; water ruined the districts on the E.
and S. side of town, spilled over the moat and destroyed part of citadel; lasted 36 hrs. Flight
to high ground
Most of the buildings were ruined
Caused by early summer snowmelt; flooded qanats; flash flood destroys half town, the citadel
and all the corn lands
Heavy rainfall in upper reaches of Qara Aghach, causing floods in Shiraz and Shabankareh
region of Fars. Karzin area inundated; Buyid bridge at Pul-i Arus broken by palm trees carried
in spate
Catastrophic flood after weeks of rain; river from hills south of the town broke through flood
barrier; qanats from Muhrijird district destroyed; enormous damage to buildings in Yazd; at
least 1000 tumans of personal property destroyed apart from loss of houses, gardens and
cultivated lands etc. Great damage also at Taft. Miraculously, no lives lost. No relief was given
but on the contrary great oppression was shown towards the victims
Following violent hailstorms on hills to N.E. of the city, a torrent that damaged Gazdi Gah
and the plains north of Herat
1037
Oct. 24
1243
Zarang (Sistan)
Sistan
1244
1275
Mar. 31
Apr. 25
Sistan
Yazd
1371
1404
May ?
Tabriz
Jajarm
1442
Spring ?
Karzin Shiraz Fars
1456
Apr. 13
Yazd, Taft
1493
Apr. 14
Herat
71
1558
1593
1594
Mar. 13
Summer
Feb.
1600
Qazvin
Sarab
Most of W. Iran
and the towns on
the edge of the
Dasht-i kavir
Amul
1630
1636
Spring
Shiraz
Qum
Date
1668
Dec.
Locality
Shiraz
1670
1710
1813
1832
Spring
Qum
Saveh
Khuzistan
Khuzistan
1851
Apr. 10
Qazvin
1867
Apr. ?
Kashan district
1867
May 7
Tehran
1868
Spring
Khuzistan
1870
1871
1871
1872
Mazinan (Khurasan)
Aug. 31
May
Tabriz
Damghan
Asadabad
Flood ruined 2000 houses in the Darb-i Abhar quarter of Qazvin

Flood after 48 hours [of] heavy rain, completed earthquake destruction
Af ter t wo days of v iolent a nd de str uct ive N. w i nds over (Per sia n) Iraq,
heav y rai n caused extensive f loo di ng of river s; Zaya ndeh-r ud over f lowed
de stroying water mi l ls a nd bridge s; ir rigat ion ca nals fi l led up w it h debris;
much destruction also of buildings and gardens in and around Qum; in Qazvin, the deluge burst
at midnight; attempts to block the spate with planks and boards and doors of houses proved
futile, but it was ultimately diverted by carpets, felts and other fabrics draped over large tree
trunks, away from the areas containing the government buildings; one or two other quarters
were however demolished. The flood also affected Kirman, and Yazd, where a torrent from
Taft wiped out all buildings and cultivation, which reverted to desert. Few places in the whole
country escaped the effects of this storm and the resultant flood. In the spring, plague broke out
in Isfahan, causing heavy mortality and emigration to nearby towns until the autumn; cholera
reported in Qazvin
A great flood of the river Haraz destroyed Amul and surrounding villages killing thousands
of people who were caught unawares. Area repopulated with imported Georgian captives.
Landslides in the Namarustaq district created a small lake which later drained down to the
sea
Heavy snow and torrential rains cause heavy flood damage around Shiraz
Sudden inundation of Qum river following rainfall in mountains; caused great loss of life and
destruction of 1000 houses
Remarks
Disastrous flood destroyed a third of the town, and prompted its desertion by a number of
the inhabitants; followed by an epidemic
Two thousand houses and all the ancient buildings ruined
Town ruined by a deluge
Flooding of Karun after heavy rains
Heavy floods carried away portions of the bridges at Shushtar and Dizful; the correct date
may rather be 1837
Four quarters of the town were damaged with the loss of more than 3000 houses; Shah grants
funds for construction of a barrier; heavy and prolonged rain reported from Tabriz in March
and April
D i s a st ro u s f l o o d i n g fo l l ow s t h re e c o n s e c u t i ve d ay s o f r a i n ; g a r d e n s o n
W. side of Kashan completely flooded, qanats ruined and ditches filled up, walls collapse and
damage to houses; runoff from river and foothills floods villages to the north of Kashan such
as Nushabad, Aran and Bidgul, villagers abandon hope but floods cease before the whole
district completely destroyed. Total cost of property, damage to houses and gardens, loss of
cultivation from break down of water supply and incurred in repairing and cleaning the qanats
estimated at 200,000 tumans
A flash flood struck Tehran (heavy rain reported the previous week) and filled the city moat,
overflowing to flood the low-lying sections, where 120 houses were destroyed, several people
lost their lives
Heavy floods in Khuzistan; possibly affecting Sush (Susa). This event should probably more
correctly be dated 1870, as below
A torrent from the Kuh-i Chagatai swept away most of Mazinan and other villages, such as
Behnamabad, on the fringe of the kavir. Mazinan was rebuilt about half a mile N. of the ruined
site and attracted settlers from the other villages thatg were affected
Great damage caused in Tabriz; poem written to commemorate the event
Flood following two days rain; apparently not damaging
Flash flood burst through dam and inundated Asadabad to a level of two feet of water; much
destruction of property and loss of life
72
9
Tank Systems for Water
Harvesting
R. Sakthivadivel
Introduction
Water harvesting and storage has been a key strategy
against water scarcity in semi-arid regions of the tropics
because of sporadic spatial and temporal distribution of
precipitation. As opposed to many modern agricultural
systems structured around large reservoirs and distribution
systems, small tanks and cascades, predominantly
supplied by surface run off have been used for centuries
as water harvesting structures at micro- and mesocatchment levels
The term water tanks is interpreted differently in
different parts of the country. In south India, water tanks
are usually called irrigation tanks. These are storage
structures built on the ground (with out digging) from
which water is let out by gravity flow through sluice out
let and overflow spillway. In addition to these tanks, there
exists in each village a number of dugout structures called
ponds used for domestic and livestock purposes. In the
north Indian context it appears that there is no difference
between ponds and tanks and are used interchangeably for
any small water holding structure. Both tanks and ponds
are included under water tanks discussed here in.
Water tanks have been in existence in India over centuries.
They have not been constructed at any particular time
period but came into existence as a sequel to population

pressure and demand for additional. Water storage to meet
peoples livelihood needs. Because tanks were constructed
over the land surface without digging, availability of
suitable abutting sites to locate a tank played a major role
in choosing a site for constructing a tank. The tanks of
south India vary over a wide range in their command,
catchments and water spread areas (ranging from a few
hectares to hundreds of hectares). Their ratio among
these three parameters also varies widely (Sakthivadivel,
2004).
South Indian Tanks
Tanks in south India are classified in a number of ways.
They are classified as PWD tanks. Panchayat tanks and
Ex-Zamin tanks. PWD tanks have command areas greater
then 40ha. While Panchayat tanks have command areas
lees than 40 ha. Ex-Zamin tanks are those managed by
Zamindars which have now been transferred to either
PWD or Panchayat depending on the size of the tanks.
Tanks are also classified as rain fed tanks and system
tanks. Rains fed tanks receive their water supply from
their own catchments while system tanks receive runoff
from its own catchment as well as supply diverted from
73
rivers/reservoirs through canals. Then comes the cascade

of tanks; these are tanks big and small interconnected
and located within a watershed.
North Indian Tanks
In the North Indian context also, there are big and small
tanks. The big tanks which store water recharge the
aquifer as well as retain sufficient soil moisture in the
unsaturated thick layer of clay tank bed. When the water
is emptied from the tank bed, then the tank bed itself is
used for taking one winter crop with the soil moisture
stored in the tank bed and occasionally supplemented
by nearby well water. So, basically tanks are used as
inundation tanks. There are also tanks basically meant
for rearing fish. In the semi arid regions such as Kutch
and Bhal regions in Gujarat, and in some dry areas of
Rajasthan tanks are constructed with lined PVC sheets
to prevent contamination with underlying saline water as
well as to prevent deep percolation losses. These tanks
are mainly used for drinking water supplies to humans
and animals.
Who Owns Water Tanks?
Historically water tanks were common property of village
community; they were owned, maintained and managed
by the beneficiaries. The benefits accruing out of the tank
and its water use including usufruct rights were enjoyed
by the village community especially women, landless and
poor. After the introduction of Ryotwari system by the
British colonial regime in 1857, the Government took over
the tanks and handed over to PWD and Panchayat for
maintenance and management. It then started collecting
tax from tank water users and controlling the usufructs
from the tanks through Revenue Department. As a result,
the villagers lost interest in tank maintenance; and what
was once a multiple use tank has come to be known as
irrigation tanks because irrigators pay tax for tank water
use and they claim users rights over tanks.
Recently with NGOs involvement in tank rejuvenation
programme, tanks are again considered as common
property resource of the village to provide equal access to
all including those landless, women and poor and meant
for multiple uses.
Tank Performance
In the recent past, tank irrigated area is on the decline;
tank maintenance and management is abysmal; many
tanks have degenerated and become defunct for various
reasons. Some of the reasons for under performance
are:
Because of onslaught of private ground water development
and Govt. emphasis on large and medium scale irrigation
projects, investment on water tanks and Govts focus on
managing and maintaining these tanks have considerably

been reduced.
Population pressure coupled with diminishing land per
capita has fueled encroachment of waterways and tank
beds thereby exacerbating the degeneration of tanks.
Physical rehabilitation of tank proper with de-silting of
tank beds and repair to the bund is being attempted in a
haphazard manner. The impact of such isolated work on
tank performance is minimal.
Change in tank hydrology due to erratic rainfall distribution
and land use pattern changes in tank catchment, large
scale ground water development, weakening of tank
institutions and less profitability of tank based agriculture
are some of the other major reasons for underperformance
of tanks.
Tank Irrigation
There are 39202 irrigation tanks of varied size and
capacity in the state of Tamil Nadu. Of this, 8903 tanks
including 3627 system tanks are maintained by PWD
presently known as Water Resources Department. The
rest of the tanks are in charge of local Panchayat Union.
The PWD and the Panchayat Union will look after the
source and the tank proper. But the water distribution
and water regulation are with the villagers especially the
farmers who are the beneficiaries. Being small systems,
almost every village may have at least one tank and the
villagers who have cultivated with tank water claim some
ownership. They have been operating and maintaining
these systems through village committees.
Due to the neglect on the part of Government and
community at large, these tanks fell into the various cycle
of Rehabilitation Poor maintenance Deterioration
Rehabitation. During the late 1970s, the Government of
Tamilnadu started to plan a comprehensive modernization
of the PWD tanks with assistance from Economic
Council and subsequently Panchayat tanks with external
funding.
The present approach adopted by both the Government
and the funding agencies and their impact can be
characterized as:
(1)
Top- down , inflexible and blue print approach
with less involvement of local communities in
planning, implementing and managing
the system.
(2)
74
It is a piece meal approach focused on tank

proper and not the tank system as a whole. The
concept that the tank system is embedded in
a watershed and as a result, the tank system
needs to be considered in the context of
watershed, taking into account the impact of

upstream and downstream effects has not
permeated in the planning process.
(3)
Tank systems are locally managed systems by

local communities. For efficient and effective
sustainable management, involvement of local
communities from the very beginning of
rehabilitation process is imperative. Local
institutions are to be created, strengthen, their
capacities built and adequate empowerment of
rights and responsibilities are to be bestowed
upon. At present, the weakest link is between
the people who are the real stakeholders of the
tank and the government agency who
implement the tank program.
(4)
During the drought period, the ground water

drinking wells gets recharged due to
rehabilitation of tanks; provide adequate water
and the most benefited of these augmented
recharge are the poor and landless people;
Otherwise, they need to walk long distances to
get a pot of water or they have to pay through
their noses to purchase drinking water.
(5)
Rehabilitation of tanks and related

improvements in the agriculture systems
increases the intensity of agriculture, changes
the crops and cropping pattern and increases
the agricultural production and the livestock
population. All these changes increase the
demand for labour and by this the landless and
the poor people are able to get more number of
days of labour work both on- season and offseason.
(6)
A number of studies carried out on rehabilitated

tanks indicate that the wells in and around the
tank get additionally recharged due to increased
storage of tank water, stored over a longer
period of time. When adequate and reliable
supply of water is available, farmers go for crop
diversification with high value crops. What was
originally used for one crop, now two crops are
grown. In this process, there are instances that
more than what the recharged water will be
pumped out especially during drought year. If
the drought continues for more than one year,
over extraction takes place; wells dry;
competitive drilling and well digging among

farmers take place, wasting their hard earned
money. Ground water is considered as private
property and as such those who own lands
can pump groundwater underneath their land to
any extent without government control.
Groundwater has to be treated as common
property and necessary laws must be enacted
to regulate and use the groundwater in
conjunction with rainfall and tank surface
water. Many farmers in the tank command
area who own wells do not participate in the
collective action of maintaining and managing
the tanks thinking that they have wells which
can be depended upon to supply water when
there is no tank water. Of late with a
deterioration of tank maintenance ground water
level in the command is fast declining and
shallow wells become dry. There is now a
realization among well owning farmers that
unless the tank and supply channels maintained
properly and tank water is augmented their
wells will not be able to supply adequate
quantity of water.
75
(7)
Deforestation, over grazing, soil erosion and

siltation have a very great impact on the tank
performance and supply of water to the tanks.
The impact of siltation on supply channel is
very great in that it effectively prevents the
water from catchments entering into the tank;
added to this is the human intervention in the
supply channels such as encroachment,
construction of roads and culverts resulting in
drastic reduction in water supply to the tanks.
One of the major causes of deforestation and
overgrazing is increased soil erosion leading to
siltation of tank beds causing degeneration of
tank and reduced storage capacity.
Deforestation has also impact on tank supply,
the distribution of which is affected by
deforestation thereby affecting agricultural
operation in the tank command.
(8)
The specific economic benefits that tank

development provides in the long run are:
increase in agricultural intensity and output;
increased fish, milk and bio-mass production
and rise in ground water levels.
(9)
One of the major social benefits that the tank

rehabilitation can bestow on landless and
women is to mitigate migration to other places
(both seasonal and permanent). Women have to
bear the brunt of most of migration. Other
kinds of benefit that can accrue out of
rehabilitation are to provide income earning
avenues such as fishing rights, right to tank bed
cultivation, right to use tank bed silt, right to
make bricks and right to have community dug
well in the tank bed and share that water
among command area of farmers.
(10)
The indirect impact is mainly the availability of

drinking water throughout the year due to
increased recharge from rehabilitated tanks and
maintenance of groundwater levels.
trees.
Revenue occurred to tank users due to tank usu
fructs such as trees, fish, silt, brick etc.
Establishing community well in tank bed and selling
water by TUA.
Annual auctioning of village common land for pri
vate use.
Charging well owners extra for pumping seepage
water from tank.
Entrance and annual fees charged from members of
TUA.
Village common fund for tank use.
Income generation through purchase of equipment
and hiring it out to farmers.
Allow farmers to pump dead storage in the tank
and charge them.
Governance Structure for Tanks at The State Level
At the state level, the funding for maintenance and
management for tanks is meager resulting in deferred
maintenance and leading to rehabilitation with donor
funds. Much of the funds provided for maintenance go
for administrative expenses leaving very little money for
physical maintenance. While implementing donor funded
projects, the approach is bureaucratic, top down, no
involvement of farmers in all activities of rehabilitation,
no expertise is used in institution building exercise and
no involvement of NGOs. The end result is that the
project envisaged is not implemented properly leading to
substandard and un-sustainable performance.
At the district level there are system tank, PWD tank, and
panchayat tanks.
In a cascade of tanks, one may come across PWD tanks
and Panchayat tanks lying one after the other. Under
such situations, rehabilitating PWD tanks alone without
attending to Panchayat tanks will delink the supply
channels and the full benefits of rehabilitation may not be
achieved. The tanks in a river basin irrespective of their
size and type, should be handled by one agency at least
for planning purposes and such agency must be tagged
on to the Basin Authority so that the water in a basin
context can be accounted for and the available water can
be put to productive uses through integrated planning at
the basin level. At Panchayat level too not much of coordination exists between Panchayat and TUAs. Further
devolution of powers to Gram Sabha level is necessary
to have an effective interaction between the lowest level
Government bureaucracy and the TUAs.
After a period of nearly three decades of implementing
rehabilitation projects, the government agencies have
realized the importance of involving user community
Institutions for Tank Management

There are different groups which undertake rehabilitation,
maintenance and management of tank systems. In some
tank systems hereditary leadership maintains and manages
the tank system even today. There are tanks which are
purely managed by women SHG during rehabilitation
(Grama Vikas). Then there are groups formed by the
representatives of all tank water users including the
landless and women; they work satisfactorily in single
caste and multi-caste villages. Some tanks are directly
managed by Gram Sabha. There are tanks which are
entrusted to certain people in the villages (called kaval
maniam and neer maniam) for maintaining and managing
the tank systems with clear water regulations evolved
over time and regulated by village Panchayats. So there
is no single model that one can say that it works in all
places under all sociocultural , economic and political
settings. From successfully operating tanks we can infer
that the tank management group must be broad based
representing the interest of all users and the users must
have faith and confidence in the group and they should
feel that they are all treated fairly and equitably.
Resource mobilization by the user group for tank
maintenance and management.
The various methods adopted for resource mobiliza
tion by the tank user association are:
Foreshore cultivation with fast growing tress inter
cropped with fodder for livestock.
Tank bed cultivation with pumpkin, watermelon,
cucumber, napier- grass etc.
Tank bed cultivation with coconut and tamarind
76
in tank maintenance and management. They are ready

to transfer these functions without neither empowering
the local community to make decisions nor to enjoy the
usufructs of tanks. Recent studies by Anna University
and others have indicated that farmers are capable of
planning, constructing maintaining and managing the
system in a more efficient and cost effective manners and
capable of integrating indigenous knowledge with modern
technological development to get the optimum output in a
sustainable manners. The total involvement of farmers in
all phases of rehabilitation process is necessary to make
rehabilitation process successful and to get the benefits
expected out of rehabilitation.
Cost Effective Tank Rehabilitation
To make tank rehabilitation cost effective four aspects
are suggested:
1.
Tank rehabilitation work must be planned and
implemented by TUAs with support from NGO
and the government agencies. Only20 to 25%
of the sanctioned budget is utilized or works in
the case of contractors implemented projects
whereas nearly100%of the fund allocated to
TUAs through GO goes to work in addition to
farmers contribution raging from 10to 25%.
2.
The second aspect is whether the tank proper,

or tank with its catchment and command
area, or integrated watershed treatment with
rehabilitation of tank cascade should be taken
up and which is cost effective? There is no clear
cut answer available to this question. A few
experiments carried out in the recent past
point to the fact that tank cascade should be
taken up for rehabilitation under the watershed
development programme.
3.
The third aspect is to use machine and men

in appropriate mix that will be cost effective for
tank rehabilitation.
4.
The fourth aspect is de-silting of tanks as a

component of rehabilitation. There are
arguments for and against de-silting as a
component of rehabilitation. A few impact
studies carried out recently indicate the selective
de-silting of tank improves tank performance. It
increases the dead storage for domestic
and livestock use, allows to rear fish and
provides supplementary irrigation through
pumping.
Concluding Remarks
Tanks have been existence from time immemorial. Even today some of the tanks maintained and managed properly
functions well and provides sustainable services. So,
tank systems are sustainable if proper maintenance and
management is bestowed upon them.
Tanks are decentralized systems catering to the needs
of local community have played a very important role
in irrigation and in the local eco-system in areas with
relatively low (annual rainfall of 1000mm or less) such as
in most parts of Karnataka, Andra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu.
Through the ages, Indian agriculture has been sustained by
natural and man-made water bodies such as lakes, ponds
and similar structures. It has been estimated that there are
more than a million such structures and about 500,000
are used for irrigation. Many of them have fallen into
disuse. Many of them have accumulated silt. Many required
urgent repairs. The three important factors contributing
to the under performance of tanks are : siltation and
encroachment; ground water development; weak
organizational structure and government interference.
Although inscriptional and other evidence indicates that
tanks continued to be constructed over a long historical
period, the original plan seems to have certainly been
a grand one, which considered a large network of
interconnected chains of tanks, running all the way from
Eastern Ghats down to the Bay of Bengal. It is difficult
to imagine that tanks would have been constructed one
by one and at some point would have formed perfectly
connected systems.
Only recently, modern irrigation experts have begun
river basin as an appropriate unit for designing irrigation
systems. This was an established practice in ancient
times. The curvature of the tank bunds designed to be
elliptical to give maximum strength to the embankment,
the stone facing on the inner side of the bund to minimize
the action of waves forces and the tank sluices of plug
and rod type are outstanding example of the engineering
ability of Indian builders.
Closely related to the engineering design of the tanks
is the social organizations necessary to maintain and
manage the vast network in the tank systems which
are important in order to comprehend the related social
organization: (i) Each tank irrigates, usually, fields lying
within one village or at most a few villages. Hence, each
tank needs to be locally managed. (ii) Where tanks are
interconnected, which is usually the case, integration of
supra-local or supra-village localities must be possible in
77
order to maintain and manage the entire chain of tanks.

The existing literature indicates that the social and political
organizations of pre-British India were designed to meet
this need.
The historical material on irrigation organization and
structures and some recent data on the local and supralocal organization of the pre-British Indian societies
together underline the fact that the Indian civilization
placed a great value on decentralization of resources
and political power which automatically set a limit to the
size of irrigation structures. Large scale systems such as
modern dams would not have been compatible with the
values and goals of the Indian civilization. The traditional
irrigation technology of tanks, anaicuts etc were also
ecologically the optimal solution for the natural conditions
obtaining in certain parts of India. In this sense, traditional
irrigation technology is certainly modern as well as
sophisticated.
The village institutions, which are reasonably functional
even today, ought to be fully involved in any plan to
improve irrigation management. In addition, resources
which are essential for the healthy functioning of the
institutions need to be restored to them. Resources must
be appropriately allocated to them to enable them to
function effectively. In the absence of such resources,

merely appealing or exhorting the village communities
to under take voluntary action to maintain tanks will have
no impact, as is evident from the non-functioning of
various efforts under taken by the government to make
beneficiary commitment to under take maintenance. The
governments should make serious attempt to turn over
the tank system to the village community with a proviso
to enjoy by the community the benefits from usufruct of
tank and tank water.
Recent research has pointed out that the first effort of the
government must be to restore all the old tanks which are
gradually dying and disappearing due to urbanization. The
result of disappearance is that there is no way of holding
rain water and recharging ground water. Instead, during
heavy rainfalls, entire residential areas become water
logged since they are low lying.
In order to be able to effectively rejuvenate and extend
the tank system, the most basic requirement is a data
base. Appropriate agencies must be created to generate
reliable tank data and such data can be generated only
by involving knowledgeable individuals from each village
which has a tank.
References
Sakthivadivel.R (2004) A Study on Tanks and Ponds: Consultancy Report submitted to NOVIB, Netherlands in
Association with Dhan Foundation, Madurai.
78
10
Water Harvesting and Ground
Water Recharge
N.Varadaraj
aquifers are under persistent threat by ingress of saline

water through upconing and sea water intrusion in parts
of North Chennai, South Chennai, Puducherry and
Tuticorin
coast. The challenges faced to mitigate
the impact of over exploitation of ground water need
a sound ground water management policy on scientific
considerations. The stand alone regulatory measures
though may endorse some positive impact, but
holistically, various measures to augment the available
ground water resources with adequate level of peoples
participation can only have positive impact on long term
perspective in minimizing the adverse effects of ground
water over exploitations.
Introduction
The ubiquitous availability of ground water
coupled with technological advancement in its extraction,
institutional supports and deemed considered ownership
of ground water as easement to land has led to quantum
leap in the ground water development in our country
during last five decades. Even though the ever increasing
dependence on ground water has ensured countrys food
security and fulfilled other socio economic needs its over
exploitation at places has led to dwindling sustainability
of this precious natural resource with emerging adverse
environmental consequences. The serious manifestation
of over exploitation of ground water resources is evident
from the fact that over exploited and dark blocks in the
country have increased from 250 in 1985 to 1089 in
2004 besides recording of steep decline in ground water
levels in 300 districts over the years. Tamil Nadu is one
of the highly water stress state with 142 over exploited
blocks out of total 385 blocks. The consequent decline
in ground water levels and associated environmental
impacts are observed in major parts of the State.
The state has 8 saline blocks in the coastal districts of
Nagapattinam and Ramanathapuram and fresh water
Artificial Recharge Of Groundwater

An Urgent Need
Natural replenishment of groundwater storage
is slow and is unable to keep pace with the excessive
exploitation of groundwater.
With increasing
urbanization, the land area for natural rainwater recharge
is also shrinking and large unutilized runoff carries
pollution to the water bodies. Artificial recharge to
groundwater aims at augmentation of the groundwater
79
storage by modifying the natural movement of surface

water, utilizing suitable civil construction techniques to
increase the seepage rate exceeding that under natural
conditions of replenishment. The rainfall occurrence in
India is limited to about 3 months period, ranging from
about 10 to 100 rainy days.
were issued which include detailed technical aspects of

site selection for different types of artificial recharge
structures, their suitability to various hydrogeological set
ups and climatic conditions etc. Under Central Sector
Scheme, financial assistance was rendered to State
Government & Non Governmental Organizations to
take up construction of artificial recharge structures to
augment recharge to groundwater systems. The criteria
for selection of sites for artificial recharge structures
were as follows.
In case of Tamil Nadu, the south west monsoon

period of June to September as well as North East
monsoon during October to December gives rainfall
around 1000 mm . The very high rainfall during the year
2005 has recorded highest intensity of 47 cm in 2 days
and recorded heavy discharge of precious fresh water
to sea. The estimated quantum of 15 months water
supply to Chennai was lost to sea. Such surplus run
off has to be effectively harvested and put to beneficial
use by creating adequate surface storage and recharge
to ground water structures. The quantum of water
that can be stored in the sub-surface depends on the
aquifer conditions and prevailing water level. The rate of
infiltration to sub-surface is slow and at many pockets,
particularly when torrential rain occurs, the same has to
be stored in surface and then allowed to percolate into
the ground with proper structures. The natural recharge
is restricted to rainy season only. The artificial recharge
techniques aim at increasing the recharge period in the
post-monsoon for about 3 months to provide additional
recharge. This would result in providing sustainability to
groundwater development and also check the sea-water
ingress.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Need for artificial recharge structures, indicated

by declining water level trends or need for
improvement of water quality by way of dilution
Scope for artificial recharge, indicated by
available uncommitted surplus run off taking
into consideration the capacity of existing
structures and the ability of groundwater system
to accept the recharge and
Economic viability of the scheme
Advantages of Artificial Recharge

Artificial recharge is becoming increasingly
necessary to ensure sustainable ground water supplies to
satisfy the needs of a growing population. The benefits
of artificial recharge can be both tangible and intangible.
The important advantages of artificial recharge are;
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
In hilly areas like north eastern regions and

Western Ghats, even though the rainfall is high, scarcity
of water is felt in post-monsoon season. Due to steep
gradients, a large quantity of water flows out to low lying
areas as surface runoff. Springs are the major source of
water in hilly areas which gets depleted after monsoon.
There is a need to provide sustainability to these springs.
Small surface storages above the spring level are effective
in providing additional recharge and sustain the spring
flow for a longer period.
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Central Ground Water Board, under Ministry of

Water Resources, Govt. of India, has played a crucial
role in initiating artificial recharge in the country and
propagating the message to State Governments and
public through mass awareness programmes, trainings,
seminars and utilizing electronic media. For success of
this programme the importance of scientific approach
cannot be underrated. Necessary literature in the form of
Manual, guides etc. on artificial recharge to groundwater
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
80
Subsurface storage space is available free of

cost and inundation is avoided
Evaporation losses are negligible
Quality improvement by infiltration through the
permeable media
Biological purity is very high
It has no adverse social impacts such as
displacement of population, loss of scarce
agricultural land etc
Temperature variations are minimum
It is environment friendly, controls soil erosion
and flood and provides sufficient soil moisture
even during summer months
Water stored underground is relatively immune
to natural and man-made catastrophes
It provides a natural distribution system
between recharge and discharge points
Results in energy saving due to reduction in
suction and delivery head as a result of rise in
water levels
depth to water level and chemical quality of

ground water.
(ii)
Availability of source water, assessed in terms
of non-committed surplus monsoon run-off.
(iii
)Area contributing run-off like area available,
land use pattern etc.
(iv)
Hydrometeorological characters like rainfall
pattern, its duration and intensity
The implementation of the recharge schemes at
point will have impact to limited extent in the radius of
100 to 750m only. The availability of suitable site for
the larger size recharge structures is the main constrain
reported in many areas. The micro-watershed level
studies and recharge program is essential to make the
effective change in the ground water regime in terms
of quantity and quality of water. The artificial recharge
practices can be grouped into two categories, namely ,
surface and sub-surface practices as listed in Table-1 . The
rain water harvesting is the easiest way of improving our
Implementation of Artificial Recharge

Schemes
Successful implementation of artificial recharge
schemes will essentially involve,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Assessment of source water,

Planning of recharge structures,
Finalisation of specific techniques and designs,
Monitoring and impact assessment,
Financial and economic evaluation and
Operation and maintenance
Rain Water Harvesting Methods

The methodology of artificial recharge through utilizing
surplus surface run-off depends mainly on the following
factors
(i)
Hydrogeology of the area including nature and
extent of the aquifer, soil cover, topography,
SURFACE PRACTICES
SUB-SURFACE PRACTICES
1 St - 2 Nd Order Streams
Contour Bunding
Gully Pluging
Trenching
2nd-3rd Order Streams
Dug Well Recharge

Recharge Shaft/Trench
Injection Well
(i) Gravity Head
(ii) Pressure Injection
Cement Plugging
Nala Bunding
Plains
Percolation Ponds
Water Conservation Structures
Weirs
Water Conservation Structures

Sub Surface Dykes
Ground Water Dams
Table 1: Artificial Recharge Practices

RAIN WATER HARVSTING
A. ROOF TOP
I. Direct storage in surface
(Sumps/Syntex tanks)
Drinking
Filtration
Chlorination
End use
Domestic
End use
B. OPEN SPACE
I. Storage in sub-surface
(aquifers)
II. Storage in subsurface

(aquifers)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
Recharge pit
Recharge pit with bore hole
Recharge pit with tube well
Recharge trench
Recharge trench with bore hole
Recharge trench with tube well
Existing Bore well with pre cast filters
Existing Bore well with settling pit and
filtering pit
Existing Tube well with pre cast filters
Existing Bore well with settling pit and
filtering pit
Existing dug well with pre cast filters
Existing dug well with settling pit and
filtering pit
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Temple Tanks
Temple tanks with recharge shaft
Percolation ponds
Percolation ponds
Percolation ponds with recharge
shaft
Table 2: Rainwater harvesting techniques
81
water resources which is having two types of approach

namely, rooftop harvesting and open space methods as
listed in Table-2
existing wells and the increases in the area cropped

were collected from the farmers and this data was
used to quantify the benefits due to construction of the
structure. The background information on hydrogeology
and hydrological particulars of each site along with the
impact assessment are given in succeeding sections.
Impact Assessment of structures

The suitability of a particular structure depends
on the local hydrogeological condition and the purpose
for which the rain water harvesting is planned. Recharge
to ground water is having many advantages and the
open area in the country is very large in comparison
to the built up area and hence the detailed studies and
experiments are oriented in open space harvesting and
recharge to ground water. In order to replicate a method
with particular design and also to improve the design
of various components of the structures the impact
assessment of a structure is necessary. The assessment
of impacts can generally be enumerated as follows:
Percolation Pond at CLRI, Adyar,

Chennai, Chennai District
In order to harvest the available surplus runoff,
two percolation ponds are constructed at CLRI campus.
The percolation pond constructed at North of Store
Block has a surface area of 400 sq.m., depth of 3 m and
has a bund of 1.2 m high. The second percolation pond
constructed in front of Museum Building is of rectangular
with 40 m long, 10 m wide and 3 m deep with a bund
1.2 m high. 3 percolation pits of 3 m Dia and 3 m
depth have been constructed in each percolation pond
and filled with pebbles for facilitating recharge. These
percolation ponds are provided with filtration units at
the inlet points to ensure supply of silt-free water. The
existing storm water drains in the campus are also been
modified to divert the water into the percolation ponds.
The total storage capacity of these percolation ponds
is of 3850 Cu.m. The project was completed at a total
cost of 7.6 Lakhs in June-July, 2002. The surplus water
available for recharge was estimated as 12150 cu.m.
The recharge pit with filter bed inside the percolation
(i)
Rise in ground water levels due to
augmentation of ground water in shallow aquifers. In
case where continuous decline of ground water was
taking place, a check to this and/or the rate of decline
subsequently reduces. The energy consumption for
lifting water from abstraction structures also becomes
progressively less.
(ii)
Ground water structures in the benefited
zone of the structures gains sustainability and the wells
provide water in lean months. This is reflected by either
longer duration of pumping or increase in number of
pumping days.
Fig. 1: Recharge shaft with pebble bed
(iii)
The cropping pattern in the benefited
zone may undergo marked changes due to increased
availability of ground water. Further, in spite of having a
monsoon failure, the cropped area remains the same.
(iv)
Green vegetation cover may increase in
the zone of benefit and also along the periphery of the
structures due to increase in soil moisture.
(v)
Quality of ground water may improve
due to dilution.
pond is shown in Fig-1 and the pond with full storage

Fig. 2: Pond after Post monsoon
The observation wells established in the influence

area of the artificial recharge structures constructed
under CGWB fund were monitored on a regular basis
to estimate the rise in water levels and to estimate
the quantum of ground water recharge. However, as
ground water extraction is taking place from the area
together with its recharge, realistic assessment of the
quantum of water recharged is considered difficult. Data
pertaining to increase in the availability of water in the
82
of rain water collected from the open area in the CLRI

campus with measuring rod is shown in Fig-2.
cu.m and the quantum harvested by the percolation

ponds during Northeast monsoon has been computed
as 11550 cu.m. the estimated evaporation losses is
937.50 cu.m and net ground water recharge is 10612.5
cu.m.
Impact Assessment
In order to study the impact of constructed
percolation ponds on ground water regime, a piezometer
was constructed inside the CLRI campus and DWLR
was also installed. The impact can be either quantified in
terms of rise in water level or reduction in the demand-
Vadipatti Tank Improvement,

Virudunagar
The existing irrigation tank is having thick cover
of black clay and the quality of ground water in this area
is brackish. The DTW ranged down to 16.85 m b g
l and Quality of water in the dug wells in the tank
command area was non potable before the revitalization
of the pond with recharge well. The recharge well in
tank bed is shown in Fig. 4.
The increase in water level in the downstream
side of the tank due to recharge well is monitored from a
net work of observation wells and the changes in water
level are depicted in Fig-5. The improvement in water
quality in the wells are also shown in Fig-6.
CGWB regular Schemes: Gangavalli

block , Salem District ( 2006-2008)
Fig. 3: Impact of Percolation Pond at CLRI, Chennai
The existing irrigation tank is having thick cover

of silt and clay and the recharge to ground water is
slow. Desilting of two tanks in Gangavalli block through
PWD increased the net storage and hence recharge to
ground water. Another 39 structures like check dam,
percolation pond with recharge shaft/bore is constructed
in scientifically selected sites to have improvement in
regional ground water level in the watershed. Specific
designs for recharging deeper fractures zones, which are
supply gap. The hydrographs (DWLR) showing the

changes in water level are shown in Fig.3.
From The Hydrograph

It is seen that a year before construction of
percolation ponds during 2001, the maximum water level
was reached to about 10.7 m bgl (Aug.-Sept., 2001) and
the minimum of 4.2 m bgl (Nov.-Dec., 2001). But after
the construction of these percolation ponds in the CLRI
campus, the ground water level is significantly raised and
the maximum is of 7.8 and minimum of 2 m bgl within
the campus. This shows that there has been rise in the
water level in the order of 2-3 m during NE monsoon of
2002, after construction of percolation ponds. From the
hydrograph, it is seen that the rainfall received during
May 01 to Jan 02 is of the order of 1460.1 mm while
during May 02 to Jan 03 it is of the order of 1220.9
mm. The depth to water level during Jan 01 and August
01 was 4.842 m bgl and 10.555 m bgl respectively,
while water level during Dec 02 and Aug 02 was 3.0
m bgl and 7.40 m bgl. This shows that there has been
rise in the water level in spite of lesser rainfall in the
corresponding period, after construction of percolation
ponds. The availability of water is estimated as 12150
exploited by number of bore wells resulting in complete

desaturation of fractures at faster rate than the natural
83
recharge, are devised and implemented.

The impact of the structures in ground water
regime is evaluated by monitoring the water levels in a
network of existing irrigation wells and also the increase
in crop productivity by sustained ground water resources
is noticed. The monitoring of the total impact in the
water shed with the recharge structures are made and
analysed. The estimated increase in ground water storage
varies from structure to structure depending on the water
spread area, number of days of water storage and rate of
infiltration. The run off generated from the catchment
from the rainfall and local hydrogeological condition like
depth to water level and thickness of aquifer and extraction
pattern of ground water by dug wells and bore wells are
playing important role in the water storage in structure.
In fact, the recharge structures will be more effective if
its water retention period is short and percolation rate
is high. The number of fillings and its percolation is the
controlling factor in many of the structures in which the
rain fall run off is being collected.
ground water from impounded water and obviously low

Fig. 7: Percolation pond with recharge bore , Nagiampatti,
Gangavalli, Salem District.
evaporation.
Only few rainfall days is seen with higher intensity

of more than 20 mm to generate required run off to fill
the water spread area and in the study area good rain
fall occurs only in 10-20 days from which, the volume
of water equal to 3 to 5 full storage of percolation ponds
and check dams is estimated as potential addition to
ground water storage. The check dams in major stream
will surplus after full storage level and continuous flow in
streams are limited to 30 days. The rate of infiltration is
found to be low in many check dam sites and percolation
ponds due to silt deposit with time. The experimental
filter bed with recharge bore in check dam and percolation
pond has shown good result and a small percolation
pond with recharge bore ( Fig-7) has indicated the impact
in more than 2 km down slope and the faster infiltration
through fractures made it feasible for total recharge to
The unit cost per cubic meter of additional ground

water storage created is calculated from the estimated
life of structure as 20 years and the present construction
cost which is low for the percolation ponds with bore
well and desilting of existing tanks which is around Rs
1.5 per cu.m. It is very high for the check dams in the
order of Rs 10 to 15 / cu.m and will be uneconomical
when flash floods in streams totally wash the structure or
create bank erosion as noticed in Gangavalli in November
2007. The maintenance of the structures is very crucial
for the continuous benefit and silting of recharge bore
wells and vandalism on the structures by miscreants for
vested interest are also to be tackled properly.
Recharge to Coastal aquifer

84
The Chennai coastal aquifer system is prone for

sea water ingress and such quality threat needs proper
recharge program. Tiruvanmiyur area is one such coastal
aquifer system which is over exploited and the regulation
on transporting water from this area has marginally
reduced the stress but local increase in population and
construction of more wells and bore wells resulted
ment with people participation

v Experience sharing in replication in similar recharge
programmes
The recommended recharge well designs by
CGWB for implementation in Tamil Nadu is given in
Fig. 9.
The recommended dimensions of the recharge
pit of 2x2x2 m at a safe distance from well may be made
flexible to suit the area of water collection and rainfall
intensity depending on land holding and its positions
with local terrain condition (morphology). The larger
collection pit for area with more catchment / land to
be used for diverting surplus run off. Clayey soil will
Fig. 8.
in lowering of water table. A well planned battery of

recharge tube wells is recommended for such case and
the improved recharge well design is given in fig-8.
Dug well recharge

The simplest way of recharge to ground water
is diverting the water from the catchment area to the
existing dug well, which may be in use or abandoned. In
order to ensure sustainable water resource management
and assured irrigation facilities in the over exploited,
critical and semi-critical areas, dug well recharge scheme
under state sector is prepared by Ministry of water
Resources, Govt. of India and being implemented. The
scheme will be implemented in XI th plan period for 3
years at an estimated cost of 1798.71 crores in seven
states including Tamil Nadu. The main objectives of the
scheme are as follows.
v GW recharge through existing dug wells in agricul
tural field
v Increase sustainability of wells during lean period
v Improve quality of groundwater especially in the
fluoride affected area
v Over all improvement in water resource manage
85
have more run off than other area. The rate of likely
collection of water depends on the field condition and
about 20 to 40 % of the rainfall when it exceeds 10 mm
is expected to generate over land flow. It is estimated
that a rain fall of 50 mm will generate a flow of 80,000
liters in one acre of land with more sand and loam. It
will be as high as 140,000 liters in case of clay covered
area. The rapid sand filter proposed can convey 20,000
liters per hour and the time required will vary from
4 to 7 hours . The rise in water level will vary from
4 to 7 meters for 5m dia. well and in the absence of
weathering, the dissipation will be minimum. The inflow
of the water from well to aquifer depends on the nature
of weathering. Thus dimensions of collection pit and
filter media and well will control the inflow and rise in
the water level of the well . Regulatory measures like silt
trap, diversion channel for excess collection, protection
to motor, parapet of well are essential.
can improve the quantum of water available for irrigation

and also improve the water quality.
The innovative techniques practiced in the
country as well as in other parts of the globe needs
proper evaluation and local site specific design has to be
identified and implemented.
The impounding of rain water in surface in check
dams, percolation ponds, lakes and reservoirs over years
has given us valuable information on the cost benefit
and socio economic conditions. The studies at microwatershed level by number of agencies are to be properly
documented and shared with the local community and
all stake holders. The experience of CGWB in Gangavall
block, Salem district has shown the effective recharge
of ground water by providing bore wells with filter beds
in the check dams and percolation ponds . The quality
improvement in irrigation wells downstream side of the
tank with recharge well at Virudunagar is the success
story of increase in ground water recharge coupled with
quality improvement.
Conclusions
Though a major headway in governments
initiatives has been made for broad identification of
nationwide feasible recharge worthy areas vis a vis
design consideration of ground water structures in
diversified hydrogeological environments through
experimental studies, efficacy of such technology needs
to be replicated at grass root level for other areas on
micro level considerations.
The dug well recharge scheme is implemented

jointly by state and Central government in 7 states
including 232 overexploited, critical and semi-critical
blocks in Tamil Nadu by direct subsidy of Rs 4000
to Marginal and Small farmers and Rs 2000 to other
farmers will increase the point recharge structures in
each micro water shed and improve the ground water
potential in large scale.
The need for artificial recharge to ground water

in Tamil Nadu is needless to be emphasized. The area
suitable for recharge depends on the prevailing water
level and water quality as well as local natural recharge
conditions. The unfavorable situation is prevalent in high
grounds of hard rock areas and deeper aquifers of coastal
zone. The priority areas are the locations covered by black
soil like Virudunagar, Coimbatore, Ramanathapuram
districts and 142 over exploited blocks and 33 critical
blocks spread over the state. The deeper aquifers in
Cuddalore, Oratanadu aquifer in Tanjore and Pudukottai
districts, Tiruvadanai aquifer in Ramanathapuram and
Sivagangai districts and Udankudi aquifer in Tuticorin
district needs major recharge tube well program to match
the ongoing ground water development in these areas.
The rain fed areas need supplementary irrigation

from ground water to improve the crop productivity.
The limited ground water potential in the dry lands can
also be effectively harnessed and adopting the modern
irrigation practices like sprinklers etc will save the crops
from failure of rains in critical period of water needs.
The artificial recharge structures by integrated scientific
methods will improve the ground water system and even
in poor ground water potential areas, the conjunctive
use of surface and ground water will improve the soil
moisture availability to the crops.
Acknowledgements
The author expresses his sincere thanks to
Shri B.M.Jha, Chairman, CGWB, Faridabad for his
encouragement and permission to present this paper.
The author is also grateful to Dr S.C.Dhiman, Member
(ED&MM) and Shri A.R.Bhaisare, Regional Director
(HQ) for their constant encouragement.
There is also need to further step up the awareness

activities and capacity building programme at grass root
level with active peoples participation to promote rain
water harvesting in the country. Modernization of tanks
in brackish zone area like Vadipatti with recharge wells
86
References
CGWB. 2007 : Hydrogeological condition of Neyveli basin, Tamil Nadu, Unpub. Report.
CGWB. 1998 : Ground water exploration in Tamil nadu and U.T. of Pondicherry as on 31.03.1996, Unpub. report
of CGWB. 255p.
CGWB, 2007 : Manual on artificial recharge of ground water, CGWB Technical series, 198 P.
87
11
Potential of Water Harvesting as
a Tool for Drought Mitigation
S. Mohan
Introduction
previous century, the Indian arid zone experienced

agricultural drought in one part or the other during 33 to
46 years which suggests a drought once in three years
to alternate year. Often drought persists continuously for
3 to 6 years as prolonged drought faced by this region
during 190305, 1957-60 1966-71,1984-87 and 19972000. Such prolonged droughts put tremendous stress
on natural resources arid lead to severe scarcity of food,
fodder and water.
Water is one of the most important natural

resource and is vital for all living organism and major
ecosystems, as well as human health, food production
and economic development of a nation. Due to increasing
human population, use of water for various purposes
such as, domestic, industrial development, hydropower
generation, agriculture, recreation and environmental
services has increased considerably over time. Water table
in various states of India has gone down due to recurrent
droughts, deforestation and unsustainable utilization
of water resources. Therefore, the availability of safe
drinking water for rural as well as urban habitation has
become a major issue and challenge to the government.
Droughts impose a serious threat to agricultural

production and off-farm economic activities in the
affected region. In China, over 50 million tons of
agricultural production was lost due to drought of 2000.
The monetary losses in Iran during extensive 19992000 droughts were estimated at US$ 3500 million.
In India, severe droughts affecting more than 40% of
the countrys geographical area occurred 6 times since
1918 and during pre-Green revolution period, losses
in food grain production due to drought used to be as
high as 25% of total produce. In southwest Asia as a
region, more than 100 million people get affected during
extensive droughts.
In India, the per capita average annual freshwater

availability has been reduced from 5177 cubic meters
from 1951 to 1820 cubic meters in 2001 and it is
estimated to further come down to 1341 cubic meters
in 2025 and 1140 cubic meters in 2050 (Ministry of
Water Resources, GOI, 2003). The main source of
freshwater in India is the rainfall including the snowfall
at the higher altitude in Himalayan region. During the
88
change from area to area. Meteorological Droughts are

normally induced by natural causes. Several types of
weather changes can alter the normal rainfall pattern in
an area and cause drought. Water that evaporates from
the ocean is brought inland by the wind to the regions
where it is needed. Droughts can also occur when air
currents do not flow their normal pattern or cycle and
do not bring clouds to the area that requires rainfall.
The ability of the local communities and

governments in developing countries and international
relief agencies to deal with droughts is constrained by the
absence of reliable data and tools, information networks
and the professional and institutional capacities. The
important shift is necessary in drought management
policies in general a shift form contingent drought
relief to drought preparedness. Water harvesting and
conservation measures should be seen in this context of
proactive drought management approach as a measure
of risk control.
Agricultural Drought
Agricultural drought mainly effects food
production and farming. Agricultural drought and
precipitation shortages bring soil water deficits, reduced
ground water or reservoir levels, and so on. Deficient
topsoil moisture at planting may stop germination,
leading to low plant populations.
Drought
Drought is a long period with no rain or with less
rainfall than normal for a given area. Drought usually
originates from a deficiency of precipitation (rainfall) over
an extended period of time, resulting in water shortage
for some activity or group. It may last for a few months
or in some cases many years. Also, drought is a normal,
recurrent feature of climate, and not a rare or sudden
event. It can lead to an acute shortage of water, which is
caused by deficiency of surface and subsurface water.
Hydrological Drought
Hydrological drought is associated with the
effects of periods of precipitation shortages on water
supply. Water in hydrologic storage systems such as
reservoirs and rivers are often used for multiple purposes
such as flood control, irrigation, recreation, navigation,
hydropower, and wildlife habitat. Competition for water
in these storage systems escalates during drought and
conflicts between water users increase significantly.
Drought is a recurring natural climatic event,

which stems from the lack of precipitation over an
extended period of time from a season to several
years. It is considered to be the most complex, but
least understood natural hazard, affecting more people
than any other hazard (Hagman, 1984). Being normal
feature of climate, its recurrence is inevitable. It occurs
in all geographical regions, but its impacts and frequency
are more pronounced in arid and semi-arid regions
(e.g. Baluchistan and Sindh provinces in Pakistan;
western and southern lowlands of Afghanistan; parts
of Rajasthan and Gujarat states in India; large parts in
Iran, China, Australia and sub-Saharan Africa). Drought
extremity is frequently characterized according to the
deficiency of rainfall. In India, a severe drought is
defined as the condition in which more than 51 per cent
of rainfall deficiency prevails in more than 20 per cent
of the geographical area under study. Every drought
is a meteorological drought, but definitions of various
droughts are mainly centered around the demand and
supply of water for different sectors. The following are
the typical classification of droughts.
Socioeconomic Drought
Socioeconomic drought occurs when the
demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a
result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. The
supply of many economic goods, such as water, forage,
food grains, fish, and hydroelectric power, depends on
weather. Due to variability of climate, water supply is
sufficient in some years but not satisfactory to meet
human and environmental needs in other years. The
demand for economic goods is increasing as a result of
increasing population. Supply may also increase because
of improved production efficiency and technology.
The major causes of agricultural droughts in
the Indian and zone are its geographic location not
favouring abundant monsoon rainfall, poor quality
and excessive depth of groundwater limiting its use
for irrigation, absence of perennial rivers and forests,
poor water holding capacity of soils, arid huge drawl
of limited groundwater resources. Because of lack of
substantial irrigation facilities, the agriculture is mostly
dependent on rainfall. The increased pressure of both
human (400%) and livestock (127%) population during
Meteorological Drought
Meteorological drought is the amount of dryness
and the duration of the dry period. Atmospheric
conditions that result in deficiencies of precipitation
89
v Loss of hydroelectric power
twentieth century has put tremendous pressure on land,

and surface and groundwater resources. Therefore, the
impact of drought is felt much more severely in the arid
region compared to other parts of the country.
v Loss of navigability of rivers and canals.
Environmental Effects
v Increased desertification
v Damage to animal species
As the water storage is dependent on the scanty

and erratic rainfall, the duration of availability of water
in surface water resources is reduced significantly in
drought years. In drought affected areas, the groundwater
table is declining @0.2 to 0.4 m/annum in almost threefourth of the region, consequently shallow wells dry up
during droughts and deep wells become deeper. Also the
quality of groundwater deteriorates and sometimes the
concentration of undesirable substances such as fluoride
and nitrate increase to harmful/toxic levels. Grazing
herds of animals quickly remove the scanty grass cover
that come up with meagre rainfall, thus aggravating the
problems of soil erosion and desertification. Widespread
crop failures lead to acute shortage of food and fodder.
Both human and livestock suffer from malnutrition and
consequently become victim of host of diseases. As
most of the people of this region depend on agriculture
and pastoralism, drought leads to decline in income
and employment opportunities. Large-scale migration
with livestock or in search of employment is a common
feature during prolonged droughts.
v Reduction and degradation of fish and wildlife

habitat
v Lack of feed and drinking water
v Disease
v Increased predation.
v Loss of wildlife in some areas and too many in
others
v Increased stress to endangered species
v Damage to plant species Increased number and
severity of fires
v Wind and water erosion of soils
Social Effects
v Food shortages
v Loss of human life from food shortages, heat, sui
cides, violence
v Mental and physical stress
v Water user conflicts
v Political conflicts
v Social unrest
v Public dissatisfaction with government regarding
drought response
v Inequity in the distribution of drought relief
v Loss of cultural sites
The effects of droughts may be categorized in

terms of Economic, Environmental, or Social as listed
below.
Economic Effects
v Loss of national economic growth, slowing
down of economic development
v Damage to crop quality, less food production
v
v
v
v
v Reduced quality of life which leads to changes in

lifestyle
Increase in food prices

Increased importation of food (higher costs)
Insect infestation
Plant disease
v Increased poverty
v Population migrations
v Loss from dairy and livestock production
DROUGHT MITIGATION
v Unavailability of water and feed for livestock which

leads to high livestock mortality rates
1.
Drought is a natural hazard, it has a slow
onset, and it evolves over months or even years. It may
affect a large region and causes little structural damage.
Drought impacts are generally more severe on livestock
than on human beings.
v Range fires and Wild land fires

v Damage to fish habitat, loss from fishery production
v Income loss for farmers and others affected
The impacts of drought can be reduced through

preparedness and mitigation. Some of the preparedness
and mitigation measures are
v Unemployment from production declines

v Loss to recreational and tourism industry
90
table and over the time precipitation is also increased

due to the vegetation cover. Besides natural resources,
livestock and permanent Vegetation Such as grasses
and trees are strengths for survival of mankind in the
arid regions. Management of grasslands with Lasiurus
Sindicus, Cenchrus ciliaris arid Cenchrus setigerus and
top feed specie such as Prosopis cineraria, Acacia sengal
and Tecornella undulata need priority attention. Such
a silvi-pasture system survives annual droughts and
provides rich fodder. Quality of fodder particularly the
wheat straw given to cattle during drought is usually very
poor. The fodder quality can be improved through urea/
molasses treatment, thus improving animal health and
productivity with very little investment. Management
of common property resources such as grazing lands,
dams, village ponds, etc. needs top priority by the people
for themselves to combat drought in and regions.
1. Water Conservation and Vegetation

Water conservation is the simplest and most
useful measure. By preventing misuse of water and
encourage recycling of water the problem can be tackled
to a little extent.
Some Water conservation measures are:
Ensure that the overhead tank never over
flows.
Repair leaking taps immediately
Try to make reuse of water for activities like
watering fields and bathing animals.
To minimize the suffering of human and
livestock, relief measures are taken by the respective
State Governments and NGOS on a large scale. These
measures mainly aim at provision of drinking water,
supply of food grains through Public DistributionSystem at subsidized rates, supply of food arid fodder for
livestock, human and livestock healthcare, etc. Efforts
to create direct and indirect wage employment through
food for work barely sustain the living of the rural poor
who suffer most due to drought. However, some longterm preventive measures need to be given increased
attention for integrated development of drought-prone
areas and to tackle the problem on permanent basis.
Some of these direct measures are long-term forecast
of monsoon, suitable lad use system, water harvesting,
soil and water conservation, contingency crop planning,
adoption arid improved technologies for dryland crops,
efficient irrigation methods, enrichment of cereal straw
as fodder, etc. In addition to these, human and livestock
Population pressure needs to be reduced through
education, alteration ways of employment generation
arid disposal of unproductive livestock.
2. Water Storage
A long term defense against drought is
construction of dams and reservoirs for artificial storage
of water. This water is then supplied to the water supply
source through these storage reservoirs. Water is stored n
the reservoirs during the high rainfall time and then used
during the lean rainfall period. Village Ponds and Tanks
are also good strategies to combat effects of droughts.
No one understands the value of single drop
of water better than the desert dwellers. Rainwater
harvesting is traditional way of life in arid regions.
Various techniques of rainwater harvesting have been
developed/refined by research workers. Improved
designs of water harvesting structures have also been
developed. These technologies should be popularized
among the people of this region. Utilizing flash floods/
surplus rainwater for artificial recharge of groundwater
to augment the dwindling water table is need of the
hour. Integrated watershed management, which aims at
utilizing the rainfall wherever it falls should be the unit
for planning and implementation of the development
programmes. The measures like afforestation, pasture
development, livestock management, field crops, water
Storage, etc. are undertaken in the watershed areas
identified as suitable for Such measures. The capacity
of these ponds and reservoirs will decrease due to the
deposition of silt which is carried with the water that
comes to the reservoirs. This gets settled at the bottom.
Thus Periodic cleaning of these reservoirs is necessary as
the capacity of these ponds, reservoirs etc will decrease
by the deposition of silt which is carried it water at the
As water is the scarce resource in the Indian

arid zone, efficient irrigation technologies like sprinkler
and drip system should be popularized which aim at
minimizing production per unit of irrigation water.
Adoption of improved agronomic practices like use of
improved varieties, timely weed control, use of fertilizers
along with farm yard manure, in-situ rainwater harvesting,
etc. can give good yields even in below normal rainfall
years. Cultivation of water intensive crops should be
discouraged.
Environmental improvements help to restore
ecology in the region. Vegetation Cover helps the rain
water to seep underground. This would increase the water
91
bottom.
subsidized schemes. The water thus collected can meet

the immediate domestic needs. Rainwater harvesting
has assumed overriding significance all the more in view
of the depleting ground water levels during the recent
droughts in various parts of India (Ariyabandu, 2001).
3. Watershed Management
The land area that sheds water into a particular
river is called its watershed. The surface runoff from this
area ultimately finds its way to the river. When watershed
of the river is heavily forested, the surface runoff is less.
Roots of the trees and littered leaves on the ground help
in absorbing water. However in deforested areas, the
run off from the watershed is considerable. Water here
is not retained in the watershed and thus flows into its
river and then to the sea. This leads to less groundwater
replenishment and the wells also get dry during lean
season. It is therefore important to grow more and more
trees where ever possible or build embankments which
will also help p to reduce soil erosion.
There are two methods to store rainwater namely

Roof top water harvesting, and recharging ground water.
In the Rooftop water harvesting, the rainwater is collected
using house roof and stored it to in storage tank. Water
from roof top rainwater harvesting can be directly used
as drinking purpose. On the other hand, Recharging
ground water through tube wells can be achieved by
diverting the farm water towards the tube well through
filter system. In rainy season all rainwater will go under
the tube well. There are still many problems that occur
in rain water harvesting need good technical solutions.
Rainwater harvesting system for domestic purpose has
been operated and managed well but for the irrigation
projects, awareness and capacity building is necessary
for most of the farmers. Demonstration, training on the
irrigation methodology, as well as the market service
should be carried out to help the rural households to
get better profit from the Rainwater harvesting irrigation
system.
The root cause of weak monsoon in India

is related to the widespread, persistent atmospheric
subsidence, which results from the general circulation
of atmosphere. Better understanding and mathematical
modeling of the monsoon phenomenon would be very
helpful in early long-term forecast of monsoon to enable
planners and arid farmers to plan accordingly.
With the increased pressure oil land, marginal
lands are being brought under cultivation, which is a
disastrous trend. Concerted efforts have to be made to
adopt Suitable land use systems keeping in consideration
tile rainfall, soil type and need of the people. Growing
of crops, fruits, trees and grasses various combinations
minimize the risk of crop failure and provide stability to
farm income. Suitable combinations of these components
for different rainfall zones and soil types should be
preferred over traditional crop cultivation alone.
Water Scarcity and Public Health Issues

Reclaimed water is an alternative water resource.
Water reuse can be a tool in managing scarce water
resources. Recycled water is being used as substitute
for many traditional non potable uses and for sources
that provide raw water for drinking water production
(Table 1). Such use can help conserving drinking water
by replacing it or the water taken from drinking water
sources, and by enhancing sources such as reservoirs
and groundwater. The improvements in treatment of
wastewater have opened new possibilities to reuse treated
wastewater. Hence, the indirect recycling of water used
in many parts of the world has been largely practiced for
many years.
4. Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the collection of
rainwater. Rainwater thus collected can be stored for
either direct use or can be recharged in to ground. In
other words it implies catching rainwater for use at
the place where it falls. Rainwater harvesting via roof
top and ground catchments is an ancient technique of
providing domestic water supply (Agarwal and Narain,
1997) and it is still used, especially in tropical islands
and in semi-arid rural areas. It is a best option and
preferred as an alternative source of domestic water
supply where the ground water is inaccessible due to
certain technological & environmental problem. State
Governments in India have been encouraging the people
to adopt the domestic rooftop water harvesting through
Although treated wastewater has been an

important mean of replenishing river flows in many
countries and the subsequent use of such water for a
range of purposes (Fig.1) constitutes indirect reuse of
wastewater, it is becoming increasingly attractive to
use reclaimed or treated wastewater more directly. In
addition, reclamation of wastewater is attractive in terms
of sustainability since wastewater requires disposal if it is
not to be reclaimed. Treated wastewater may be used as
an alternative source of water for agricultural irrigation.
92
Agriculture represents up to 60 % of the global water

demand while the requirements arising from increasing
urbanization such as watering urban recreational
landscapes and sports facilities, also creates a high
demand. The treated wastewater can be efficiently utilized
in agriculture, irrigation of green spaces, including those
used for recreation in which individuals may come into
contact with the ground. Concerns related to the reuse of
treated wastewater are similar to the reuse of sludge, in
particular the risks of contamination. Treatment plants
are typically only equipped for biological treatment which
does not eliminate the chemical substances in the waste
water.
In urban environments, treated wastewater may

also be used for fire-fighting purposes or street cleaning.
In industry, the use of recycled or reclaimed water has
extensively developed since the 1970s, for the dual
purpose of decreasing the purchase of water and avoiding
the discharge of treated wastewater under increasingly
stringent emission regulations. This trend started with
wash-water recycling but now incorporates the treatment
of all types of process waters. Virtually, all industrial
sectors are now recycling water, with examples in pulp
and paper, oil refinery, etc. Consequently, together with
overall shifts in the industrial sector, a 30 % reduction of
industrial water consumption could be achieved in many
developing countries.
Table 1: Water recycling and reuse definitions

Use
Definition
Reclaimed water
Treated wastewater suitable for beneficial purposes such as irrigation
Reuse
Utilization of appropriately treated wastewater (reclaimed water) for some

further beneficial purpose
Recycling
Reuse of treated wastewater
Potable substitution
Reuse of appropriately treated reclaimed water instead of potable water for

non potable applications
Non-potable reuse
Use of reclaimed water for other than drinking water, for example,
irrigation
Indirect recycling or indirect potable reuse
Use of reclaimed water for potable supplies after a period of storage in surface
or a groundwater
Direct potable reuse
conversion of wastewater directly into drinking water without any intermediate

storage
Figure 1. Different applications of reuse
93
challenge. Some institutes have studied the water

demand of rural household with low, medium and high
standard and the possibility of meeting the demand with
rainwater harvesting system. To meet the goal, it is of
first importance to reduce the water consumption and
at the same time to keep the necessary standard of a
well off life. Water in the rainwater harvesting system is
very limited it should be used in a conservational way.
In the rural area, the dry ecosan toilet can be good
solution to avoid using of any water for the toilet. For the
production water use, one of the criteria for selection of
crop should be the maximum output of unit production.
Water from the rainwater harvesting system should be
used to irrigate the high value crops.
Final Remarks
When entering the new millennium, India
has put forward the overall goal of setting up a welloff society in the whole country. Thus the rain water
harvesting approach has faced serious challenges to
meet this goal. Can the rain water harvesting approach
help the population in the rural mountainous area to
raise their life to a standard conforming to this goal?
For example, the current amount of water supply by the
rain water harvesting system can only meet the demand
of human basic need. Can the rain water harvesting
system be enlarged to produce enough water for a much
more comfortable life? Quality issue will be another
References
Agarwal, A. and Narain, S.: Dying Wisdom: The Rise, fall an Potential of Indias Traditional Water
Harvesting System. Centre for Science and Environment, Delhi (1997).
Ariyabandu, R. D. S.: Varieties of water harvesting. In: Making Water Everybodys Business: Policy and
Practice of Water Harvesting. Centre for Science and Environment, Delhi (2001).
Sharma, P. C. and Sen., P. K.: Domestic roof (rain) water harvesting technology. In: Proceedings of Delhi
Workshop on Roof Water Harvesting. Delhi (2001).
Water Resources of India and World, Newsletter on Fresh Water Year, 2003. Ministry of Water R.
94
12
Impact of Cost Effective Water
Harvesting Techniques on
Artificial Groundwater Recharge
Through Open Wells and
Recharge from Natural Streams
K.Ramaswamy
people, limited water availability in farmers holdings,

the sustainable agricultural production measures with
farming system perspective is an essential one. This
is possible only by improving hydrological regime of
the area for the enhanced agricultural production and
income generation. Hence, a proper agricultural land use
by growing horticulture / forest species with increased
soil moisture retention storage and suggesting water
harvesting measures for improved ground water regime is
the main aim of this project funded by science of society
division of DST ,GOI.Which may likely bring additional
net revenue for the farmers. Three tribal villages have
been selected and the holistic water harvesting (Terrain of
village habitats, roads and cultivated fields) mechanisms
are generated with the involvement of people from the
planning to maintenance stage.
Introduction
The acute water scarcity of the Western Ghats
region of Tamil Nadu coupled with soil erosion and
siltation of reservoir makes not only the fertile soils of the
cultivated land unproductive but also makes many people
in eastern sides of hills consisting of tribal population to
the poverty driven subsistence livelihood. Below poverty
Line conditions, destabilisation of agricultural base
and employment problems are noticed in general. The
rainfall in the rain shadow parts of Western Ghats region
varies from 600 to 800 mm. Though this rain is nearly
adequate for drinking and agricultural production, due to
the inadequate treatment and improper in for large parts
of the area, even the drinking water is not available in
foothills. Many towns, depending on river flow originate
from hills. Though there are many Central and State
government watershed development projects operating
in this area, most of them are confined to drainage
line treatment measures with limited application in the
cultivated lands. Moreover, there is lack of adequate
maintenance of development measures after the project
is withdrawn. Given meager or nil participation of local
The selected villages are:
95
(i)
Tholampalayam
(ii)
Neelampathi
(iii)
Mottiur
There are many wells in these villages having

yields range from 0.5 to 2.0 Lps and the depth of water
table is 20 to 30 m below ground level in bore wells
and 8 12 m in open wells. The water stored lasts only
for 6 or 7 months in a year with 1 to 2 hours daily
supply with 5 Hp Pump sets. The aquifers present are
mostly unconfined nature. Some wells were abandoned
/ dried. The people particularly tribal farmers often migrate from these areas to far off distance for about 4-5
months or remain idle, facing a lot of food crisis and
poverty issues. Under these circumstance even if a well
with common lands available is properly utilized, a part
of revenue through herbal/ horticultural plants can be
generated & maintained. To accomplish this, a comprehensive live water harvesting and conservative water use
model in each selected village farm holdings with total
involvement of people has been developed through this
project.
(i) Quantification of Surface Runoff

Quantifying maximum excess surface runoff at
farm level from long-term data for monsoon seasons in
three tribal villages located in Western Ghats of foot hills
was carried out by curve number method after analysis
the long term rainfall data of 27 years.
Rainfall Data and Runoff Analysis
Monthly rainfall data for 27 years from 1979 to
2005 was obtained from Avinasilingam Krishi vigyan
Kendra, Vivekanandhapuram nearly 10 km away from
the project area. Rainfall was analysised seasonwise
viz., Northeast monsoon (Oct-Jan), Southwest monsoon (June-Sep), summer season (Feb-May) and annual
rainfall for 27 (1979-2005) years and average monthly
rainfall was calculated. The maximum (1466.68 mm)
and minimum (588.40 mm) rainfall were received during the years 1979 and 1989 respectively. The average
annul rainfall for 27 years data was 848.11 mm. During
pre monsoon period the average rainfall received was
211.65 mm. It was 24.96 % of average annual rainfall.
The average rainfall received during Northeast monsoon
and Southwest monsoon was 440.52 mm and 195.94
mm.
METHODOLOGY & SYSTEMS APPROACH ADOPTED

This project has been carried out in farmers field
with their involvement in planning and implementation
and with their contribution in terms of labour / cash to a
level of 9 to 11 % of the cost of water harvesting mechanisms, using locally available materials & techniques.
The percentage of rainfall received during
Table 1: Runoff Estimation (January to December)

Month
Rainfall (P)
Runoff (Q) (mm)

Well-1
Well-II
Well-1II
January
20.71
0.54
0.27
0.22
February
19.24
0.74
0.42
0.36
March
39.20
0.63
1.10
1.23
April
82.82
14.32
16.77
17.34
May
70.38
9.00
10.89
11.34
June
23.16
0.27
0.09
0.06
July
20.96
0.50
0.24
0.20
August
37.74
0.46
0.87
0.98
September
114.08
31.08
34.81
35.66
October
210.47
149.76
155.69
155.72
November
173.30
115.15
120.60
120.63
December
39.04
7.74
9.28
9.29
Northeast monsoon and Southwest monsoon was 51.94

% and 23.1 % of average annual rainfall. Frequency
analysis of 27 years annual rainfall was done by Weibulls.
distribution. For 1, 2, 5, 10 and 27 years return period
The tribal villages selected lie in the foothills or lower

range of Western ghats in Coimbatore district.
96
the rainfall received was 588.40,818, 945,1100 and

1467 mm respectively.
v Monitoring soil moisture data and the effective

zones of moisture distribution from the developed wells.
(ii) Collection mechanism
v Sediment deposition in collection stream / channels.
(a)
Design and execution of most efficient
hydraulic sections with vegetated open channels and
pipes for conveying the excess surface runoff and runoff from roof catchments safely into the wells located in
farms/ villages outskirts using both scientific data and
heuristic knowledge of local people.
v Water table fluctuation specific yield approach to

quantify the ground water recharge and recuperation
studies have been taken up for assessing the performance of wells. Also period of availability of water in
wells before and after imposing the treatment would be
monitored.
(iv) Analysis of Data and Allocation Strategy
(b)
Development of economical filter
mechanism for screening sediments/ silts/ eroded
materials entering into the open wells (abandoned/
partially used).
Analyzing the existing cropping systems and crop

water requirements for matching with the maximum
possible Ground water supplies including the recharge
facility by suitably allocating the areas under different
crops. Allocation area strategy arrived by scientific
method shall be advocated to the tribal farmers for
adoption.
(c)
Evolving efficient and economical design
methods of Recharge tube wells, injection wells and
other runoff injection techniques into the bore wells
wherever necessary.
Proposed technologies are different from existing
ones
Low-Cost Recharge Structures

Implemented
(a)
Excess runoff collected from upstream
area is channalised through an economical conveyance
system to a filter bed which are connected to ground
water wells.
(a)
stone filters.
Vegetated open channels with inverted
(b)
Composite earthen and lined channels
with an array of silt traps and with a separate collection
storage filter bed.
(b)
Vegetative water ways and the minimum
length of pipe conduits with the varying economical
cross sections based upon the hydraulic design were
employed in this study.
(c)
systems.
(c)
In this approach, channel erosion was
less. The silt materials conveyed to the filters was also
minimum.
Telescopic pipe conduits and collection
(d)
Recharge tube wells with sloped section
casing pipes wrapped with coir fibre and gravel pack.
(e)
Recirculation arrangement of over flow
water for wells located in low-lying tracts.
These techniques cost are effective
Field Work Done
(a)
Moreover,
costlier
constructional
materials meant for drinking water filters are being used
in the already existing techniques whereas the locally
available stone materials were used with proper filter bed
design for meeting irrigation needs in this project.
Five open wells in Neelampathy and Motiyur

were selected with tribal farmers. The water availability
in three farmers wells are very less, not even meeting the
crop water demands for a crop season of four months.
Their lively Good condition is very pathetic and their
income level is below poverty level. In order to enhance
the annual water availability for a major period in a
year, channeling the runoff water to this wells have been
planned by arranging group discussion of local farmers
along with the five beneficiaries. The locally available
stones of different size were collected with participation
of beneficiaries. Proper inlet and outlet pipes were placed
(iii) Field Monitoring of Soil Moisture /

Groundwater Recharge and Quality
v Installing observation wells/ use of nearby wells
in different directions of test wells and observation of
water table data, retention period of water and Quality
improvement (EC& pH of groundwater).
v Analyzing the zone of influence of recharge effect
using tracer technique.
97
in position inside the filter bed so that the harvested rain

water from the upstream fields of the well were collected,
filtered and then pass into the wells.
cooperation by contributing approximately 10 % for this

project.
(v)
One lady farmer was also very much cooperated in first phase itself, though she did not receive
ay formal education.
People Participation
(i)
Initially group meetings were arranged to
understand the project by the local community with the
help of Panchayat raj President and other local leaders.
Base Line Information about Tribal

Farmers
(ii)
Baseline information was generated and
thereby problems and felt needs with people were analyzed by group discussion which made them to give the
willingness to participate in the programme.
Farmer Name : Mrs.Rangammal (Neelampathi Village)

Total area
: 2ac
(iii)
It has been shown the impact of such
technology to these tribal community people for taking
them to the nearby area where one recharge well is functioning effectively by arranging exposure visits.
Fallow
: 1.3 ac
Open Well
: 5 HP, discharge 30,000 lit/hr
Irrigated area :0.7 ac
Water Requirement per Irrigation

days and 75-90 days)
(iv)
Finally many people were interested to
have this technology to be implemented in their field
by contributing their labour and rendering requisite
: 40 mm (01-15
: 50 mm (16-75 days)
Water demand and supply for Vegetables
Table 2: Water availability in Mrs. Rangammal field

Sl.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Crop Period
01-15 days
16-30 days
31-45 days
46-60 days
61-75 days
75-90 days
Total
Water Demand (m3)

113.3
141.6
141.6
141.6
141.6
113.3
793.0
Daily available pumping period (minutes)

45
45
30
30
30
15
Farmer Name
Total area
Irrigated area
Fallow
Open Well
:
:
:
:
:
Water Supply (m3)

112.5
112.5
105.0
105.0
105.0
52.5
592.5
Mr. Rangan (Neelampathi Village)

4 ac
2 ac
2 ac
5 HP, discharge 32,000 lit/hr
Table 3: Water availability in Mrs. Rangan field

Sl.No
Crop Period
Water Availability (m3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1-15 days
16-30 days
31-45 days
46-60 days
61-75 days
75-90 days
Total
120
120
80
80
80
56
536
98
Table 4: Proposed and executed Crop Plan in field

Sl.NoFarmer Name
1.
Mrs.Rangammal
2.
Mr.Rangan
Crop
Area (ac)
Banana with Drip System
0.25
Vegetables
0.45
Banana with Drip System
0.25
Amla
Vegetables / Fodder crops
0.75
3
Q = Well yield m / hr
(Brinjal,Bhendi)
Hydraulic Performance of Wells
Results and Discussion

Costlier constructional materials meant for
drinking water filters are being used in the already
existing techniques whereas the locally available stone
materials was used with proper filter bed for meeting
irrigation needs. Under these circumstances even if a well
with common lands available is properly utilized, a part
of revenue through less water consuming horticultural
plants can be generated & maintained. Vegetative
waterways with silt traps and the minimum length of
pipe conduits with the varying economical cross sections
based upon the hydraulic design were employed. In this
approach, channel erosion was less. The silt material
conveyed to the filters was also minimum. The existing
long- term water harvesting technologies of ground water
recharge particularly through tanks and ponds consume
a huge quantum of evaporation loss during storage. As
the harvested water is directly let into the aquifers, the
transmission efficiency of water through fissures and
cracks
Table 4: Experimentation in Observation wells

Farmers name
Doraiswamy
Depth of Well
Depth of Water (H)
Depth of Water Pumped (h1)
Depth of Water after Recuperated (h2)
Total time of pumping (T)
Radius of well
Area of Well (A)
Well Yield (Q) Calculated discharge
Measured discharge
Radius of influence
18.29m
15.24m
6.2m
4.5m
2.9 hrs
2.4 m
18.27 sq.m
8.47 lit/ sec
7.1 lit/ sec
114 m
In a similar hydrogeological condition at

Somayampalayam (nearby area), the single abandoned
well recharge technique through this method resulted in
more available water with a pumping duration of 1 hr
per day by raising water table of 15 m in a deep well
Table 5: Testing of Wells in farmers field

Sl.No.
Particulars
Well 1
Well 2
Well
Yield
(m3/hr)
1
Open Well Depth (m)
Control Well
Well
Yield
(m3/hr)
Well
Yield
(m3/hr)
10.67
7
13.72
13.72
32.49
9
26.00
9
Area of the Well (m2)
7.07
Depth of Water before

Implementation (m)
3.67
3.13
3.05
12.93
3.96
11.86
Depth of Water after

Implementation 20th Oct 2006 (m)
9.14
9.20
6.27
30.68
5.50
16.97
Depth of Water after Implementation

10th Nov 2006 (m)
10.06
11.14
7.01
37.15
5.80
18.74
99
of 60 m for eight months in a year. One hour extra

pumping hour with enhanced water availability (5 HP
pumpset) resulted in approximately additional irrigated
area of 0.4 ha with conventional method of irrigation.
If it is conjunctively operated with modern irrigation
systems like drip, it will irrigate twice, thereby irrigated
area will be doubled (0.8 ha additional area per farmer).
In short, the technology package would be convergence
of technologies on water harvesting.
Net increased income = Rs. 1.8 lakhs / acre =

Rs. 4.5 lakhs / ha
She has never seen such a huge financial benefit
as related from her past agriculture profession.The net
annual farm income before intervention project was only
Rs. 25,000 to 30,000 /- from her entire field of 2 ha
II. Mr. Rangan (Farmer)
Benefits Derived From the DST Project

on Water Harvesting and Ground Water
Recharge (For the Tribal Community of
Karamadai Block of Coimbatore District)
Out of ten wells selected for the detailed study
on the water table fluctuation with reference to water
harvesting and storing the excess runoff water in the
aquifers, five wells were installed with water harvesting
structures and low cost filter mechanisms. Owing to the
enhanced ground water recharge due to water harvesting
and letting the filtered runoff water directly into the open
wells, the cropped area has been increased and thereby
the net income of farmers have also been increased.
Two specific cases of tribal farmers under the
project and the success towards the improved income
as a consequence of the result of the project is briefly
given below:
I. Mrs. Rangammal (Lady farmer)
(i)
Additional pumping duration with 5 HP
in the existing well pumpset due to the water harvesting
intervention
= 1 hour
(ii)
Area under irrigation after the technological interventions
= 0.8 ha
Crop cultivated with Drip System = 0.4 ha
(Tissue culture Grandnaine variety of banana)
(iii)
Yield of 1200 plants from 0.4 ha

= 36000 kg.
Gross Income @ Rs. 6.00 per kg. = 2,16,000

Cost of Cultivation including crop management
and harvest @ Rs. 30 per plant
= 36,000
(Net Income )
= Rs.1,80,000/-
Mrs. Rangammal field 0.4 ha (1, 80,000 Rs.)
Gross Income
= Rs. 21,500
Cost of chilly cultivation
= Rs. 10,000
Net Income
= Rs. 11,500
Net income from 0.1 ha Banana = Rs. 45,000

Total Net Income
= Rs. 56,500
Benefits for Mr.Rangan

1.
Uncultivated dry area is brought under
irrigation due to enhanced water availability in the
wells.
2.
0.2 ha area was cultivated with chilies
and 0.1 ha banana with drip irrigation brought under
the cultivation.
3.
Likely net income from additional area
installed is Rs. 56,500/- from 0.3 ha.
III.
By seeing the successful results, the
nearby farmers, they are voluntarily approaching to get
the technology package and three farmers have already
started doing similar water conservation and efficient
utilization of well water. (Otherwise most wells are dried
during summer season due to shallow depth and unconfined nature).
Natural recharge techniques

The study of water table in one year indicates
the well yield is increased due to bio check dams artificial
recharge through abandoned wells and existing irrigation
wells.
An earthen embankment with vegetation (Agare
americana and notchi) across the natural streams and
diversion of excess runoff through channel and further
letting into the same stream downstream of the earthen
barrier across the stream were constructed in series in
two natural gullies. This could facilitate improving of
water table last for 8 to 9 months when the earthen
embankments have been properly located at hard strata.
This is the most cost effective structure (Rs.5000/-) the
100
Table.8. Quantum of water recharged

S.No.
Month Depth of water in the well (m)
1.
Past 30 years (1975 to November 2005)

After developmental work
December 06
January 07
February 07
March 07
April 07
May 07
June 07
July 07
August 07
September 07
October 07
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
cost of similar structure and dimensions costs out of to

be Rs 50000 to 65000.
The size of earthen embankments called bio
check dam adopted across the gullies are given below:
Bottom Width
=18m
Top Width
= 2.7m
Height
=3.5m
Slope
=1:1.5
Nil
22.50
20.90
19.20
17.30
15.20
14.60
15.20
10.50
7.50
5.00
10.00
the stream, m
Based up on the field investigation, the K value
was estimated as 0.7m/day; Bw = 15 m,
dc= 1.6, Bw/dc = 9.375
Now with respect to the x and y values the shape
of the stream is given by Polubarinova-Kochina (1962)
as follows
Recharge from streams
(2)
An assessment was made to quantity the

recharge from the natural stream with benefits as these is
considerable increase in water table in the open wells.
Plotting the stream boundary in accordance with
Table 9: Stream boundary co ordinates as per equation

Y -dc2-y2 (Bw+2dc)/n cos-1(y/dc)
Poulbarinora Kochinas (1962) inverse method

was employed to quantify the rate of seepage from the
perimeter of the stream (per unit length of the stream)
when the aquifer is assumed to extend downward to a
highly pervious stratum at infinity and also impervious
lower boundary of the aquifer.
The rate of seepage q per unit length of the
stream extended downwards to a highly pervious stream
at infinity through its perimeter is given by the equation
q = K (Bw + 2dc)
(1)
Where,
q=
Rate of seepage, m3/day
K=
Hydraulic conductivity, m/day
1.6
1.5
-0.556
2.059
1.503
1.4
-0.774
2.927
2.153
1.3
-0.932
3.605
2.673
1.2
-1.058
4.186
3.128
1.0
-1.248
5.188
3.940
the above equation with the x and y values as tabulated

below
When the lower boundary is impervious
at infinity, then the rate of seepage q per unit length of
the stream can be obtained by the following equation
q = K (Bw 2dc)
(3)
B w = Top width of the stream, m

dc =
Depth of water at the centre of

101
(4)
Then plotting the stream boundary in accordance

with the above equation with the x and y values as
tabulated below
estimated immediately after the three major rainfall

events when filtered rainwater was let into the well by
measuring depth of water in the well.
Table 10: Stream boundary Co-ordinate

obtained when impervious layer is at lower boundary
Depth of Water Table Rise in The Well
Y
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.0
dc2 y2
0
0.556
0.774
0.932
1.058
1.248
(Bw 2dc)/ n cos-1 (y/dc)

0
1.334
1.898
2.337
2.714
3.364
x
0
1.890
2.672
3.269
3.772
4.612
Water table data from the ground surface of the

abandoned well prevent in the downstream of the area
were observed and presented which showed cumulative
recharge effect of all the above mentioned technological
measures.
Salient Findings of The Project
The above two methods could be used for the

calculation of the seepage rate but the tabulated values
with respect to the equ. (3) are more reliable compared
to the equ. (1), so we consider the equ (3) was considered
Costlier constructional materials meant

for drinking water filters are being used in the already
existing techniques whereas the locally available stone
materials were used with proper filter bed for meeting
irrigation needs.
Table 11: Calculation seepage rate value

SI. No.
ordinates
Co- ordinates obtained
Co-ordinate obtained when Impervious
by eqn (2)
layer is at lower boundary (4)
Observed co-
0.16
0.16
1.503
1.5
1.890
1.5
1.7
1.5
2.153
1.4
2.672
1.4
2.8
1.4
2.673
1.3
3.269
1.3
3.1
1.3
3.128
1.2
3.772
1.2
4.0
1.2
3.940
1.0
4.612
1.0
4.8
1.0
1
0.16
for the seepage rate calculations.

The shape of stream as estimated by
the co-ordinates when the impervious lower boundary
(eqn.3) closely matches with the actual observations and
hence, the equation 2 was used to quantify the recharge
by the actual fields investigations of depth of water in
the stream throughout the observation period of 11
months.
Quantum of Harvested Rainwater

Directly Fed into The Open Un-pumped
Abandoned Well
During the study period, three times excess
rain water harvested at the downstream of the area was
let into the open dried well (two decades dried without
any storage) through a filter bed(2x2x2m size)filled with
stones and small pebbles.
The quantity of water fed into the well were
Vegetative waterways with silt traps and

the minimum length of pipe conduits with the varying
economical cross sections based upon the hydraulic
design were employed. In this approach, channel erosion
was less. The silt material conveyed to the filters was
also minimum.
The existing long- term water harvesting

technologies of ground water recharge particularly
through tanks and ponds consume a huge quantum
of evaporation loss during storage. As the harvested
water is directly let into the aquifers, the transmission
efficiency of water through fissures and cracks in rocks
for groundwater recharge will be maximum in the this
technique due to the elimination of water movement
through the vadose zone.
In a similar hydrogeological condition at

Somayampalayam (nearby area), the single abandoned
well recharge technique through this method resulted in
more available water with a pumping duration of 1 hr
102
per day by raising water table of 15 m in a deep well of

60 m for eight months in a year.
One hour extra pumping hour with

enhanced water availability (5 HP pump set) resulted in
approximately additional irrigated area of 0.4 ha with
conventional method of irrigation.
If it is conjunctively operated with

modern irrigation systems like drip, it would irrigate
twice, thereby irrigated area would be doubled (0.8 ha
additional area per farmer).
In short, the technology package would

be convergence of technologies on water harvesting and
modern water saving irrigation techniques.
Conclusions
The well yield is increased due to artificial recharge
through existing irrigation wells in the tribal areas. The
comparison of water table data in nearby wells outside
the study area indicated that the influence of recharge
is limited to below 100 m. Individual farm well recharge
through effective water harvesting method with the

efficient utilization of harvested water through micro
irrigation techniques with appropriate crop selection
with bring sustainability of natural resources namely soil
and water and will likely improve the farm income
Poulbarinova Kochinas (1962) inverse method
was employed to quantify the rate of seepage from the
perimeter of the stream (per unit length of the stream)
when the aquifer is assumed to extend downward to a
highly pervious stratum at infinity and also impervious
lower boundary of the aquifer. The impervious lower
boundary predicted the shape of the stream more
accurately and hence, this boundary condition was used
to quantify the groundwater recharge in the natural
streams. Eleven months water table observations in
an abandoned well in the area revealed that there was
a substantial increase in groundwater status to a tune
22.5 m due to integrating effect micro cements and the
recharge from natural stream with vegetated earthern
embankments(bio-checkdams).
Reference
Bianchi, W.C and D.C.Muckel. 1970. Ground water Recharge Hydrology, Agricultural Research Service41-161,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington.
Doorenbos, J. and A.H. Kassam. 1979. Yield response to water. Irrigation And Drainage paper No: 33,FAO, Rome,
Italy.
Polubarinova and Kochina , P.Y. Theory of ground water movement, 1962. Princeton University Press. Princeton,
N.J.
103
13
Rain Water Harvesting ,
Recharging And Skimming
Tecniques Suitable For Saline
Ground Water Tracts Of South
India
I. Muthuchamy and M. Raghu babu
Introduction
aquifer. Hence Improvements in this regard are needed.
In this paper, the research activities carried out

on water harvesting, recharging in Aruppukottai centre
and skimming activities carried out in the coastal areas
of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India are presented.
After studying the topography, soil type, rainfall pattern etc., a model Recharge Research Structure
(Percolation pond) was developed at Regional Research
Station, Aruppukottai under the Tamil nadu Agricultural
University, coimbatore, India.
Recharge
Rain water harvesting and recharging system for

Farmstead.
Artificial Recharge Studies
Catchment Area
The government schemes for enhancing groundwater recharge from rainwater through measures like
contour bunding, percolation tanks, check dams, are being carried out but more scientific evaluations are needed
to estimate the effects. Similarly a large-scale programme
of artificial recharge through existing dug wells has been
initiated in Saurashtra region of Gujarat by a number
of non-government organizations and about one lakh
dug wells are recharged during every monsoon. Present
technique of recharging through dug wells consists of
diversion of runoff towards the well through a sediment
trapping pit. It has the drawback that the recharge water
carries suspended matter which clogs the well and the
A catchment area of 100 acres was delineated

inside the farm after careful study of the topography, soil
type, and rainfall pattern. The catchment is of good
catchment category. The runoff generated in the catchment during rainfall drains towards northern direction
of a stretch of 770m East West direction. The run off
is collected by means of a trapezoidal earthen channel
running to a length of 770m East West direction at the
northern downstream side of the catchment.
Conveyance Channel
The conveyance earthen channel was designed
below ground level on the down stream side of the catch-
104
ments in East West direction to a stretch of 770 m to

collect all the run off produced during rainfall in the
catchments area.
The earthen conveyance channel was designed
as Trapezoidal shape with the cross section of 1m bottom width, 2.64 m top width with 0.9m depth (below
ground level) to catch and convey the rainwater to the
Recharge pond (Percolation pond) at the Eastern end
of the channel. A longitudinal slope of 0.5 in 1000 is
maintained in the Trapezoidal earthen channel towards
percolation pond in order to drain runoff into percolation pond. A spoil bank was made with the dugout
soil on the down stream side of the Trapezoidal channel
in order to control the runoff inside the channel during
peak flood.
The spoil bank was designed to have the dimensions of 1m bottom width, 0.5m top width with 1m
height. Excavator (JCB) formed the earthwork excavation and spoil bank simultaneously. The JCB type excavator is suitable for formation of channel below ground
level and to form spoil bank simultaneously.
Recharge Structure (Percolation Pond)

A Recharge structure (Percolation pond) was designed at the eastern end of the trapezoidal conveyance
earthen channel to collect all the runoff produced in
the catchment and conveyed through the channel. The
recharge structure (Percolation pond) was designed to
impound one third of peak runoff produced during the
rainy season and throughout the year. The percolation
pond can stagnate 3000m3 of rainwater at a time
An earthen embankment of size 4.9 m bottom
width, 1m top width with 5m height was designed and
was formed with the chain type bulldozer for effective
consolidation of the embankment for percolation pond.
A waste weir was provided to drain excess water from
the percolation pond and the excess water goes to the
existing jungle stream inside the farm. Six numbers of
bore wells are there in the vicinity of the percolation
pond to utilise the recharged ground water. Chain type
Bulldozer available in the Agricultural Engineering department, Govt. of Tamil Nadu was used for forming
percolation pond. The total volume of soil removed was
3107m3 from the place for formation of Recharge structure (Percolation pond). The chain type dozer is suitable
for formation of percolation pond. The total surface area
of the pond is 3249m2. An amount of Rs. 59,063/was spent to establish the percolation pond.
Response Borewells (6 Nos. of Existing

Borewell)
Six number of bore wells are there in the vicinity
of the percolation pond to utilise the recharged ground
water and monitored the watertable trends before and
after installation of recharge structure. The rising trends
of watertable from well bottom in few wells indicate the
influence of recharge structure.
System Profile
The catchment area receives rainfall and generates runoff and this runoff goes towards the conveyance channel and the conveyance channel discharges
the runoff to the recharge structure (Percolation pond)
and the runoff water is finally impounded in the percolation pond and is allowed to recharge into ground water
source. The excess water in the percolation pond goes
out and joins to the existing jungle stream through the
waste weir. During the travel of runoff water along the
conveyance earthen channel it recharges the open well
by means of recharge bed created near the open well
along the conveyance channel.
Roof Water-Harvesting System for

Farmstead
Roof Top Catchment Area
The rooftop of Trainees hostel building of RRS
was selected for the roof water catchment area.The RCC
terraced top was already plastered with weathering tiles
to prevent leakage and seepage of rainwater. Required
very gentle slope was already provided towards outer
sides of the wall (Super structure). Necessary rainwater
drain outlets were provided. The roof top catchment
area is 379m2.
Conveyance (Vertical and Horizontal

PVC Pipeline)
The conveyance component of vertical and horizontal pipeline was selected with 110mm OD PVC pipeline with required L bends, T joints and couplings.
The rainwater is collected from the rooftop through the
rainwater outlet and conveyed vertically downwards
along the PVC 110mm pipe fixed on the wall. The
vertical conveyance pipes were joined to the horizontal
conveyance pipe by means of T joints. The horizontal
conveyance pipeline was placed 0.8m below the ground
level in order to prevent mechanical damages to the
pipeline. The conveyance PVC pipeline was designed
105
to run for 150m to reach a Filter cum Recharge bed near

an existing bore well. The rainwater harvested could run
through the conveyance pipe and reach the filter cum
recharge bed.
type digging and earth moving machinery can be deployed to establish the Filter cum Recharge bed.
Roof Top Catchment (Trainees Hostel)
The catchment area receives rainfall and generates runoff and this runoff goes towards the conveyance
channel and the conveyance channel discharges the
runoff to the percolation pond through the Filter cum
Recharge bed established very near to the existing abandoned open well. Thus the Filter cum Recharge bed
recharges the harvested rainwater into the groundwater
resources, which will be realized in the abandoned open
well.
A Filter cum Recharge bed of 320m3 capacity

was designed and established below ground level adjacent
to an existing bore well. The recharged rainwater could
reach the groundwater resources through the Filter cum
Recharge Bed. The Filter cum Recharge bed was established with the help of JCB type excavator. The JCB
type excavator is most suitable for establishing filter cum
Recharge bed below ground level.The recharge effect on
groundwater resources is being monitored through two
numbers of existing bore wells at the vicinity of the Filter
cum Recharge bed.
System Profile
The Roof top catchment area receives rainfall
and generates runoff and this runoff goes to the vertical conveyance PVC 110mm OD pipes and joins to the
horizontal conveyance PVC pipeline of 110mm OD buried below ground level. The rainwater in the horizontal
conveyance pipeline goes to the Filter cum Recharge
bed created adjacent to the existing bore wells and percolates into the ground water resources to augment the
bore wells.
Abandoned Open Well Recharge

System for Farmstead
Abandoned Open Well
An open well available in the RRS farm was utilized for recharging the open well through the wayside
Filter cum Recharge bed attached with the conveyance
earthern channel. The open well dimensions are 7.32m
10.78m 12m.
Filter Cum Recharge Bed
The conveyance Trapezoidal earthen channel
was aligned in such a way that the channel was attached
with a Filter cum Recharge bed established very near to
the existing abandoned open well. The harvested rainwater can stagnate in the Filter cum Recharge bed during the travel in the conveyance earthen channel. The
Filter cum Recharge bed was designed to have 112m3 of
rainwater and established below ground level. The JCB
System Profile
Conclusion
The recharge effects on ground water resources
was being monitored htrough the existing bore wells at
the vicinity of the recharge structures for four years friom 2001- 2004.Due to thos the water level in the bore
wells rised in the range of 0.6 to 3 m, the EC of the
water decreased in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 ds/m and
the PH decreased in the range of 1 to 2 in the wells in
and around 3KM radius of RRS Research Farm, Arruppukottai, India.
Skimming
Induced seepage in coastal areas due to nonjudicious pumping gradually diminishes the productivity
of agricultural lands. The salt water intrusion problems
in coastal regions may occur both on a regional and local
scale. The regional effects encompass large areas due to
movement of the interface of fresh and saline ground
water in an upward and/ or inland direction. The local small scale effects relate to gradual deterioration in
ground water quality due to upconing or rise of relatively
more saline ground water from deeper levels with in the
domain of abstraction wells.
Under such a situation, it is imperative not to
disturb saline water but selectively skim the fresh water
accumulated over the saline aquifer due to recharge from
rainfall, irrigation and or canal seepage over the native
saline ground water by conventional wells or modified
forms of radial wells. Sustainability of fresh ground water
under these hydrodynamic conditions is influenced by
the interface between the fresh and saline water layers.
For stabilization of interface, the management strategies
are to be evolved with the present and future demand
scenario.
106
Skimming Structures
Improved Doruvu Technology
Various skimming well configurations such as

single, multi-strainer, radial collector, compound and recirculation wells are possible to exploit the fresh water
overlying the saline ground water. A single tube well/
filter point is commonly used in unconfined aquifers.
While using these wells in saline ground water regions,
well penetration is deep into the fresh water layer with
a large gap between bottom of well and fresh- saline
water interface. A multi-strainer well, which is relatively
shallower penetration than a single well, can be used to
harvest fresh water layers of restricted depth.
To overcome the situation, the skimming well

technology popularly known as Improved Doruvu Technology was developed to skim the limited fresh water
floating with out disturbing the hydro-dynamic conditions. With this system, sufficient water is expected
to be made available to rabi and plantation crops and
optimum usage of water through sprinkler and drip irrigation methods can be practiced. Depending on the
watertable head above the collector pipes, the collectors
are continuously charged with fresh water throughout
their length and about 2 -15 lps of water flows into the
sump under gravity.
In Andhra Pradesh, about 1.74 lakh ha coastal

sandy soils are characterized by good quality water floating over saline ground water at shallow depths of 0.56.0m, which cannot be extracted by with conventional
tube wells or deep wells. These soils occur in a 10 km
wide and 972km long eastern coastal strip extended
from Ichapuram in Srikakulam district to Tada in Nellore
district. During summer months the water table in these
soils fall up to 1.8 3.0 m, below ground level (bgl). The
ground waterget recharged during the monsoon season
and accumulates in the sandy soils. By middle of November the ground water rises up to 0.3 to 0.5 m bgl in
most of the belts.
Doruvu Technology
The farmers in these areas dig conical pits called
doruvus and harvest the recharged water for growing of vegetables, tobacco, paddy nurseries and flowers. Each Doruvu occupies an area of 160-200 m2
(4-5 cents) and will meet the irrigatio requirements of
about 800m2 .Ten such doruvus are required to irrigate
1 ha.area, which occupy an area of 2000 m2 i.e., about
20% of the cultivable area. Performance of shallow wells
in the sands is constrained with thin aquifer of fresh
water, seasonal and limiting recharging rate and semiconfined/perched conditions due to clay base in bottom
levels. Thus, scarcity of irrigation water at critical growth
stages is the major impediment for obtaining optimal
crop yields from rabi groundnut and other crops. Similar situation exist in coastal parts of Tamil Nadu and
farmers tap good quality waters by Oothu. In Tamil
Nadu, the coastal region is spread over an area 0f 0.74m
ha. The coastal belt has a length of more than 700km,
stretching from Pulicat lake in the north to Cape Comarine in the south.
About 64 such skimming wells covering 141 ha

cultivable area were installed in 17 villages of Guntur
and Prakasam districts of Andhra Pradesh. Three Skimming wells were exclusively installed in Repalle Mandal
of Guntur district for drinking water purpose. Under National Agricultural Technology Project, the Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University introduced the skimming technology in Prataparamapuram and Vettangudi of Nagapatnam and Myladuthrai districts by installing 2 wells after
detailed investigations on a pilot scale. Also few shallow depth multi-strainer wells were installed in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu coasts during the recent years
for study purpose.
For construction of Skimming well, a sump of
1.2- 1.8 m (4-6 dia) width and 4.5- 5.5 m depth is to be
installed in the identified location. On either side of the
sump, a trench is made and 100 mm (4 dia) corrugated
PVC pipe (CPVC) with 5 rows of perforations is laid at
a depth of 2.1 4.0 m over a lenth of 35-50m. At the
designed depth holes are made to the sump and the
CPVC pipe collector lines are laid at 0.1% slope, starting
from the holes. 60 number Nylon mesh is used as pipe
envelope material. In fine sandy soils 10 cm thick gravel
packing around collector is also required. After installation of the collector lines, the trench
has to be back filled. Depending on the water
table head above the collector pipes, the collectors are continuously charged with fresh water
throughout their length and about 2 -15 lps of
water flows into the sump under gravity.
Advantages of Skimming Well

(1)
The upconing of Saline ground water is
avoided as the collectors harvest only the shallow depth
fresh water available above the collectors.
107
(2)
possible.
Over exploitation of ground water is not
(3)
Wastage of water through evaporation
from the excavated pits/doruvus is avoided.
(4)
Availability of more area for cultivation.
(5)
Facilitates the adoption of water saving,
modern irrigation practices like drip and sprinkler and
improves the water use efficiency in crop production.
Installation Cost
Depending on the size of sump and depth of the
installation of collectors, the cost of system vary from
26,000 to 40,000/- (Annexure 1).
Villages of Tamil Nadu. Also under rural drinking
water Scheme(RDS), Skimming wells were installed in
five different locations of Andhra Pradesh.
Improvement in The Installation of

Skimming Well
In the past, the manual installation of skimming
well involving construction of sump and laying of
stoneware pipe collector line was a process of 10
12 days. But now, with semi mechanization and use
of Excavator besides easy installation materials such as
Corrugated PVC pipe, the well is being constructed in
3-4 days.
ginal farmers is constrained due to non availability of

funds, laborious process of installation and small farm
holding/ leasing of lands.
Community Skimming Wells

In order to minimize the installation cost as well
as to provide opportunity to small and marginal farmers
3 skimming wellshave been installed in an area of 5 ha.,
covering individual holdings of thirteen farmers at Timmareddypalem. The use of skimmed water in these wells
is on rotation basis. The farmers successfully operated
the wells and produced high yields of groundnut as well
as chillies during 2002-04.
Conclusion
With skimming well, it is possible to irrigate
0.5 ha. daily with use of 6 8 sprinklers. Each skimming well can irrigate 2 ha. of I.D crop under sprinklers or 4 ha. of plantation area under drip system during rabi. Chillies, groundnut, pulses, colacasia, paddy
nursery, flower plants, coconut nurseries and vegetables
are some of the crops grown under these wells.So far
more than 64 skimming wells covering 141 ha area
were installed in 17 villages of Guntur and Prakasam
districts of Andhra Pradesh and 2 wells covering
4 ha in 2.
Constraints in Popularization of
Technology
Though the technology has been demonstrated
at a number of sites, its adoption by the small and mar-
108
Theme 3
Enhancing Water Productivity in
Rainfed Area
14
Crop Management Options to
Enhance Water Productivity of
Rainfed Areas
S.Natarajan, C.Sudhalakshmi, R.Jagadeeswaran and R.Venkitaswamy
Rainfed agriculture occupies 100 m ha out of

143 m ha of net sown area in India. It contributes 4045 per cent of the total food production and supports
60 per cent of cattle heads. Evergreen revolution crops
such as rice and wheat still have 50 per cent and 19 per
cent under rainfed conditions.
Water productivity of rainfed crops can be improved by better crop management options. Suitable
selection of crops and varieties is important to harness
the available rainfall. In regions receiving 350 600 mm
rainfall with an effective growing season of 20 weeks
only single cropping and if more than 750 mm rainfall
is received, double cropping is possible. Intercropping
can be practiced to minimize the risk of single cropping
system. Groundnut + sorghum in North Eastern zone,
Groundnut + redgram in North Western zone, Cotton +
redgram in Western zone, Cotton + blackgram in southern zone are some of the intercropping systems. Seeds
can be hardened with KH2PO4, KCl, NaCl, CaSO4 to
induce resistance to drought and adverse weather conditions. Proper time of seeding is an important factor in
rainfed cultivation. Planting redgram after onset of south
west monsoon had recorded the highest mean seed yield

as compared to the planting on second fortnight of July.
Rainfall use efficiency could be increased with premonsoon sowing. Seed drill sowing is more useful in view
of precision in the depth of sowing, uniformity in spacing and rapid coverage compared to common broadcast
sowing.
Surface configuration as tied ridges is used to
trap runoff when rainfall exceeds infiltration in drought
prone shallow alfisols. Ridges are advantageous in some
nutrient deficient soils to concentrate the fertile top soil
and to conserve water. Broad bed and furrow systems
can be practiced for moisture conservation and for increasing crop yields in vertisols. Compartmental bunding produce higher grain yield of pearl millet compared
to flat bed method of sowing in vertisols. Mulching is
practiced to reduce soil evaporation and to conserve soil
moisture. Residue mulch prevents direct impact of rain
drop on soil aggregates, maintains porespace and high
infiltration rate. Surface mulching with different organic
mulches such as sorghum stubble, pearl millet straw,
paddy straw, saw dust, groundnut shell and dust mulch
111
showed that mulching increased the soil moisture content by 3 %. In cotton, saw dust mulch of 2.5 cm thickness recorded higher moisture content and was on par
with groundnut shell mulch and stubble mulch.
Research data of the past 25 years in rice, maize,
sorghum and pearlmillet revealed that grain yield response was higher for balanced nutrition with nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium fertilizers. Calcium nutrition
in rainfed groundnut, gypsum for oilseeds, micronutrient
mixture @ 12.5 kg ha-1, zinc enriched FYM and iron enriched FYM application proved to be beneficial in rainfed
areas. Drilling or point placement method in the root
zone and split application were found to result in higher
N recovery (by 25 %) than surface application or basal
incorporation. Foliar spray of 2 % DAP and 0.5 to 1
% KCl at flowering enhances the productivity of rainfed
pulses and horticultural crops respectively. Application
of Farm yard manure @ 12.5 t ha-1, addition of farm
wastes or tree loppings viz., Leucaena, Glyricidia etc.,
or composted coir pith, pressmud / biocompost @ 5 t
ha-1 in addition to the recommended dose of fertilizers
was found to improve moisture retention and result in
enhanced yields in pure cropping as well as rainfed inter-
cropping systems. Application of tank silt was found to

improve soil fertility and result in increased yield in rainfed ragi and groundnut. Azospirillum, Rhizobium and
VAM are the commonly recommended biofertilizers for
better seed germination, enhanced seedling vigour and
crop establishment. Temperature tolerant strain Az.t.II
was developed specially for rainfed areas by TNAU which
aid in fixation of atmospheric nitrogen even at 45oC.
Legume based intercropping systems are recommended and Integrated farming system with rainfed
crops, bund trees, goat, biogas unit resulted in effective
recycling of farm resources and better remuneration.
Combination of suitable techniques for weed control has
a complementary effect. Application of glycel (1 %) followed by summer ploughing 15 days after during fallow
period and application of Metalachlor 1.0 kg a.i /ha + one
hand weeding on 40 DAS for kharif groundnut recorded
maximum yield. Crop rotation plays an important role
in the management of host specific weeds. Contingent
crop planning has to be adopted in aberrant weather
conditions. Mechanization can be practiced from sowing
to harvest to prevent the drudgery of labour and improve
the productivity of rainfed farming systems.
112
15
Opportunities for Enhancing
Crop Water Productivity in
Rainfed Areas: An Assessment
for Rainfed Areas of India
Bharat R Sharma, K V Rao and KPR Vittal
Introduction
Rainfed agriculture generates about 65-70% of
the worlds staple foods, but it also produces most food
for poor communities in developing and least favoured
areas. Rainfed areas in South Asia and Africa, home
to the worlds largest proportion of drought prone areas (about 44%), have extremely low yield levels. The
distinct feature of the rainfed agriculture in developing
countries is that both productivity improvement and expansion has been slower relative to irrigated agriculture
(Rosegrant et al., 2002). But as Pretty and Hine (2001)
suggest that there is a 100% yield increase potential in
rainfed agriculture in developing countries, compared to
only 10% for irrigated crops. This calls for increased efforts to upgrade rainfed systems globally and especially
in developing countries where governments and communities are struggling to provide enough and affordable
food (and nutrition) to the vast populations.
India ranks first among the rainfed agricultural
countries of the world in terms of both extent ( 86 M
ha) and value of produce. Due to low land and labour
productivity poverty is concentrated in rainfed regions.

Yield gap analysis, undertaken by the Comprehensive
Assessment, for major rainfed crops found farmers yield
being a factor of 2-4 times lower than achievable yields
of over 4-5 t/ha (Falkenmark and Rockstrom, 2000).
The large yield gap between the attainable and potential
yield shows that a large potential of rainfed agriculture
remains to be tapped (Molden, 2007). Besides several
other factors related to agriculture sector as a whole, adverse meteorological conditions in long dry spells and
droughts, unseasonal rains and extended moisture stress
periods with no mechanisms for storing and conserving
the surplus rain to tide over the scarcity/ deficit periods
were the major cause for non-remunerative yields and
the associated distress. As such productivity of water is
very low in rainfed agriculture. Whereas in the arid zones
(< 300 mm/ annum) absolute water scarcity constitutes
the major limiting factor in agriculture, in the semi-arid
and dry-sub humid tropical regions on the other hand,
total seasonal rainfall is generally adequate to significantly improve agricultural productivity. Here managing extreme rainfall variability in time and space is the greatest
113
water challenge and the opportunity.

Supplementary irrigation is a key strategy, so
far underutilised, to unlock rainfed yield potentials and
improving crop water productivity in rainfed areas.
Objective of supplemental irrigation is not to provide
stress-free conditions throughout the crop growth for
maximum yields, but to provide just-in-time irrigation to
tide over moisture scarcity at critical growth stages to
produce optimum yields per unit of water. The existing
evidence indicates that supplemental irrigation ranging
from 50-200 mm/ season (500-2000 m3 / ha) is sufficient to mediate yield reducing dry spells in most years
and rainfed systems, and thereby stabilise and optimise
yield levels. Since irrigation water productivity is much
higher when used conjunctively with rainwater (supplemental), it is logical that under limited water resources
priority in water allocation may be given to supplementary irrigation. Collecting small amounts using limited
macro-catchments water harvesting, local springs, shallow groundwater table or most importantly the conventional water harvesting can achieve this.
Rainfed areas in India are highly diverse and
yield differences between irrigated and rainfed areas are
more pronounced when the crop is grown under variety
of agro-ecological regions compared to its concentration
in few and similar districts. On-farm trials and evaluation
reports of watershed projects (Joshi et al., 2004; Sastry
et al., 2004) suggest that the effect of supplementary
irrigation on rainfed crop yields is considerably higher
Therefore an assessment was made under an IWMI-CRIDA study to identify opportunities at the national level
for India for water harvesting and supplemental irrigation
to overcome dry spells during mid/ terminal droughts so
as to stabilize the production. The assessment presented
in this study presents estimation of available (surplus)
rainfall runoff during August (second fortnight)/ September required mainly to mitigate the terminal drought.
The study identified the dominant rainfed districts for
different crops (contributing upto 85% of total rainfed
production), made an assessment of the surplus/ runoff
available for water harvesting and supplementary irrigation in the identified districts, estimated the regional
water use efficiency and effect of supplemental irrigation
on increase in production of different crops and finally a
preliminary estimate of the economics of water harvesting for supplemental irrigation in rainfed areas. For a
national/ regional level planning on supplementary irrigation, one needs to make an assessment of the total
and available surplus runoff and potential for its gainful
utilization. In the present study, both crop season-wise

and annual water balance analyses were done for each
of the selected crop cultivated in the identified districts.
Whereas, annual water balance analysis assessed the
surplus and/or deficit during the year to estimate the
water availability and losses through evaporation; the
seasonal crop water balance assessed changes in temporal availability of rainfall and plant water requirements.
Water requirement satisfaction index was used for assessing the sufficiency of rainfall vis--vis the crop water
requirements.
The total surplus from a district is obtained by
multiplication of seasonal surplus with the rainfed area
under the given crop .Total surplus available from a
cropped region is obtained by adding the surplus from
individual dominant districts identified for each crop. An
estimated amount of 11.5 M ha-m runoff is generated
through 39 M ha of the prioritized rainfed area. Out of
the surplus of 11.5 M ha-m, 4.1 M ha-m is generated by
about 6.5 M ha of rainfed rice alone. Another 1.32 and
1.30 M ha-m of runoff is generated from soybeans (2.8 M
ha) and chickpea (3.35 M ha), respectively. Total rainfed
coarse cereals (10.7 M ha) generate about 2.1M ha-m of
runoff. Based on the experiences from watershed management research and large-scale development efforts,
practical harvesting of runoff is possible only when the
harvestable amount is larger than 50 mm or greater than
10% of the seasonal rainfall (CRIDA, 2001). Therefore,
surplus runoff generating areas/ districts were identified
after deleting the districts with seasonal surplus of less
than or equal to 50 mm of surplus and those districts
generating runoff of less than 10% of seasonal rainfall.
Table 1 shows the summary of surplus and deficit for
various crops after deletion of districts, which generate
less than the utilizable amount of runoff. This constitutes about 10.5 M ha of rainfed area which generates
seasonal runoff of less than 50 mm (10.25 M ha) or less
than 10% of the seasonal rainfall (0.25 M ha). Thus the
total estimated runoff surplus for various rainfed crops is
about 11.4 M ha-m (114.02 billion cubic meters, BCM)
from about 28.6 M ha which could be considered for
water harvesting. Among individual crops, rainfed rice
contributes higher surplus followed by soybeans. Deficit
of rainfall for meeting crop water requirements is also
visible for crops like groundnut, cotton, chickpeas and
pigeon pea.
Based on this available surplus, irrigable area
was estimated for single supplemental irrigation of
100 mm (including conveyance/ application and evapo-
114
Table 1: Potentially harvestable surplus runoff available for supplemental irrigation under different rainfed crops of India
Crop group
Crop
Rainfed crop area (000 ha)
Surplus (ha-m)
Deficit (ha-m)
Cereals
Rice
6329
4121851
Finger millet
303
153852
Maize
2443
771890
Pearl millet
1818
359991
Sorghum
2938
771660
7502
Cotton
2057393
3177
0
757575
8848
Castor
28
14489
Groundnut
1663
342673
1646
Linseed
590
306360
Sesame
1052
416638
Soybeans
2843
1329251
Sunflower
98
11811
6273
2421222
1646
Chickpea
3006
1304682
9166
Green gram
458
80135
Pigeon pea
1823
659328
238
Total (Pulses)
5288
2044145
9404
Grand total
28,568
11,402,186
19898
Coarse cereals
Total (Coarse cereals)

Fiber
Oilseeds
Total (Oilseeds)
Pulses
ration losses) at reproductive stage of the crop both for

normal and drought years. Runoff during drought years
is assumed to be 50% of runoff surplus during normal
rainfall years (based on authors estimates for selected
districts and rainfed crops). However, farmers tend to
use the water more prudently during drought years and
save larger cropped areas. The potential irrigable area
through supplementary irrigation for both scenarios is
given in Table 2. Out of 114 billion cubic meters available as surplus about 28 billion cubic meters (19.4 %) is
needed for providing supplemental irrigation to irrigate

an area of 25 million ha during normal monsoon year
thus leaving about 86 M ha-m (80.6%) to meet river/
environmental flow and other requirements. During
drought years also about 31 billion cubic meters is still
available even after making provision for irrigating 20.6
million ha. Thus it can be seen that water harvesting and
supplemental irrigation do not jeopardize the available
flows in rivers even during drought years or cause significant downstream effects in the identified areas.
Table 2: Irrigable area (000 ha) through supplemental irrigation (@100 mm per irrigation)
during normal and drought years under different rainfed crops
Crop group
Crop
Rainfed crop area
Irrigable area during

normal monsoon
Irrigable area during

drought season
Cereals
Rice
6329
6329
6215
Finger millet
303
266
224
Maize
2443
2251
1684
Pearl millet
1818
1370
837
Sorghum
2938
2628
1856
7502
6515
4601
Cotton
3177
2656
1725
Castor
28
25
22
Groundnut
1663
1096
710
Coarse cereals
Total (Coarse cereals)

Fiber
115
Oilseeds
Sesame
1052
919
741
Soya beans
2843
2843
2667
Sunflower
98
59
30
5684
4942
4171
Chickpea
3006
2925
2560
Pigeon pea
1823
1710
1374
Total (Pulses)
4829
4634
3934
27520
25076
20647
Total (Oilseeds)
Pulses
Grand total
Production projections were made for different

crops in the respective rainfed districts using the information on regional rainwater use efficiency both for business as usual scenario (only application of supplementary irrigation) and under improved practices scenario
(limited follow-up on recommended package of practices). Additional production (Table 3) was a product of
irrigable area (Table 2), regional rainwater use efficiency
and the amount of supplemental irrigation. The irrigable
area through supplemental irrigation for different crops
during drought season varies between 50-98% (98% for
rice crop to 50% for sunflower growing districts) of the
irrigable area during normal season. Under improved

management practices, an average of 50% increase
in total production cutting across drought and normal
seasons is realizable with supplemental irrigation from
rainfed area of 27.5 M ha. Production enhancement in
drought season in case of rice crop is high due to higher
water application efficiency and due to sufficient surplus
to bring almost entire rice cultivated area under supplemental irrigation. This would also indicate that large
tracts of rainfed rice cultivated area are covered under
high rainfall zones with sufficient surplus for rainwater
harvesting. Significant production improvements can be
Table 3: Yield increases with supplemental irrigation (SI) in normal and

drought seasons (based on WUE of improved technologies)
Crop group
Cereals
Crop
Rainfed
cropped
Traditional
production
(000 tons)
Irrigable area
area (000 ha)
Additional production
(000 tons)
Normal
season
Drought
season
Normal
season
Drought
season
Rice
6329
7612
6329
6215
4141
4357
Finger millet
303
271
266
224
124
112
Maize
2443
2996
2251
1684
1744
1408
Pearl millet
1818
1902
1370
837
836
555
Sorghum
2938
3131
2628
1856
2439
1864
Total coarse
cereals
7502
8300
6515
4601
5144
3939
Cotton
3177
430
2656
1725
294
206
Castor
28
10
25
22
Groundnut
1663
1182
1096
710
284
203
Sesame
1052
365
919
741
202
176
Soya beans
2843
2607
2843
2667
1429
1443
Sunflower
98
49
59
30
12
Oilseeds
Total oilseeds
5684
4214
4942
4171
1933
1834
Pulses
Chickpea
3006
2367
2925
2560
1061
1000
Pigeon pea
1823
1350
1710
1374
282
245
Total Pulses
4829
3717
4635
3934
1344
1244
27,520
24,272
25,076
20,647
12,856
11,581
Coarse cereals
Fiber
Grand total
116
realized in rice, sorghum, maize, cotton, sesame, soybeans and chickpeas. The success of Green Revolution
in irrigated areas is one solid example built upon irrigation and improved technologies. Everyone of the stakeholder from supplier to farmer to market responded with
equal enthusiasm. A second Green Revolution is not in
the offing for long time for the reason that this needs to
be staged on water scarcity/insufficiency zone.
Economics of Water Harvesting and

Supplemental Irrigation
Supplemental irrigation has substantive potential for increasing production from rainfed crops across
different districts, yet its adoption on a large scale shall
depend upon its economic worthiness. Numerous such
structures have been built under varying agro-climatic
conditions under state sponsored programs, by non-governmental organizations and with individual initiatives.
The cost of provision of supplemental irrigation through
construction of water harvesting structures varies a
great deal between different states/ regions and locations between the same state (Samra, JS, 2007; personal communication). Hence a simple analysis based
on the national average cost for rainwater harvesting
structures (INR 18,500/ ha) was carried out for provision of supplemental irrigation to the rainfed crops. In
the calculation of annualized cost, rate of interest as well
as depreciation cost for the structures has been deducted. An assumption was made that rainwater harvested
would be utilized for the existing crop and accordingly
returns were considered for existing crop only. However,
in actual practice the farmer makes much better use of
the created water resource by planting high value crops
and plantations and investments in livestock and aquaculture. The annualized cost for each crop and gross and
net benefits with supplemental irrigation to each crop are
shown under Table 8. It suggests that an estimated INR
50 billion annually is required to provide supplemental
irrigation to around 28 M ha of rainfed cultivated land
and half of that amount is required for rice and coarse
cereals only. The data suggests that gross and net benefits are quite high for cotton, oilseeds, pulses and rice.
However, the coarse cereal group in general and pearl
millet in particular exhibit lower gross and net benefits

even with SI and improved practices. This indicates the
need for better varieties of these crops, which are more
responsive to irrigation and nutrition.
Conclusions
In spite of the rainfed lands having the highest
unexploited potential for growth, the risk of crop failures, low yields and the insecurity of livelihoods is high
due to random behaviour of the rainfall. Rainfed agriculture is mainly and negatively influenced by intermittent
dry spells during the cropping season and especially at
critical growth stages coinciding with terminal growth
stage. District level analysis for different rainfed crops in
India showed that difference in the district average yields
for rainfed crops among different rainfall zones was not
very high indicating that total water availability may not
be the major problem in different rainfall zones and
for each crop there were few dominant districts which
contributed most to the total rainfed crop production.
The most potential strategy to realize the potential of
rainfed agriculture in India (and elsewhere) appears to
harvest small part of available surplus runoff and reutilize it for supplemental irrigation at different critical crop
growth stages. The study identified about 27.5 M ha of
potential rainfed area, which accounted for most of the
rainfed production and generated sufficient runoff (114
BCM) for harvesting and reutilization. It was possible to
raise the rainfed production by 50% over this entire area
through application of one supplementary irrigation (28
BCM) and some follow up on the improved practices.
Extensive area coverage rather than intensive irrigation
need to be followed in regions with higher than 750
mm/ annum rainfall, since there is a larger possibility
of alleviating the in-season drought spells and ensure
second crop with limited water application. This component may be made an integral component of the ongoing and new development schemes in the identified
rural districts. The proposed strategy is environmentally
benign, equitable, poverty-targeted and financially attractive to realize the untapped potential of rainfed agriculture in India.
117
References
David, Molden (eds.).2007. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in
Agriculture. London: Earthscan, and Colombo: International Water Management Institute.
Falkenmark, M., Rockstrom,J.1993. Curbing rural exodus from tropical drylands. Ambio 22(7): 427-437.
Joshi, P.K.; A K Jha, SP Wani; Laxmi Joshi, RL Shiyani. 2005. Meta analysis to assess impact of watershed program
and peoples action. Comprehensive Assessment Research Report 8, International Water Management
Institute, Colombo.
Oweiss, Theib.1997. Supplemental irrigation: A highly efficient water-use practice. Aleppo, Syria: International Center
for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas.
Pretty, J, R. Hine. 2001. Reducing Food Poverty with Sustainable Agriculture: A Summary of New Evidence. Final
report of the safe World Research Report. University of Essex, UK.
Reij,C .1988.Impact des techniques de conservation des eaux et du sol sur les rendements agricoles:analyse succincte
des donnees disponsibles pour le plateau central au Burkina faso. CEDRES/ AGRISK.
Rockstrom ,J.; Falkenmark,M. 2000. Semi-arid crop production from a hydrological perspective- Gap between
potential and actual yields. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 19(4): 319-346.
Rosegrant, Mark; C.Ximing, S.Cline, N.Nakagawa.2002. The Role of Rainfed Agriculture in the Future of Global
food Production. EPTD discussion Paper 90. International food Policy Research Institute, Washington D.C.
(www.ifpri.org/divs/eptd/dp/papers/eptdp90.pdf )
Samra, J.S.2007. Personal communication. Role of watersheds and Minor Irrigation in Food and Livelihood
Securities. Presentation made before the Planning Commission. Government of India. New Delhi. June
29,2007.
118
16
Improving Productivity in Dry
Land Groundnut Farming
LEISA Outcomes from South
India
Arun Balamatti, J Diraviam and C S Kallimani
Introduction
Groundnut is a major commercial crop in India.
It was introduced in the country in the sixteenth century (Reddy, 1996). India is one of the largest producers
of groundnut in the world. It was cultivated in 6.74 m
ha with an annual production of 7.99 million tonnes
in 2005-06 in the country (AgStat, 2006-07). The area
under irrigation is very much limited (< 17%). Groundnut is a major livelihood crop, as it has higher market
value compared to millets, serves as good source of fodder and comes well in marginalized lands if there is well
distributed rainfall. Its nitrogen fixation ability helps in
building soil fertility as well as requires lower quantity of
nutrients as compared to other oilseed crops.
The Situation in Deccan Plateau

Groundnut is the only crop, which is grown by
around 80 per cent of the dry land farmers, who depend on it as a major source of livelihood. With negligible presence of other crops and livelihood options, it
is a classical case of putting all the eggs in one basket
for the large majority of small and marginal farmers. In
the most degraded ecosystem, the recurring droughts

have had their heavy toll not only on depleting biomass,
dwindling livestock population, and eroded soil fertility,
but also on farmers attitude to farming in general. The
routine production practices can be best explained as
reflection of deep-rooted pessimism, lack of creativity
and innovativeness resulting in inefficient use of natural
resources and as a result, poor yields.
A major challenge farmers facing in this area is
the adoption of farming systems that both cope with periods of low rainfall, bearing in mind the fact that drought
is a natural and recurring phenomenon, and capitalize
on years of above rainfall.
Farmer Field School (FFS): It is a unique
extension tool based on discovery-based learning that
has been popular in promoting IPM aspects to farmers, particularly for irrigated crops like rice, cotton, vegetables, etc. There have been little efforts in the past
for using FFS apart from promoting IPM, like on integrated soil and nutrient management and conservation
(FAO, 2000), livestock management (Groeneweg et al.,
2006).
119
About AME Foundation

AME Foundation, a development-oriented, nongovernment organization, is committed to improving the
livelihoods of resource-poor farm families in dry land
areas through promotion of ecological agriculture. AME
has been involved in addressing productivity improvement in groundnut and livelihood of dry land farmers in
Deccan Plateau covering the three states of Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu since 1994, with the
initiation of a PTD process in Dharmapuri district with
60 farmers through a NGO, followed by Chittoor district
of AP in 1996 and Raichur district in Karnataka during
1997 (Prasad et al., 1999).
LEISA
LEISA is the abbreviation of Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture. LEISA refers to viable small
scale farming, which is a major part of rural livelihoods
and thus contributes significantly to developing economies. LEISA is about finding technical and social options
open to farmers who seek to improve productivity and
income in an ecologically sound way. LEISA is about optimal use of local resources and natural processes and, if
necessary, safe and efficient use of external inputs.
Details about The Study

The present paper reports work done in the
Deccan Plateau covering three states, viz., Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The details of the
study area are given in Table 1.
Across the three states, the situation in Deccan

Plateau is more or less similar. Various PRA tools were
employed in the study area to identify the various problems in groundnut cultivation.
Based on the analysis of the outcomes, the following issues were identified in groundnut farming system:
Poor or No Efforts in In-Situ Moisture

Conservation
Though summer ploughing (Fall ploughing) is a
well-known practice, most of the farmers are not practicing it for different reasons, Frequent tillage is not being
practiced leading to crust formation, Sowing across the
slope is another practice that is not being practiced by
many farmers.
Poor Soil Fertility Management

Application of compost /FYM is irregular and
inadequate. The available FYM is applied once in three
years and the quantity varies between two to three
tons per acre. Lack of knowledge in composting also
led to non-application of compost. Also cutting of trees
in bunds and non-cultivation of biomass trees led to reduced available manurial biomass.
Improper or Inadequate Agronomic

Practices
(a)
Time of sowing: In the areas where
early or delayed onset of monsoon, erratic rainfall distri-
Table 1: Details of the study area

Particulars
Area Unit
Dstricts covered
Normal annual
Rainfall in the district
Actual rainfall in
2007 season
Rainfall distribution
in 2007 season
Soil type
Karnataka
Bellary
Bellary, Chitradurga
Bellary 623 mm
Chitradurga 540 mm
Bellary 393 mm
Chitradurga 827 mm
Chitradurga - Uneven
distribution of rainfall
affected the crop growth
and yield. Bellary -Timely
and even distribution
occurred.
Andhra Pradesh
Madanapalli
Chittoor
934 mm
Tamil Nadu
Dharmapuri
Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri
855 mm
788 mm
706.6 mm
Timely onset, distribution

good, with an average rainy
days of 10 days per month
Red sandy to gravely soil
Red sandy loam
Due to delay in onset of

monsoon, sow ing was
delayed by 15 to 20 days
beyond season. Dry spell of
about a month occur red
during middle of the crop
period.
Red sandy loam
Baseline Information: Problems

Identified in Groundnut Cultivation
bution and mid-season dry spells are common, the best

practice would be to sow groundnut immediately after
good showers in July. However, despite favourable conditions for sowing, many small and marginal farmers in
120
the watersheds are not able to sow in time.

The major reasons are lack of bullock pairs and
labourers during this peak season. It is believed that
small and marginal farmers have to wait as long as 8-15
days for sowing before the other farmers in the village
complete their sowing operations so that the bullock
pair and the labourers are available. By this time, the
soil moisture is lost and so the crop germination and
subsequent crop stand gets affected at the very initial
stage itself.
(b)
Seed rate: The farmers were using
spreading type of groundnut earlier before shifting to the
now prevalent bunch variety (TMV 2) in Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh. The spreading type requires relatively
less seed rate compared to bunch type. It appears that
the farmers were used to this kind of sowing and hence
instead of 40-50 kg of groundnut seeds per acre in the
case of Karnataka, they are using only 27-30 kg, which
means a yield compromise of 25 to 30 per cent at the
time of sowing itself.
Lack of knowledge regarding seed rate, dependency on money lenders and other external sources for
seed material and hurried sowing practice to complete
the sowing early so as to save on labour expenses are
common reasons attributed to this gap. Also, the farmers
start separating kernels from the pods well in advance in
anticipation of normal onset of monsoon (mid July).
(c)
Spacing and plant population: Ideal spacing should be 30 x 10 cm (for bunch type). Farmers, though are able to maintain the row-to-row spacing,
they fail to ensure uniform intra-plant spacing due to
defective sowing methods. The ideal plant population,
with 30 X 10 cm spacing, should be around 1,20,000
per acre but the farmers are not able to maintain this
population. The number of plants per square meter
should be 33, whereas the observed plant population
ranges between 16 - 27 plants in most of the farmers
fields. The gaps occur mostly due to the undue hurry in
sowing, the women labour keep fetching seeds from the
bag while on the move, when the bullocks walk faster
when beaten etc.
Inter-culture operations: In a normal groundnut season an average of two intercultural operations are
taken up to control weeds as well as for the purpose of
earthing up. During dry spells, many farmers think that
inter-cultivation will lead to moisture loss due to aeration. Intercultivation actually helps to conserve soil moisture by breaking the capillary pores and the dust acting
as mulch. However, under dry soil condition, inter-cultivation will not serve the purpose of earthing up as the
soil merely gets rolled up and does not move toward the
plants. Poor earthing up leads to the flowers, particularly the second and third set, not getting converted into
pegs and pods thus affecting the yield very significantly.
Pest and Diseases

Pest incidence in groundnut crop is less severe,
however few pests like root grub, leaf miner, Spodoptera
and red headed hairy caterpillar are becoming menace
depending on the location. Peanut bud necrosis disease
(PBND) and Sclerotium rots are the important diseases bothering groundnut crop. Also the incidence of the
pests/diseases largely depends on the microclimate. For
example, incidence of PBND, transmitted by thrips is
severe under low moisture regime; it is also the same in
the case of the pest, leaf miner.
Low Yields and Less Return

The average productivity of groundnut pod ranges from 200 to 400 kg/ac, where as the potential yield
goes up to 500 - 700 kg/ac for those varieties cultivated
by farmers. However in the case of improved varieties
like VRI 2, the potential yield goes even higher than 700
kg/ac. The net return of small and marginal farmer is
about Rs. 10000/- per annum, which is not sufficient to
lead quality life.
The summary of the baseline outcomes from the
three states is given in Table 2. When the problems were
analyzed, it was clearly evident that it was not one or two
factors that led to reduced productivity in groundnut, but
a whole range of factors acting in tandem that caused
the situation. Hence, a few selected practices alone cannot help in tiding over the situation, but a combination
of basic operations covering on-farm rainwater management, soil fertility up gradation, modified cropping practices and income generation (IG) activities are required
for improving the productivity as well the livelihood of
small and marginal farmers.
(d)
Gap filling: Under good soil moisture
condition, germination can be seen in 5-6 days. It is only
after about 9 days that the gaps could be identified. By
the time, the farmers would have either no seeds left or
they think it is too late for gap filling with groundnut.
Very recently farmers are coming forward to try the gap
filling with other suitable crops.
121
Table 2: Summary of baseline outcomes on groundnut productivity

Particulars
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
Moisture
conservation
Rainfall
Soil fertility
Poor soil moisture

conservation methods
Uncertainty of rainfall
Poor soil fertility
Poor soil moisture

Low Soil fertility due
to poor nutrient
management practices
Poor soil moisture

Low FYM availability
Low nutrient applied
Biomass awareness
Poor
Poor
Poor
Pest and disease
PBND disease root

grub, leaf miner,
Spodoptera
PBND, root grub,

RHC, stem rot
Leaf miner, PBND,

root grub, red hairy
caterpillar, root rot
Seed quality
Poor quality of seed.

No improved varieties
Poor quality of seed.

Plant population per

sq. m.
25 - 27
16 - 18
26
Yield (average) kg/ac
400 kg/ac
200 kg/ac
330 kg/ac
practices/combination of practices. The list of short and

long-term experiments conducted in a typical dry land
groundnut FFS is given in Table 3.
The Capacity Building Process
The experiences gained by AME Foundation

over the years on FFS (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2003),
The curriculum covers all the aspects in groundspecifically the MToF programme helped in shaping
the curriculum to suit dry land crops including groundnut production from preparatory activities to post harTable 3: List of short studies and Long term experiments (LTEs) conducted in the FFS
Short studies
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Long term experiments (LTEs)
Ploughing across slope

Water holding capacity of soil
Small section bunds
Mulching
Seed treatment with biologicals
Pitfall trap/ Yellow sticky trap
Anti transpirants spray
Botanicals spraying
Mushroom cultivation
Deworming for livestock
Azolla feeding experiment for cattle
Nursery raising for biomass trees
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Farmers practice Vs LEISA practices trial

Varietal trial
Methods of sowing
Insitu soil moisture conservation trial
Impact of green manure in dry land on groundnut production
Strip cropping (Groundnut & Ragi or Bajra)
Maintaining optimum plant density (seed rate)
Nutrient management trial
Composting methods
Table 4: Details of FFS events and farmers covered under FFS

Particulars
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
No. of FFS
89
50
23
No. of Farmers
1818
834
564
nut (Balamatti and Hegde, 2007). Simple experiments

laid out in the FFS class room sessions and in farmers
fields helped farmers to understand complex concepts
on natural resources management. In the participating
farmers fields, experimental plots were laid out with the
various long-term experiments, to study the best-suited
vest as well as on IG activities. The curriculum followed

in one of the FFS is given in Appendix I.
The details of FFS conducted on groundnut,
farmers reached in the three working areas are given in
Table 4.
122
The FFS Learnings

Farmers apart from learning about LEISA practices through discovery learning also learnt the practice
of Agro Eco-System Analysis (AESA). This analysis helps
farmers in making informed decisions. During each stage
of the crop, farmers decide on various interventions to be
taken up in the crop to ensure maximum output at minimum cost, without affecting the ecosystem. The farmers
make observation in the field and prepare AESA charts
during every session. These charts will be referred on a
continuous basis till the harvest of the crop.
LEISA Practices
AME Foundation has identified proven LEISA
practices based on PTD experiences in all the three
states. The various practices given as options for farmers to adopt are based on AMEF Guidelines 6 (AMEF,
2005). These practices when taken up in combination
lead to better management of natural resources and
hence improvement in productivity. The combination
of such practices followed in each of the three areas is
given in Table 5.
a combination of LEISA practices helped in getting improved productivity as compared to farmers practice.
For example in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu there
was an increased yield of 44%, 38%, respectively, while
in Karnataka, it was up to 12% in the case of LEISA
practices plot over farmers practice plot. The cost of
cultivation was marginally higher in the case of LEISA
plot in all the working areas due to the formation of
rainwater conservation structures, use of Enriched FYM,
biologicals for seed treatment, increased application of
FYM. However, the net returns in the LEISA plot is appreciably higher than that of the farmers practice plot.
The results in Tamil Nadu was clearly evident, as
the investment in farmers practice plot did not lead to
increase in net returns, due to prolonged dry spell in the
middle of the season. While in the case of LEISA plot,
the yield was better due to the adoption of improved
practices in combination.
Similarly in Karnataka, the reasons for reduced
yield in farmers practice plot are reduced seed rate of 30
35 kg/ac, low soil fertility, incidence of diseases, particularly Sclerotium rot and PBND. In the case Andhra
Table 5: Basket of options of LEISA practices for groundnut productivity improvement

Particulars
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh
Tamil Nadu
1. Rainwater
management
practices
Summer ploughing, Trench

cum bunding, Bund
strengthening, Intercultivation,
Sowing across the slope,
Dead furrow (Groundnut: red
gram ratio 9:2)
FYM, PSB, Neem cake,
Fertilizers application, Gypsum
application, Foliar spray
(organic/vermiwash)
Deep summer ploughing,

Ploughing across the slope,
Bunding and bund repair,
Dead furrow, Intercultivation
Ploughing across slope,

bunding, small section
bunding
FYM application (4t/acre once

in a year), Tank silt application,
Balanced nutrient application,
Use of biofertilizers, legumes
inter/Border crops, Gypsum
application, Compost application
Use of good quality seeds
(40 kg), Maintenance of
optimum plant density, Use of
improved varieties, Strip
cropping, Diversified cropping
system, introduction of minor
millets, Border crop with
cereals-3 rows
FYM 5 t/ acre, EFYM

application @ 300 kg/ac,
legumes as intercrops, Green
manure, compost application,
biomass production, Gypsum
application
Improved varieties,
Seed treatment with biologicals,
Nutrient management (fertilizer
application based on soil test
results) MN mixture, IPM
2. Soil fertility
improvement
practices
3. Crop specific
production
practices
Spacing (30x10cm), Seed rate

(40kg/ac), Seed treatment
with Trichoderma, Rhizobium,
Gap filling, Inter & mixed crops,
Border crop, Sequential crop
Pradesh, the reduction in yield was due to improper

agronomic practices like reduced plant population, absence of gypsum application and absence of soil fertility
improvement measures in the farmers practice plot.
THE OUTCOMES
LEISA Practices Trial vs Farmers Practice
Trial
The overall results of the field trials are presented in Table 6, Fig. 1 - 2. The study results revealed that
123
Table 6: Economic benefits in the three working areas (mean of all the FFS events)
Particulars
Yield (kg/ac)
Yield increase %
Cost of cultivation (RS/ac)
Gross returns (Rs/ac)
Net returns (Rs/ac)
Karnataka
LEISA
plot
233
12
2774
6807
4066
Andhra Pradesh
Farmer
practice
209
2078
5219
3141
LEISA
plot
460
44
6280
9600
3320
Tamil Nadu
Farmer
practice
320
5545
6800
1225
LEISA
plot
455
38
4420
10,237
5871
Results of Long-term Experiments
the new variety, VRI 2 for future use.
Apart from the overall comparison, few longterm experiments results are presented below to understand the importance of selected traits/practices in
isolation in productivity improvement.
Strip Cropping
Varietal Trials/ PTD in GroundnutMadanapalli (AP)
Farmer
practice
330
4305
7,425
3120
With a view to minimize the risk from mono

cropping of groundnut, strip cropping, which not only
assures food security but also, improve the soil health
was tried on an experimental basis. This system also
Table 7: Varietal performance in farmers field in Madanapalli

Particulars
Plant population
No. of Pods/plant
PBND (%)
Yield/ acre (q)
VRI 2
30
38
6
5.8
K1375
28
31
10
4.1
K1271
29
35
10
4.9
Jl 24
23
18
13
3.6
In order to identify drought tolerant varieties,

field trials were conducted in 15 villages with 4 varieties
as LTEs in Farmer Field School. The four varieties were
VRI 2, K1375, K 1271 and JL 24.
ensures fodder and income security to the farmers. In

this trial, 105 farmers across working villages adopted
Strip cropping.
The results revealed that among the four varieties tested, K1375 was able to tolerate drought up to 40
days. In the case of VRI 2, there was less incidence of
PBND and it also recorded the maximum yield of 5.8 q
per ac (Table 7, Fig. 3).
Some of the important outcomes from the trials

were: strip cropping helped in getting 5 quintals of additional fodder therefore reducing the expenses towards
purchased fodder. Purchase of food crops like Ragi, foxtail millet and Bajra were avoided, as these are essential
food grains for the family.
Groundnut varietal trial in Bellary (Karnataka)

The continuous use of local seeds for the decades
resulted in resurgence of pest and diseases and genetic
erosion resulting in decreased yields of groundnut. After
understanding this seven farmers took up varietal trials
across the working villages.
The maximum yield of 6.5 q/acre pods and
14.60 q/acre of fodder were observed in VRI 2 when
compared to GPBD 4 and Local (TMV 2) (Table 8; Fig.
4). The incidence of PBND was also low in VRI 2 compared to the local variety. Farmers in that area accepted
Farmers, observing the results, opined that

apart from Ragi, other cereals could also be used for
strip cropping, as the Ragi crop requires more moisture
to germinate in the initial period.
Finally, even though farmers got less income
from strip cropping with cereals (Table 9), the new cropping system helped them to realize the importance of
food, fodder and income security that strip cropping assures. Farmers tried strip crops such as Bajra, Ragi and
foxtail millet with Groundnut crop.
124
Table 8: Varietal performance in farmers field in Bellary

Observations
GPBD-4
Growth parameters at the time of harvest
Plant height (cm)
17.60
No. of branches
6.10
Yield parameters at the time of harvest
9.00
Average no. of plants per m2 area
Avg. No. of pods per plant
24.00
Wet Wt of pods (qtls/ acre)
16.00
Cost economics
Main crop yield (q/acre)
4.75
Fodder yield (q/acre)
11.65
Cost of production (Rs./acre)
3625
Gross returns (Rs /acre)
12859
Net returns (Rs /acre)
9324
VRI-2
Local (TMV-2)
20.00
5.76
20.00
5.76
12.00
27.00
21.75
14.00
24.00
19.00
6.50
14.60
3625
17373
13748
6.00
13.00
3450
15958
12508
Remarks
Germination % was poor in VRI-2

& GPBD-4, which were procured
from KOF, Haveri.
Rs.2300/qt pod &

Rs.166/qt fodder.
Table 9: Impact of strip cropping in farmers fields in Bellary

Parameters
Practices adopted
Cost of production (Rs./1.25 acre)
Main crop pod yield (qt)
Strip crop (Ragi) grain yield (qt)
Strip crop (Bajra) grain yield (qt)
Main crop fodder yield (qt)
Strip crop (Ragi) fodder yield (qt)
Strip crop (Bajra) fodder yield (qt)
Gross returns (Rs./1.25 acre)
SA/ICM practice
Groundnut, Ragi and
Bajra
4388
3.60
1.20
1.80
10.44
5.00
6.00
12878
Farmers practice
Groundnut- Mono
crop
4313
5.60
0.00
0.00
16.25
0.00
0.00
15577
Net Returns (Rs./1.25 acre)
8491
11264
Impact of Green Manure and Catch

Crop on Productivity of Groundnut
Remarks
Groundnut: Ragi: Bajra
(8:4:3)
4 strip groundnut
3 strips ragi
4 strip & border Bajra.
Ragi @ Rs. 800/qt grain and

Rs. 75/qt fodder.
Bajra @ Rs.600/qt grain and
Rs. 75/qt fodder. Groundnut Rs.
2300/qt pod & Rs.166/qt fodder.
ity, by growing short duration green gram or a green

manure crop sun hemp. In the case of green gram, the
crop was harvested, while sun hemp was incorporated
in the field. The results clearly demonstrated that maxi-
Farmers in Bellary studied the impact of harvesting the pre monsoon showers on groundnut productiv-
Table 10: Impact of green manure and catch crop on the productivity of groundnut
Parameters
Practices adopted
Cost of production
(Rs./acre)
Main crop yield
(q/acre)-Groundnut.
Crop yield (q/acre)-Green
gram.
Intercrop/mixed crop yield
(q/acre)
Net Returns (Rs./acre)
T1
Fall ploughing, bio
fertilizers & bio
agents. Inter crop
(red gram), Mixed
crop (castor) Gypsum
3610
T2
Fall ploughing.
T3
Fall ploughing.
Bio fertilizers & bio
Agents. Mixed crop
(Castor). Gypsum
2800
7030
6.30
5.40
5.80
2.40
Red gram, Castor.
Castor.
12880
11420
16770
125
Remarks
In T1 Plot sun hemp
was incorporated and
inT3 plot Taken green
gram as Catch crop
and T2 control
Rs. 4200 cost of
cultivation of green
gram.
Yet to harvest.
mum yield of groundnut was obtained when sun hemp

was incorporated in the field prior to sowing of groundnut (Table 10). Growing of groundnut followed by green
gram also gave higher yield as compared to groundnut
alone. The details of the trial results are given below.
Note: T1=Sowing groundnut after incorporation of sun hemp along with all SA practices.
T2= Control
T3= Sowing groundnut after green gram
crop along with all SA practices in groundnut.
The higher yields were due to the effective harvesting of the rainwater and its usage.
The cultivation of catch crop also gave additional
income. The last year experience impressed five farmers
to adopt the technology during this Year 2007.
Environmental and Social Benefits

Apart from economic benefits, environmental
and social benefits were also achieved in this process. A
summary of them is given in Table 11.
Informed decision making skills

Active participation of women
Improvement of communication, organization,
managerial and leadership skills
External agencies (input dealers) dependency reduced
Discussion
In this study, the rainwater harvesting practices
in combination with other LEISA practices gave better
yield as compared to less interventions in farmers practice. Similarly, Chakravarti et al., (2005) studied the
effect of mulches, type of planting on groundnut productivity. He observed higher productivity in groundnut
plots, when mulched with paddy straw or water hyacinth
and when planted in ridge method than flat bed method.
One of the important philosophies behind FFS
is Grow a healthy crop that can tolerate biotic and
abiotic stresses (Pontius et al., 2000). The LEISA practices adopted help one-way or other, either directly or
indirectly for harvesting the moisture required for crop
growth. The principles lying behind the LEISA practices
Table 11: Environmental benefits

Particular
Farmers practice
Improved practice
Outcomes
Pesticide spray
to intercrops
Crop diversity
2 Nos. Endosulfan +
Quinalphos = Rs. 1230
Sorghum, Redgram, cowpea
2 3 crops
1 No. NSKE =Rs. 490
60 % decrease
Sorghum, Red gram, cow pea,

Field bean, Castor, bajra
5 6 crops
Use of bio-agents
No
Chemical
Fertilizes used
Complex 50 Kg or DAP
50 kg/ac
More predator population

(Ladybird beetle, Spider),
Improvement in soil fertility, 25%
area under crop rotation
Less incidence of fungal diseases
(Root and stem rot)
Balanced application of nutrients
Others
No relay crops
Seed treatment with PSB,

Rhizobium, Trichoderma
SSP 100 kg, Gypsum 200 kg
In case of AP, reduced to nil
application of fertilizers
Relay crop (20%) with
Horse gram
adopted on moisture conservation and utilization are

summarized in Table 12.
Social Benefits
Linkages for farmers (particularly women) with
agricultural departments
Collective activities (input mobilization, field
work)
Created common platform to share FFS learnings (adopted farmers, sharing meetings, sharing in
SHG meetings, field days)
The impact of FFS in building the capacity of

farmers as well as empowering them in LEISA practices particularly on rainwater management are clearly
evident based on the results of the field trials. Earlier,
FFS approach was employed successfully in Uganda for community based groundnut seed production
(Obuo, 2004).
126
Table 12: Summary of the effect of LEISA practices on moisture conservation and utilization by groundnut crop.
Key operation
LEISA practices
Rain Water Management
Deep summer ploughing

Cultivation across the slope
Dead furrow
Trench cum bunding and bunding
Expected output related to soil moisture conservation/

proper utilization
Conservation of in-situ soil moisture
Inter cultivation
Soil fertility improvement
practices
FYM 5 t/ acre and Compost application

Tank silt application
Green manuring
EFYM
Legumes as intercrops
Border crops
Crop management practices
Improved varieties
Seed hardening
Seed treatment with biologicals
Strip cropping
Maintenance of optimum plant density
Balanced nutrient application and MN
mixture
Gypsum application
Sequential crop
The systematic approach towards addressing the

moisture conservation, soil fertility and crop management yielded the desired results. Although, the LEISA
practices tried were mostly proven under experimental
farms of mainstream agencies (Vittal et al., 2003), they
were largely unknown among resource poor farmers
of the Deccan Plateau. The group approach helped in
cross learning among farmers. Apart from group farmers in the village, other farmers in the village also were
targeted for disseminating the knowledge through farmers sharing on field days. Also FFS participants adopted
members of their village for regular sharing of the LEISA
Conservation of the fertile top soil to hold maximum moisture

and utilizing the moisture to raise bund plants for biomass
enhancement
Conservation of soil moisture and to reduce the moisture
loss
Increased water holding capacity of soil
Utilization of soil moisture effectively of summer showers and
enhanced soil organic matter to increase the water holding
capacity of soil
Ensured better root growth and to uptake moisture from
greater depth; to withstand during drought.
Utilization of soil moisture at various depths. Reduction of
water evaporation from soil by acting as live mulch.
Reduction of wind speed to avoid moisture evaporation from
soil
Varieties suitable to drought situation.
Ensured drought tolerance of the crop during dry spell
Ensured better root growth, nodulation to produce a healthy
crop
Contingency crop plan to avoid crop loss during severe
drought situation
Utilization of soil moisture effectively without wastage and
competition
Ensured bet ter crop growt h to w it hsta nd
drought situation.
Avoided hard pan of soil to enhance better aeration and
moisture holding.
Utilized residual soil moisture effectively
technologies. The collaborators field also was a demonstration plot for the village farmers to know about the
improved practices.
The FFS apart from addressing NRM, also dealt
on other livelihood issues such as family health/nutrition through kitchen gardening, mushroom cultivation,
increased intensity of pulse cultivation, IG activities such
as animal husbandry, fodder cultivation, biologicals production. Hence, livelihood improvement of small and
marginal groundnut farmers could be achieved through
the above FFS programme.
127
References
AgStat 2006 07, http://dacnet.nic.in/eands/agStat06-07.htm

AMEF 2005. Towards a Sustainable Dryland Farming An Operational strategy. AME Foundation Guidelines 6.
FAO, 2000. Guidelines and reference material on integrated soil and nutrient management
and conservation for farmer field schools, FOOD and AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION of the UNITED
NATIONS, Land and Plant Nutrition Management Service, Land and Water Development Division, Rome, 2000
Balamatti, A and R. Hegde 2007. Our experiences with modified Farmer Field Schools in dryland areas.
LEISA Magazine 23.4 December 2007.
Chakravarti, A. K., Chakraborty, P. K. and Chakraborty, A. 2005. Study on the efficacy of some bio resources as mulch for soil moisture conservation and yield of rain fed groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea ). Archives of
Agronomy and Soil Science, Volume 51, Number 3, June 2005 , pp. 247-252(6).
Groeneweg, K., Buyu, G., Romney, D. and Minjauw, B. 2006. Livestock Farmer Field Schools
Guidelines for Facilitation and Technical Manual. International Livestock Research Centre: Nairobi, Kenya.
Obuo J.E. P. 2004. Community Based Groundnut Seed Production, and Dissemination for
Sustainable Small Holder Agriculture in Teso Farming System. Final Technical Report. Serere Agricultural
and Animal production Research Institute (SAARI), P.O. Soroti. pp 19.
Pontius, J., Dilts, R. and Bartlett, A. 2000. From Farmer Field Schools To Community IPM, FAO Community IPM Programme Jakarta.
Prasad, K.V.S., Suresh, C. and Lanting, M. 1999. A platform for groundnut mprovement, ILEIA Newsletter, September, 1999.
Reddy, P.S. 1996. Groundnut. In 50 Years of Crop Science Research in India. R. Paroda and K. Chadha, eds.
Pp. 318-329. New Delhi: ICAR.
Vijayalakshmi, B, Ravi Kumar, G., Pattabiraman, S. and Daniel Anand Raj. 2003. Farmer Field Schools
Experiences from Tamil Nadu. LEISA INDIA, vol 5, no. 1, March 2003, pp. 11 13.
Vittal, K. P. R., Singh, H.P., Rao, K. V., Sharma, K.L., Victor, U. S., Chary, G. R., Sankar, G. R. M., Samra,
J. S. and Singh, G. 2003. Guidelines on Drought Coping Plans for Rainfed Production Systems. All India Co-ordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, Hyderabad 500 059. 39 pages.
Acknowledgements: The financial support of FAO is gratefully acknowledged. The authors are
thankful to the AME Foundation Team members of the three Area Units for their contribution in making this
FFS programme a success. We are also thankful to the participated farmers, NGOs and Govt officials without whose
cooperation, this programme objectives could not have been achieved.
128
17
Water Productivity at Different
Scales Under Canal, Tank and
Well Irrigation Systems
K.Palanisami, T.Ramesh and S.Senthilvel
Introduction
By and large, the term water productivity refers
to the magnitude of output or benefit resulting from the
input quantum of water as applied on a unit base. It is
defined as crop production per unit amount of water
used (Molden, 1997). In the domain of agriculture, it is
expressed as the net consumptive use efficiency in terms
of yield per unit depth of water consumed per unit area
of cultivation. If the field water conveyance, application,
storage and distribution efficiencies are accounted to depict the seepage, run-off and deep percolation losses
(not consumed by plant; evapo-transpiration loss is included as an implicit component of field water balance)
it would be termed as the gross irrigation water use efficiency. Agricultural water productivity can be expressed
either as a physical productivity in terms of yield over
unit quantity of water consumed (tonnes per ha.cm of
water or kg yield per kg water consumed) in accordance
with the scale of reference that includes or excludes the
losses of water or an economic productivity replacing
the yield term by the gross or net present value of the
crop yield for the same water consumption (Rupees per

unit volume of water).
The magnitude and meaning of the term water
productivity is often changes with its scale of reference.
Isolated scales of reference in agricultural domain can
be plant/crop scale, field scale, project/basin/command
scale, state scale and the country scale. By the same
token, the industrial domain, drinking water supply and
other usage domains can hold their own scales of reference. An increase in production per unit of water diverted at one scale does not necessarily lead to an increase
in productivity of water diverted at a larger scale. The
classical irrigation efficiency decreases as the scale of the
system increases (Seckler et al., 2003). The definition of
water productivity is scale-dependent. Increasing water
productivity is then the function of several components
at different levels viz., plant, field, irrigation system and
river-basin. An increase in production per unit of water diverted at one scale does not necessarily lead to
an increase in productivity of water diverted at a larger
scale. The classical irrigation efficiency decreases as the
scale of the system increases (Seckler et al., 2003).
129
In India, the on-farm irrigation efficiency of most canal

irrigation systems ranges from 30 to 40% (Navalawala,
1999; Singh, 2000) whereas, the irrigation efficiency at
basin level is as high as 70 to 80% (Chaudhary, 1997).
Basin water productivity takes into consideration beneficial depletion for multiple uses of water, including not
only crop production but also uses by the non-agricultural sector, including the environment. Here, the problem
lies in allocating the water among its multiple uses and
users. Keeping this view, an investigation was undertaken to assess the water productivity at plant, field and
distributory level under different irrigation systems.

In the present study, water productivity under
different scale levels viz., plant, field and distributory level were studied in three different irrigation systems viz.,
canal, tank and well irrigation. In canal irrigation system,
four river basin areas of Tamil Nadu viz., Parambikulam
Aliyar Project (PAP), Lower Bhavani Project (LBP), Periyar Vaigai and Tampiraparani river basins were taken
to work out the water productivity at different scale of
references. Data were collected using field visits to the
canal commands and also necessary information was
collected from the project records. Wherever possible
measurement were taken and verified. In the case of tank
irrigation, Srivilliputhur Big tank in Ramanathapuram
district of Tamil Nadu was taken for the study as the data
on most of the parameters of water productivity calculations were available. Similarly, the water productivity
under well irrigation system was studied at farmers fields
of Coimbatore district where well irrigation is being predominantly practiced. Maize and banana were the major
crops considered to workout the water productivity. Well
irrigation system is having different field crops as well as
allied enterprises whereas other systems are having predominantly rice crop only except Parambikulam Aliyar
Project (PAP), where groundnut is the major crop. The
detailed methodology used for this study is described as
follows.
Field/Farm Scale
At a field scale, processes of interest are different: nutrient application, water conserving tillage practices, field bunding, puddling of paddy fields etc. Water enters the field domain by direct rainfall, subsurface
flows and irrigation from a source of storage. Rainfall
alone is considered in case of rain fed agriculture. A field
or farm scale water productivity (WP (f)) is influenced by
the inevitable irrigation conveyance, application, stor-
age and distribution losses/efficiencies. Hence the total

water diverted from storage accounting for these losses
is taken as the consumptive usage. Technically,
WP (f) = WP (p)/(),
where () is the overall irrigation efficiency of the
farm with gravitational irrigation system layout. In case
of a micro-irrigation layout, the value of () will be more
than 95 % and almost 100% if the design is perfect.
Since the scale of reference expands, the unit
may be chosen as tonnes per cm of water consumed
(t/cm).
.
Conveyance Efficiency c
=
Wdf/Wds
100 ... (1)
.
=
Wsr/Wdf
Application Efficiency a
100 ... (2)
.
=
Wsr/Wnr
Storage Efficiency
s
100 ... (3)
.
Distribution Efficiency d
=
(1-Y/d )
100 ... (4)
Wdf
Water Use Efficiency WUE =

... (5)
(Y/A)/
Where,
Wds =
Volume of water diverted from
the irrigation source, in m3 or ha.cm; the source may be
a well, canal distributory outlet, tank sluice outlet etc.
Wdf =
Volume of water delivered on to
3
the field, in m or ha. cm
Wro
Volume of run off, m3 or ha. cm
Wdp
or ha. cm
Volume of deep percolation m3
Wsr =
Wdf (Wro + Wdp) = Volume of
water stored in the effective root zone m3 or ha. cm
Wnr =
Volume of water needed in the
root zone, m3 or ha. cm = A d
d = design depth of irrigation, cm =
ASMP %
A
Area irrigated
d
=
Average depth of water stored in
root zone after irrigation, cm
130
Y
=
Average of the numerical deviations of individual depth of water stored at different locations in the farm/field from the average depth of water
stored, cm
.
The overall field irrigation efficiency e
=
.
.
c a ... (6)
ing the apparent losses like run-off and / or deep percolation would be considered for recycling or conjunctive
use with canal flows. Then, the water productivity will
be based on the total volume of water diverted from the
irrigation source or simply the storage duty (S).
WP (c) = Y / S
Where,
Project/Command Area Scale

In Tamil Nadu, three distinct kinds of command
areas are in vogue viz., Canal (or Reservoir) command,
Tank (system and non-system) command and Well
(Groundwater) command. While the canal and tank commands mostly fall intact under a project operation, well
commands occur in a scattered fashion. When water is
distributed in an irrigation system at a major scale like
this, the important processes include allocation, distribution, conflict resolution and drainage. Allocation and
distribution of irrigation water are primarily for irrigation
farmers besides meeting the non-agricultural demands
lie domestic, industrial, livestock and fisheries use.
Canal Command / Project Water Productivity (WP(c))

The overall productivity of this scale of reference
depends ultimately on the total quantum of water released from storage over the base period, the area covered and the project yield. The storage duty (S) includes
the losses during conveyance, distribution and application over and above the field duty () in a canal network
project.
Field duty () is expressed as the seasonal water
requirement for crop and related activities, in cm, at the
tail most end area of the canal network.
= CU/
... (9)
... (7)
where, represents the farm/field efficiency.

Then, the storage duty (S) = /(c), where (c)
represents the overall conveyance efficiency of the canal
network/project.
Y = project yield, in tonnes and S = Storage duty,

in ha.cm
If S is expressed in cm as S then, S = S/A
So that WP(c) = Y / S ... (10)
Tank Command Water Productivity WP

(t)
Nearly 39,000 tanks exist in Tamil Nadu State
as natural surface water harvesting structures since the
olden king regimes for the purpose of irrigation and
other water usage. Earlier the tank system had clearly
defined channel network originating from the storage
outlet point and in due course of time these channels
have disappeared owing to encroachments and other
formidable reasons. The tanks commonly come under a
non-system (isolated or interconnected battery) with independent or combined catchments or a system tank
arcade hooked along rivers or streams or canals, in which
water at select points is diverted into the tank. Streams
emanating from their own catchment basins during rains
feed the non-system tanks and the water thus stored is
utilized for irrigation and other purposes during the
non-rainy season. In case of a battery of interconnected
non-system tanks, water spilling from previous tank is
diverted to the subsequent tank. System tanks are fed
by flow diversion from natural river streams or from a
project canal network as and when surplus flows occur.
The gross volume of water depleted from the tank storage (Sd) or the equivalent depth (Sd) in cm, over the
crop growth season forms the base (denominator) for
productivity calculations.
WP (t) = Y/Sd ... (11)
The flow duty (D) in ha/cumec is devised in accordance with S and to cover the given command area
(A) over the base period (B) of the project water supply,
as,
D = (864B) / , and S = A . / (c)
where,
Y = the overall tank command yield in tonnes
Sd = depleted volume of water from tank storage, ha.cm or Million cubic metres
... (8)
As the command area/project scale is expand-
Sd = equivalent depth in cm of water depleted

from tank storage
131
Well Command Water Productivity WP

(w)
Unlike the canal or tank commands, well commands are isolated and scattered and may also occur
within a canal command or tank command. Absolute
water productivity from an area fed by wells alone can
be worked out if that area is away from a canal or tank
command. But if the wells function within a canal or
tank command, the conjunctive water productivity will
be assessed on the premise that losses from canal or
tank flows, contribute to groundwater recharge over a
certain lag period i.e. loss is transformed into a gain.
Recycling this gain of water as a conjunctive use of
groundwater with surface waters will help increase the
irrigation area thereby increasing the absolute productivity of the region. Water table fluctuations are periodically
assessed to determine if the area comes under a dark
zone or gray zone or a white zone for having exploited
the groundwater potential and leading to a critical stage
of minimum or controlled pumping with possibilities for
introducing artificial recharge means and structures. Water table fluctuations, pumping hours, discharge variations, power of pumping unit, mode of conveyance and
application, type of crop and method of irrigation would
contribute for the fluctuations in productivity. The productivity can be improved if lined channels or pipelines
are used for conveyance and micro-irrigation systems
are used for application.
WP (w) = Y/Wd
... (12)
Where,
Wd
=
volume or equivalent depth in
cm of water depleted from well storage by pumping =
(Pump discharge * total duration of pumping over the
crop growth season) / Area of cultivation
All the above scales of reference shall be suitably
formatted for input data, processing models and output
units of productivity. The overall physical or economic
productivity of a region shall then be worked out integrating the above scales.
Results and discussion

Water productivity under different scale levels
viz., plant, field and distributory level were studied in
three different irrigation systems viz., canal, tank and
well irrigation. In canal irrigation system, four river basin
areas of Tamil Nadu viz., Parambikulam Aliyar Project
(PAP), Lower Bhavani Project (LBP), Periyar Vaigai and
Tampiraparani river basins were worked out and presented in Table 1. In canal irrigation system, ground nut
is a predominant crop in Parambikulam Aliyar Project
(PAP), whereas in the other three river basins rice is the
major crop.
From the results, it is clearly understood that
there was a considerable reduction in water productivity
under field level (0.20 kg groundnut/ m3 of water in PAP,
0.40 kg rice / m3 in Lower Bhavani project (LBP), 0.24
kg rice / m3 in Vaigai and 0.27 kg rice / m3 in Tampiraparani river basin) as compared to individual plant/ crop
level (0.39 kg groundnut/ m3 of water in PAP, 0.73 kg
rice / m3 in LBP, 0.70 kg rice / m3 in Vaigai and 0.60
kg rice / m3 in Tampiraparani river basin) mainly due to
losses through seepage, deep percolation and runoff in
the canal irrigation systems. Among the four canal irrigation projects, Lower Bhavani project was recorded
higher productivity at plant level (0.73 kg/m3) as well as
at farm level (0.40 kg/m3) compared to other projects.
At distributory level, conveyance losses caused reduction
in water productivity which means that more quantity of
water is being used for crop cultivation. So water productivity has a negative relationship with the scale of
reference that is expansion of boundary of command
area.
In the case of tank irrigation, Srivilliputhur Big
tank in Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu, the results showed that there was a reduction in water productivity when the scale of reference has increased. The
physical water productivity of rice was higher under
individual plant level (0.47 kg / m3) followed by field
level water productivity (0.30 kg / m3) and comparatively lower water productivity was recorded under tank
system level.
Similarly, the water productivity under well irrigation system was studied at farmers fields of Coimbatore
district where well irrigation is being predominantly
practiced. Maize and banana were the major crops considered to workout the water productivity. Well irrigation
system is having different field crops as well as allied
enterprises whereas other systems are having predominantly rice crop only except Parambikulam Aliyar Project
(PAP), where groundnut is the major crop. So multiple
water uses was studied in well irrigation system under
different farm enterprises at farmers holdings in working
out the water productivity. Farms with crops alone, crop
+ dairy and crop + fishery were analysed in this study.
The results showed that the farm, which is having al-
132
lied enterprises along with crops registered higher water

productivity over the farms with crops alone. Comparing the different combination of farm enterprises, crop
+ fishery system has resulted in higher water productivity (Rs.41.43/m3) followed by crop + dairy combination (Rs.11.27/m3) and the lower water productivity of
Rs.9.64/m3 was observed with crops alone.
In sum, among the different irrigation systems,

well system has comparatively higher water productivity
both in physical and economic terms due to controlled
irrigation application, comparatively higher crop yields
and multiple crops/ enterprises combinations. Whereas
in canal and tank system, mono cropping, uncontrolled
irrigations, and scarcity of water during critical crop periods result in lower water productivity.
References
Chaudhary, T.N., 1997. Vision-2020. DWMR Perspective Plan. Directorate of Water Research, Patna, India, 73 p.
Molden, D., 1997. Accounting for water use and productivity. SWIM Paper 1. International Irrigation Management
Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Navalawala, B.N. 1999a. Improving management of irrigation resources. Yojana, January: 81-87.
Seckler, D., D. Molden and R. Sakthivadivel. 2003. The Concept of Efficiency in Water Resources Management and
Policy. In: Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for Improvement. (Eds) Kijne.J.W.,
R.Barker and D.Molden. CABI Publishing. UK. pp 37-53.

133
Table 1: Physical and economic water productivity under different irrigation systems
with different scale of reference in Tamil Nadu
Scale of References
Total water used (m3)
I. Canal system
1. Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP)
Plant/crop level
0.013
Field level (0.4 ha)
3388.8
Distributory level
1335283.7
2. Lowe Bhavani Project (LBP)
Plant/crop level
0.0180
5473.5
Distributory level
833824.4
3. Vaigai River Basin
Plant/crop level
0.020
6931.25
Distributory level
2486534.4
4. Tampiraparani River Basin
Plant/crop level
0.028
7909.4
Distributory level
37647968.0
II. Tank system
Plant/crop level
0.0202
11608.1
System level
3099174
III. Well system
Plant/crop level
Maize
0.048
Banana
6.6
Field level
Crops alone (0.9 ha)
12003.0
Crops + Dairy (1.0 ha)
10068.4
Crops + Fishery (1.20 ha)
16352.0
Output
Water Productivity
Physical
(kg)
Economic
(Rs.)
Physical
(kg/m3)
Economic
(Rs./m3)
0.0051
680
185661
0.0312
4160
1135810
0.39
0.20
0.14
2.40
1.23
0.85
0.0131
2200
213796
0.029
7000
621952
0.73
0.40
0.26
1.61
1.28
0.75
0.014
1650
396000
0.033
4390
1053600
0.70
0.24
0.16
1.65
0.63
0.42
0.017
2100
3549038
0.068
7100
12066949.5
0.60
0.27
0.09
2.43
0.90
0.30
0.0095
3160
821000
0.007125
2375
954750
0.49
0.27
0.26
0.35
0.20
0.30
0.050
8.5
0.21
59.70
1.04
1.28
4.38
8.99
15833.33*
32116.67**
72045.83*
115752
115752
678350
1.31
3.19
4.41
9.64
11.27
41.43
* Banana equivalent yield ** maize equivalent yield
134
18
Integrated Farming System for
Increasing Agricultural Water
Productivity
C.Jayanthi, T.Ramesh and C.Vennila
Introduction
At the dawn of new millennium, many challenges surmount agriculture to achieve sustainable food
security with shrinking land resources. Now we have to
produce an additional 50 million tonnes of food grains
to meet the requirement of the prognosticated population of 1060 million by 2020AD. Because of declining
per capita availability of land in India, there is hardly any
scope for horizontal expansion of land for food production. Only vertical expansion is possible by integrating
appropriate farming components requiring lesser space
and time and ensuring periodic income to the farmer.
On the other hand, modest increments in land productivity are also no longer sufficient to the resource poor
farmers. Hence, efficient management and allocation
of resources are important to alleviate the risk related
to land sustainability. Moreover, proper understanding
of interactions and linkages between the components
help to improve food security, employment generation
besides nutritional security. This concept which has
got transformed into farming systems approach, envis-
ages the integration of agro-forestry, horticulture, dairy,

sheep and goat rearing, fishery, poultry, pigeon, biogas,
mushroom, sericulture and by product utilization with
crops, with the primary goal of increasing the income
and standard of living of small and marginal farmers.
One of the ways to make farming a viable proposition is to bring diversification in agriculture. The preconditions for diversifications are water resources development and growing of crops which have better market
opportunities. In addition to growing vegetable and fruit
crops, livestock, pisiculture, bee keeping, poultry, rabbitary and floriculture can further provide boost to the
overall improvement in the farming business.
The great challenge for the coming decades will
be the task of producing more profit per drop of water,
particularly in countries with limited water resources.
In addition, growing demand for water for industry and
municipalities, combined with environmental problems
results in less water for agriculture in the future. One of
the approaches to meet the future water shortages will
be increasing water productivity through multi uses of
135
water in a farm with the introduction of different agriculture production systems instead of crops alone in a
farm.
The concept of water productivity (WP) is offered by Molden,(1997) and Kijne et al. (2003) as a
robust measure of the ability of agricultural systems to
convert water into food. While it was used primarily to
evaluate the function of irrigation systems as crop per
drop - it seems useful to extend the concept to include
other types of livelihood support, such as mixed cropping, pasture, livestock, fisheries or forests.
Agricultural water productivity can be expressed
either as a physical productivity in terms of yield over
unit quantity of water consumed (tonnes per ha.cm of
water or kg yield per kg water consumed) in accordance
with the scale of reference that includes or excludes the
losses of water or an economic productivity replacing the
yield term by the gross or net present value of the crop
yield for the same water consumption (Rupees per unit
volume of water). Producing more crops, dairy, fish and
forest products per unit of agricultural water use holds a
key to both food and environmental security. However,
Molden et al (2003) stated the importance of working
out water productivity within agriculture, water use by
fisheries, forests, dairy and field crops and concluded
that analyzing each water use independently often leads
to false conclusions because of these interactions.
An attempt was made to estimate the water productivity in integrated farming system through on-station and on-farm research at TNAU, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu. On- station field investigation to estimate water
productivity for rice based systems and the allied activities like poultry, pigeon, fish and mushroom linked in
lowland integrated farming systems was carried out at
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India.
The components were selected bearing in mind
their popularity and suitability to lowland situations of
Tamil Nadu. For fishery, fingerlings belonging to six species were stocked at 400 numbers per 0.04 ha area of
pounded water. Water level in all the ponds was maintained at 50 cm height initially at the time of release of
fingerlings and subsequently raised to 60, 70, 80 and
90 cm at an interval of 30 days. From fourth month
onwards, water level in the pond was maintained to 90
cm till the harvest of grown up fish to compensate the
evaporation and seepage loss through pumped water
every week. For poultry, twenty numbers of eighteen
weeks old Bapkok chicks were sheltered in a shed. For
Pigeon, forty pairs of pigeon were sheltered near that

second fishpond. Birds were allowed to go for open
grazing in the fields in and around the system and not
been supplemented with any other material. For mushroom, mushroom cultivation was carried out with a capacity of 2 kg day-1 allowing recycling of paddy straw
from the component. Water requirement of the components was worked out and the productivity of components was converted to rice grain equivalents on the
basis economics.
Results revealed that cultivation of rice-green
gram-maize and rice-sunhemp-maize cropping systems
(conventional cropping systems) each in 0.50 hectare
consumed 182 ha cm of water totally in a year. Whereas
201 ha cm of water was needed for rice-soybean-sunflower and rice-gingelly-maize cropping systems in 0.45
ha each involved in integrated farming systems. Poultry,
pigeon, fish and mushroom components utilized 0.02,
0.04, 15.84 and 1.37 ha cm of water for their production in a year. Integration of cropping with pigeon + fish
+ mushroom utilized 218 ha cm as against 182 ha cm of
water with conventional cropping system alone. Integration of poultry and pigeon required very little quantity
of water and total water requirement in integration of
improved cropping with fish + mushroom + poultry /
pigeon was lesser than the water requirement of rice
based cropping alone in one hectare land area. Results
on system productivity (rice equivalent yield) as a whole
revealed that integration of rice based cropping with pigeon + fish + mushroom produced 154.7 kg of rice per
ha cm of water, while conventional cropping systems
recorded 60.2 kg of rice per ha cm.(Table 1). Hence,
integrating allied components with cropping results in
effective water productivity in lowland systems (Jayanthi.et.al.2000).
Multiple uses of water was studied in different agriculture production system viz.crop alone, crop + dairy
and crop + fishery at farmers holdings in western zone
of Tamil Nadu, India. The results revealed that the farm,
which was having allied enterprises along with crops
registered higher water productivity over the farms with
crops alone. Gross volume of water used in the farm
was 12003, 10068.4 and 16352 m3 under crops alone,
crops + dairy and crops + fishery respectively (Table 2).
Farm with only crops have produced total physical output of 15833 kg banana equivalent yield whereas crops
+ dairy and crops + fishery farms produced total physical productivity of 32117 kg maize equivalent yield and
72046 kg banana equivalent yield respectively. Higher
136
profit of Rs.677550/- was obtained in fishery-integrated

farm (1.20 ha) than dairy integrated farm (Rs.113425/in 1.00 ha) and farm with crops alone (Rs.115752/- in
0.90 ha).
Water productivity in fish culturing have found
comparatively higher (Rs.65.83m3), than dairy rearing
(Rs.37.67/m3) and crop cultivation. While comparing the
different combination of farm enterprises, crop + fishery
system produced higher water productivity (Rs.41.43/
m3) followed by crop + dairy combination (Rs.11.27/
m3) and the lower water productivity of Rs.9.64/m3 was
noticed where crops alone was raised (Table 3). Higher
quantity of physical production and high market demands
are the reasons for better economic water productivity
of fishery-integrated farm. Among the allied enterprises,

fishery component could produce higher physical yield,
better market price coupled with minimum water requirement, which in turn had resulted in higher water
productivity per unit of water. Hence, water productivity
under irrigated dryland ecosystem can be improvised by
introducing fishery component along with field crops.
From the results of the study, it could be concluded that integration of allied enterprises like fishery or
dairy along with crop cultivation leads to increased economic water productivity of a farm and it should remain
as one of the strategies for accomplishing the objective
of more profit per drop in Coimbatore region of Tamil
Nadu.
References
Jayanthi,C, A. Rangasamy and C. hinnusamy.2000.water budgeting in lowland intergrated farming systems.Madras

Agric.J. 411-414
Kjine, J.W., Barker, R. and Molden, D. (eds.) 2003. Water Productivity in Agriculture. CABI, Wallingford
Molden, D., 1997. Accounting for water use and productivity. SWIM Paper 1. International Irrigation Management
Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Molden, D., H. Murray-Rust, R. Sakthivadivel and I. Makin, 2003. A water productivity framework for understanding
and action. In: Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for improvement (eds). J.W.Kijne,
R.Barker and D.Molden). CAB International. pp 1-18.
Palanisami, K., T.Ramesh and S.Senthilvel. 2007. Water productivity at farm level under differential agricultural
production systems. In: 3rd International Groundwater Conference. Centre for Agriculture and Rural
Development Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003. p 306.

137
Table 1: Water requirement (ha cm) of integrated

Component water requirement (ha cm)
Farming system
FS1:
FS2:
FS3:
FS4:
Cropping alone
Crop + Poultry + Fish + ushroom
Crop + Pigeon + Fish + Mushroom
Crop) + Fish + Mushroom
Crop
182
201
201
201
Poultry

0.02

(Figure in parentheses indicate rice grain equivalent yield kg ha cm1)
Pigeon

0.04
Fish

15.84
15.84
15.84
Mushroom

1.37
1.37
1.37
System
requirement
(ha cm)
182.00 (60.2)
218.23 (145.1)
218.25 (154.1)
218.21 (123.1)
Souce: Jayanthi et al. (2000)
FS1
Rice greengram maize
Rice sun hemp maize
0.50 ha
0.50 ha
FS2 to FS4
Rice soybean sunflower
Rice gingelly maize
0.45 ha
0.45 ha
Table 2: Details of water used &yield of different farm enterprises at different farms
Area (ha)
Water (m3)
Yield (kg)
Banana-surface irrigated
Banana-drip irrigated
Leaf vegetable
Total farm
0.60
0.20
0.10
0.90
8320.8
2823.2
859
12003
10500
5000
500
15833*
Crops + Dairy
Rose- surface irrigated

Rose- drip irrigated
Maize
Dairy
Total farm
0.40
0.40
0.20
1 No.
1.00
5444
3388.4
796.4
439.6
10068.4
306000 Nos.
340000 Nos.
800
3300 litres
32117**
Crops + Fishery
Grapes-drip
Banana -drip
Fishery
Total farm
0.40
0.40
0.40
1.20
1196
6699.2
8456.8
16352
2500
14400
26670
72046*
Farm type
Enterprises
Crops alone
*Banana equivalent yield ** maize equivalent yield, Souce: Palanisami et al. (2007)
Table 3: Economics &water productivity of different farm enterprises at different farms

Farm type
Enterprises
Area
(ha)
Income
(Rs.)
Cost
(Rs.)
profit
(Rs.)
WP
(kg/ m3)
WP
(Rs./ m3)
Crops alone
Banana-surface irrigated
Banana-drip irrigated
Leaf vegetable
0.60
0.20
0.10
126000
60000
4000
52248
21000
1000
73752
39000
3000
1.77
1.26
0.58
13.80
8.86
3.49
Total
0.90
194000
115752
1.31
9.64
Crops + Dairy
Rose-surface irrigated*
Rose-drip irrigated*
Maize
Dairy
Total
0.40
0.40
0.20
1 No.
1.00
76500
85000
4800
26400
192700
30000
35000
1500
12775
46500
50000
3300
13625
113425
56.2*
100.3*
1.00
7.75 litres
3.19
8.54
14.76
4.14
37.67
11.27
Crops + Fishery
Grapes-drip
Banana -drip
Fishery
0.40
0.40
0.40
25000
172800
666750
12000
65000
110000
13000
107800
556750
2.10
2.15
3.15
10.87
16.10
65.83
Total
1.20
842050
677550
4.41
41.43
*Physical water productivity is in numbers.

Souce: Palanisami et al. (2007)
138
19
Generation of Regional Water
Harvesting Potential Scenarios
using CLIMGEN Model
A. Sarangi, C.A. Madramootoo and
K.R. Koundal
Introduction
Spatio-temporal variability of precipitation
amount at both regional and global scales is being observed due to climate change. Such variations in water
resources in general and reduced water availability of
some regions in particular will definitely jeopardize many
human activities, because, water is the elixir of life. This
necessitates a detailed investigation to ascertain such
changes of precipitation and quantify the hydrological variability of surface water resources due to climate
change at regional scales for its judicious allocation to
different water demanding sectors in a sustainable manner. One of the first weather generators developed for
rural water quality modelling purposes is called WGEN
(Richardson and Wright, 1984). Numerous other weather generators have developed since then. CLIGEN, the
weather generator incorporated within the WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) model, is based on the
weather generation methods used in WGEN (Nicks et al.
1990). CLIGEN, however, adds the capability of gener-
ating rainfall intensity and duration or breakpoint rainfall data necessary for the Green and Ampt infiltration
model used in many of todays hydrologic and soil loss
prediction models including WEPP. With an aim to study
the trend of precipitation, Yu et al. (2006) analysed the
long-term rainfall data (1904-2001) from 33 rain-gauges
at different time scales (annual, seasonal and monthly
rainfalls) in Taiwan. The statistical tests, such as cumulative deviations, Mann-Whitney-Pettitt statistics and the
Kruskal-Wallis test, were employed to determine whether
annual rainfall series exhibit any regular trend. Both tests
identified the trend and the identified the change points
in the data series. Basistha et al. (2007) prepared the
normal annual rainfall maps for 44 raingauge stations
in Uttarakhand state lying in Himalayan region of India
based on the recorded data from the year 1901 to 1950
to study the spatial distribution of rainfall. A comparative analysis of interpolation techniques like Inverse Distance Weighted, Polynomial, Splines, Ordinary Kriging
and Universal Kriging showed that the Universal Kriging
with hole-effect model and natural logarithmic transfor-
139
mation with constant trend having Root Mean Square

Error (RMSE) of 328.7 was found to be the best suitable
method for interpolation of rainfall in this region. The
validation of the predicted values with the observed data
revealed that the variability of rainfall in plains exhibited
minimal error as compared to the hilly terrains of Great
Himalayas. The results indicated that the spatial variability models could not predict the variability of rainfall in hilly regions. Livada and Assimakopoulos (2007)
used the Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) to detect
drought events in spatial and temporal basis over the
Greek territory. The monthly precipitation data from
23 stations well spread over Greece and for a period of
51 years (19502000) was used and a classification of
drought was performed, based on its intensity and duration of precipitation. The results indicate that, mild and
moderate droughts reduce from north to south and from
west to east on the 3- and 6-months time scale, while
for the class of severe drought; the frequencies in the
southern part of Greece were higher than in the other
parts of the country. Shahid (2007) analysed the spatial
and temporal characteristics of precipitation in the western part of Bangladesh for a periof from 1961 to 1999.
A standardized precipitation index method was used to
compute the severity of droughts from the rainfall data
recorded in 12 rainfall gauge stations. An artificial neural network model was used to estimate the missing rainfall data and GIS was used to map the spatial extent of
droughts with varying severities in multiple time scales.
Analysis of rainfall was also carried to find the minimum rainfall during monsoon and dry months in different parts of the study area to avoid rainfall deficit. The
study showed that the north and north-western parts of
Bangladesh were most vulnerable to droughts. Keeping
in view of the research work pertaining to analysis of
rainfall data, the present study was carried out to investigate the changes in daily precipitation amounts using
a long term daily rainfall data base of a rain gauge station in Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) farm,
New Delhi, India. Daily rainfall data available at Water
Technology Centre (WTC) observatory of IARI farm for a
period from 1972 to 2007 (36 years) was acquired and
converted to digital format for subsequent analysis using ClimGen model. Assessment of the spatio-temporal
variability of precipitation would assist in quantification
of the surface runoff and the harvestable runoff water for
agriculture and allied activities.
Operation of The Climate Generation

(ClimGen) Model
Weather generators have been developed in recent years to help reduce the time required to prepare
weather input data sets. Weather generators are computer programs that use existing climatic records to produce a long series of synthetic daily climatic data. The
statistical properties of the generated data are expected
to be similar to those of the actual data for a station. Unlike historical weather data files which may be missing
data due to equipment servicing or malfunction, generated weather input provides a complete data set and can
be produced for any desired period of time, enhancing
their use as input for continuous-in-time models. ClimGen model, which is a modified version of WGEN is
developed by Gaylon S. Campbell of Washington State
University, USA. ClimGen generates daily maximum
and minimum temperature, and precipitation from either daily weather data, if available, or from monthly
summaries. The model is written in C++ using Borland
C++ builder and the technical support is provided by
Dr. Roger Nelson, Biological Systems Engineering Department, Washington State University, Pullman, WA,
USA (Stockle et al., 2003). A copy of the most recent
version of ClimGen is available and may be downloaded from the ClimGen website. The website address is
www.bsyse.wsu.edu/climgen. Those interested in using the model are encouraged to visit the site, download
and test the model in their own setting, and provide
feedback to the developers on its use. In this study, the
ClimGen model ver. 4.04.15 is used for analysis of the
rainfall data (Fig.1).
ClimGen uses weather generation approaches
that are similar to those applied in other popular weather generators. ClimGen is generally used to generate
the key weather input variables needed for hydrologic
and crop growth modelling. In this study, daily precipitation depths were generated and analysed using the
ClimGen model. Generating precipitation data involves
approaches that can assess the likelihood of both the
occurrence of precipitation on a particular day as well
as the amount. Rainfall intensity and duration within the
rain event may also need to be generated for some applications. ClimGen models the daily precipitation occurrence using a two-state Markov chain model to generate
the number and distribution of precipitation events. The
probability of a wet day following a dry day and the prob-
140
ability of a dry day following a wet day is also estimated

by ClimGen. These probabilities are calculated for each
month of the year for the station being characterized
by analyzing a stations historic long-term precipitation
data provided by the model user. On days when precipitation is determined to occur, ClimGen assumes the
cumulative probability of precipitation amount follows a
Weibull distribution. The advantages of ClimGen over
other weather generators are summarized as follows:
ClimGen includes routines that allow it

to automate the task of parameterizing historical weather
data from new stations of interest. All that is required is
sufficient historical observed data for a station formatted
in a manner that can be read by the ClimGen software.
The minimum data requirement for good precipitation
generation is at least 25 years of real precipitation data.
With one or more years of data, the parameterization
will be achieved, but with any less than 25 years of real
precipitation data, the generated precipitation should
only be considered as estimates.
Daily precipitation amounts are assumed

to follow a Weibull distribution in the model, which is
observed to be superior to other probability distributions
of daily precipitation amount (Selker and Haith,1990).
A spline-fitting approach is used in ClimGen. This is an improvement over the one-term Fourier
series used by many of the other weather generators to
model seasonal variations in climate data.
Developers of the ClimGen model are

available and were interested in supporting and enhancing ClimGen as a weather generation tool for use under
a range of geographic locations and applications, including the Canadian setting.
Results and Discussions

Daily rainfall data of the WTC observatory for
a period of 36 years available in form of rainfall charts
and tabular formats were digitized and prepared in the
Universal Environment Database (UED) format using the
ExcelTM spreadsheet. Further, the ClimGen model was
parameterized using the daily rainfall data of 30 years
(1972-2001) and incorporating the location information (78.450 longitude and 27.360 latitude) of the observatory at WTC besides other input parameters. The
parametrized model was further used to generate the
daily rainfall data for a period for 42 years (2002-2043)
(Fig. 2). The generated data for the period from the year
2002 to 2007 was compared with the recorded data of
the said period. The coefficient of determination (R2) of

the fitted trend line for all the years ranged from 0.76 to
0.93. The validation results for the year 2007 is shown
in the Fig.3. It is observed from Fig.3 that the ClimGen
predicted rainfall depths for the year 2007 was in line
with the observed daily rainfall depths and the model
over predicted the total annual rainfall depth by a small
margin of 25mm. The randomness, trend and periodicity of the daily rainfall data of the observed and predicted
sets for the year 2007 were almost in line. Further, a
non-parametric statistical test i.e. Mann-Kendall rank
correlation test was carried out on the predicted data
for the period from 2008 to 2043. The test showed that
there was an increasing trend of precipitation amounts
for the projected period. The annual monthly rainfall
data of both the historical recorded set and the ClimGen
generated set were plotted along with the trend line,
which is shown in Fig 4. It was observed from the Fig.
4 that the annual rainfall depths exhibited an increasing
trend of rainfall for the period from the year 2008 to
2043. Subsequently to understand the variability in the
number of the rainy and non-rainy days in every year
before and after the base year 2007, the rainy and non
rainy days were calculated form the data set of 76 years
and are shown in Fig. 5. It was observed from Fig. 5 that
there was a significant variability in the rainy and nonrainy days during the 36 years period prior to 2007 with
a range (R) of 57 days, where as the range was 25 days
for the ClimGen generated data base of 36 years after
the year 2007. The probability of a wet day followed by
a dry day and consecutive wet day and dry day rainfall
analysis carried out on the data sets revealed that the
probability of dry day followed by a wet day was less for
the period from the year 2008 to 2043. This result indicate that the water harvesting potential of the region will
increase due to saturated soil conditions prevailing for
an extended period as compared to the periods prior to
2007. However, to ascertain these findings, the evapotranspiration and rainfall data from other peripheral stations and the solar radiation along with the soil and land
use information are also essential.
Conclusions
ClimGen model was successfully parameterized
using the recorded daily precipitation data of WTC observatory and was subsequently used to generate the precipitation amount for extended 36 years period. Analysis
of the data for both the periods before and after the year
2007 revealed significant information about the trend of
precipitation corroborating the change of climate and its
141
impact on availability of water resources in future. The

daily rainfall amounts were observed to be higher for
the period from 2008 to 2043 as compared to very few
higher events as observed from 1972 to 2007. These
findings corroborated the GCM predictions of having
high intense storms resulting in elevated daily rainfall
amounts. There preliminary investigations carried out
using the ClimGen model can be used to generate the
daily precipitation amount besides the probability of

wet day and dry days to estimate the water harvesting
potential of a region comprising of a network of rain
gauge stations. Also, the meteorological and agricultural
drought indices can be developed to advocate the farming community for judicious dry land farming to enhance
agricultural production.
References
Basistha, A., Arya, D. S. and Goel, N. K. (2007) Spatial Distribution of Rainfall in Indian Himalayas A Case Study
of Uttarakhand Region, Water Resource Management, DOI 10.1007/s11269-007-9228-2
Livada, I. and Assimakopoulos, V. D. (2007) Spatial and temporal analysis of drought in Greece using the Standardized
Precipitation Index (SPI). Theoretical and Applied Climatology 89, 143153. DOI 10.1007/s00704005-0227-z
Narasimhan, B. and Srinivasan, R. (2005) Development and evaluation of Soil Moisture Deficit Index (SMDI) and
Evapotranspiration Deficit Index (ETDI) for agricultural drought monitoring. Agricultural and Forest
Meteorology 133:6988.
Nicks, A.D., C.W. Richardson, and J.R. Williams. 1990. Evaluation of the EPIC model weather generator. In EPIC
Erosion/Productivity Impact Calculator, 1. Model Documentation, USDA Technical Bulletin
No. 1768, Eds. A.N. Sharpley and J.R. Williams. 105-124. Washington, DC, U.S.A.
Richardson, C.W. and D.A. Wright. 1984. WGEN, A Model for Generating Daily Weather Variables,
USDA ARS Bulletin No. ARS-8. Washington, DC, U.S.A.: Government Printing Office.
Shahid, S (2007) Spatial and temporal characteristics of droughts in the western part of Bangladesh, Hydrological
Processes 21, 00 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.6820.
Stockle, C.O., M. Donatelli and R. Nelson. 2003. CropSyst, a cropping systems simulation model. Europ. J. Agronomy
18:289-307.
Yu, P., Yang, T., and Kuo, C. (2006) Evaluating Long-Term Trends in Annual and Seasonal Precipitation in Taiwan,
Water Resources Management 20: 10071023. DOI: 10.1007/s11269-006-9020-8.
142
20
Improving Water Productivity
in Maize by Nutriseed Holder
Technique under Micro
Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation
K. Arulmozhiselvan and R. Vengatesan
Introduction
Globally maize is the top ranking cereal in potential grain productivity. India ranks fifth in maize area
(6.42 m ha), fourth in production (11.47 m t) and third
in productivity with average yield of 1790 kg ha-1 among
cereals (SAI, 2000). Fertilizer rates and placement of nutrients are important factors to be considered to produce
maximum yield of maize. Particularly deep placement of
nutrients might be beneficial to corn growth. The method of N, P and K placement has typically been found
effective over broadcasting on the top of the soil, and it
is also influenced by the amount of water used for irrigation (Howard et al., 2002). A fundamental approach is
to reduce water use to grow maize by proper irrigation
management. Recently drip irrigation methods are being tested to save water by eliminating continuous seepage and percolation, and reducing evaporation.
Maize responses to N, P and K fertilizer applications are typically greatest in moist conditions (Nelson et
al., 1992). Combining nutrients in a balanced proportion
has been found to enhance fertilizer use efficiency. Fertilizer tablets made out of dry granulation or compaction
of urea individually with muriate of potash, zinc sulphate,
DAP and ammonium chloride with ordinary tabletting
machine, was found to reduce NH3 volatilization upto 44
per cent, relative to urea, and would be a feasible costeffective technology (Purakayastha and Katyal, 1998).
Asha (2003) made a pioneering approach of deep placing NPK fertilizers just below the germinating seedling
with an aid of tubular holder called Nutriseed Holder,
which contained sprouted seeds on top and fertilizers at
bottom. This study with 15N tracer demonstrated a 57.1
percent of fertilizer N recovery, which exceeded two
folds of recovery noted for surface broadcast (26.1 %).
Subsequently Deivanai (2005) experimented with Nutriseed holder having seed, enriched manure and fertilizers
together, which gave 42-58 per cent increase in yield of
rice grown in soil column, when compared to surface
broadcast method, under submerged water regime.
In spite clear evidences on improvement in efficiency, the deep placement methods have not been
143
fully tested under different moisture status particularly

under upland condition. Hence, in the present study
the design of Nutriseed Holder developed for rice (Asha,
2003 ; Deivanai, 2005) was further improved and studied with maize crop to understand the extent of utilization of nutrients under different water saving irrigation
strategies viz., rainfed (simulated by micro sprinkler) and
drip irrigation in comparison with conventional surface
fertilizer broadcast method and surface irrigation.

The experiment was conducted during November
2006 to March 2007 in the farm of Agricultural College
and Research Institute, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India. The
experimental soil (Typic Haplustalf of Madukkur series) was sandy loam in texture, neutral in pH having low
organic carbon (0.63 %). The hybrid maize parental line
UMI 61 was grown as test crop. In split plot design, the
three main and six sub-plot treatments were assigned in
two replications. In Main plots, irrigation treatments viz.,
Surface irrigation, Micro sprinkler irrigation (simulated
rainfed condition), and Drip irrigation were imposed. In
the Sub plots the methods of fertilizer application tested
were: Surface broadcast (100 % Recommended NPK),
Nutriseed holder - Open method with 75% N, 100%
PK (or) 100% NPK, Nutriseed holder - Closed method
with 75% N, 100% PK (or) 100% NPK and Control. The
chemical analysis of soil and plant samples and in situ
physical measurements were carried out by adopting
standard procedures. Based on grain yield, nutrient uptake and nutrient applied the nutrient use efficiency was
computed in terms of Apparent Nutrient Recovery and
Water Productivity.
Irrigation
Surface irrigation was done at weekly intervals
up to tasseling stage and thereafter once in 10 days consuming 660 mm of water. Micro sprinkler irrigation was
done with 4 sprinkler heads laid inside the plot. The water sprinkled inside the plot as rain droplets simulating
rainfall. Each sprinkler delivered water at 70 litres hour-1.
The amount of rainfall of 540 mm of North East monsoon was simulated by adjusting the duration of delivery
of water by micro sprinkler. Drip irrigation was given
by on-line emitters located near each plot at 10 emitters m-2. Each emitter had delivery rate of about 8 litres
hour-1. By adjusting the duration of delivery the amount
of water admitted was regulated. Altogether during the
crop period 360 mm of water was admitted.
Design of Nutriseed Holder

Deep placement of fertilizers was done with the
aid of Nutriseed holders made with fertilizer, manure
and seed pellets, wrapped in a square butter paper, as
a roll (Fig 1). The fertilizer materials needed to supply
full N and K and 90 per cent of P as per treatment, for
a single maize plant was pressed to a pellet in the pelleting device. Urea, single super phosphate and Muriate of potash were used as nutrient sources. Then the
pellet was placed in a small thin polyethylene bag (1 x
1.5 inch), and the mouth was sealed with flame as a
water proof pack. The bottom of polyethylene pack was
opened using a circular pin to a 5 mm diameter pore in
open method, and to a 1 mm diameter pore in closed
method. For preparing manure pellet, enriched vermicompost containing 10 per cent of P as per treatment
was used.
When both fertilizer and manure pellets were
made ready, they were placed on a 6 6 cm perforated butter paper. Two maize seeds were put on top of
roll and pressed with moist soil along with bioinoculants
(Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria) and placed on
top. Now the paper was rolled. The extending paper
length was folded inside to protect seed from falling. The
roll which contained fertilizer pellet at bottom, manure
pellet in the middle and seed with soil and bio-inoculants
is called as Nutriseed holder.
Deep Placement
At the time of sowing Nutriseed holders were
placed vertically down. For this purpose a 6 cm deep
hole was made in soil using a 15 mm thick and 15 cm
length stick. Implanting was done by slightly placing
a Nutriseed holder in the hole and pressing on top of
holder vertically down till the top seed portion coincided
to the soil surface. When this was done the dissolution
surface of fertilizer pellet would have been located at 5
cm depth from the surface.

The yield, water use efficiency and soil physical conditions varied widely with respect to irrigation
regimes and method of fertilizer application. Under surface irrigation, deep placement of Nutriseed holder with
100% NPK in open method resulted in 3786 kg ha-1
grain yield (Table 1) which was 55.9 per cent higher
than the grain yield of surface broadcast (2429 kg ha-1).
Under simulated rainfed condition with micro sprinkler,
144
placement of 100% NPK Nutriseed holder in open method recorded 3350 kg ha-1 grain yield, which was 50.8
per cent higher than the surface broadcast (2221 kg ha-1)
similar trend was also noted for the Stover yield.
30.9 per cent for surface irrigation, and 17.4 percent for
micro sprinkler (simulated rainfed) irrigation when compared to drip irrigation. While evaluating the relationship between soil moisture and crop growth Nandal and
Table 1: Stover and Grain Yield of maize under different irrigation regimes(kg ha-1)
Method of Application
Irrigation
Surface
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
Mean
Irrigation
Methods
I at T
T at I
Micro
Drip
Mean
Sprinkler
Stover Yield
5493
5285
5085
5288
6665
6225
5642
6177
6831
6453
5801
6362
5937
5648
5178
5588
6242
5925
5387
5851
4917
4821
4640
4793
6014
5726
5289
SEd
CD(P=0.05)
45.2
194.4**
74.6
159.0**
129.2
275.4*
87.2
236.7*
M2, M3 Nutriseed
M1 Surface Broadcast
Holder Open Method at 75 & 100 % N
M4, M5 Nutriseed Holder Closed Method at 75
& 100 % N
M6 - Control
Significance at 5% level (*) or 1% level (**)
Over the conventional surface broadcast surface irrigation method Grain yield increased due to 100%
NPK Nutriseed holder open method to the tune of 55.9
per cent under surface irrigation, 37.9 per cent under
micro sprinkler and 14.2 per cent under drip irrigation.
Over all, maize stover and grain yields were influenced
to greater extent by irrigation treatments in the following
order: surface > micro sprinkler > drip.
The positive effect of irrigation was clearly spelt
in the dry matter production and yield. This was possibly due to high water requirement. Maize requires water
of about 650 mm for adequate growth under surface
irrigation. In the present study conservative irrigation
methods viz, micro sprinkler and drip were used efficiently to conserve irrigation water. Hence, according to
applied water at 660, 540 and 360 mm under surface,
micro sprinkler and drip irrigation respectively, the drymatter production and grain yield would have resulted
proportionately, proving the best performance under
surface irrigation. Grain yield increased to the tune of
Surface
2429
3447
3786
2868
3173
1840
2924
Micro
Drip
Mean
Sprinkler
Grain Yield
2221
2008
2219
3099
2557
3034
3350
2773
3303
2539
2134
2514
2827
2336
2779
1697
1598
1712
2622
2234
SEd
CD(P=0.05)
15.3
65.7**
20.5
43.6**
35.5
75.6**
25.5
74.3**
Agarwal (1989) reported that water deficit had the direct

effect on yield reduction.
The use of micro sprinkler to simulate rainfall
and establish rainfed conditions have been successful in
the present study. Under water saving situation micro
sprinkler irrigation resulted in the considerable grain
yield increase. By adjustment of irrigation duration the
amount water was irrigated at the same frequency and
quantity of rainfall that would occur during monsoon.
However, micro sprinkler could not achieve grain yield
as that of surface irrigation owing to crop water demand
at various stages. Blad et al. (1980) have also successfully used micro sprinkler for maize cropping.
In regions of water scarcity, drip irrigation has
become the necessity. Besides water conservation, it enables slow and precise application of water at the rhizosphere region. In the present study water admitted for
12 weeks releasing about 360 mm of water has given on
an average 2234 kg grain yield. Similar effort of growing
maize with drip irrigation was attempted by Phene and
Beale (1976).
At all irrigation treatments yield enhancement
was realized over the conventional surface irrigation
with surface broadcast method of fertilizer application.
Maize responding to fertilizer application to appreciable
extent in a low fertile soil has been clearly evidenced.
145
Also the results indicated that there has been a scope

to improve grain yield of maize to >50 per cent over
the conventional surface broadcast method, by adopting
deep placement using Nutriseed holder.
The promising effect of Nutriseed holder would
be attributed to the controlled release of fertilizers which
were precisely placed below 5 cm depth, with the combination of P enriched manure. The fertilizer pellet positioned at bottom of Nutriseed holder would have allowed
only downward movement of N, P and K nutrients, as
the pellet was covered by polythene on top and at sides,
having exposure area only at bottom. The higher nutrient availability and high nutrient uptake resulted under
deep placement might have influenced dry matter production and yield.
In the previous attempts with deep placement,
Bhuiyan (1988), Dhane et al. (1995) and Bautista et
al. (2000) reported significant increase in yield due to
fertilizer N, P and K placement in the root zone. Deivanai (2005) reported a yield increase of 63.3 per cent
with placement of plastic Nutriseed holder over surface
broadcast in soil column study while growing direct
seeded rice. The first work carried out on deep placement using Nutriseed holder resulted in the grain yield
increase to the tune of 81.8 per cent over surface broadcast (Asha and Arulmozhiselvan, 2006).
With respect to 100% NPK Nutriseed holder
open method, where the grain yield was highest, use efficiency was relatively high (Table 2) to the tune of 45.7,
41.0, 32.7 per cent for N, 28.2, 23.7, 20.0 per cent for
P and 44.2, 36.2 and 27.8 per cent for K under surface,
micro sprinkler and drip irrigation respectively. Water
productivity (g grain / kg water) was high under drip irrigation (0.77g / kg) followed by micro sprinkler (0.62
g / kg). Low water productivity was noted for surface
irrigation (0.57 g / kg).
M1 Surface Broadcast M2, M3 Nutriseed
Holder Open Method at 75 & 100 % N
M4, M5 Nutriseed Holder Closed Method at 75
& 100 % N
M6 - Control
In the case of water productivity, the highest yield
achievement resulted in 100% NPK Nutriseed holder in
open method was associated with low efficiency of 0.57g
/kg water under surface irrigation, due to profuse irrigation. Water saving irrigations of drip and micro sprinkler
achieved high productivity ranging 0.62 to 0.77g / kg
water. Use of water under regulated release conditions
Table 2: Nutrient and Water Use Efficiency

Method of Application
Surface Irrigation
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
Micro Sprinkler
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
Drip
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
Nutrient Use efficiency

[Apparent Nutrient Recovery] (%)
Water productivity
g grain / kg water
24.00
53.23
45.70
40.59
35.48
14.99
33.98
28.19
26.52
21.98
13.20
52.00
44.20
30.93
30.40
0.37
0.52
0.57
0.44
0.48
0.28
22.81
49.19
40.96
38.72
32.74
12.96
29.31
23.74
21.48
18.46
9.60
41.33
36.20
24.00
24.60
0.41
0.57
0.62
0.47
0.52
0.31
21.26
39.11
32.74
29.73
24.00
12.19
23.59
19.97
17.07
15.22
10.20
31.73
27.80
16.80
18.80
0.56
0.71
0.77
0.59
0.65
0.44
146
reduces water loss, hence always efficient when compared to surface irrigation, as evidenced in the study.
Compared to initial soil conditions, a compacting effect was noted with surface irrigation and drip irrigation at harvest stage (Table 3). Bulk density was 1.53
and 1.67 Mg m-3 under surface irrigation and 1.49 and
1.58 Mg m-3 under drip, when compared to normal bulk
density of 1.42 and 1.48 Mg m-3 under micro sprinkler.
Surface irrigation increased initial infiltration rate greatly.
Hydraulic conductivity and steady infiltration decreased
in soil in the order: micro sprinkler > drip > surface irrigation.
At the end of experiment the physical parameters estimated in soil indicated a compaction effect at
varying degrees for the irrigation treatments imposed.
The measurement was done in the cropped line, in the
space between plants. Surface irrigation showed the
high bulk density in surface (1.53 Mg m-3) and sub surface (1.67 Mg m-3). When compared to micro sprinkler,
rapid ponding of water and immediate drainage into soil
column under surface irrigation might have broken down
aggregates and carried the fine fraction of soil to lower
depth leading to compaction. Volume reduction in the
surface soil and addition of fine clay to the subsurface
soil might have increased the bulk density to a considerable extent.
infiltration rate rapidly decreased to a steady state of

0.86 cm hr-1. This effect was also seen with the lowest
hydraulic conductivity both in surface (1.95 cm hr-1) and
subsurface (1.36 cm hr-1) layers. While simulating rainfall with micro sprinkler even though soil surface was
wetted at faster rate, there was no ponding of water and
quick down ward flow. In the case of drip irrigation, soil
was wetted at a slow rate, only around the dripper and
the resulting downward movement was also slow, hence
compaction effect noted for drip irrigation was least. On
the whole, based on physical properties estimated, the
desirable physical conditions were good in the order: micro sprinkler > drip > surface irrigation.
Conclusion
The improved performance of deep placement
was recorded with the newly designed Nutriseed holder
under all irrigation regimes. At the time of sowing, placing fertilizer, enriched manure and seed in a single attempt with Nutriseed holder would minimize the labour
cost. No further top dressing of nutrients is required as
entire NPK dose is placed in the holder with commonly
available straight fertilizers. Hence, no specialized technique is required to formulate a different form of fertilizer. In this study the suitability of Nutriseed holder under
surface, micro sprinkler and drip irrigation for maize has
been established. When this technology comes to field,
Table 3: Physical properties in post harvest soil in maize experiment

Mg m-3
Treatment
Surface
Micro Sprinkler
Drip
Standard Error
Surface
Micro Sprinkler
Drip
cm hr-1
cm hr-1
0-15 cm
soil depth
1.53
1.42
1.49
15-30 cm
soil depth
1.67
1.48
1.58
Initial
rate
5.24
3.65
2.96
Steady
rate
0.86
1.23
0.97
0-15 cm
soil depth
1.95
2.86
2.08
0-15 cm
soil depth
1.36
2.27
1.87
0.037*
0.043*
0.021*
0.092*
0.064*
0.063*
0.072*
0.114*
0.215*
0.056*
0.076*
0.097*
0.059*
0.090*
0.122*
0.175*
0.228*
0.179*
*Significant at 5% level
Removal of fine fraction from the surface soil
under surface irrigation might be the responsible factor
of the very high initial infiltration rate (5.24 cm hr-1).
However, due to clay accumulation in lower depth, the
fabrication of Nutriseed holders may be attempted with

biodegradable plastic or with slow degradable polymerreinforced paper. Large-scale industrial manufacture of
Nutriseed holders packed with fertilizer, manure and
seed will reduce the cost.
147
References
Asha, V.S. 2003. Assessment of contribution of Azolla and deep placed fertilizers in direct seeded rice using 15N
technique. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Asha, V.S. and K. Arulmozhiselvan. 2006. 15N Tracer technique for studying efficiency of deep placed fertilizer through
Nutriseed holder in direct seeded rice. J. Nuclear Agric. Biol., 35 (1) : 1-14
Bautista, E.U., D.C. Suministrado and M. Koike. 2000. Mechanical deep placement of fertilizer in puddled soils. J.
Japanese Soc. Agric. Machinery, 62(1) : 146-157
Bhuiyan, N.I. 1988. Effect of N source and application method on dry season irrigated rice. IRRN, 13(3) : 2829
Deivanai, M. 2005. Dynamics of deep placed fertilizer nutrients in soil column under controlled irrigation for direct
seeded rice. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
Dhane, S.S., R.R. Khadse and H. K. Pawar. 1995. Integrated effect of deeply placed urea and glyricidia on grain
yield of transplanted rice. IRRN, 23(2): 12-21.
Howard, Donald D., Michael E. Essington, and Joanne Logan. 2002. Long-term Broadcast and banded phosphorus
fertilization of corn produced using two tillage Systems. Agron. J., 94 : 51-56
Nandal, D.P.S. and S.K. Agarwal. 1989. Response of winter maize to sowing dates irrigation and nitrogen levels in
North West India. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 59 : 629-633
Nelson, W.L., W.I. Segars, S.R. Olsen, W. Wallingford, L.F. Welch. 1992. Developing systems for optimum corn
yield. National Corn Handbook
NCH -6
Phene, C.J. and O.W. Beale. 1976. High-frequency irrigation for water and nutrient management in humid regions.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 40 : 430-436
Purakayastha, T.J. and J.C. Katyal. 1998. In: Fertilizer use situation in India. Nutrient Cycling in Agro
ecosystems, 51 : 107
SAI, 2000. Statistical Abstract of India (2000). Central Statistical Organization. Ministry of Statistical and Programme
Implementation. Govt. of India, New Delhi. pp.17-32
148
21
Aerobic Rice for Mitigating
Water Scarcity: Physiological
Approaches
C.Vijayalakshmi, N.Sritharan and P.K.Selvaraj
Introduction
Rice remains the most important staple food on
the planet since it feeds roughly half the population on
a daily basis. Approximately, 750 million of the worlds
poorest people depend on it to survive. According to
FAO, the global rice requirement in 2025 will be of the
order of 800 million tonnes. The current production
is less than 600 million tonnes. The additional 200
million tonnes needed will have to be produced by increasing productivity per hectare. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, The Chairman, National Commission on Farmers,
Government of India said that breeding for high yield
and feeding for higher productivity should go together
and it is important that the crop feeding practices do
not lead to the pollution of the ground water as well as
soil. Rice grows under a wide range of latitudes and altitudes and can become the anchor of food security in a
world confronted with the challenge of climate change.
The decline in soil health and water quality in rice-based
systems is a major global issue. The situation is going to
be aggravated in the event of possible global warming,
which would have a negative impact on yield and soil

fertility. Development of technologies that support multiple uses of water, enhanced water use efficiency and
diversification of intensive and upland rice production
system is essential.
In India rice is cultivated round the year in one or
the other part of the country, in diverse ecologies spread
over 44 million hectares with a production of around
90 million tonnes, representing the largest area and the
second highest production in the world. Of the 44 million ha rice production area, 50 per cent is irrigated, 35
per cent is rainfed lowland, 12 per cent is upland and
3 per cent is flood prone or deep-water rice (http://
www.fao.org). In India, during 2004-2005, 87.8 million
tonnes of rice was produced from an area of 42.41 million ha with the productivity of 2.05 t ha-1. In Tamil
Nadu, 3.2 million tonnes of rice was produced from 1.4
million ha with the productivity of 2.31 t ha-1 during the
year 2003-2004. The area under rice production and
productivity declined by 8.0 per cent and 9.9 per cent
respectively during the year 2003 and 2004 when com-
149
pared to the previous year due to unpredicted drought

during the crop period. It is estimated that demand for
rice in 2010 AD will be 100 million tonnes and in 2025
AD, it will be 140 million tonnes (Singh, 2004).
But, the increasing scarcity of fresh water threatens the sustainability of the irrigated rice ecosystem (
Tuong and Bouman , 2003). The future rice production will therefore, depend heavily on developing and
adopting strategies and practices that will produce more
rice with less and less water to feed the ever increasing
population . The increase in water scarcity now made
the researchers to look for various ways to decrease water use in rice production and increase the Water Use
Efficiency ( WUE). One of the approaches that lead to
a considerable amount of savings in water use by rice is
aerobic cultivation, which combines the characteristics
of both upland varieties with less water requirements
and irrigated rice cultivars with high response to inputs
(Bouman et al, 2002). The aerobic rice is defined as
high yielding rice grown in non-puddled and non- flooded aerobic soil. Wang et al., 2002 stated that the aerobic
cultivation entails the growing of rice in aerobic soil ,
with the external inputs such as supplementary irrigation and fertilizers and aiming at high yields. Bouman et
al.,(2002) explained it as a new water saving technology
to grow rice aerobically that is in non-puddled and nonflooded soil with irrigation. Improved understanding of
the physiological and biochemical control of signaling
process that regulates the adoption of rice to aerobic
conditions will facilitates the development of successful
aerobic cultivars that respond to the environments more
like other upland species , which are one of the solutions
for looming global water crisis. In India, so far no research work is carried out to study the physiological and
biochemical responses of rice grown aerobically. In addition, a scientific evaluation on growth and yield potential
of aerobic rice using micro-irrigation technology is very
much required at present. In the light of these situations
the present investigation was carried out.

A field experiment was conducted at Agricultural Research Station, Bhavanisagar ( 11o 2 N and 76
o
57 E with 426.76 m above MSL), TNAU during
2007. The soil of the experiment site is sandy loam.
The available soil nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
were 197, 19.1, 220 kg ha-1 respectively (Soil pH 7.2;
EC 0.24 dSm-1). The rice cultivar PMK3 was chosen
for this study. Different micro irrigation techniques viz.,
micro sprinkler and drip irrigation were imposed and

irrigation was based on the evapotranspiration. The
surface irrigated plots were maintained to compare the
water economy with micro irrigation techniques. Seeds
were sown directly with the spacing of 20X10 cm. The
experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design
with nine treatments and three replications. The crop
management and protection measures were done at the
appropriate time as per the recommendations.
The physiological parameters viz., total chlorophyll content, chlorophyll fluorescence and membrane
stability index (MSI) were determined at panicle initiation
(PI) and flowering stages of the crop. At maturity, number of productive tillers, grain yield and harvest index
(HI) were determined by following the standard methods. Water use efficiency (WUE) was computed based on
the total quantity of water used in each treatment.

The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll content
at PI and flowering stages exhibited higher values under
flooded irrigation treatments followed by drip and micro sprinkler irrigation (Table 1). Lafitte and Courtosis
(2002) also reported a decline in chlorophyll content under micro irrigation. The decline in chlorophyll content is
mainly because of increased chlorophyllase activity and
thereby limited chlorophyll synthesis under water limited
environment. The drip irrigation @ 200 % PE recorded
an equal amount of this green pigment compared to
surface irrigation T1. The SPAD value is a measure of
greenness of the leaf. The treatments showed significant
variation among the treatments. The data on the SPAD
value recorded by drip irrigation @ 200 % PE is parallel
to the surface irrigation. Another important parameter
to asses the photosynthetic efficiency is the chlorophyll
fluorescence which is measured in terms of Fv/Fm ratio., A declining pattern was observed in the case of
Fv/Fm ratio under micro-irrigation treatments (Table
1). This decline may be due to photoinhibition which
causes damage to a portion of PS II (Cao and Govindjee,
1990), and increase in energy dissipation in the chlorophyll pigment antennae system that is often observed in
plants under water limited environment. Membrane stability index (MSI) is an important physiological trait for
water stress tolerance. The data on MSI showed that the
drip irrigation T9 had maintained a higher value on par
with surface irrigation T1. The leakage of solutes from
tissue can be used as a dynamic measure of the damage
to membranes incurred by stress experiences. Mainte-
150
nance of membrane integrity and function under a given

level of dehydration stress has been used as a measure
of drought tolerance. All these physiological parameters
that reflect the photosynthetic efficiency show that the
drip irrigation @ 200% PE was able to maintain photosynthetic capacity equal to that of surface irrigation T1.
In the present study number of productive tillers showed significant reduction under micro irrigation
comparing to surface irrigation treatments. The grain
yield reduced significantly under micro sprinkler treatments than drip irrigation (Table 2). This may be due
to the amount of water supplied with sprinkler irrigation which is not sufficient to saturate the soil during
reproductive stage resulting in reduced spikelet fertility,
and finally the yield. Scientists have recorded 20 per
cent yield reduction in direct seeded rice cultivars under
sprinkler irrigation system. In the case of drip irrigation,
decline in yield was observed, but the higher level of drip
irrigation regime (200% PE) recorded better yield which
is close to the yield of surface irrigation (one day after disappearance of ponded water) and superior to the
sprinkler irrigation treatments. Drip irrigation treatment
showed its performance equal to surface irrigation that
saves water effectively.
Table 1:
Treat
Ments*
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Mean
SEd
C.D
(P=0.05)
2.124
1.985
1.715
1.589
1.602
1.867
1.875
2.122
2.195
1.98
0.009
0.019
Aerobic rice could be targeted at water-short areas, where farmers do not have access to water to keep
rice fields flooded for a substantial period of time anymore or water shortage encountered in tail end of large
scale surface irrigation system. Plant physiologists and
breeders have to respond to the challenge of breeding
varieties and knowing the physiological mechanism that
perform well under aerobic conditions.
Total Chlorophyll content, SPAD Value , MSI and Fv/ Fm ratio of PMK 3
at PI and flowering stages under aerobic condition
Total Chlorophyll
content (mg g-1)
PI
budget showed higher water productivity under micro

irrigation technology (Table 3). Even though, the water
productivity was higher under micro sprinkler and drip
irrigation treatments, the reduction in yield was more in
micro sprinkler regimes than drip irrigation. Under the
drip irrigation @ 200% PE , grain yield equal to that of
surface irrigation ( one day after disappearance of ponded water). There are numerous reports of large irrigation
water savings when changing from continuously flooded
rice to saturated soil culture to alternate wetting and drying, but yields decrease as soil water content declines
below saturation (Bouman et al., 2002). The present
investigation confirms that the drip irrigation could be
exploited for successful rice production under aerobic
condition with high WUE.
Flowering
g
2.402
2.311
1.823
1.723
1.811
1.942
2.124
2.294
2.385
2.11
0.010
0.022
SPAD Value
PI
32.88
27.85
27.20
27.15
27.78
30.43
30.65
31.63
32.25
31.19
0.088
0.186
MSI (%)
PI
Flowering
ng
34.60
29.63
29.00
29.70
31.03
31.15
32.13
34.03
34.35
33.27
0.084
0.177
Pressurized irrigation systems (sprinkler and drip)

have the potential to increase irrigation water use efficiency by providing water to match crop requirements,
reducing runoff and deep drainage losses, and generally
keeping soil drier reducing soil evaporation and increasing the capacity to capture rainfall. The data on water
76.26
71.51
67.87
60.80
65.35
67.17
65.15
70.09
74.34
72.05
0.187
0.397
Flowering
g
79.69
75.95
70.90
64.44
66.96
69.39
71.10
77.57
80.30
75.35
0.228
0.485
Fv/Fm ratio
PI
0.805
0.764
0.615
0.713
0.733
0.784
0.747
0.778
0.798
0.763
0.001
0.003
Flowering
g
0.815
0.775
0.652
0.727
0.752
0.797
0.768
0.791
0.812
0.781
0.001
0.003
T1* Surface irrigation - 5 cm standing water, one

day after disappearance of ponded water (DADPW)
T5 Micro sprinkler irrigation 150 % PE
T2 Surface irrigation - 5 cm standing water, three
DADPW
151
T6 Micro sprinkler irrigation 200 % PE

T3 Surface irrigation - 5 cm standing water, five
DADPW
T4 Micro sprinkler irrigation 100 % Pan Evaporation Rate (PE)

T8
Drip irrigation 150 % PE
T9 Drip irrigation 200 % PE
T7 Drip irrigation 100 % PE
Table 2: Productive Tillers, TDMP, Grain Yield and HI of PMK 3 at different stages under aerobic condition
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Mean
SEd
C.D
(P=0.05)
Number of
productive
Tillers m-2
435
400
345
330
340
355
375
390
425
377
7.04
16.6
TDMP at
maturity
( g m-2 )
1022
883
795
833
851
894
900
945
1018
904.5
18.6
38.9
Grain yield
(g m-2)
HI
409
353
302
300
315
331
342
378
407
348.5
6.85
14.03
0.40
0.40
0.38
0.36
0.37
0.37
0.38
0.40
0.40
0.38
0.002
0.005
Table 3. Water budget for PMK 3 under aerobic cultivation

Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Grain yield
(kg/ha)
4089
3530
3022
3000
3156
3310
3422
3778
4067
Total water
used (mm)
1143
926
785
589
748
907
589
748
907
WUE
(kg/ ha)
3.6
3.8
3.8
5.1
4.2
3.6
5.8
5.1
4.5
References
Bouman BAM, Xiaoguang Y, Huaqui W, Zhiming W, Junfang Z, Changgui W and Bin C. 2002. Aerobic rice (Han
Dao): A new way growing rice in water short areas. p.175-181. In: proceedings of the 12th International Soil
Conservation Organization Conference, May 26-31.Beijing, China. Tsinghua University Press.
Lafitte HR and Courtois B. 2002. Interpreting cultivar x environment interactions for yield in upland rice: assigning
value to drought adaptive traits. Crop Sci. 42:1409-1420
Tuong, T. P and Bouman, B.A.M. 2003. Rice production in water-scarce environments. In: Water productivity in
agriculture: Limits and opportunities for improvement. Eds J.W. Kijne, R. Barker, D. Molden, CABI Publishing,
UK, pp. 5367.
Cao J and Govindjee J. 1990. Chlorophyll a fluorescence transient as an indicator of active and inactive photosystem
II in thylakoid membranes. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1015: 180-188.
152
Field view of Aerobic rice at Seedling stage
PMK 3 at Active tillering stage
PMK 3 at Maturity stage
Experimental Plot View Micro irrigation
International Symposium on Water Harvesting:

Bringing Green Revolution to Rainfed Areas.
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India,
23 -25 June 2008.
PMK 3 at Panicle Initiation stage
153
Theme 4
Policies, Institutions, and
Socio-economic Aspects
22
Socio-Economic Issues in
Watershed Development
Programs
Madar Samad
Introduction
Watershed development has been a popular approach to rural development over recent decades Projects and programs have been implemented across South
Asia, Latin America and Africa. In India, watershed development programs have been implemented for over
three decades under an assortment of central and state
government schemes and nongovernmental programs.
An important aim of these efforts, especially programs
implemented under the Drought Prone Areas Program
(DPAP), is to protect the population inhabiting fragile eco-systems from acute distress caused by recurring
droughts (Hanumantha Rao, 2000). This was attempted
by implementing programs designed to harmonize the
use of water, soil, forest, and pasture resources in a way
that conserves these resources while raising agricultural
productivity, both by conserving moisture in the ground
and increasing irrigation through tank and aquifer-based
water harvesting. A watershed is also an area with administrative and property boundaries, lands that fall
under different property regimes, and farmers whose
actions may affect each others interests. Boundaries

defined by humans, however, normally do not match
biophysical ones.
The spatial nature of watershed relationships
both bio-physical and socio-political, results in externalities and associated problems. Externalities are wide
spread in watersheds due to two main reasons: hydrological linkages between upstream and downstream users of
natural resources in the watershed and socio-economic
linkages across property boundaries and common lands.
Hydrological linkages have been well understood and
have been the main areas of focus in watershed development programs Although, watershed development is relatively straightforward from a technical and bio-physical
prospective it is extremely complicated from socio-economic view point Socioeconomic relationships among
people in a watershed can complicate efforts to introduce seemingly straightforward technical improvements.
Addressing the socio-economic externalities is the major challenge in watershed development programs. This
paper outlines some of the key socio-economic factors
155
that should be considered in water shed development

programs.
Baseline Socio-Economic Conditions

Literature suggests there are certain threads
which run through most watershed development programs. These include the physical characteristics of the
watershed and technical choices regarding resource development, the nature of property rights and the social
structure and organization of the community (Farrington
and Lobo, 1997). Increasingly watershed development
efforts are targeted at the poorest societies in the most
marginal areas. In India priority for is given to watersheds
with an acute shortage of drinking water, there is a high
incidence of poverty and low levels of human development, a preponderance of scheduled castes and tribes,
a preponderance of wastelands and common lands and
lower than average wages, willingness of the village
community to the social infrastructure to enforce regulations, equitable distribution of benefits, gender equality and operation and maintenance of assets created,
and positive history of womens agency and community
action ( MoRD, 2006) These attributes have important
implications for the forms of intervention, and the ability
of communities to invest in land-based activities through
participatory processes. Implicit in the participatory
watershed approach is the idea that local level organizations usually regulate the use of natural resources effectively for subsistence in the communitys collective
interest (Farrington and Lobo, 1997). Experiences also
indicate the water shed development programs is high
in locations where communities are well endowed with
stock of social capital - features of social organization
such as network, norms and trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit (Putman, .
A key consideration in the promotion of participatory processes in watershed development is a good
understanding of the social tensions that prevails within
communities. In many instances rural communities are
often dominated by local groups that use their powers
for patronage rather than broad based equitable change
Inadequate attention to community tensions can lead to
further replication and legitimization of the hierarchies
that exist between sub groups within a community (Carney and Farrington, 1996). There is clear evidence to
suggest that watershed program are likely to succeed in
communities where variations in the socio-economic
status are small, especially with regard to the size and
ownership of land. Experience indicates that watershed
programs have limited success in communities that traditionally had ineffective and inefficient institutions, suggesting that watershed development may not be appropriate for all communities.
Equity Issues
There is ample evidence to show that in many
watershed development programs certain social groups
have been consistently marginalized. Fernandez (1993)
identifies four groups in particular who do not seem
to benefit from watershed development; the landless,
families in the upper levels of catchments, women and
marginalized tribal groups. This is very apparent where
development efforts focus on the rehabilitation of common pool resources.
During the early stages, when CPR regimes are
first introduced, the poor are affected most adversely.
Their greater dependence on what were previously de
facto open access resources, means that constraining
access during the necessary period of environmental recuperation has a disproportionate impact on the poor.
At the other end of the process, as the CPR regime
matures, the increased value of the resource frequently
attracts local (and not so local) commercial and political interests which also rarely benefit the poor. Where
watershed development has the explicit objective of providing greater access for poorer groups, such a shift in
power is bound to be contested by those who lose out.
The sustainability of such efforts are therefore intricately
linked to changes in local institutional and power structures.
The impact of watershed development efforts
on women is also a key issue. Pangare and Farrington
(1998) note that many of the watershed development
projects in India do not empower women as equal partners with men. They attribute three reasons for this:
womens contribution to the rural economy unrecognized; women do have land titles and thereby are precluded from decision making bodies; womens needs are
overlooked especially with regard to common property
resources. Turton et al (1998) note that access restrictions imposed on common grazing areas encourage
a shift to stall feeding systems. The main bulk of the
work of collecting fodder for livestock is undertaken by
women, who have to spend extra time cutting and carrying feeding materials.
In India, in recent years concerted efforts have by
many state agencies and NGOse to empower and involve
156
women in watershed development primarily through the

establishment of self-help groups (Ratna Reddy, et at,
2004) . The recent report of the Technical Committee
on Watershed Programs in India proposes several measures to empower women in watershed programs. The
proposals include amongst others, the setting up of a
separate Womens Watershed Council, reservation of
50% of the membership in the Village Watershed Committees to women; give women a primary role in the
management of common property resources.
Human capital through capacity building activities; participation in new institutions and processes;
Finally, evidence suggests that to ensure even a

moderate degree of equity requires high levels of social
organization and an ability to articulate their requirements among women and the poor, together with continuing vigilance to ensure that their rights are not overridden.
Natural capital through increases in

trees, livestock, irrigated area, more productive land;
Upstream-Downstream Linkages
When a watershed project is introduced, often
the bulk of the work is done in the upper reaches, while
the benefits accrue primarily to those in the lower reaches.
Many of the upstream development efforts are
conservation based. They seek to restore and protect
forest cover or promote subsistence oriented, low input,
forest-friendly agricultural practices often based on indigenous cultivation methods in the upper catchments,
and confine intensive and commercial oriented intensive
agriculture to downstream areas (Walker, 2003). The
object is to maintain sustainable water supply for downstream users. Yet, different individuals and households
within a watershed have varying interests in the benefits
of watershed development. People who use the upper
watershed typically relatively poor people with little or
no land, bear the brunt of the costs of watershed development, which mainly benefits wealthier farmers in the
lower watershed. The differing demands for, and abilities
to access, water is creating intensified and new linkages
between various stakeholders, which are emerging as
a major source of tension and conflict amongst various
stakeholders and interest groups (Kerr et al 2000, Farrington et al. 1999, Deshingkar and Start 2003).
Sustainable Rural Livelihoods and

Watershed development has implications for all
five types of assets defined in the sustainable livelihood
framework:
Social capital through the formation of

watershed committees, user groups and new or strengthened institutions;
Financial capital through the establishment of credit groups, the establishment of a watershed
development fund;
Physical capital through increase in irrigation facilities, soil and water conservation structures.
There is a growing awareness of the links between different capital assets. Investments in physical
capital such as bunds, check dams and the re-vegetation of common lands for instance are relatively easy to
achieve. The returns to physical investments of this type
however will rapidly decline if appropriate investments
in social and human capital are not also made to develop
sustainable and equitable institutions to manage these
assets. Similarly the idea of sequencing is important.
Some NGOs argue strongly that the local institutions
which determine access to natural capital (e.g. common
land) need to be regularized before watershed development activities are undertaken.
Economic Linkages
While physical linkages remain the basis for watershed management interventions, a strategy that also
takes advantage of social, economic and institutional
linkages between upstream and downstream provides
the greatest opportunity for success (Doolette and Magarath, 1994).
Upland areas have critical connections with national economies in three significant ways:
Sources of Raw Materials. Despite difficult conditions, upland areas often possess a comparative advantage in the production of certain commodities.
In much of the Asia region, timber and grazing represent
the primary resources with potential in upland areas.
Sources and Sinks for Labor. Upland areas in the region were historically, with some exceptions,
notably Nepals Terai, relatively sparsely populated. Recent increases in population pressure in more favored
downstream environments has resulted in increased mi-
157
gration to the uplands.. Seasonal employment opportunities in lowland agriculture and urban areas are increasingly important contributors to upland income
Markets for Downstream Production.

Because of low incomes and high transport costs, upland areas have generally not been major markets for
goods produced in lowland areas. Upland areas, however, where incomes have grown and infrastructural investments have reduced transport costs, do constitute
significant markets.
Cost Sharing and Cost Recovery: A

corollary of the limited impact of upstream land-use
changes on downstream damages is that there is limited
justification for schemes to compensate upland farmers
and communities for adopting conservation practices.
Various subsidies and compensation schemes may be
required to bridge the gap between adoption of a conservation measure and the realization of a sustainable net
return. If so, such compensation should be seen as transitional and not as part of a policy of ongoing subsidy.
Governance and Political Linkages

It is becoming increasingly apparent that links
between watershed institutions and local political structures are essential for sustaining the new institutions.
A central feature of watershed development is that institutional arrangements are characterized by externally
organized user groups, overseen by village committees,
district authorities and/or local traditional heads. In many
cases however, the new regimes fail to build on existing
management arrangements. Furthermore, where new
regimes assume that common pool resources belong to
the watershed community as a whole, they may threaten
the traditional users of the resourceraising questions
about the equity of the rehabilitation process (Turton et
al, 1998a).
The notion of political capital is critical because
rights are claims and assets, These rights are politically defended, how people access these assets depends
on their political capital. It is therefore critical to understand how rights are constituted at the local level and the
dynamic interrelation between political capital, and the
other assets (Baumann, 2000).
Watershed associations have become a hunting ground for political parties, partly as a result of the
considerable funds at their disposal noted the potential
conflict arising as new leaders emerge in the villages and
existing systems are challenged.
The situation is usually different in upper watersheds, in addition to being physically remote, are often
politically remote as well. The attention of national policymakers is naturally drawn to the concerns of urban
and more affluent lowland agricultural populations. To
the extent that developments in upper watersheds are a
major item on the national agenda, it is because of their
impact, via the physical linkages related to movement of
sediment and water, on the well-being of downstream
groups.
Common Pool Resources An Asset

for the Poor
Common pool resources (CPRs) represent a
form of natural and social capital that individuals and
communities can draw on in pursuit of their livelihood
strategies. Jodha (1986) concluded that CPRs make a
key contribution to rural livelihoods and are critical for
sustainable agricultural production in semi-arid areas
They form a part of rural peoples strategies for adjusting to the harsh and stressful environment.
The key question is the extent to which the poor
retain access to CPRs after watershed development efforts have taken place. To take one example, a crucial element of many watershed projects has been restrictions
on the use of common grazing areas during rehabilitation and thereafter to permit sustainable off-take. Adolph
and Turton (1998) note that such controls in a watershed project in Andhra Pradesh had different impacts
on households of different socio-economic status. Landowners were able to compensate for the loss of grazing,
through the substitution of crop residues, the availability
of which had increased due to improved irrigation facilities. Landless livestock owners on the otherhand were
forced to sell their livestock raised similar concerns (Kerr
et al., 1998).
Kerr et al. (1998) report that the landless and
nearly landless were the most likely to express dissatisfaction with watershed projects. Problems arise because
projects seal off access to common property whilst revegetation is under way. Many landless people depend
on these lands for their livelihoods, particularly for grazing sheep and goats. All projects try to offer employment as compensation. However, most complained that
employment created under the project did not adequately
compensate for loss of access to common lands or that
employment opportunities diminished after the first few
years of the project whilst the grazing bans were still in
place.
158
Concluding Remarks
Watershed development is essentially a community based development activity. Although hydrological
linkages have been well understood and have been the
main areas of focus in watershed development programs
socioeconomic relationships among people in a watershed can complicate efforts to introduce seemingly
straightforward technical improvements. Over the years
the watershed development programs have evolved from

being purely technical interventions to programs involving the participation of the people at all stages and active involvement of non-governmental organizations.
Socio-economic conditions of the people inhabiting the
watersheds and their aspirations are central to planning
any watershed treatments. This paper has highlighted
some of the key socio-economic and institutional factors
that merit consideration.
References
Baumann, Pari. 2000. Sustainable livelihoods and political capital: Arguments and evidence from
decentralization and natural resource management in India, Working Paper 136 Overseas
Development Institute,
Carney, D. and Farrington, J. (1997) Institutional change in the natural resources sector. Rural Resources and Poverty
Research Programme. Summary of Research 1993-1996. Overseas Development Institute, London.
Deshingkar, P and D.Start. 2003 Seasonal Migration for Livelihoods, Coping, Accumulation and Exclusion.
Working Paper No. 220. Overseas Development Institute, London
Doolette, J.B. and McGrath, W.B. (1990). Watershed Development in Asia: Strategies and Technologies,
World Bank Technical Paper 27, Washington: World Bank.
Farrington, John and Crispino Lobo (1997). Scaling Up Participatory Watershed Development In India: Lessons From
The Indo-German Watershed Development Program, Natural Resources Perspective, Number 17,
Fernandez. A. P. 1993. The MYRADA experience: Alternate management systems for savings and
credit of the rural poor. Bangalore: MYRADA.
Hanumantha Rao, C.H. 2000. Watershed Development in India: Recent Experience and Emerging
Issues, Economic and Political Weekly November 4,
Jodha, N.S. 1986 Common property resources & the rural poor in dry regions of India. Economic
& Political Weekly, No. 54:1169-1182.
Ministry of Rural Development. 2006. Report of the Technical Committee on Watershed Programs in
India Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development., Government of India
Pangare, Vasudha and Farringtion, John. 1999 Strengthening the participation of women in watershed
management in Farrington et al,
Farrington, John; Cathryn Turton and A.J. James. 1999. Participatory Watershed Development ; Challenges
for the Twenty-First Century, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
Ratna Reddy, V., M. Gopinath Reddy, S. Galab, John Soussan and Oliver Springate-Baginski. 2004. Participatory
Watershed Development in India: Can it Sustain Rural Livelihoods? Development and Change
, 35 (2): 297-326.
Turton, Cathryn Michael Warner and Ben Groom 1998.a Scaling Up Participatory Watershed Development
In India: A Review Of The Literature Agricultural Research & Extension Network Network Paper
No. 86, ODI
Turton, C., J. Coulter, Anil Shah, and J. Farrington. 1998b. Participatory watershed development in India:
Impact of the new guidelines. London: Overseas Development Institute,.
Walker, Andew (2003), Agricultural Trabsformation and Politics of Hydrology in Northern Thailand,
Development and Change, 34(5) pp. 941-964.
159
23
Community Resource
Management: Much needed
strategy in Tank Irrigation
system in India
M. Jegadeesan and K. Fujita
Introduction
Tank irrigation is passing through defining moment in India today. Tank irrigation contributes significantly to agricultural production in India in general and
particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Tank irrigation system is one of a vast network
of thousands of water bodies that constituted a distinctive landscape which was medieval in origin but still was
the basis of livelihood in the dry southern plains (Mosse,
2003). Tank is a small reservoir constructed across the
slope of the valley to catch and store water during rainy
season. Water is controlled by sluices attached to the
tank bank and it is delivered to paddy field by distributing channels. Tank is considered as a common property
resource. The National Sample Survey Organization defines common property resources as the resources that
are accessible to and collectively owned, managed by
identifiable community and on which no individual has
exclusive property rights (NSSO, 1999). The role of tank
is not only providing irrigation water but also it provide
biomass, fuel wood, fodder for livestock and other forms
of economic livelihood sustenance of villagers (Chopra
and Dasgupta, 2008). Tank irrigation get special signifi-
cance as it provides livelihood support to large number

of marginal, small farmers and landless agricultural labours (Palanisami, 2000). This system then once well
maintained by villagers, slowly disintegrated over the period of time due to various reasons like changes in land
holding pattern, development of large scale irrigation
project and ground water development and change in
preference of livelihood strategies among villagers and
so on (Sakthivadivel et al, 2004).
However, based on the presupposition that local
population has a greater interest in the sustainable use
of resources than does the state or distant corporate
manager; that local communities are more cognizant of
the intricacies of local socio-ecological process and practices and they are more able to effectively manage those
resources through local or traditional forms of access
(Brosius, Tsing and Zerner, 1998; Li 2002). In recognition of this fact, government and Non Governmental
Organizations (NGO) put their effort to motivate farmers
to rebuild the institution which was destabilized. Even
then things would not happen in the way one would
have expected. In this connection, the main focus of this
paper is to i) compare effectiveness of traditional irriga-
160
tional institution with government sponsored and NGOs

sponsored one. ii) Analyze its functioning style and its
efficiency of these institutions at tank system level. iii)
Find out possible reason for disintegrating.
Methodology
The study has been conducted in three tank villages in Madurai district of Tamil Nadu, India. These
study villages has been selected purposefully as they
represent different kind of irrigation institution. Considering availability of water is the main motivational factor
to organize farmers themselves, care must be taken to
identify study villages, which are receiving more or less
same amount of rainfall. From the vicinity area, totally
three villages were selected, tank village 1 represent traditional institution, tank village 2 represent institution
promoted by government, and tank village 3, represent
the institution promoted by NGO.
The data has been collected through pre-tested,
semi-structured interview schedule paying personal visit
to the villages. Simple random sampling was employed
the selected study villages. The study villages Kadaneri,

Kovalapuram and Menachipuram are located in Peraiyur
taluk of Madurai districts. All the selected villages almost depend on agriculture and allied activities for their
livelihood. The fate of agriculture is determined or influenced through rain fed tank irrigation system in the
villages. The major crops cultivated are paddy, cotton
and pulses. Mostly single season crop and rarely, farmers are going for second crop. In the last 10 years there
was no intervention on these tanks to improve its performance. As a result, employment generated through tank
irrigated agriculture is in terminal decline. In recognition
of this, the government of Tamil Nadu, brought this villages under the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (NREGS) to provide supplementary non-farm
employment to assist them (BDO, 2007). Out of three
tanks, two tanks are managed by Public Works Department, and one is coming under Panchayat Union management regime.
Source: Water resource atlas of Madurai district, and Field
survey in 2007
Table 1: General characteristics of study tank villages

Characteristics
Total population
Command area (Ha)
Management authority
Type of Institution
Basin Location
Tank capacity (mcft)
Source of water supply
No. of sluices
No. of supply channels
Extent of encroachment (Ha)
No. of wells in command area
No. of castes in village
Total No. of households
Farming households
Landless Agricultural labors
Non farming households
Major cropping pattern
Tank intervention in last 10 years
Tank performance (farmers perception)
Tank village 1
2234
41.60
Public Works Dept.
Traditional
Vaipar
14.0
Rain fed
1
2
0.21
12
9
387
214
148
25
Paddy, pulses
No
Moderate
to identify sample respondents (farmers). The data were

collected through personal interview; focus group interaction and discussing with opinion leaders. The study
has been conducted during the year 2007.
General Characteristic of The Study

Villages
The table 1 presented general characteristics of
Tank Village 2
520
62.26
Public Works Dept.
Govt. sponsored
Vaipar
17.66
Rain fed
2
2
Not available
18
5
133
67
43
23
Paddy, cotton, pulses
No
Poor
Tank village 3
440
7.94
Panchayat Union
NGO Sponsored
Vaipar
9.20
Rain fed
1
2
Not available
1
2
110
53
42
15
Paddy
Yes. By NGO (2006)
Moderate
Tank water institutions

The villagers generally have traditional, informal
association other than village panchayat. These associations have a leader who is respected by villagers, some
of them by virtue of their age and service rendered in
the past and social status, wield considerable influence
in village.
161
Traditional Irrigation Institution
NGO Sponsored Institution
Traditional irrigation institution may be referred

to the evolution of principles for collective action of users, for broad spectrum of social responsibilities such as
system maintenance, water sharing and conflict resolution (Coward, 1980; Vaidyanathan, 1985 and Janakarajan, 1993). Even today villagers have traditional institution in many villages to manage the tanks effectively as
common property resources. Traditional system of water distribution was based on their beliefs, customs and
the concept of equality. The water allocation ensured
smooth sharing to all its members without any default.
The performance of these tank irrigation systems depends on collective decision they made and keep. These
institutions characterized by socio-cultural and contextual
arrangement in order to provide services to village community. These institutions have rules and regulation in
the form of ethics and norms as it is resultant of complex
pattern of behavior of large no of people over protracted
period of time (Basu, 2000).
Many NGOs in India are working with rural

people in tank command area, promoting participatory
management. They follow different methods to organize farmers and develop institution in the community
level in order to provide collective action to tank system
management. They employed locally known persons as
negotiator to inspire people to participate in the institutions.
Government Sponsored Institutions

Effective functioning of tank system is simply
based on how its different components like physical,
technical and institutional parameters are managed. In
the earlier days, villagers considered tank as system.
Over the period of time, when government took over
these structures, it is failed to considered as system, consequently it is said to be managed by five different departments and acting as separate entity in different directions. After some period, government concentrates only
on physical improvements of the tanks. But still they did
not yield fruitful result as there are no institutional structures to maintenance. Thus institutional problems crop
up and it was hasten by changing social structures, land
holding pattern and demographic population pressure
on the lands. After the 1980s when international donor
agencies funded for tank modernization, they asked to
form water user association at tank level. As a result,
the government has shown interest to form institution at
tank level as it was stipulated by donor agencies.
Field Observations
The research demonstrates some specific observation about the difference in strategy, notion, structure
and functioning style among all three institutions in the
study villages. Overall aim of all the stakeholders involved in this campaign was creating successful local, independent and self-organizing institution at community
or village level. But notably, these groups varied tremendously in their values, attitudes and beliefs towards the
cooperation and the best means to achieve their desired
ends. All initiatives look for the active participation of
rural people in working out a better livelihood access for
themselves. New policies and schemes have been set in
the place both by the government and NGOs to facilitate
this process of involvement.
Table 2 shows the nature and way of existence
of institution in the villages. Institutional arrangement of
management of tank resources is carefully constructed
and designed to serve specific purpose are at the cross
roads now. In all three types of institutions, irrespective of its functioning style, its efficiency and activeness
are dramatically low. The most important ingredient for
the institutional building is a sense of belonging, mutual
trust and empathic cooperation. But unfortunately these
ingredients are missing or not given due importance to
create it.
Trust building, sense of belonging and social affiliation towards institutions will come when the villagers
perceived that their participation yield good livelihood
base for them. Looking at closer view of these institu-
Table 2: Functioning structure of tank institutions

Criteria
Traditional
Govt. Sponsored
NGOs sponsored
Responsibility of organizing villagers
Villagers themselves
Facilitator appointed by NGO
Selection of leaders
Functioning style
Financial support
Work execution
Activeness
Villagers
Informal
Collective contribution
Regular
Relatively Active
Govt. official in
charge of village
By election
Formal
Villagers & Govt.
Demand based
Inactive
162
By group opinion & rotational

Semi formal
Villager, NGO and Govt.
Regular
Relatively Active
tions, it is important to distinguish between different

kind of faith or involvement that people pay within their
socio-economic and -cultural context such as bonding,
bridging and linking with these institutions.
In the case of Government sponsored institution, the cohesive force could be termed as Bridging.
This relationship characterized by more impersonal and
villagers participation is merely perfunctory not intuitive. It is often viewed as weak and opportunistic tie that
facilitate access to resources. Bridging occurs when
someone from the government try to connect with local
people through some agenda (Granovetter, 1973). Here,
the trust among members are often thin and tend broke
when the bridger from the government side left the village or once his agenda or program completes. This
type of institutions tends to provide comprehensive solutions that have tried to exorcize the factors which hinder
the progress and simply do not work as expected. It is
often conceived as designed to provide comic relief but
not constant relief. This system failed to understand the
fact that villagers are divided into many groups, based
on their caste, income status and land holding etc. To
connect or bring them into one group as tank command
areas farmers, connecting thread is diluted by communal force and widespread social disparity. Government
sponsored institution is not concentrated on this aspect.
They try to identify all the farmers as tank farmers. They
have time limit to implement program and within these
time limit, they could not able or not interested to address this problem.
Generally bonding relationship is viewed as

strong or thick, while bridging relation is weak or thin
(Narayanan, 1999; Onyx and Bullen, 2000; Putnam,
2001; Woolcock, 2001). Thus, bonding relationship is
existed in traditional institution, which refers that villagers have close relationship with this institution. These
people tend to make close relationship as they have
similar interest and common affiliation. Ann Dale and
Jennie Sparkes (2007) argued that adhesiveness within
this network is a sense of deep trust held among members, which is often highly relational, personalized and
thus, has potential for conflict when their trust and commonalities break down. Once, the tank irrigation system has been considered as a sole livelihood provider.
Almost entire village population depends on it. During
the 1980-81, population depended on agriculture in the
study villages was 92 percent. But in 2007, it is 67 percent. (Block statistics, 2007). Over the period of time,
due to changes in government policy and education
opens various avenues for villagers. This is aggravated
still by frequently failed rainfall. Match box, fire work and
cotton industries are coming to exist in nearby towns
and they opened opportunity especially for youngsters.
Regarding NGOs sponsored institutions, the
They also offered relatively high salary than agriculture. core principle employed is Linking. They try to moSlowly, youngsters move out from the village to search bilize the farmers themselves and made link with govbetter opportunity. Consequently, farmers faced with ernment agencies and other financial institutions. The
labour shortage as they could not able to attract labour- prime objective of this Linking is to get accustomed
ers through competitive wages. Most farmers leased out to use government program for the benefit of common.
their land or left fallow. They are also looking for non- It is also considered as opportunistic ties and viewed as
agricultural employment in the vicinity of the villages the capacity provider for institution to lever resources,
and meantime they receive remittance from their son or ideas and information from the formal institution (Wooldaughters who are moved out from villages. The govern- cock, 2001). NGOs showed interest to operate in village
ment also announced programs like Sampoorna Grama only when favorable condition exist or assure to provide.
Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), National Rural Employment When they find difficulty to operate, they withdraw from
Guaranty Scheme (NREGS), Swarna Jayanthi Grama these villages and automatically from institution building
Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) and Ananithu Grama Anna process. In our experience, in the study village, from
Marumalarchi Thittam (AGAMT). Basic objectives of all 1992-2002, the NGO called ASSEFA (Association of
these programs are to give supplementary wage employ- Sarva Seva Farm) came to create sound institutional and
ment to rural labourers. Moreover, upper caste farmers regulatory framework as well as enabling environment
who are enjoyed control over lower caste people, lost for peoples participation by providing loans. But after
their control due to changes in social structure and land the initial involvement they exhibit, they failed to imbibe
holding pattern. Hence, once reason for coming united, a sense of self-help and a sense of sustainable progress.
common goal is broken, the traditional institutions dis- In the long run, villagers attained the mindset that they
integration gets started. As our research shows, the role will do mentality. Once conducive environment disapof peoples participation in institution is much dimin- pearing, the NGO also slowly came out from the village.
ished now but not entirely forgotten.
163
There is an argument that NGOs looking for conducive

climate to operate on in order to impress their funding
agencies. It is easy for the NGOs to operate in new villages rather than operate one village for longer time. After ASSEFA withdraw, another NGO called DHAN foundation came to operate in this village. Considering that
relatively small village with single community, the basic
platform to launch its program was already initiated by
earlier one. This NGO also did its level best to organize
the farmers to form tank institution called Vayalagam.
They showed substantial and positive improvement in
tank performance surpassing initial hurdles. Even then
priority between farmers and NGO is differing. This system also will not yield good result if they fail to understand in changes happened in the external environment.
Bolding (1994) argued that any external involvement, no
matter how well intentioned, can be perceived as meddling and even be feared. Hence, what they need to do
is not bringing expert from outside, but an awakening of
the expertise within the villagers.
Functioning Style of Institutions

Traditional irrigational institution is functioning as a two tier system. In the top level, there will be
commanding position called Nattamai (informal village leader) usually occupied by upper caste people.
In the lower level, there will be an executing position
as irrigation worker called Neerkatti (water manager)
Neerpachi (water distributor) and Thotti (field assistant) are employed. These all post usually hired from
scheduled caste household on rotation basis. In government sponsored institution, they will organize water user
association with membership of all the ayacut (tank
command) farmers. They are expected to elect three positions like president, secretary and treasurer. Based on
the number of villages included in association, they will
select members also. Apart from this elected body, this
system also employs irrigation workers from scheduled
caste households. In case of NGO sponsored institution,
the NGO appoint one person as negotiator to motivate
farmer to join in irrigational institution. The member
farmers elect or select their president, secretary and

treasurer. The NGO provide accountant staff to help the
farmer to maintain their accounts.
Role Execution
Traditional tank water institution is existing here
from the time immemorial. Then, these institutions have
complete control over the common resources. The way
they approach to the problems are perhaps most incisive and provide constructive contribution to its better
performance. Rules and roles that operate, maintain
and manage these systems are strongly shaped by caste
hierarchy. These institutions took the responsibility of
supply channel maintenance, de-silting tank bed (farmers are allowed to remove top fertile layer of silt for their
manure need), strengthening of tank bund, maintaining of tank physical structure (sluice and surplus weir),
water distribution, resolving dispute and conflict resolution. However, the present situation is that most of
the functions are not executed as external environment
explicitly changed. Farmers are not allowed to take silt
from the tank as social forestry program implemented by
the government. Due to this misplaced priority, regular
de-siltation did by farmers are stopped. As a result, every year about 2 percent of tank capacity is lost due to
silt accumulation. Supply channels and catchment area
are also encroached and but these institution have no
power to deal with them. Thus, at present in majority of
the tank water institution have only limited responsibility that too not regularly (Janakarajan, 1993 and Palanisami, 2006).
Table 2 delineated that the gap between perceived
roles and performed roles is large and illuminating. In
government sponsored institution, water user association was active only during tank rehabilitation program
implemented in 1996-1998. After completion of this European Economic Community assisted program, officials
responsible for water users association, failed to maintain its tempo of their members (Palanisami et al, 2007).
Farmers also complained that they spent much money
Table 3: Role execution of Institutions

Roles assumed
Traditional
Govt. Sponsored
NGO Sponsored
Supply channel cleaning

De-silting tank bed
Strengthening tank bund
Sluice and weir maintenance
Outlet channel maintenance
Water distribution
Conflict resolution
Occasionally
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Occasionally
No
Yes
Occasionally
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
164
on tank structures. The main problem is that its catchment and supply channel has been encroached upon,
and nothing has been done about it. Farmers are also
opined that they are motivated to participate in ongoing
process but hardly vested with any power. These kinds
of participation are often criticized as tokenist, giving
participant with no power (Smith, 1998). It is assumed
that people provided with option of passive participation. Certainly, farmers who are expected to participate
in institutional building should provide with power to
make decision and their priority and choices of investment. If it is not ensured, it is mere sophistry to say that
it is participation and institutional success. Pearce and
Stiefel (1980) concluded that the promotion of participatory institutional building may be regarded as no more
than rhetoric unless communities have some degree of
power over the services. Smith (1998) also argued that
passive participation in the name of consultation is the
weakest form of participation in decision making, is often said to be a mean of indoctrinating the public in the
values and priorities of the planner to ensure that they
obtain public endorsement of their decision, rather than
understanding of local needs and priorities.
As we discussed earlier, due to the government
policy transfer of land holding is happened from upper
caste to lower caste people. It is not simply considered
as land transfer but also power transfer. Power sharing
is not viewed in right way by upper caste people. They
physically accept but are mentally and emotionally much
reluctant and not ready to accept that lower caste farmers empowered through land. Upper caster people also
leased or sold their lands to landless labourers and lower
caste farmers. Villagers those who entirely depend on
mercy or goodwill of large or upper caste farmers to get
employment, became self-employed. In the mean time,
the entry of more and more caste based political party
into the village system damaged the village cohesiveness
and consequently wipes off cooperative attitude within
and between farmers and villages. This could be a possible reason for dismantling traditional institutions. Disintegration of joint family, promotion of education, development of cottage industry are hastened the process.
As Agarwal (2001) rightly put if farmers have earning activities that are not reliant on common resources, their
incentives to the collective management will be reduced.
The degree of dependency on small scale irrigation will
depend both on farmers capacity to exploit it and on
what alternative livelihood options are available to them.
Our observation confirmed that farmers are slowly los-
ing their ability to exploit potential benefit from tank irrigation system because of their weak institutional power.
When compare to Government sponsored institution,
traditional and NGO sponsored institution showed incremental increase in the delivery system.
In these two organizations farmers strives continuously to subjugate impossibility and then try to succeed.
Role Execution of Irrigation

Functionaries
An institution, irrespective of its nature or governance, is assisted by a group of irrigation workers called
Neerkatties (water man) who are generally hired from
scheduled caste house hold in rotation in the tank village.
If a particular tank village does not have that particular
schedule caste community, they employed Neerkatties
from nearby villages. The discussion about Neerkattis
becomes important, considering the service they render
to tank institution. They are the specialist in water management, having rules to allocate water in the time of
scarcity, on the basis of detailed knowledge of the needs
of individual wetland fields, thus mitigating usual tension between head and tail-enders (Mosse, 2006) The
Neerkatties are omnipresent who are work almost all
the tank villages making their livelihood based on their
services like sluice operation, irrigation to the field, protecting tank resources and so on. In the mean time,
like any other institution, tank as an institution, has also
changed a lot and profiles of these functionaries also
changed. In many cases, our field experience showed
that, such changes have played havoc with their lives,
but still many are thriving by adopting themselves to the
changes (Vasimalai, 2003). Among the study villages,
two villages have Neerkatti community and one village did not have Neerkatti community. By custom,
the Neerkatties are expected to execute some responsibilities (Table 3). It is clear from the table 3 that
mere existence of Neerkatti family in the village is no
guaranty for execution of expected work. During our interview with Neerkatties in the village, they accepted
that they are not doing jobs what their father or grandfather as a Neerkatti did. They spelled out some the
reasons for their hesitance.
Dependency
In the past 10 years, because of the uncertainty
and insufficient rainfall tank not received water enough
to cater farmers need. Studies showed that only 2 years
165
Table 3: Role execution of Neerkatti

Assumed Roles
Traditional
Govt. Sponsored
NGO Sponsored
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Mobilize village farmer

Watch and ward of tank asset
Water management
Farm management
Arranging religious ceremony
Sluice operation
Moderator of dispute between farmers
Common fund collector
Announcer
Directing Neerpatchi and Thotti
in the last 10 year tank received water its full capacity. As a result, most of the farmers ended with crop
failure or left fallow. One Neerkatti needs to work for
at least 30 acres of farmers field as water man to get
justifiable income. When this falls down, he encountered
with insufficient income and struggle to maintain family.
Thus, he preferred to go out for other agricultural or
non-agricultural jobs.
Payment
Usually after the crop harvest, the Neerkatties are entitled to have 12 kg of grain per acre. This
type of payment is applicable only during normal tank
season. When tank fails or partially performed they are
not sure about their payment. Again some farmers, even
if they are reaped good harvest are reluctant to come
forward to pay their due to Neerkatties. This type of
problems cropped up day by day. They have often involved in quarrel with Neerkatties about their work
execution. These all dissipate the custom of payment to
Neerkatti. Hence, they are reluctant to perform their
duties as they perceived. Another reason would be as
we discussed earlier that disintegration of caste based
hierarchy and dismantling of institution. The majority of
them were not able to produce enough income through
agriculture and start doing or searching on wide array of
off-farm activities to supplement the income gap. When
they opted out non-agricultural opportunities, they could
not fully concentrate on Neerkatti work as they did
earlier.
Conclusion
The thinking of community was of lowest level
of aggregation at which people organize for common
efforts; i.e. a small, homogenous, harmonious and territorially bound unit (Kumar, 2005). Many researches
showed that the rural or traditional communities are in
harmony with local customs and demonstrate long established patterns of sustainable and equitable resource
use (Li, 1996). Traditional or institutional approach to

common property received wide spread acceptance and
resulted successful for quite a long period. It is proved
that community can own, manage, sustain and enhance
resources such as tank irrigation system (Berkes, 1989
and Ostrom, 1990). But present situation, tank irrigation system as an institution fail to deliver what it is capable of. Reasons are multifold and deep rooted as we
discussed.
The main flaw in todays approach to tank institution is its fragmented approach and the need is holistic approach. Tank irrigation system is involved physical
structures, technical aspects and institutional factors. All
the attempts made so far to modernize or rehabilitate
the tank system fully concentrates only on physical improvements. That too was not as good as farmers expected. The institutional aspects completely ignored until international donor agencies is asked to do so. Even
then reports showed that government spent 71 percent
of money in physical improvement and 27 percent spent
towards administrative purpose. Meager 2 percent was
spent on institutional aspects and after maintenance
(ADB, 2006). Importantly, the institutional factors and
physical factors do not act in isolation; they are so complex and often interact with each other. Hence, it is recommended that due importance will be given to address
institutional aspects. About 10 percent of the cost could
be spent towards institutional and system maintenance.
The farmers asserted that government induced
participation is often purely exploitative. They administer some temporary palliatives to address much deep
rooted problems. As a result things would not happen in
the way one would have expected. The minor irrigation
system is to be treated as one integral holistic unit comprising catchment, water spread, tank structures and
tank command. As experience showed that most of the
encroachment occurred in catchment and supply channel which is fall in some other village panchayat. So
166
the institution could not exhibit its power on this chronic

problem. These institutions are provided with power to
evict encroachment and safeguard its resources. In over
view, true attempt could be made for revival of traditional irrigation institution with its original vibrant. The
policy should underpinned by principles of sustainability
and equity. Women are widely encouraged to participate
in the institution. Like in the Pudhucherry, women and
men from every agricultural household could become
member in the institution. It is undeniably true that if we
reestablish relationship between farmers and tank institution and reinvent its role as independent arbiter through
radically different and inspiring, innovative approach will
strengthen the hopes of farmer who still evidently banking on the tank irrigation as their savior. A sustainable
tank irrigated agriculture with all its uncertainties and
complexities cannot be envisaged without all the actors
being involved with real enthusiasm in all aspects of
planning, execution and management process.
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our sincere thanks to
our interviewees for their cooperation and also we sincerely thank JSPS, Japan and the Suntory Foundation
for their financial assistance.
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168
24
Indigenous Knowledge use in
Dry Lands
P. Balasubramaniam, R. Vijayaraghavan and J. Venkitapirabhu
Introduction
Traditionally, a number of practices have been
evolved by farmers to address the problem of risk. These
traditional practices are relevant under the changing scenario in rain fed agriculture and also to impress upon the
need for blending the traditional practices of risk management with modern practices at high production. The
knowledge in todays parlance is called local knowledge/
traditional knowledge (or) indigenous knowledge. Indigenous knowledge may also be defined as the sum total
of knowledge and practices which are based on peoples
accumulated experience in dealing with situations and
problems in various aspects of life and suck knowledge
and practices are special to a particular culture.
Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge of the
people living in certain area, generated by their own
and their ancestors experience and including knowledge
originating from else where which has been internalized by the local people. Farmers have found ways of
conserving soil and water, protecting crops and nutrient
availability without the use of artificial inputs.
Methodology
The study was conducted in five villages of Pal-
ladam block of Coimbatore district with a sample size

of 120 farmers consisting 50 small farmers and 70 big
farmers. The selection of farmers was at random in each
village.
Findings and Discussion

The identified practices were classified to eight
subheads. Therefore 25 indigenous practices identified,
and only 18 practices were adopted by majority of dry
land farmers. Some of the indigenous practices viz.,
Summer ploughing, cowdung coating for cotton seeds,
soaking sorghum in cow urine, Soaking bengal gram in
water, Soaking Sorghum in common salt, cattle penning sorghum raised as mixed crop with lab-lab and crop
ploughing were adopted for conservation of soil moisture
and to mitigate drought. The advantages and constraints
of each indigenous practice were analyzed and suitable
strategies formulated to enhance dry land productivity.
Advantages of Indigenous Practices

When the farmers continuously practicing indigenous knowledge, it will be also relevant to enquire why
they do so. In other words, what are the advantages
of such practices as perceived by farmers. Understanding the rational of such practices from farmers point of
169
view, may also help researchers to look into the valid

factors while they research to farmers need and help extension workers to select appropriate technologies based
on few criteria.
The tables shows the advantages of indigenous

practices related to moisture conservation and water
harvesting
1. Summer ploughing (SF : Small Farmers, BF : Big Farmers).

Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Advantages
Conservation of moisture during drought period
Eradication of weeds
Control of soil erosion
Reduction in no. of ploughings at the time of sowing
SF
BF
(n=44)
(n=66)
100
100
86.36
72.72
98.48
100
100
87.87
Total
Z value
90.83
91.66
86.66
75
1.007 NS
NS
2.63 **
1.93NS
Majority of the farmers (75-92 percent) had gone for summer ploughing because it conserves moisture, eradicates needs,
consolidates soil erosion and minimizes the number of ploughings at the time of sowing. Percentage of farmers who had
convinced about soil erosion control were more among big farmers than among small farmers.
2. Cowdung coating for cotton seeds
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Advantages
SF
BF
(n=45) (%)
(n=64) (%)
86.66
93.33
100
95.55
100
85.93
100
92.18
Pest reduction
No cost
Easy dibbling of seeds owing to fuzz removal
Good germination
Total
Z value
85.83
88.33
90.83
85
2.03**
1.29 NS
NS
0.74 NS
** - Significant at 1% level.
Majority and 100 percent of small and big farmers expressed that due to cowdung coating for cotton seeds, the easy
dibbling of seeds to remove fuzz, good germination, no cost and pest-reduction were the advantages.
3. Soaking sorghum in cow urine
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
Advantages
SF
BF
(n=39) (%)
(n=48) (%)
92.30
100
61.53
83.33
100
85.41
No cost
Drought tolerance
Easy establishment of seeds with minimum showers
Total
Z value
63.33
72.50
54.16
1.30 NS
NS
2.56**
In the study sample, 87 farmers used to soak sorghum seeds in cow urine before sowing. About 72 percent had been
using the practice, because of drought tolerance. About half of them were of the opinion that the seeds tended to germinate
with minimum rain and big farmers attributing this reason numbered more than small farmers. Two-thirds of farmers considered
this technology as no cost practice.
4. Soaking Bengal gram in water
Sl.No.
1.
2.
Advantages
SF
BF
Total
(n=49) (%)
(n=42) (%)
(%)
15.15
100
35.17
100
18.33
72.50
No cost
Establishment of seeds with minimum shower
Z value
2.20*
NS
As found with the previous practice, 87 farmers had resorted to the practice of soaking bengal gram in water before
sowing. The motivating factors appeared to be no cost (18 percent) and with standing water stress (72 percent).
5. Soaking Sorghum in common salt
Sl.No.
1.
2.
Advantages
SF
BF
Total
(n=41) (%)
(n=56) (%)
(%)
31.70
85.36
17.85
94.64
19.16
73.33
Less cost
Good germination even under adverse condition
170
Z value
1.5 NS
1.47NS
The indigenous practice of soaking sorghum

in common salt had attracted 97 farmers out of 120
sample farmers. Majority of farmers (73 percent) opined
that this practice recorded higher percentage germination even under adverse condition. About one fifth were
of the view that no expenditure was involved.
Three fourths of 120 farmers used to have crop

ploughing practice and all of them had done so because
of weed eradication. About 20 percent farmers hold that
labour cost for weeding was considerably reduced compared to big farmers, small farmers were more conscious
of cost factor.
6. Cotton treated with Red soil

Sl.No.
1.
2.
Advantages
Easy dibbling of seeds owing to fuzz removal
Good germination
SF
BF
Total
(n=4) (%)
(n=15) (%)
(%)
100
01.11
3.83
9.16
9.16
Z value
5.31**
3.32**
A considerably less number of 22 farmers out
of 120 had treated cotton seeds with red soil. Of them,
there were 18 big farmers. Half of big farmers stated
that this practice facilitate easy dibbling of seeds and
however no small farmers were conscious of this reason.
All the four small farmers referred to the factor of good
germination.
Constraints in Adopting Indigenous

Practices
7. Cattle Penning
Knowing the advantages of a practice answers

as to why farmers evince keen interest on such practice. At the same time, understanding the constraints
will be useful to justify the modification of the practice
if needed.
Farmers who had used indigenous practices

were asked for not only advantages but also for constraints if any, normally no farmer would prefer a
practice whether it is indigenous (or) modern unless the
practice gives more benefit them its constraints.
Of the 120 farmers, 96 families comprising 38

small and 58 big farmers practiced cattle penning and
all of them appeared to have fully understand the imporiuem of soil fertility owing to organic manure.
Constraints of indigenous practices (SF :
* - Significant at 5% level.
Small Farmers, BF : Big Farmers).
8. Sorghum Raised as Mixed Crop with Lab-Lab
Sl.No.
1.
2.
Advantages
BF
(n=39) (%)
(n=63) (%)
79.48
100
95.23
15.87
Additional yield
Nitrogen fixation
Majority of farmers 102 out of 120 raised sorghum mixed with lab-lab. About three-fourths of them
mentioned about additional yield owning to mixed cropping and about 41 percent cited nitrogen fixation by leguminous lab-lab. Big and small farmers however differed
among themselves in this advantage wise responses.
9. Crop Ploughing
Sl.No. Advantages
1.
2.
SF
Saving of labour charge

Weeds eradication
Total
Z value
75.83
40.83
2.24*
1.827**
Of 110 farmers, 12.5 percent however felt that

summer ploughing costed much to them and all of
them happened to be big farmers. No small farmer had
thought of this practice as costly affair.
Regarding the practice of cow dung coating for
cottong. It had invited many constraints as shown in
this table. Of the 108 farmers, about half of them had
felt that it would be difficult to follow the practice dur-
SF
BF
Total
(n=30) (%)
(n=45) (%)
(%)
48.64
100
28.28
100
25.83
62.50
171
Z value
2.71**
NS
Sl.No.
Advantages
SF
BF
Total
(n=30) (%)
(n=45) (%)
(%)
22.75
12.5
4.4**
50
39.16
1.77NS
Z value
1.
Summer ploughing SF (n=44) BF (n=66)

high cost
2.
Cowdung coating for cotton seeds SF (n=45)

BF (n=64) time consuming practice
33.33
Difficult to follow this practice during rainy season
82.22
23.43
43.33
7.55**
46.87
25
7.51**
It cannot be utilized along storage

3.
Soaking sorghum in cow urine SF (n=45)

BF (n=48) crop growth was not uniform
25.64
45.83
26.66
2.01*
4.
Soaking bengal gram in water SF (n=45)

BF (n=42) crop growth not satisfactory
23.8
8.33
3.6**
5.
Soaking sorghum in common salt SF (n=41)

BF (n=56) patches in the crop coverage
12.19
4.16
2.3*
6.
Cotton treated with red soil SF (n=4)

BF (n=18) it cannot be utilized for long storage
100
88.88
16.16
1.5NS
7.
Cattle penning SF (n=28) BF (n=58) it is difficult

to have cattle penning in time
51.28
60.34
45.83
0.746NS
High cost
76.31
22.41
15
3.84**
8.
Sorghum raised as a mixed crop with lab-lab

SF (n=39) BF (n=63) damage to main crop
46.15
4.76
17.5
4.91**
9.
Crop ploughing SF (n=30) BF (n=45) damage to

main crop owing to bullock trampling
Complete removal of weeds was not possible
66.66
28.88
27.5
3.45**
86.66
46.66
39.16
4.12**
ing rainy season and also treated seeds had taken more
time for drying before sowing. about 40 percent farmers
considered it to be a time consuming practice. According to about 50 percent of 64 big farmers, they treated
cotton seeds had to be sown the earliest as it would not
last long storage.
Of the 87 farmers who had soaked sorghum in
cow urine, one-forth of them opined that crop growth
was not uniform. Those who had given such opinion
were mostly big farmers.
Of the 87 farmers who had soaked bengal gram
in water, a few of them (8 percent) were of the opinion
that crop growth was not satisfactory and all of them
were big farmers.
Of the 97 farmers who had soaked sorghum in
common salt solution, 4 percent of them had observed
patches in the crop standing. Those giving such view
were all small farmers.
There were 21 farmers who had treated cotton
seeds with red soil. About 16 percent of them had experienced that they could not store the treated seeds for
long before sowing.
Cattle penning was one of the popular indig-
enous practices for 96 farmers of whom about half of

them found it difficult to have goats penning in time.
About 21 percent farmers understood that it was possible to have goat penning only during fallow season and
15 percent remarked about the practice to be costly.
In raising a mixed crop of sorghum with lab-lab.
Of the 102 farmers. About 10 percent were of the view
that the harvest operation of early matured crop had
somewhat affected the other crops in maturity stage.
This opinion was more prevalent among the small farmers as compared to big farmers.
The crop ploughing practice was reported to
have two constraints. About 28 percent of the 75 adopters informed that the damage to main crop owing to
bullock trampling during crop ploughing was unavoidable. It was also the view of about 40 percent farmers
that complete removal of weeds was not possible. As
shown in the table, both small and big farmers differed
in their opinion.
Conclusion
The interest in traditional knowledge is gaining
considerable momentum, more so, incase of rainfed agriculture where the modern technologies alone is being
considered in adequate to overcome the problem. There
172
is undoubtedly a need to initiate systematic efforts for

collecting the traditional practices from different areas.
The collection and documentation of the practices is not
only the requirement. There is also a need to address the
scientific rationale of each practice, which practice have

spread over in larger area, any indigenous practices that
has disappeared from the scene and which are the indigenous practices are comparable with modern practices.
173
25
Principles and Policy
Perspective of Rain Water
Harvesting
P.G.Lavanya and R.K.Haroon
Introduction
Water supports all forms of life on this mother
earth. The importance of water for the existence of human society cannot be overemphasized. Today, the importance of water has been recognised the world over,
and greater emphasis is being laid on its economic use
and better management. Providing water in the right
quantity and quality has been the constant endeavour
of all civilizations through the ages. No other natural
resource has had such an overwhelming influence on
human history. It plays a vital role in agricultural and industrial development and sustaining human life. Rainfall
is the only source of water. Rain water harvesting is the
deliberate collection of rain water within a catchment
and use for the purpose of drinking, irrigation etc. Rainwater storage is generally done in man made tanks, lined
pits and small dams or in the sandy beds of seasonal
rivers. In several areas of the country including Delhi,
parts of Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu, groundwater levels are dangerously low.
There is an urgent need to address the issue of water
management in a sustainable manner. In view of this,

rainwater harvesting has become almost like an exhortation - the most sought out refuge to fight this crisis. In
fact, the UN during its General Assembly in December
2003 proclaimed the years between 2005 to 2015 as
the international decade for Water for Life.
The per capita availability of water is 1820 m3
which is above the water stress condition threshold value of 1700 m3. However the percapita availability varies
from 18417 m3 in Brahamaputra to 380 m3 in some
east flowing rivers in Tamil Nadu showing that many basins in the country are already critically starved of water.
Due to indiscriminate pumping of groundwater, the water table has already gone down abnormally and if we do
not wake up even now then our future generations may
have to face severe crises of water. The rain as important source of water and if we can harvest rain water, the
scarcity of water can be eliminated altogether. Therefore, it is our bound en duty to conserve the rainwater in
the form of rainwater harvesting.
174
Summer comes to Tamil Nadu every year. Along
with it comes water crisis as well, ponds and taps dry

up, women begin to walk the village streets and city
roads with pots and pitchers looking for a water-point.
Water is becoming a cause for social conflicts.
The protests, demonstrations, road-blockades, riots,
city-dwellers against farmers, villages against towns,
towns against cities, citizens against the government,
people against people. Increasingly, these (usually local)
conflicts are taking on the general shape of a bitter war
for water.
For some time now, the extensive adoption of
rainwater harvesting and the revival of traditional water
management systems that have gone into decline have
been urged by many. In most of the places the duration
of rainfall is spread over only for a few months i.e. June
to September / October to December in a year. Hence
there is a dire need for conserving the rainwater, which
occurs in short spells with high intensity, so as to utilize
the same during the dry period. If it is not done, the water will flow rapidly and go waste as run off into the sea,
apart from creating water scarcity during non-monsoon
period
Demand and Supply Gap

Today, one billion people in the world that is,
one sixth of humanity - have inadequate access to clean
drinking water. Unless governments and communities
begin to effectively tackle this problem, the number of
people without clean and sufficient water will rise to 2.5
billion in the next 25 years that is, nearly one person
in three. It is disquieting to know that most of these
water-deprived people are and will likely be, in our country. Water requirement in the country is closely related
to the population. A population of around 1.6 billion
by 2050 would considerably increase the demand for
drinking water, food production, non-food agricultural
activities, industrial use, energy production, etc. This is
likely to put the water availability under enormous stress.
Further, the objectives set for improvement in the quality of life and preservation of ecology and environment
would result in further increase of the projected per person use of water per year. This increased need for water
stands in stark contrast to the fundamental truth that
water resources are limited and annual replenishments
are almost constant over a long time span.
Conservation of Rain Water- for What

Purpose
Broadly the rainwater can be harvested for two
purposes i) storing in container/ tank above / below

ground for ready use (storage) ii) Charging into the soil
for later utilization (groundwater recharge). The question
of either storage or recharging of ground water depends
mainly on the rainfall pattern of the region, apart from
the permeability of the soil. The water collected during
the monsoon has to be stored for usage throughout the
year, which means huge volumes of storage containers
are necessary. Hence, it is feasible to use the rainwater
for recharging the groundwater aquifers rather than storage. Generally runoff from the paved surfaces only, is
used for storage since it is relatively free from bacterial
and other contamination. The major part of the rainwater flowing as runoff will be wasted, if not conserved
properly.
Methods of Artificial Recharge

Various methods of artificial recharge can be
broadly classified into two viz: a) Surface technique and
b) the Sub-surface technique.

Surface technique group: Contour bunds,
Percolation Tanks, Irrigation Tanks and Individual Well
recharge.

Sub-surface technique group: Subsurface
dykes, Recharge tube wells, Recharging Trenches, Injection Wells.
In Tamil Nadu ancient people stored rainwater
in public places separately one for drinking purpose and
another for bathing, and other domestic purposes and
called them as Ooranies. They also formed percolation
tanks or ponds, for the purpose of recharging irrigation
or domestic wells. They periodically cleaned the waterways so as to get clean water throughout the year.
There are instances in the history that people constructed crude rubble bunds across river courses either for diversion of water or for augmenting the ground water.
Importance
Rain water harvesting is essential because:

Surface water is inadequate to meet our
demand and we have to depend on ground water.

Due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of
rain water into the sub-soil has decreased drastically and
recharging of ground water has diminished.

It will provide supplement water for
houses, institution and industries. It will enable to recharge groundwater and prevent water salinity ingress in
175
coastal aquifers.
Nature of catchments and space for the storage,

depend on the land use pattern. The RWH can be classified as: RWH in urban areas & RWH in rural areas.
Need

To overcome the inadequacy of surface
water to meet our demands.
To arrest decline in groundwater levels.

To enhance availability of ground water
at specific place and time and utilize rainwater for sustainable development.

To increase infiltration of rainwater in
the subsoil which has

decreased drastically in urban areas due
to paving of open area
To improve ground water quality by dilu-
To increase agriculture production
tion.

To improve ecology of the area by increase in vegetation cover etc.
Advantages

The cost of recharge to sub-surface reservoir is lower than surface reservoirs.

tem also.
The aquifer serves as a distribution sys-

No land is wasted for storage purpose
and no population displacement is involved.

Groundwater is not directly exposed to
evaporation and pollution.

Storing water under ground is environment friendly.
It increases the productivity of aquifer.
It reduces flood hazards.
Effects rise in ground water levels
Mitigates effects of drought
Reduces soil erosion.

the soil.
Components of Rain Water Harvesting
Roof top Rain Water Harvesting- Storing of

Roof Top Water in Tanks/Sumps, Recharge
pit/ recharge shaft/bore, Recharge well, Recharge well with recharge shaft/bore and Recharge through open dug well
Water harvesting can be taken up in large areas
of urban, in public parks, in streets/street corners and in
storm water drains
RWH IN RURAL AREAS
Tamil Nadus rural areas have already implemented rain water harvesting in the form of kulam, kuttai, eri,
irrigation tanks, ooranies farm ponds and percolation
ponds. RWH in rural areas can be, in general, larger
than those in urban areas.
RWH in rural areas have to be community based for economical reasons and for efficiency. The community has to be organised to go
in for collective rainwater harvesting in any one of the
forms as tanks, ponds, ooranies and percolation ponds
RWH Structures Suitable in Rural Areas

(i) Surface storing
(a)
Irrigation tank- It is a reservoir to store
water for irrigation constructed using the locally available materials. It is generally located at a place of natural
depression. It may be as well along a stream or close to
a river course. The major component of tank irrigation
is catchments; water spread area and ayacut or command. Irrigation tanks can be classified based on the
sources of water viz: - Rain fed tanks, System tanks and
Chain tanks
(b)
Oorany - It is a pond constructed to
store water at an identified suitable place by excavation.
It is smaller than an irrigation tank and stored water may
be used for drinking or bathing or religious purposes.
Improves moisture content of water in
Principles Rain Water Harvesting
RWH IN URBAN AREAS
(c)
Farm Pond- It is small pond excavated
at a suitable location of a farm to store water for irrigation. The capacity is decided on the basis of its requirement viz: - for life saving irrigation and for completely
irrigating a crop of low water requirement.
176
(ii) Sub-surface Storing

Percolation pond - It is a pond constructed
at a suitable location to store water for artificial recharge
of ground water. It has to be located at place where the
infiltration rate is high. It is an effective way of artificially
recharging the ground water.
(iii) Retarding the flow
(a)
Check dam - It is small wall / brushwood dam constructed across a stream to retard and
to detain the water in stream. It has to allow overflow
of water during high rainfall periods and should be sufficiently strong enough to withstand the water pressure.
(b)
Contour bund- It is bund constructed
along an identified contour line of suitable height to hold
back the overland flow. It is effective method in conserve soil moisture in watershed for long duration. It will
help to reduce the soil erosion otherwise taking place in
the catchment. Spacing between two contour bunds depends on the slope of the area as the permeability of the
soil. It is suitable on land with moderate slopes without
involving terracing i.e. forest catchments and dry farming rural areas.
crore. Resources under NREGP, BRGF etc., are available for this purpose.
Under the Bharat Nirman Anonymous
(2008,b) repair, renovation and restoration of water
bodies is being taken up which can expand irrigation
capacity in a short period. The states will be assisted to
take up such project provided they agree to hand over
the water bodies to user groups after renovation so that
future maintenance is assured.
Artificial Recharge Schemes with

Central Assistance
Central Government has come forward for funding the construction of the artificial structures for augmenting ground water. A master plan for Tamil Nadu
has been prepared by the State Ground and Surface Water Resources Data Centre for implementation of artificial recharge to ground water through check dams and
other suitable structures at a cost of Rs.565 crore over a
period of three years from 2008-09.
Scheme for Rain Water Harvesting
through Farm Ponds and Rejuvenation of Failed
/ Unused Wells Anonymous (2008,a)
(c)
Gully plug- Gully Plugs are built using
local stones, clay and bushes across small gullied and
streams running down the hill slopes carrying drainage
to tiny catchments during rainy season. Gully plug help
in conservation of soil and moisture. The sites for gully
plugs may be chosen whenever there is a local break in
slop to permit accumulation of adequate water behind
the bunds.
The ground water potential has been exploited

to such an extent that special methods of rainwater harvesting and ground water recharge are warranted to save
the well irrigated areas. Government have provided resilience to the drought affected agriculture by promoting
rain water harvesting. They have sanctioned the construction of farm ponds and rejuvenation of failed / unused / abandoned wells.
Programmes
A total of 8833 farm ponds were constructed at

a total cost of Rs. 2564.29 lakhs and 2093 wells have
been rejuvenated at a cost of Rs.264.37 lakhs during
2003-04. This programme will be designed in such a
way that the watershed will get the benefit of convergence of various watershed development and individual
beneficiary oriented programmes. Rain Water Harvesting structures such as farm ponds, check dams and rejuvenation of abandoned wells are proposed to be taken up during 2005-06, with the NABARD assistance
under Rural Infrastructure Development Funds so as to
benefit 10,000 farmers. During 2007-08, so far upto
Feb.2008, construction of 2532 rainwater harvesting
structure have been completed at of Rs.1258 lakh. It is
proposed to continue this programme with an outlay of
Rs.1800 lakh.
The ground water can be recharged through watershed development using check dams, contour bunding etc., This not only increase availability of water, but
also generally lead to more equitable distribution of it.
The Eleventh Plan will strengthen the watershed development programme and also increase the flow of resources to these programmes by convergence of other
schemes.
Master Plan - The ground water level are declining in many parts of the country, artificial recharge of
ground water with rainwater is an important strategy to
arrest this trend. The Central Ground Water Board have
already prepared a master plan to recharge 36 BCM of
rainwater into the ground water at a cost of Rs.24,500
177
area 381500 Ha for Xth plan have been identified in 23

districts and allocation of funds has been made accordingly.
Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture

Modernisation, Water Bodies
Restoration and Management Project
(IAMWARM)
Tamil Nadu Irrigated Agriculture Modernisation
Water Bodies Restoration and Management Project has
been formulated with the objective of improving the irrigation service delivery and productivity of irrigated agriculture with effective Water Resources Management in a
river basin/sub-basin frameworks in Tamil Nadu with the
assistance of the World Bank. The Project will be implemented in an integrated manner with the participation
of line Departments and other institutions. The project
is proposed to be implemented in 63 sub basins excluding the areas already covered under Water Resources
Consolidation Project and Cauvery basin. The Project
cost is Rs.2547 crore. The components of the Project
includes Improving Irrigation system performance at the
bulk level, i.e., diversion, weirs, anicuts, supply channels, tank storages, tank bunds, spill weirs and sluices,
main canals, branch canals, distributaries and minors
and Strengthening water sources Management.
In the first year 2007-08, 9 sub basins have been
selected for implementation and 14 sub basins are to be
implemented in the second year onwards. The Project is
in the initial stage and bid documents are being finalized
in respect of the 9 sub basins taken up for implementation during the year 2007-08. The anticipated expenditure for 2007-08 is Rs.127.34 crore and the proposed
outlay for 2008-09 is Rs.578.23 crore.
Drought Prone Area Programme

This programme has been in implementation
in parts of Tamil Nadu from 1972-73. Presently 80
notified blocks of 17 districts as drought prone areas.
Over the years, the objectives of the programme and the
mode of implementation have undergone modifications
from infrastructure creation to rainwater harvesting and
overall economic development through watershed activities. An area of 3.28 lakh ha is covered (since 1990)as
against the 6.14 lakhs ha. at a cost of 180.08 crore.
National Watershed Development

Programme for Rainfed areas
(NWDPRA)
NWDPRA is implemented in 23 districts of Tamilnadu except Thanjavur, Nagappattinam, Tiruvarur and
Kanyakumari. 763 units of watersheds (1unit=500Ha)
NABARD Assisted Rain Water

Harvesting Programme
In order to improve the moisture regime of the
watersheds by harvesting rainwater, the rainwater harvesting programme for ground water recharge with the
assistance of NABARD in 249 watersheds of 19 districts
at a total outlay of Rs.4781.00 lakhs. Under this programme, the community works such as construction of
percolation ponds and check dams are taken up with
100% grants. So far upto Feb 2008, construction of
3094 rain water harvesting structures have been completed at a cost of Rs.1566 lakhs.
Rehabilitation of tanks identified by

MLAs
During the 2007-08, the Government of Tamil
Nadu sanctioned rehabilitation of 365 non-system tanks
at a cost of Rs.34.81 crore. All these tanks have been
identified by the MLAs in 190 rural Assembly Constituencies. Some of these works have just commenced and
major part will be implemented in 2008-09.
Command Area Development and

Water Management Programme
Command Area Development and Water Management Programme is being implemented in the State
with an aim to improve the water use efficiency in canal
irrigated areas. At present, the programme is implemented in Cauvery Command, Tambirabarani River Basin
Project, Gadana Ramanadhi Irrigation System, Nambiyar River Basin System, Patchaiyar River Basin System, and Manimuthar Irrigation System. This scheme is
implemented with financial assistance from both Centre
and State on 50:50 basis. During 2007-08, it is programmed to take up on farm development works in the
above project areas at a total cost of Rs.5131.32 lakh.
Pilot Project for Artificial Recharge Structures in
existing percolation ponds of Coimbatore and Vellore
Districts. (one each)
As a pilot measure, artificial recharge structures
like construction of recharge bore well / recharge shaft
is proposed to be constructed in the water spread area of
the percolation ponds existing in the Vellore and Coimbatore Districts (one each) at a cost of Rs.5 lakh.
178
Policy
Depletion of ground water resources, on which
millions of rural families depend for their drinking water
needs as well as irrigation, continues unabated. This is
made worse by the growing pollution and inefficient use
of surface water. Our culture and tradition enjoins upon
us to treat our rivers as sacred. Yet, over the past few
decades, more rivers are getting more polluted at more
places than ever before.
Therefore, the situation is forcing us to recognize water security as an overriding national objective
both as an inseparable aspect of food security but
also in its own independent right. While we prepare for
the challenge ahead, we should critically re-examine the
administrative framework and the policies we have actually implemented during the last 55 years for the water
resources development.
The Millennium Development Goals
National Environment Policy, 2004
Hariyali guidelines 2003
National water policy 2002
Watershed guidelines 1994
Delhi water amendment bill 2002
Kerala Government notification on rain

water harvesting
CGWB notifications on rainwater har

vesting
Andhra Pradesh water, land and trees

act 2002
Government order on rainwater harvest

ing in Kanpur
Chennais groundwater regulation act
Amendment to Chennai Metropolitan

area groundwater act
Tamil Nadu protection of tanks and evic

tion of encroachment act 2007
mercial property to harvest rainwater. The Bangalore

Mahanagara Palike has also made rainwater harvesting
mandatory in new buildings. It also ensures that the cost
of implementing this does not exceed one per cent of the
total cost of the construction, thus ensuring economic viability. The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation had
also announced that new buildings constructed on plots
measuring more than 1,000 square metres be equipped
with rainwater harvesting facilities. The two factors, viz.,
use and re-use, are stressed upon in achieving water
self-sufficiency.
Since water is a state subject, many states in
India have regulated policies for rainwater harvesting,
such as the Karnataka government, has set up rainwater
resources centres in 27 districts. The Delhi government
is contemplating a legislation that will make it necessary
for all builders to fix rainwater-harvesting systems in all
new buildings, offices and apartment complexes in the
city. The Delhi government is giving cash support of Rs
50,000 to each colony that goes in for installing rainwater harvesting projects,
Even governments of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana and Tamil Nadu have already initiated
follow-up measures. In Tamil Nadu, Kerala rainwater
harvesting has been made compulsory. The Mumbai
Municipal Corporation has made rainwater harvesting
mandatory to properties with plot area over 1,000 sq.
metres. This condition will also be made applicable to
existing buildings in the near future. BMC will supply 90
lpcd instead of 135 lpcd to ensure RWH will supplement
the gap.
The Millennium Development Goals
Himachal Pradesh was the first one in the country to make installation of rooftop rainwater systems
mandatory in all new constructions. Over the years, a
number of states and cities have promulgated similar orders. According to the Tamil Nadu state governments
directions, it is mandatory for every residential and com-
The Millennium Development Goals, agreed to

by all 191 United Nations Member States at the Millennium Summit in 2000, set specific targets for reducing poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental
degradation, focus on water and discrimination against
women by 2015. The main targets is to half the number
of people without access to safe drinking water. However, all the MDGs adopts on the availability of water in
acceptable quality and adequate quantities to meet their
target.
The National Environmental Policy

2004
The policy put forth the following strategies: a)
promote integrated approach to management of river
179
basins b) promote efficient water techniques such as drip

and sprinkler c) support practices of contour bunding
and revival of traditional methods for enhancing ground
water recharge and mandate water harvesting in all new
constructions.
The National Water Policy 2002

The National water policy 2002, formulated by the GOI incorporates several from
the 1987 policy, it recognizes the need for
the policy places strong emphasis on non-conventional
methods for utilization such as inter-basin transfers, artificial recharge, desalination of brackish or sea water,
as well as traditional water conservation practices such
as rainwater harvesting, etc to increase utilizable water
resources. As in the 1987 policy, the new policy accords
top priority to drinking water supply, followed by irrigation, hydropower, navigation and industrial and other
uses.
Indias National Water Policy emphasizes continued government control over water resources, ignoring
plea by environmental groups to involve local communities in order to overcome looming shortages. According
to Jain, who has served as vice chairman of the World
Commission on Dams, the only solution is for Indias
Water Resources Ministry to be dissolved and for the
empowerment of local bodies to embark on a massive
rainwater harvesting program. The biggest argument
in favor of harvesting rainwater stems from the simple
fact that India receives annual precipitation of rain and
snow totalling 4,000 cubic km, while the annual potential flow in the rivers, including surface and groundwater,
is 1,869 cubic km.
Hariyali Guidelines 2003

To involve village communities in the implementation of watershed projects under all the area development programmes namely, Integrated Wastelands
Development Programme (IWDP), Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programme (DDP), the Guidelines for Watershed Development were adopted w.e.f.1.4.1995, and subsequently
revised in August 2001. To further simplify procedures
and involve the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) more
meaningfully in planning, implementation and management of economic development activities in rural areas,
these new Guidelines called Guidelines for Hariyali
are being issued.
will be: - Harvesting every drop of rainwater for purposes of irrigation to create sustainable sources of income
for the village community as well as for drinking water
supplies, ensuring overall development of rural areas
through the Gram Panchayats and employment generation, poverty alleviation, community empowerment and
development of human and other economic resources
of the rural areas.
As the Watershed Development Programmes
aim at holistic development of watershed areas, the
convergence of all other non-land based programmes
of Government of India, particularly those of the Ministry of Rural Development would enhance the ultimate
output and lead to sustainable economic development of
the village community. The ZP/DRDA, therefore, shall
take all possible measures to ensure convergence of other
programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development such
as the Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), the
Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), the Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), the Total Sanitation Campaign
(TSC) and the Rural Drinking Water Supply Programme
in the villages chosen for the implementation of the watershed development projects. It would also be worthwhile to converge programmes of similar nature of the
other Ministries e.g. Health & Family Welfare, Education, Social Justice and Empowerment and Agriculture,
as also of the State Governments, in these villages.
Tamil Nadu Ground Water Act

2003
Government of Tamilnadu is committed to ensure that potable drinking water is available to all habitations in next five years. In certain and semi arid and
difficult terrain rain water harvesting may be the only
techno-economically viable and sustainable solution.
There is continuous over-exploitation of ground water
in the recent years in Tamil Nadu which leads to alarming lowering of ground water level and deterioration of
quality and many existing irrigation and drinking water
wells have become dry. This is adversely affecting the
small and marginal farmers who mostly depend upon
the ground water sources for their livelihood.
To safeguard the small and marginal farmers
rights to use the limited Ground Water resources available and also to control and regulate the indiscriminate
extraction of ground water, the Government has passed
the Tamil Nadu Ground Water (Development & Management) Act 2003.
The major objectives of projects under Hariyali

180
Tamil Nadu Protection of Tanks and

Eviction of Encroachment Act 2007
It has become imperative to protect the water
bodies from encroachments and disuse. the tanks and
their components, if not protected and restored in area
of cultivation and thereby food grains production, depletion of ground water and environmental degradation. In
order to protect the tanks under the control of water
Resources Department, an Act entitled Tamil Nadu
Protection Act 2007 (TN Act:8 of 2007) was legislated. The Act and Rules have since come into force from
1.10.2007. As a first step for purposeful and effective
implementation of this Act, action has been taken for
creating awareness among the general public especially
at village level about the provision of the Act and Rules
and the need to keep the tank in original shape. In the
last three months of the year 2007-08, boundary delineation works, eviction of encroachment and planting
RCC poles along the boundaries have been completed
in respect of 316 tanks.
Rain Water Harvesting and Recharging

of Ground Water
Metrowater shall make a concerted effort to

install rain water harvesting devices in all its buildings
and other Government Buildings. Further, continuing its
efforts to popularise rain water harvesting among the
citizens, massive awareness campaigns to disseminate
information on appropriate rainwater harvesting structured has been undertaken. CMWSSB has initiated a
vigorous campaign along with TWAD Board, through
training, free technical advise and community participation. A Rainwater Harvesting Information Centre
has also been set up at the TWAD Board Head office,
Chennai-5.
Institutions involved
The International Rainwater Catchments System
Association (IRCSA) is the worlds recognised body on
the subject, actively promoting the inclusion of rainwater
harvesting in border water management strategy. Water
harvesting has proved that it not only improves ecology,
but also solves water shortage and results in better living
standard.
Conclusion
Rainwater harvesting measures were first initiated during 1994 and are being continued. Many type
designs have been developed for implementing these in
independent houses and multi-storied buildings. Besides
creating awareness, Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply
and Sewerage Board in association with the Chennai
Metropolitan Development Authority has also initiated
certain regulatory measures to conserve water. While
building plan permissions are given, provisions for rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory.
Initiatives of Metrowater in Promoting

Rainwater Harvesting
Considering the importance of Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) in conserving ground water, the Board
has taken the initiative to constitute a fully dedicated
Rainwater Harvesting Cell. The Cell is currently headed by the Executive Director assisted by the Senior Hydrogeologist of CMWSSB as Convenor together with
other supporting staff. The main objective of the Cell is
to create awareness and to offer technical assistance free
of cost to the residents to select and implement suitable
cost-effective methods of Rain Water Harvesting in their
premises voluntarily. Installation of Rain Water Harvesting structures in public places (as models).
We are, therefore, left with no alternative but to

think radically, and come up with innovative and bold
responses to the enormous challenge that India and the
citizens are facing. What need is an integrated,
multi-disciplinary approach. An approach that
covers not only technological aspects but also
social, economic, legal and environmental concerns.
It is believed that the difference between mismanagement and efficient management of water resources
is going to play a crucial role in our fight against poverty and in our endeavor to ensure an orderly all-round
development of our society. The balance between the
water requirement and water availability can be struck
only if utmost efficiency is introduced in all types of use
of water.
The policy should also recognize that the community is the rightful custodian of water. Exclusive control
by the government machinery, and the resultant mindset
among the people that water management is the exclusive responsibility of the government, cannot help us to
make the paradigm shift that to participative, essentially
local management of water resources. Both the Centre
and the State governments should, therefore, actively
seek the involvement of the community at all levels
from decision-making to monitoring the implementation
181
of decisions. Wherever feasible, public-private partnerships should be encouraged in such a manner that we
can attract private investment in the development and
management of water resources.
There is also need, through policy measures,
to promote the conjunctive use of ground and surface
water. Lay special emphasis on localized, decentralized harnessing of water resources, which is most costeffective and which also lends itself to better community
participation.
Former Prime Minister Vajpayee, said that Nations catchword should be: Catch the catchment.
Wherever necessary, our farmers and rural communities should be encouraged to bund every field and bind
every rivulet. This will prevent soil erosion and silting
of the reservoirs. There is a suggestion that every village should earmark five percent of its area for creation
of community water bodies, much like the community
grazing grounds that still exist in many villages. It is a
powerful idea whose time has come.
Against a very large potential for drip and sprinkler irrigation, only a very small fraction has so far been
realized. The subsidy scheme for such micro-irrigation
systems has not been working too well, mainly due to
corruption in its administration. We need to put in place
alternative fiscal measures to significantly reduce the
price of micro-irrigation systems to the farmer without
direct, case-by-case subsidy.
There is a need to make an inventory of best
practices, and launch a country-wide program for their
replication throughout the country. Some of these
models involve economic incentives for conservation
and pollution abatements. Some other models may involve mutual exchange of rights over water and other
resources.
In the ultimate analysis, effective solutions do not

lie exclusively in good policies. What is of paramount importance is peoples attitude and habits. If we continue
to treat, as we have been doing, water as a free or cheap
resource that can be wasted, not even the best policies
and technologies can help. As in the past, we need to
regain the sense of the sacred in the way we relate to
water and to our rich water resources.
We have to recognise that just passing a law is
not enough. It has to be supported with a massive campaign for public awareness and with hard policy actions,
which provide incentives and disincentives for its effective implementation. In this case the incentives will have
to come in the form of fiscal measures which support
households to capture their rain, and the disincentives in
the from of pricing of water and supportive urban taxation policies.
Construction activity in and around the city is resulting in the drying up of water bodies and reclamation
of these tanks for conversion into plots for houses. Free
flow of storm run off into these tanks and water bodies
must be ensured. The storm run off may be diverted into
the nearest tanks or depression, which will create additional recharge.
The situation calls for nothing short of a
Nationwide peoples movement, with the active
participation of the governments, the Panchayat
Raj Institutions, NGOs, businesses, housing cooperatives and, last but not the least, each and
every citizen. No single initiative is adequate to solve
the problem of water. We necessarily have to follow diverse routes and a plurality of programmes to achieve
our objective. But, amongst all of them, the one
idea that stands out for its simplicity, efficacy
and affordability is rain water harvesting.
References
Anonymous (2008,a). Policy Note of the Irrigation and Flood Control, Public Works Department, Government of
Tamil Nadu (2008-2009)
Anonymous (2008,b). Policy Note of the Rural Development Department, Government of Tamil Nadu (20082009).
182
26
Impact Of National Watershed
Programme For Rainfed
Agriculture - A Case Study In
Tamil Nadu
A.Balakrishnan and T. Selvakumar
The watershed management and development

include integrated approaches for sustainable agriculture
by conserving land and water resources. The development of watershed is not achieved by individual but
through the co-operative movement with support of
Government NGO through National Watershed Development for Rainfed Agriculture (NWDPRA). In Tamil
Nadu, 126 watershed areas have been identified and out
of this 84 has been selected in seventeen districts for
development of watersheds through Tamil Nadu agricultural University, Department of Agriculture and Department of Agricultural Engineering.
Eight watershed areas have been identified in
Dindigul district with the following objectives
1.
Development of sapota orchards and annual morning in watershed areas through rainwater harvesting for permanent income
2.
Recycling of farm waste and organic
mulch to increase moisture conservation for increased
groundnut yield
3.
Selection of suitable drought resistant
hardy plant species for life fence
4.
Identification of suitable fodder mixture
for mixed farming
5.
Selection of suitable nursery technique
for tree nursery
6.
Identification of suitable soil and water
conservation measure
7.
To study organization, issues related to
technology and socio economic in watershed project
implementation
8.
To study the perception and use of experiences of resource persons and farmers in selected
watershed areas
9.
To compare the existing socio economic
issues with post implementations of the projects
Character of Watershed Area
183
Low and erratic rainfall regions
Prone to frequent drought
has to be exposed to the farmers through field tour
Shallow soils, low organic matter
Poor moisture holding capacity
5.
Self help group for women and men has
to be organized
Uneven sloppy areas
Poor illiterate farmers
Poor socio economic conditions
Lack of Agricultural technologies
6.
Encourage peoples participation in village seminars, farmers field visit and local festivals
Impacts of NWDPRA
1.
Participatory technology development
merged with traditional and modern technology for
overall crop productivity.
Technologies Adopted
2.
Through macro and micro harvesting of
rainwater and soil conservation, the agro eco system has
improved
1. Soil Conservation on Macro Level
Contour pits
Contour stone wall
Contour grazzy bunds
Check Dam
Farm ponds
3.
lized
4.
The integrated farming system concept
had been established through SHG
5.
Scope for development of dryland horticulture and agro forestry
2. Soil and Water Conservation on Micro

Level
Summer ploughing
Ploughing across the slope
Deep ploughing once in 3 years
Broad bed furrow system
6.
The gap between the farmers and extension field functionaries were reduced through successful
programme
7.
3. Biological Method
Seed hardening
Drought resistant crops and varieties
Intercropping and strip cropping
Organic manuring
The economic advantage
Component
B:C ratio
Social forestry
1.70
Dryland Horticulture
7.00
Dryland Agriculture
1.50
Contour bunding
1.70
Combined soil conservation
Suggestions for Improvement

1.
The need for watershed programme and
their advantages to rural people has to be cleared
2.
The farmers are in general illiterate and
poor, hence the technologies should be indigenous and
low cost technologies
3.
Training should be given to young farmers and progressive farmers through PRA techniques
and Audio Visual aids
4.
The ground water recharge had stabi-
Success stories of watershed programme
practices
1.68
Water harvesting techniques
1.80
Social tree nursery
3.40
After the implementation of this project, 80% of

watershed area received good amount of rainfall which
in turn increase the ground water potential which directly helps for dryland horticulture and integrated farming
system. Finally peoples participation in watershed area
is important for its effectiveness. The soil and moisture conservation measures will be achieved only by the
voluntary acceptance of implementation of watershed
programme.
184
Finally Government and other N.G.O. should

provide fund regularly particularly in event of rainfall failures so that the farmes of watershed areas will maintain
their participation forever, in the developed watershed
areas.
The transfer of technologies for SHG for promoting sustainable agricultural income will be provided
for establishing sapota, guava, mango and other tree
seedlings. Each member of SHG in that region earned
Rs.500 per month as income. Through rearing goats
and country poultry birds they earned another Rs.500
per month.
Through watershed development programme,
awareness has been created to manage and utilize natural resources and processes to derive more benefits to
the society. It involves changes which are slow and
gradual and more fundamental.
Capacity building of farmers which bring about
a change in his attitude the because of successful watershed development programme. Farmers continuously
learn experience and acquire practical skill and knowledge and new information form extension functionaries
and through media and training. The welding of traditional and newly acquired skill is helpful for the viability
of a farm in a newly developed watershed areas.
The NWDPRA programme may not produce
economic returns in some places but it include other
benefits like improved soil health, improved groundwater
storage, food security and reduced risk of climatic variations. The diversified farming in watershed areas generate diverse benefits and helps in reducing ecological
degradation and improved farm management. Through
the watershed management programme. Protecting soil
form soil erosion and degradation restore soil health and

ensuring productive capacity for future young generation.
Some of the progressive farmers in the watershed areas converted their farm holding into an integrated and diversified farming through his own experience
combined with formal training and acquired skill and
knowledge through NWDPRA. The exchange visits and
views both from scientists extension functionaries and
farmers reinforced the mindset to achieve something in
nothing situation in the watershed areas.
The programme has had a number of positive
results with negative point also. The farmers are lacking
in knowledge but the role of facilitators subside the problems. Being better informed would helps the farmers
who visualize the reasons behind the programme and
its activities and would allow them to understand their
own role. The participatory approaches are needed
to motivate the farmers to involve in the programme.
Village and agricultural life eco system and social custom has taken a new turn due to this programme. The
NWDPRA changes in cropping, farming system, yield,
income, socio economic condition, environmental effect,
in a under developed society.
Finally through watershed management, agriculture has been inseparable from social, cultural and economic performance of the respective society. Through
watershed management, which depends on strong social structure, which permit an improved management
of individual or shared local resources, mutual learning
improved technology sharing towards achieving a common goal.
185
27
Holistic Watershed
Development A Practical
Approach for Creating an
Enabling Environment to
Promote Water Harvesting
M.R.Rajagopalan and S.Gunasekaran
Introduction
Gandhigram Trust with its six decades of experience in rural development activities has taken up a holistic watershed development project in Dindigul district
from 2004 2007. This project was sanctioned under
Rastriya Sam Vikas Yojana (RSVY) of Union Planning
Commission, New Delhi.
This programme comprises of Hariyali based soil
and water conservation works and holistic development
interventions of the project area viz., Education, Income
Generation, Rural Health Care, Agriculture & Animal
Husbandry, Water & Sanitation and Medicinal Plants
Cultivation. The Physical target of the Project was to
treat 2369 hectares of land area with a financial out lay
of Rs.2.29 crores. This project is implemented in thirty
hamlets of four village Panchayats from 2004 -2007.
Project Area
The project area is characterized by hot semi arid
eco region with an average annual rainfall of 825.95mm,
46%of which received through northeast monsoon. The

soil texture is predominantly loamy with Irugur and palavidudhi series having granular and loose structures with
a low water holding capacity of 0.20%The project area
is selected between Gandhigram and Kodairoad , foothill of Sirumalai and sempatti, it is more or less a rain
shadow area. More than 60% of the project area is in
rain fed condition and in the wet land also the farmers
cultivated low water intensive crops.
The total population of the project area is 16937
belong to 4186 households, more than 50% of them
are landless labour .The main problems identified in the
project area are water level depletion due to scanty rainfall and excessive use of water which leads to reduction
in farm operations and diminishing livelihoods and ultimately leading to migration for employment.
Gandhigrams Intervention in the project area
mainly consists of mass awareness, involving people in
planning, execution and monitoring, facilitation of group
action & conflict resolution, capacity building including
social auditing & transparency.
186
Water Harvesting
Measures
During the project period the Gandhigram Trust

has constructed 35 check dams, 9 percolation ponds,
48 farm ponds, 10 retaining walls and renovated 12
tanks come under the category of Common Property
Management (CPM). As private property Management
(PPM), ploughing and bunding was carried out in 595
hectares. Some 623 hectares of land area have been
covered by afforestation, Horticulture development and
medicinal plants.
The structures created are of good quality and
cost effective. Locally available resources were mobilized. With a combination of farmers technical knowledge and experience and with external advice, entire
area was treated starting at the ridge.
Recharge of ground water is a major effect of
land treatment. Increasing ground water level and consequent increase in irrigated area through wells and bore
wells was reported in several studies on impact assessment. Productivity of land increased substantial wage incomes during lean season. This has tremendous impact
on migration.
fatality. In order to overcome these Lacuna in the rural

side this project focused on better health care through
establishing better health awareness and care in villages
using western and Indian system of medicines.
This project addressed all the Health problems
through general health camp, eye camp, Dental camp
and awareness on anemia, diabetics, personal hygiene,
health camp for combating of vector borne diseases and
nutrition.
II. Water & Sanitation
Carce availability of water had strong social and
economic effects on the poor. Even the limited quantity of available water is not properly used. The main
problems identified in the project area are water scarcity,
open air defecation, poor maintenance of water supply
system and poor hygienic conditions to overcome these
problems. The following intervention strategies were adopted, Rehabilitation of existing water supply system,
Roof top rain water harvesting structures in schools, water test, awareness building , setting right hand pump
repairs , exposure visit and training
Impact of the Programme
Community Organization
The trust has been able to involve the people at
various stages of the project. The process of ensuring
participation of the people is really a time consuming
one. It requires a great deal of efforts on the part of the
project holders. They need to establish rapport with
the people, organize participatory appraisal, prioritize
the problems in consultation with the people, consult
them on possible solutions, mobilize people support and
ensure participation of people in implementing various
activities designed under the project. Implementation
of project is not a one-short of affair. It is a continuous journey with the people. The Trust has mostly succeeded in undertaking the experiment of traveling with
the people.
Holistic Development Programme

I. Rural Health Care
Today in spite of advanced technology available in the field of medicine, the fruits of them have not
reached the rural masses. They are still deprived of basic
amenities in Health care, lack of awareness on proper
nutrition, personal Hygiene and sanitation resulting in
Health problems, reduced life expectancy and ultimately
Equitable potable water distribution in 7
Reduced open Air defecation in 4 vil-
villages
lages
13 villages
Clean environment Mass cleaning in
Improved personal Hygiene in schools

& Balwadi centres 10 villages
Awareness on nitrate content in drinking

water caution board set up in 2 villages.
III. Education
School going children in rural areas are deprived
of private tuitions a facility available for children in Urban areas. Keeping this in view, 25 additional coaching
centres were started in the project area. This provided
joyful learning environment among the children. Educated unemployed women have been provided opportunity as the teachers in these centres on a nominal stipend payment. The additional coaching teachers were
given training on innovative teaching methods and each
centre was provided with teaching aids. The students
were given opportunity to have exposure and field class
187
to historical places. They were also given science awareness training and participated in a awareness rally and
quiz programme.
IV. Agriculture & Animal Husbandry
Agriculture is a major activity in the country. The
age old practice has endowed the farmers with a unique
wisdom on the subject. Right from sowing to harvesting and preservation / storage, traditional agriculture
practices in the country still have a sound foot hold. It is
also important to stress that different agro climatic zones
have their specific product which has a strong bearing
on ecosystem and health of human kind. In addition indiscriminate use of inorganic inputs has eroded the soil
health and wealth. In turn farmers are burdened with
indebtedness. To overcome these problems this project
focused on organic cultivation of crops and its dissemination to farmers to have long term sustainability
by organizing Veterinary camp Farmers Forum, Farmers
Field School, Exposure visit, Farmers Mela, and Publication
Outcomes
Awareness on the impact of chemical

fertilizer has increased among the farmers.
Farmers slightly moved towards the organic farming
Average income of the family has in-
creased
The health of the animals in the watershed area is good.
species are used in various systems of medicine in India,

out of which 800 species are presently used in the drug
formulations. Most of the edicinal plants extensively
used in traditional systems of medicines are obtained
from wild sources leading to the problems of dwindling
of population of numerous plants and insufficient quantity for manufacturing genuine medicine. In these circumstances commercial cultivation of medicinal plants
has gained importance. Commercial cultivation and
processing of medicinal plants by thorough understanding and location specific strategies. In this regard, this
project addressed medicinal plants promotion through
cultivation & processing by means of medicinal tree
plantation, medicinal plants cultivation in common land
and medicinal plants based enterprise.
VI. Income Generation Programme
The word SHG has brought a renaissance all
over the country. It has promoted cooperative action,
built confidence and avoided indebtedness. With SHGs
running petty shops to cinema theatres, Gandhigrams
intervention has given a fillip to the same cause in the
project area.
So far 75 groups have been formed which
constitute 58 women groups and 17 men groups total
members in the 58 women groups is 870 out of which
345 members belong to SC category, Of the 255 members in men group, 90 members belong to SC category.
The SHGs were given training on various skills, market
facilitation training , capacity building training on
agro based industries, accounts training and training on
utilization of seed money.
V. Medicinal Plants
The medicinal plants are in demand in modern
medicine and the Industry is showing special interest
in synthesizing natural substances. About 8000 plants
188
Theme 5
Role of Research,
Extension and Education
28
Natures Own Water Harvesting
Groundwater Recharge in
Some Different Environments
Gunnar Jacks
Introduction
Groundwater is by far the largest fresh water
source on the globe. However, it is not the absolute
amount that matters but rather the renewal rate that
is what determines the amount we can use. In Sweden
we have a renewal rate of about 30 years in our eskers, glacial gravel and sand formations that supply many
of our middle-sized towns. Globally the turnover rate is
about 300 years and the groundwater in the Tertiary
strata on the Kerala coast has been found the have ages
of 20-30 000 years. While the turnover rate increases
exponentially with depth, this is only one of the factors
that influence the rate of groundwater renewal. The topography, the gradients for flow and the sedimentology,
presence of aquicludes and aquitards are other factors of
utmost importance.
The turnover rate has not only an implication for
the amount of use but it is also of utmost important in
case of pollution. Polluting groundwater will very easily
be almost for ever. The heterogeneity of aquifers is an-
other factor that turns out to prolong the period of pollution. While most of the flow occurs as preferential flow
in more permeable sections of the aquifers the pollutant
diffuses into less permeable portions. After the end of
the pollution the diffusion will be reversed and contribute
to prolonged pollution of the bulk groundwater flow.
Assessment of groundwater recharge and turnover rate is thus a key issue in hydrogeologic investigations. It can be done in quite a number of ways.
v use of chloride as a tracer
v studies of groundwater level oscillations
v use of added radioisotopes like tritium
v use of natural stable isotopes like 18O in water
v use of pollutants like fluorocarbons
v dating with radioisotopes like 14C and 36Cl
v with a very good water budget and geometry of the
aquifer
The most commonly used method is probably
191
the use of chloride as a tracer. It tends to give the best results in semi-arid areas where the deposition of chloride
is increased several-fold by evapotranspiration (Allison &
Hughes, 1983).
A few examples of the different methods will be
cited below illustrating the enormous spread in groundwater recharge and turnover rates.
Use of Chloride as Tracer Sahel

Quite a number of assessments have been done
in the Sahel region south of Sahara in Africa motivated
by an often precarious water situation (Bromley et al,
1997; Edmunds & Gaye, 1997). The situation is similar
to that in the Thar desert in Rajasthan. The rainfall in
Timbuktu is 225 mm with large inter-annual differences.
The chloride in rainwater in the region is 0.5 mg/l (Bromley et al., 1997). In view of the sparse vegetation the
dry deposition can be neglected. The recharge has been
assessed to 3-4 mm/year by studying the accumulation
in groundwater as compared to that in the precipitation
(Jacks & Traor, 2000). Similar results were obtained
by looking at soil moisture. The groundwater recharge
turned out to be concentrated to low points in the terrain. Crusts formed on the slopes of the sand-dunes created a runoff-runon regime (Gaze et al., 1997).
The crust formation forms a special pattern of
vegetation where the rainfall is more abundant, the so
called tiger bush vegetation, strips of vegetation along
the slopes collecting and using the runoff water (Issa et
al., 1999). The sparse vegetation was considered to use
15 mm for its evapotranspiration (Nizinski et al., 1994)
while the rest of the rainfall was lost in evaporation.
Noyil basin, Coimbatore district, S.

India
In areas more vegetated, it is necessary to assess the dry deposition. This can be done by knowing
the content of chloride in the air and applying a deposition factor. Deposition factor can be found in the
literature (Gustafsson & Franzn, 2000). Alternately the
deposition can be assessed by some kind of net which
is exposed to the wind and washed at periods. Another
complication in a rather densely populated area is the
addition of chloride from the use of common salt by the
population. The latter can be fairly well assessed as the
use of salt is astonishingly uniform around the world,
irrespective of climate and region, amounting to about
10 g NaCl per person and day (Intersalt Group, 1988).
It seems that the use of salt is rather a matter of taste

than need, the latter being only about 2-3 g NaCl per
person and day.
Groundwater Oscillations and Tritium

Addition
There is an excellent comparison done with these
two methods done by Rangarajan & Athavale (2000)
and Raju (1998). The two articles report groundwater
recharge for the whole of India on the basis of a large
number of individual observations. The groundwater oscillation method gives 130 mm (Raju, 1998) and 148
mm (Rangarajan & Athavale, 2000). The results thus
differ by a little more than 10 % which is really impressing and convincing of very good assessments.
Use of Stable Isotopes

The isotopic ratios of D and 18O in precipitation
varies over the year depending on fractionation during
evaporation from sea water. This can be traced in a soil
profile and by analyzing the isotopic ratios in soil water
and assessing the amount of soil moisture the amount of
recharge can be assessed for a year. The fractionation of
the oxygen isotopes in the precipitation varies over the
year being less in summer time. This can be traced in
the soil water as kind of a sinus curve (Fig. 3).
Groundwater Turnover in The Kerala

Coastal Plain
Tahe Kerala coast is underlain by Quaternary
and Tertiary sediments on the top ofthe Precambrian
basement. The thickness of the Tertiary is up to 300 m
in the section near Alapuscha. In the Tertiary sediments
three aquifers can be distinguished, The Warkala, the
Quilon and the Vaikom aquifers.
14
C dating of 10 groundwater samples from the

Tertiary aquifers indicate that recharge occurred from
23 000 to 33 000 years before present, during a period
of low seawater level. During the period of recharge the
sea water level ranged from below about 80 m to close
to 120 m below the present level. Thus there was a
good gradient for flow and recharge. Much of the Tertiary groundwater has a Na-HCO3 compostion which
indicates flushing out of former saline water. There is
a gradient along the Kerala coast from Ca-HCO3 via
Na-HCO3 to a brackish water from south to north. The
recharge seemed to have been interrupted by an arid
period as per the paleoclimatology.
192
Water Budgets
With a good water budget it is possible to assess
groundwater recharge and turnover. The Salalah Plain
aquifer in southern Oman is vulnerable to sea water intrusion and this has warranted detailed investigation into
the groundwater turnover (Shammas & Jacks, 2007).
The main recharge comes from the mountains behind
the plain which receives 230-450 mm rainfall per year.
A thorough study shows that the major portion of this is
fog collection on the mountain forest (Hildebrandt et al.,
2007). This fact has forced authorities to initiate forest
plantation and decimation of a large browsing popula-
tion of camels. Further artificial recharge of treated sewage water has been introduced. Still the aquifer has a
negative water budget and further actions are needed to
safeguard it (Shammas, 2007).
Water Harvesting and Groundwater

Quality
The mode of groundwater recharge can affect
the water quality. In semi-arid climates, a rapid onset of
rainfall after the dry season may cause flushing of nitrate
into the groundwater (Tredoux & du Plessis, 1992; Edmunds & Gaye, 1997; Jacks & Traor, 2000).
Water harvesting may be useful not only to increase groundwater recharge but also to affect the water
quality. While fluoride removal is possible by using filters
or chemical treatment it has generally not been successful in India due to problems in exchange of filters or
maintenance of larger plants for the chemical treatment.
Water harvesting has on the other hand been proven to
be a cheap and reliable method for lowering fluoride concentrations (Reddy & Raj, 1997; Jacks et al., 2005).
Fig. 3.d 18-O in s soil profile under Nordic

conditions (after Saxena, 1987). The higher levels of
d18-O represents summertime with less fractionation
in the precipitation.
Similarly arsenic remediation should be possible

in the case of reducing groundwater containing iron accompanied by arsenic. By introducing aerated recharge
water, iron could be precipitated in situ co-precipitating
the arsenic. In Bangladesh this is generally not feasible
as there is a clay cover on the top of the aquifers. Then
some kind of well recharge is needed.
Conclusions
Fig. 4. Seawater level in the Arabian Sea and

recharge period as per 14C-dating of groundwater
from the Tertiary aquifers in The Kerala Coastal Plain.
Assessment of groundwater recharge is useful in

stating the safe extraction level. The previous examples
show that the recharge and turnover rates can vary by
many orders of magnitude. This is useful also when considering efforts to increase the recharge. Pollution of the
groundwater can be more or less extended depending
on the turnover rate. Over-pumping of the Kerala Tertiary aquifers may not give a very early warning signal,
but once a sea water intrusion occurs it may be almost
everlasting. On the other hand aquifers in the peninsular
India in hard rock areas react fast both to over-pumping
and to increased recharge for instance as an effect of
water harvesting.
193
References
Allison, G. B. & Hughes, M. W. 1983. Use of natural tracers as indicators of soil-water movement in a temparate
semi-arid region. Journal of Hydrology 60:157-173.
Bromley, J., Edmunds, W. M., Fellman, E., Brouwer, J. Gaze, S. R., Sudlow, J. & Taupin, J-D. (1997). Estimation
of rainfall input and direct recharge to the deep unsaturated zone of southern Niger using the chloride profile
method. Journal of Hydrology 188-189:139-154.
Edmunds, W. M. & Gaye, C. B. 1997. Naturally high nitrate concentrations in groundwaters from the Sahel. Journal
of Environmental Quality 26:1231-1239.
Gaze, S. R., Simmonds, L. P., Brouwer, J. & Bouma, J. 1997. Measurement of surface redistribution of rainfall
and modelling its effect on water balance calculations for a millet field on sandy soil in Niger. Journal of
Hydrology 188-189:267-284.
Gustafsson, M. E. R. & Franzn, L. G. (2000) Inland transport of aerosols in southern Sweden. Atmospheric
Environment 34(2): 313-325.
Hildebrandt, A., Al Aufi, M., Ameerjeed, M., Shammas, M. & Eltahir, E. A. B. (20079 Ecohyrology of a seasonal
cloud forest in Dhofar. Water Resources Research 43(10).
Intersalt Cooperative Study Group (1988) Intersalt, an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure.
Results from 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion. Br. Med. J. 287: 319-328.
Issa, O. M., Coute, A., Valentin, C., Trichet, J. & Dfarge, C. 1999. Morphology and microstructure of microbiotic
crusts on a tiger bush sequence (Niger, Sahel). Catena 37:175-196.
Jacks, G. & Traor, M. (2000) Mechanisms and rates of recharge at Tombouctou, Republic of Mali. Journal of
African Earth Sciences 30: 41-42.
Jacks, G., Bhattacharya, P., Chaudhary, V. & Singh, K. P. (2005) Controls on the genesis of some high-fluoride
grondwaters in India. Applied Geochemistry 20: 221-228.
Nizinski, J., Morand, D. & Fournier, C. 1994. Actual evapotranspiration of a thorn scrub with Acacia tortilis and
Balanites aegyptiaca (North Senegal). Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 72: 93-111.
Raju, K. C. B. (1998) Importance of recharging depleted aquifers. State of the art of artificial recharge in India. J.
Geol. Survey Soc. India 51(4): 429-454.
Rangarajan, R. & Athavale, R. N. (2000) annual replenishable ground water potential of India based on injected
tritium stidies. J. Hydrol. 234(1-2): 38-53.
Reddy, T. N. & Raj, P. (1997) Hydrogeological conditions and optimum well discharges in granitic terrain in parts of
Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Geol. Soc India 49: 61-74.
Saxena, R. K. (1987) Oxygen-18 fractionation in nature and estimation of groundwater recharge. Ph
D. thesis. Dept. of Phys. Geography, Uppsala University, Sweden. 152 pp.
Shammas M & Jacks G (2007) Seawater intrusion in the Salalah plain aquifer, Oman. Environ. Geol. 53(3):
575-587.
Shammas, M. (2007) Sustainable management of the Salalah coastal aquifer, Oman using an integrated
approach. Ph D thesis, Royal Inst. of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
Tredoux, G. & du Plessis, H. M. 1992. Situation appraisal of nitrate in groundwater in South Africa. Water Supply
10:7-16.
194
29
WATER HARVESTING -A Look
at the Past and Vision for the
Future
R.Thangamani
Introduction
Water harvesting is not a new technique to the
Indian sub-continent. Like in many other fields, India
is one of the pioneer in the water harvesting technologies also. The practices and policies adopted varies from
region to region within the Indian sub-continent, owing
to the specific topography and sociocultural aspects.
By keeping the essence of this knowledge, the water
harvesting technology has seen many phases of development from traditional water harvesting to the artificial
recharge of acquifiers. Due to the increased pressure on
the available water in the recent years and the necessity
to harness the major portion of annual rainfall which
just concentrates in 100 hours, has forced us to update
the technologies and policies adopted again and again.
Rain captured from 1 to 2% of Indias land can provide
as much as 100 lpcd for the entire population of India
Policies Adopted In India for

Traditional Water Harvesting
Archeological evidences reveals that several rain
water conservation structures were existing during the

Indus valley settlement (3000- 1500 B.C). The kautilyas
Arthashastra gives detailed account of the irrigation and
water conservation structures built during the period of
Mauryan Empire. Different types of taxes were collected
from the cultivators depending upon the nature of irrigation. The rate of tax was 25% of the produce in respect
of water drawn from natural sources like rivers, tanks
and springs. For water drawn from storages built by
King, the tax structure varied according to the method
of drawing water. It was 20% of the produce for water
drawn manually, 25% for water drawn by bullocks and
33% for that diverted through channels. Tax exemptions
were given for building/improving irrigation facilities.
The period of tax exemption was 5 years for new tanks,
4 years for renovating old tanks and 3 years for cleaning
the works over-grown with weeds.
Apart from the tax collection and tax holiday for
new construction, severe punishments were also given
for violating the water laws. This includes from debarring from community to death sentences.
195
During the Chola dynasties, south India witnessed construction large number of water construction
structures like tanks and Eris.(tanks) The great event during their period was the construction of Grand Anicut
across river Cauvery. About one-third of the irrigated
area of Tamil Nadu is watered by Eris (tanks) . Till the
British rule, these Eris were maintained by local communities. About 4-5 percent of gross produce of each
village was allocated to maintain eris and other irrigation
structures. Assignments of revenue free lands, called
manyams were made to support the maintenance and
management of eris. These allocations ensured eris upkeep through regular desilting and maintenance of sluices, inlets and irrigation channels.
Throughout India, different traditional water conservation methods and policies were adopted to suit the
local conditions. In Himachal Pradesh, a traditional system called Kuhls were constructed and maintained by the
village community. Any person refusing to participate in
construction and repair activities without any valid reason, would be denied water for that season. Since denial
of water was a religious punishment, it ensured community participation and solidarity.
Rain Water Harvesting and Policy

Measures For Improvements
Mass Awareness and Involvement of

NGOs
For taking the technology closer to the people,
mass awareness programmes at grass roots levels needs
to be undertaken by Govt. agencies with the active involvement of NGOs. In the urban areas, the services of
the Resident Welfare Associations also may be utilised.
By involving all the stake holders, this shall be made as
a peoples movement.
Concession for Adopting Rainwater

Harvesting
A good water conservation policy shall find a
place to accommodate education, regulation, incentives
and disincentives. The roof water harvesting regulations/
guidelines adopted so far provides for disincentives for
non-compliance in the form of penalty, disconnection
of water supply, electricity etc but has not given much
emphasis for the incentives part. Incentives in the form
of tax holiday or reduction of property taxes for compliance of roof water harvesting, subsidy for the materials
used etc needs to be provided which will encourage the
people.
Periodical Maintenance and Effective

Monitoring System
The awareness towards rainwater harvesting

and the policies of the Union and state Govt. towards
achieving this goal is a welcome one. However, certain
issues are worth revisiting and reviewing for further improvement.
Integrated Approach and Scientific

Implementation
For the effective functioning of the rain water

harvesting system, proper maintenance is needed which
is lagging in the present scenario. Further, an effective
monitoring mechanism also needs to be in place for assessing the impact of rain water harvesting both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Conclusion
The roof-top rain water harvesting being adopted

at present needs to be expanded and implemented in an
integrated manner. The rain water harvesting schemes
should be planned and executed on scientific principles
taking in to consideration of the hydrological, hydrogeological and geophysical aspects. More attention needs
to be given to the areas of potential acquifier system as
these will have higher water retention capacity.
The facts mentioned above indicates that a

proper rain water harvesting policy shall accommodate
both disincentive for non-compliance and incentive for
compliance. Apart from that Scientific implementation,
proper maintenance and monitoring mechanism and
participation of all stakeholders will no doubt increase
the efficiency of this most sought after system.
196
30
Water Resource Management
and Sustainability of Drinking
Water Sources TWAD
Experience
T. P. Natesan
Introduction
Water as a resource is indivisible; rainfall, rivers,
ponds, lakes and groundwater are all part of one system, the larger ecological System. Growth process and
the expansion of economic activities inevitably lead to
increasing demands of water for the diverse purposes:
domestic, industrial, agricultural, hydropower, thermal
power, navigation, recreation, etc.,
Water scarcity is not a general phenomenon but
a regionally, locally and seasonally specific problem. It is
imperative that water as a scarce and precious national
and natural resources should be planned, developed,
conserved and managed on environmentally sound basis
keeping in view the socio- economic aspects and needs
at sub national and local levels.
General Status
Water is essential for life. Yet many millions of
people around the world face water shortages and a
daily struggle to secure safe water for their basic needs.
The International decade for Action 2005-2015, Water for Life aims to provide access to water which is
also fundamental for achieving the Millennium Development Goals, such as alleviating poverty, hunger and
malnutrition, reducing child mortality, increasing gender
equality, providing more opportunity for education and
ensuring the environmental sustainability.(source www.
unesco.org)
Global Water Resources

The total water resource of the planet Earth is
estimated to be 1400 million cubic kilometer. According
to the report of Global Environment Outlook (Geo-2000
of UNEP), the global fresh water consumption has risen
six fold from 1900 to 1995 which is more than twice
the rate of population growth.
One third of the worlds population is already
living in countries with moderate to high water stress,
where the water consumption is more than 10 percent
of the renewable fresh water supply.
197
The overview of water availability shows disparities across the continents and in particular the pressure
faced in Asia, which supports more than half of the
worlds population with only 36 percent of global water
resources (Source 97% of the Worlds utilisable fresh water exists in Groundwater Aquifers and nearly 80 % of
the Worlds Rural Population depends on Groundwater
for Safe Water Supplies. Over pumping of groundwater by the Worlds farmers, industries, etc., exceeds the
natural replenishment by at least 160 Billion Cubic Meters a year.
Global water situation will get worse over next
30 years if major improvements in the way water is allocated and used, are not introduced. Share of worlds
population undergoing moderate or high water stress
could rise to two- thirds by 2025.
Tamilnadu Geology
Tamilnadu is predominantly a shield area with
73% of the area covered under hard crystalline formations while the remaining 27% comprises of unconsolidated sedimentary formations. As far as ground water
resource is concerned scarcity is the major problem in
hard rock environment while salinity is the problem in
sedimentary areas.
Rainfall
Tamil Nadu is a state with limited water resources and the rainfall in the state is seasonal. The annual
average rainfall in the state is 977 mm. Approximately
33 % of this is from the southwest monsoon and 48 %
from the northeast monsoon.
Season
Winter rains
Summer rains
Southwest monsoon
Northeast monsoon
Indian Water Resources

India, which has 16% of the worlds population,
has roughly only 4 % of the worlds water resources and
2.45 % of the worlds land area. The distribution of the
water resources within the country is highly uneven over
time and space. Water Resources of India presents two
contrasting Scenario - One harmful plenty in form of
devastating floods in few regions and the other acute
scarcity of water resulting in severe drought conditions
in some other regions.
The National Commission for Integrated Water
resource Development Plan (IWRS, 1999) reviewed the
grouping of the river basin divisions made by Central
Water Commission and divided the country into 24 river
basins. Estimate of water resources has been made basin wise since the river basin are the natural hydrologic
units.
The total water potential of India is computed
as 1953 cubic kilometer of which only 1086 cubic kilometer can be utilised (690 KM3 of Surface water and
396 km3 of groundwater) of this quantity 600 km3 has
already been put into use.
Taking into consideration of the population as
in 1991 census, only 7 out of the 24 river basins are
above the water stress zone. Expecting the population to
be doubled by 2050, all the basins except Brahmaputra
will come under the water stress zone and most of the
basins will become water scarce by middle of the current
century. (IWRS, 1999)
Month
Jan Feb
May
Jun Sept
Oct - Dec
977
Average rainfall mm
47
138
322
470
Percentage
4.82 %
14.12 %
32.96 %
48.10 %
The annual rainfall distribution is as follows:

The rainfall pattern recorded for the past 30
years i.e. from 1971 to 2003 is highly varying and shows
a deficit rainfall from the year 1985 onwards (except for
the years 1993,1996 and 1997 where the annual rainfall is slightly above normal).
The rainfall pattern over space and time as indicated below , clearly portrays a cycle of good monsoon
for a period of 3 to 4 years followed by the successive
drought / deficit cycle during the next years which warrants advance planning and preventive action that should
be taken during the years of excessive rains to tackle the
calamity conditions in the years to follow.
Surface Water Potential

The total surface water potential of the river
basins of Tamilnadu is assessed as 24160 MCM (853
TMC).
The details of the break up of the potential is as
under:

198
39000 tanks with a storage capacity 347

TMC
79 reservoirs with a storage capacity 243
TMC
Contribution from the other States 261
TMC
Board studies the coverage of watersupply under three

categories namely
Other Storages 2 TMC

The average Run off (surplus flow) to the sea
from the 17 Basins of Tamilnadu State is computed as
177.12 TMC.

Fully covered the entire population has
access to safe assured drinking water of the prescribed
service through out the year
Groundwater Potential

Partially covered - includes all the other
habitations with service level upto 40 lpcd
The Estimation Committee constituted for the

evaluation of Ground Water potential has assessed that
the utilisable ground water potential in the State to be in
the order of 734 TMC(20763 MCM) and the net draft
is 622 TMC(17226 MCM) thereby leaving a balance of
only 112 TMC(3303 MCM).

Not Covered Habitations having no
safe and perennial sources (no potable supply)
The details are presented in the Table:
Category of Habitations
The committee further reported that out of total

385 blocks of Tamilnadu
State, 138 blocks as over exploited, 37 blocks as
critical, 105 blocks as semi critical, 97 blocks as safe and
8 blocks as saline
Rural water supply in India is the largest supply chain of its kind in the World and significant progress is achieved with the sustained efforts of the Central
and State Governments. Adequate drinking water (i.e.
40 litres per capita per day) has been made available to
about 90 % of the habitations in the Country. This significant coverage is not without any environmental crisis.
Heavy dependence on groundwater for drinking water
supply as well as irrigation coupled with ineffective conjunctive use of water resources and the neglect of traditional practices and systems including rainwater harvesting have resulted in the depletion of water levels.
Water quality problems and
Sustainability of sources and systems
Resurvey
The status of rural habitations in Tamilnadu
State is being reviewed and resurvey works to assess
the status of water supply position in terms of coverage
of water supply is being taken up by TWAD. TWAD
Fully Covered
Partially Covered
Not Covered
20375
44829
1427
37155
29476
35727
36777
9283
Total
66631
66631
81787
Water availability is a pre - requisite for food security and water now is becoming a scarce commodity.
The other sectors like industries, hydro - power, domestic, livestock and environment need increasing share of
water. The demand from the various sectors as assessed
by the Institute of Water Studies, Government of Tamilnadu is presented in the table below.
The Tamilnadu State, like India, is facing three

major challenges in water sector:

2001
Resurvey
Agriculture is a major sector of the States economy. Besides meeting the growing demand for food, it
is the sector from which the majority of the people earn
their livelihood. Of the net area sown (5580786 hectares) only 46% of the area is under irrigation. The rest of
the area depends only on rainfall. Productive land is being continually lost on the urban periphery due to urban
development and industrialisation. Because of the rapid
urbanisation and high settlement densities, the choice
of expanding the irrigated area is reducing rapidly. The
next but important constraint is WATER.
Issues
Slippage of the Covered habitations
1997
Resurvey
Sectoral Water Demand and Gap
It is seen that about 45% area of the State has

already been categorised as over exploited and critical
where the grounds water potential has already been utilised more than the natural renewal limits.
1992
Resurvey
S.No
Sectors
Drinking Water sector

Corporation
Municipalities
Town Panchayat
Rural
Irrigation Sector
Industries
Power
Live stock
2
3
4
5
199
Total demand
Annual water
demand in TMC
13.80 TMC
9.60 TMC
10.00 TMC
18.00 TMC
51.40
1766.00
54.90
4.20
18.30
1894.80
Supply and Demand Gap
Energisation of wells
The following table depicts the gap between the

demand vs availability
Agriculture is the single largest consumer of water in the State consuming nearly 805% of the States
water resources. The agriculture demand as of now is
1765 TMC (49978MCM) and it is likely to be at the
same level at the present rate of overall irrigation efficiency. With improved efficiency it can be brought down
to 1593TMC(45098MCM) in a phased manner and the
State is striving to achieve higher efficiency.
Description
Total Assessed water Resources
Drinking water demand
Irrigation demand
Industries, Power, Live stock
Total Demand
Supply/Demand in TMC
1587.00 TMC (853 +734)
51.40 TMC
1766 TMC
77.40 TMC
1894.80 TMC
Gap (Demand Availability)
307.80 TMC
All along, the vagaries of the monsoons and the

erratic flow of the water in the river systems were partially countered through sinking of wells. The number of
wells shows a sharp rise from 16.7 lakh wells in 198081 to 18.3 lakh wells during 1999-2000. The number of
energised wells which stood at 9.2 lakh in 1980-81 rose
to 16.2 lakh wells in 1999-2000.l
The challenge is how best this gap could be

bridged by reducing the demand or by efficient water
management.
Population Explosion
Tamilnadu is the 6 th most populous State in India
with a total population of 62.41 million as per census
2001.Tamilnadu is also one of the most urbanized State
in India with 27.48 million people living in urban areas.
The predominance of the well irrigation in the

State is seen from the shares of the three modes of irrigation in the total land area being irrigated. Availability
of the free power to the farmers was also providing a
helping hand to the increased adoption of well irrigation
which now at present accounts for about 54 % of the to-
The comparison of the population of the State

and All India in rural and urban areas for the past two
decades is presented in the Table.
Type
1991
Rural (million)
Urban (million)
Total
Growth rate (Rural)
Growth rate (urban)
Growth rate (Total)
2002
Tamilnadu
India
Tamilnadu
36.78
19.08
55.86
13.17
19.25
15.18
628.70
217.61
846.31
19.59
36.43
23.51
34.92
27.48
62.40
-5.06
44.03
11.71
Source: Census of India 1981, 1991, 2001
The decadal growth rate of the rural population

of the State was 16.86 percent during 1961-71, which
decreased to 12.78 percent during 1981-91. It is interesting to observe that the decadal growth rate of rural
population was in negative i.e. 5 percent during 19912001.
Populations and Drinking Water

Demand Projection
The population projection has been made for
the years 2011, 2021, 2031, 2041 and 2051 for both
rural and urban population with 2001 population taken
as the base year. The drinking water demand for the
population for the projected years has been worked out
and presented in the table below.
India
742.49
286.12
1028.61
18.10
31.48
21.54
tal irrigated area followed by the canal irrigation of 26%

and tank irrigation of 20%
Irrigation Practices
In the face of shrinking water resources and ever
increasing demand for larger food and agricultural production, intensification of agriculture is the main course
of future growth of the agriculture.
Crop diversification from low value to high value
crops, from water loving to water saving crops, from single crop to multiple/ mixed crops and from crop alone
to crop with crop- livestock-fish apiculture and from agriculture production to production with processing and
value addition.
200
There is an urgent need to arrest this decline
Population Projection in Lakhs

Category
Urban
Rural
Population Projection
Drinking water Demand in MCM
Urban
Rural
Drinking water demand
Year
2011
308.1
362.6
670.7
2021
346.1
376.9
723.0
2031
387.0
391.4
778.4
2041
430.9
406.2
837.1
2051
487.3
421.3
908.6
1124.6
529.4
1654.0
1263.3
550.3
1813.5
1412.6
571.4
1984.0
1572.8
593.1
2165.8
1745.8
615.1
2360.9
trend, with focus on drought resistant and less water

consuming crop.
It is time to critically redesign alternative cropping pattern based on the agro climatic zone and this
must be demonstrated in the farmers holding in order to
effectively utilise the natural resources and also to stabilize the production and profitability.
Depletion of Water Resources

The deterioration in ground water levels can be
attributed to a variety of reasons: the failure of monsoons, over-withdrawal of water and lack of rainwater
harvesting. The average water levels of Tamilnadu as observed through the select network of observation wells
established by TWAD Board indicate that the decline
in water level is evident since 1999. The water level in
1999, stood at 13.5 metre, which has now depleted to
26.3m in the year 2003. ground water users;
The cycle of aquifer depletion has a series of
serious consequences for all

Direct aquifer depletion effects (such as
falling well yields) and indirect consequences such as excessive well drilling depths and cost of well drilling

Drying up of most of the traditional large
diameter irrigation wells early in the dry season, implying that the traditional irrigation infrastructure is essentially unproductive

An Explosion of deep drilling to depths
of 150 m to 300 m for agricultural irrigation and to lesser degree for industrial water supply.
The task of obtaining acceptable service-level,
security and sustainability for rural drinking water supply
is this made all the more difficult.
Extent of Recharge Focus
in exploitation to provide protected water supply to the

populace of the State. With ever increasing demand on
water resources, the focus has been switched over to the
conservation mechanism in unison with the exploitation
activities by the various water user Organisations.
TWAD Board in coordination with the Institute of Remote Sensing Anna University has taken up a
project on Identification of Recharge Structures using
Remote Sensing and GIS during 1999- 2001 and the
Outcome of the project was the generation of Zonation
maps Block wise for the entire State of Tamilnadu which
has been made available to all the user departments for
use in implementation.
TWAD Board since 2001-2002 to 2007-2008
has implemented 3666 recharge structures spread over
the various districts under various programme at a financial outlay of Rs.114.00 Crores. The detail of the
recharge structures implemented by TWAD board is
presented as under.
The impact assessment of the recharge structures so far implemented monitored through select network of monitoring wells have indicated and appreciable
rise in water levels from 1 m to 2.5 m in the vicinity of
the structures that have been implemented by TWAD
Board. Further impact assessment studies are underway.
Need for Ground Water Demand

Management
The groundwater extraction has already attained
varying degrees of intensity. The rate of drawal has far
exceeded the capacity to recoup; and recharge. This is
due to a large number of wells and depth and quantity
of withdrawal by mechanical and electrical pump sets
and the limitations of aquifer recharge due to adverse
climatic conditions.
TWAD Board since inception has played a role

201
Even though various initiatives for aquifer re-
charge measures are ongoing using various techniques,

with out action on agriculture demand management sustainability of drinking water sources cannot be assured.
In this context, it has been decided to explore a participatory approach to address this problem by mobilizing
the local community to find ways in which ground water
supply and demand can be balanced, through a combination of enhancing aquifer recharge and constraining
consumptive usage in agricultural irrigation.
The water Balance for the 135 Pilot Village
Panchayat were Prepared by collection of field Data
and the status of each Village Panchayat were evaluated (Habitation wise) based on the various parameters
like Geology, Water level fluctuation, Drinking Water
demand against availability, Categorization of Blocks as
per Ground Water Estimation Committee.
Conclusions
Though Government of Tamil Nadu (GoTN) has
been attempting to provide access to safe water supply
to the rural people of the State, full coverage in provision of water supply in terms of level of supply still
remains elusive. The cause of the water crisis lies in
over-exploitation of surface as well as sub surface waters
for the multifaceted developmental activity, environmental degradation, water quality degradation and pollution.
The situation has become complex and as such no water
body is left without the man made pollution through letting out of the hazardous wastes being let off into the
watercourses.
Notwithstanding the numerous programmes
implemented by the Government in the rural water supply sector, water scarcity remains a perennial problem.
Since the water bodies are dependant on rain, the failure
of successive monsoons has resulted in inadequate flows
in the river courses. Surface water gets contaminated,
particularly in areas close to the seacoast, through ingress of the saline underground water.
The need of the hour is to take a holistic approach on Water Management with a coordinated effort
by all the stakeholders and to involve the Village Community in conservation of water and Demand Management.
Refrences
www.unesco.org
202
WATER HARVESTING
Brining Green Revolution to Rainfed Areas
Proceedings of the International Symposium

Held on 23 to 25 June 2008
at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Editors
Dr. Arumugam Kandiah

Visiting Professor, TNAU
Dr. K. Ramaswamy
Professor, TNAU
Regional Programme Specialist, UNESCO
and
A. Sampathrajan
Dean, Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, TNAU
Volume II
Published Jointly by
and
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
New Delhi Office, New Delhi
July 2008
Copyright :
UNESCO
This book is a sole subject, to the condition that shall not be away of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired
out, or otherwise circulated without the publishers prior written consent, in any form of binding or cover, other
than that, in which it is published, and without a similar condition including being imposed on the subsequent
purchaser and without limiting the right under copyright, reserved above, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of, both the copyright
owner, and the publisher of this book.
ISBN
First Impression
Published by
Printed at
:
:
:
:
978-81-89218-41-6
2011
UNESCO, New Delhi
Bal Vikas Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.
PREFACE
With a global withdrawal rate of 600 700 km3/year, groundwater is the worlds most extracted raw
material. Particularly in rural areas of developing countries, in arid and semi arid regions and in the inlands,
groundwater is the most important source of drinking water. Irrigation systems in many parts of the world
strongly depend on groundwater resources. Groundwater is also a reliable resource for industry. However,
managerial control over groundwater resources development and protection is often lacking and that has
led to uncontrolled aquifer exploitation and pollution. Intensive aquifer use affects springs, stream base-flow,
groundwater table, piezometric level, groundwater storage, surface water - groundwater interface, wetlands
and land subsidence. Groundwater vulnerability to the human impacts is therefore recognized as a serious
worldwide social, economic and environmental problem.
It has been estimated that about 80 countries, constituting 40% of the worlds population, are suffering
from serious water shortages and that within 25 years two thirds of the worlds population will be living
in water-stressed countries. Although long been seen as the only option to improve crop productivity and
thus the quality of life of millions of people, development of irrigation is not always possible because of the
inherent climatic constraints in the arid and semi-arid regions of the world. It is now a well understood fact
that expansion of irrigation, although technically possible, is not always cost-effective or environmentally
friendly. Thus development of rainfed agriculture is not only necessary to improve the food security but also
is a necessary prerequisite for the sustainable development of the world.
UNESCO is working to create the conditions for genuine dialogue based upon respect for shared values
and the dignity of each civilization and culture. The world urgently requires global visions of sustainable
development based upon observance of human rights, mutual respect and the alleviation of poverty, all of
which lie at the heart of UNESCOs mission and activities. UNESCO has a mandate to advance hydrological
sciences and their application for improving water security. UNESCO is therefore uniquely placed to work
with other concerned partners to popularize and better study water harvesting technologies. Through its
International Hydrological Programme (IHP), and especially through its Water and Development Information
for Arid and Semi-Arid Areas (GWADI) initiative, UNESCO remains committed to sharing its know-how,
cooperating with others and building new partnerships. In its VIIth Phase, IHP is extensively working in the
field of rainwater harvesting, not only to consolidate existing knowledge, but also to develop cheaper and
more appropriate technologies for water harvesting.
I am confident that this set of proceedings of the International Symposium on Water Harvesting - bringing
green revolution to rainfed areas will serve as good reference to those who are genuinely committed to bring
green revolution to rainfed areas.
Parsuramen
Armoogum Parsuramen
Director and UNESCO Representative to
Bhutan, India, Maldives and Sri Lanka
List of Poster Paper Contributors

1.
Anilkumar, A.S., Instructional Farm, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram, Pin : 695522
2.
Balasubramanian.R, Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College & Research Institute, Madurai625 104
3.
Baskar.K, Associate Professor (Soil Science) Assoicate Professor, Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti.
4.
Damodharan.T, Assoc. Professor(Agrl Extension), KVK,Needamangalam
5.
Dhayamalar.D, Scientist-B, Central Ground Water Board, Rajaji Bhavan, Besant Nagar, Chennai
6.
Ganesamurthy.K,Department of Millets, Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 3
7.
Ganesaraja.V, Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai,Tamil Nadu, India.
8.
Jansirani.P, Professor, Horticultural College and Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.
9.
Jegadeesan.M ,Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Japan.
10. Nayak.N.C, Scientist C, Central Ground Water Board (SER), Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India
11. Nirmala Kumari.A, Professor, Department of Millets,Center for Plant Breeding and Genetics,Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, India.
12. Paramaguru.P,Horticultural College & Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore 3
13. Paulpandi.V.K,Department of Agronomy Agricultural College and Research Institute,Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
14. Porpavai.S, Soil and Water, Management Research Institute,Kattuthottam, Thanjavur.
15. Radhamani.S, Department of Agronomy,Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3, Tamil Nadu
16. Ragavan.T, Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu.
17. Rajeswari. M , Associate Professor (SWC), Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti
18. Ravi.A, Scientist-B, Central Ground Water Board, SECR, Rajaji Bhavan, Besant Nagar, Chennai
19. Rawat.S.S,Indian Institute of Technology- Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
20. Samanta.S.K ,Government of India, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources,North Eastern
Region, Tarun Nagar, Bye Lane-1, Guwahati, Assam.
21. Shantha Sheela.M, *Assistant Professor,** Director of CARDS, TNAU, Coimbatore-3
22. Sivakumar.M , Scientist-C, Central Ground Water Board, SECR, Chennai
23. Subramanian.V, Professor& Head (Soil Science) and 2Associate Professor (Soil Science), Agricultural Research
Station, Kovilpatti.3rincipal Scientist (Agricultural Statistics), CRIDA, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad.
24. Suresh.S, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Pechiparai 629 161 Tamil Nadu
List of Student Forum Contributors

1.
Amudha.K,Department Of Rice, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics,Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,Coimbatore641 003, Tamil Nadu.
2.
Anitta Fanish.S,Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003
3.
Govindaraj.M, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, 2Centre for Plant Molecular Biology,Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore-3, INDIA.
4.
Janapriya.S, Senior Research Fellow (SWCE),2. Professor(SWCE), 3.Director(WTC),Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3, INDIA.
5.
Maheshwara Babu.B, Research Scholars , Dept. of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering,Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, TNAU, Coimbatore
6.
Manikandan.M, Senior Research Fellow, WTC, TNAU, Coimbatore, manik_meag@rediff.com
7.
Neelakanth J.K.,PhD Scholars, Department of Soil & Water Conservation Engineering,Agricultural Engineering
College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, India
8.
Prabhu.T,Department of Soil and Water Conservation,AEC&RI, TNAU, Coimbatore
9.
Prasad S.Kulkarni, Department of Soil & Water Conservation Engineering, Agricultural Engineering College and
Research Institute,Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, India
10. Sahoo.D.C., Research Scholars,Department of soil and Water Conservation Engineering,Agricultural Engineering
College and Research Institute, TNAU.
11. Salunkhe.S.S,Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, India; e-mail of corresponding author: sagar_tnau@yahoo.co.in
12. Senkuttuvan.P, Department of Geography, Presidency College, Chennai.Govt. Arts College, Karur
13. Silvas Jebakumar Prince.K, Department of Plant Molecular Biology & Biotechnology.Centre for Plant Molecular
Biology,TNAU, Coimbatore.
14. Sudhalakshmi.C,Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,TNAU,Coimbatore, Email : soilsudha@
yahoo.co.in,K.
15. Thangaraja.K,PhD Scholar (Agrl. Extension), DAE &RS, TNAU, Coimbatore -3
16. Vijayakumar.G,Ph.D Scholar, Dept. of Soil and Water Conservation, TNAU, Coimbatore-3,
CONTENTS
S.No.
Chapter Name
Theme 1: Water Harvesting at the Farm Level

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1-46
Effect of insitu moisture conservation methods and integrated nutrient

management practices on the productivity of rainfed maize
(Zea mays L.) in vertisols
3-8
Sustainable Yield Index of rainfed Sorghum under different rainfall

situation in Vertisols of South Tamil Nadu
9-15
Modeling organic Carbon Status under Permanent Manurial

Experiment in rainfed Vertisols of Semi-arid region of
South Tamil Nadu
16-18
Land configuration and rain water management for higher

cotton productivity in rainfed deep vertisol
19-21
Studies on the effect of insitu moisture conservation methods and

integrated nutrient management practices on the productivity of
sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) in rainfed vertisols
22-27
Study on the insitu-moisture conservation practices over rain fed

cotton in vertisols of southern region of Tamil Nadu
28-31
Influence of Tillage, Land Treatment and Organic Residue

Management on Soil Health and Yield of Cotton in
A Vertisol Under Dry Farming
32-34
Effect of In-Situ Moisture Conservation and Nitrogen Management

In Dry Land Agroforestry Systems.
35-39
Effect of Moisture Conservation and Watering on Growth of

Tree Seedlings Under Drylands
Land Management Practices for in-situ water harvesting in drylands.
40-43
44-46
47-52
49-52
53-85
Theme 2: Water Harvesting at Micro-watershed Level

11.
Page No.
Harvesting of Surface Runoff for Ground Water

Recharge - A Case Study of Koilmalai Watershed
Theme 3: Enhancing Water Productivity in Rainfed Areas

12.
Irrigation scheduling in long pepper (Piper longum) under partial shade.
55-58
13.
Changes In Irrigation Management System Among Cauvery Old Delta Farmers
59-62
14.
Characterization of Sorghum Germplasm for Drought Tolerance
63-66
15.
Effect of Mulching, Irrigation and Growth Regulants on Growth and

Yield of Curry Leaf In Winter
67-69
16.
Horticultural Technologies for Watershed Development
70-76
17.
Production Potential and Water Use Efficiency of Various Cropping Systems
77-78
18.
Inter row and Inter plant water harvesting systems on the productivity of
rain fed pearl millet under vertisol of semi- arid region
79-81
Effect of rainfall on changes in Soil Organic Carbon in Continuous

manorial fields of rainfed black cotton soils of Sourth Tamil Nadu
82-85
19.
Theme 4: Policies, Institutions, and Socio-economic Aspects

20.
21.
22.
86-110
Choice of Genotypes in Fingermillet to Enhance Water

Productivity in Rainfed Areas.
87-96
Community Resource Management: Much needed strategy in

Tank Irrigation System in India
97-105
Rethinking the Strategic Approach including Adaptation

of Rainwater Harvesting for Landscape Irrigation and
Agricultural Use-A Review
106-110
Theme 5: Role of Research, Extension and Education
111-242
23.
Participatory Irrigation Management Need of an Hour
113-119
24.
Augmentation Of Ground Water Resources By Rain Water

Harvesting Case study from Chennai City, Tamil Nadu, India
120-128
Plan for augmentation of Ground water Resources in Critical

Cumbum Block, Theni district, Tamil Nadu
129-133
Development of Natural springs for Sustainable Drinking Water

Supply in Himalayan Region of India.
134-138
Validation of Length of Growing Period Developed Through Models for

Minimising the Climatic Risk under Dryland
139-145
Identification of Promising Rice Hybrids for Aerobic Condition

Based on Physiological Traits
146-149
29.
Aerobic Rice - A new tool for water scarcity management
150-154
30.
Standardization of Fertigation for Cucumber underPolyhouse using Soilless Media
155-158
31.
A Review of the Water Harvesting Programmes in Dryland Watersheds
159-165
32.
Impact Of Rainwater Harvesting On Water Budgeting And Irrigation

Potential At Orchard And Eastern Farm In Tnau Campus
166-168
33.
Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting and its potential in TNAU campus
169-178
34.
Traditional Water Harvesting Systems In India
179-186
25.
26.
27.
28.
35.
Effect of Fertigation on Biochemical, Yield and Economics of

Paprika (Capsicum Annuum Var.Longum)
187-192
36.
Water Harvesting for Agriculture in Drylands Of India
193-202
37.
The Emerging Water Crisis in India and Possible Solutions to

Address through Water Harvesting
203-207
Rainfall Probability Analysis For Efficient Water Harvesting And

Crop Planning In Nilgiris
208-212
Time Series Modeling of Groundwater Level of Western

Noyyal River Basin of Tamil Nadu
213-220
Geographical Information System for Evaluation of Groundwater

Potential Zones in Marudaiyar Basin of Tamilnadu
221-226
Engineering of photorespiration mechanism in crop plants for

higher productivity in drought prone areas
227-229
42.
Water Efficient Rice Cultivation Strategy
230-233
43.
A Study on Adoption Behaviour of Dry Land Farmers
234-237
44.
Effect of Crop Geometry Cropping System in Bhendi Under Drip Fertigation
238-242
38.
39.
40.
41.
Theme 1
Water Harvesting at
the Farm Level
1
Effect of Insitu Moisture
Conservation Methods and
Integrated Nutrient Management
Practices on The Productivity of
Rainfed Maize (Zea mays L.) in
Vertisols
R. Balasubramanian, P. Senthilkumar, V. K. Paulpandi and V. Ganesaraja, Department of
Agronomy, Agricultural College & Research Institute, Madurai-625 104
Introduction
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most important

staple food crops and it ranks third after wheat and rice
in the world scenario because of its production potential
and adaptability to wide range of environments.
The major constraint for low production of crops in
rainfed situation is the inadequacy of soil moisture and
poor fertility status of the soil. Research information
available also shows sufficient evidence in favour of
positive interaction between soil moisture and nutrient
availability. Management of rainfed soils have to play a
vital role to store maximum rain water in the profiles
to supply moisture to meet the daily ET of the crop.
In view of increased moisture holding capacity, vertisols
offer scope for raising crops in kharif and rabi seasons
in many states of India whereas in Tamil Nadu rainfed
crop is raised only during North East monsoon season
(rabi season).
Field experiments were conducted during rainfed

season of 2001-02 and 2002-03 with maize cv. Co l
at Regional Research Station, Aruppukottai, Tamil
Nadu to study the effect of insitu moisture conservation
methods, time of sowing and integrated nutrient
management practices on the productivity of rainfed
maize in vertisols. The experiments were laid out in Split
Plot design replicated thrice. Pre monsoon sowing and
monsoon sowing in flat bed, compartmental bunding
and broad bed and furrow were assigned to main plots.
INM practices like RDF @ 40:20:0 kg NPK ha-1 through
inorganic fertilizers, 75% inorganic N + 25% N as FYM +
Azophos, 50% inorganic N + 50% N as FYM + Azophos,
FYM 12.5 tonnes ha-1 alone were assigned to sub plots.
A common dose of 20 kg P2O5 ha-1 and all manures
and fertilizers as per treatments were applied as basal.
The biometric observations were recorded on plant
3
of crop growth. In the first year, pre-monsoon sown crop

received 284.0 mm and 76.0 mm of rainfall at flowering
and maturity phases but the monsoon sown crop received
rainfall of only 239.0 mm and 22.2 mm at flowering
and maturity stages. The increased quantum of rainfall
in the above critical stages helped to provide adequate
soil moisture for pre-monsoon sown crop to increase the
yield attributes over monsoon sown crop. Favourable
yield characters associated with adequate moisture
status in the soil might be due to better accumulation
and translocation of assimilates coupled with favourable
grain filling obtained in broad bed and furrow over flat
bed method. This was confirmed by Baskaran et al.
(2001). Regarding time of sowing, pre-monsoon sowing
crop recorded 3.1 to 25.0 per cent increased grain yield
over monsoon sown crop. This was mainly due to more
rainy days, well distribution of rainfall and availability of
required soil moisture throughout the cropping period
compared to monsoon sown crop. However in 200203, the pre-monsoon sown crop recorded more or less
similar grain yield of monsoon sown crop. Similar result
was obtained by Senthivel (1996) who reported that the
grain yield of maize in pre-monsoon and monsoon sown
crops was due to variation in quantity and distribution
of rainfall during different growth stages of crop growth.
The increase of 43.3 to 43.4 per cent of stover yield
was recorded under broad bed and furrow over flat
bed method. Because of low rainfall received during
cropping period of 2002-03 compared to 2001-02, the
rainfall use efficiency was higher in 2002-03. The low
RUE was reflected in comparatively poor growth and
yield of maize. Regarding time of sowing, pre-monsoon
sown crop recorded higher percentage of RUE over
monsoon sown crop (Table 2). In case of insitu moisture
conservation method of broad bed and furrow recorded
higher percentage of RUE. This might be due to higher
grain yield obtained in broad bed and furrow method.
height, LAI, DMP, root length, total number of grains

cob-1 and shelling percentage and grain and stover yield.
The economics were worked out. Soil moisture content
at 30-45 cm depth and RUE were also recorded for all
treatments.

Various insitu moisture conservation methods
had been practiced for conserving rain water to build
up soil moisture for better growth and development of
crops under rainfed condition as reported by Singh et
al. (1990). The pre-monsoon sown crop received higher
quantum of rainfall during growth stages than monsoon
sown crop which reflected in soil moisture status. The
increased availability of soil moisture promoted plant
growth in pre-monsoon sown crop was reported by
Senthivel (1996). The different land configuration of insitu
moisture conservation methods tried in the present study
revealed a substantial increase in plant height, LAI, root
length and DMP under broad bed and furrow followed
by compartmental bunding method (Table 1). The
favourable moisture situation created in broad bed and
furrow method might have helped to increase the uptake
of nutrients by maize crop with increased root growth
for obtaining increased plant height. The increased soil
moisture level in broad bed and furrow and its favourable
effect on growth characters of cereal crops was reported
by Tumbare and Bhoite (2000). The increased leaf area
index observed in broad bed and furrow method helped
the crop to have more assimilating area available for
appreciable quantum of source to sink. The favourable
moisture status created in broad bed and furrow
method might have increased the water and nutrients
uptake by the crop for producing more LAI. This is in
agreement with the findings of Patil et al. (1991). The
greater influence of broad bed and furrow method in
increasing DMP of maize was due to favourable moisture
status in soil under broad bed and furrow method. The
insitu moisture conservation methods such as broad bed
and furrow and compartmental bunding influenced the
development of more extensive root system. This might
be due to proper air and water relationship maintained in
broad bed and furrow method which helped the crop to
develop a better root system (Wani et al., 1997). The premonsoon and monsoon sown crops greatly influenced
the yield attributes (Table 2) based on the quantum of
rainfall received during crop periods. The yield attributes
namely total number of grains cob-1 and shelling
percentage were influenced by the quantum of rainfall
received particularly during flowering and maturity stages
The promising INM practice of application of 75%

N through inorganic fertilizers + 25% N through FYM +
Azophos had significant influence on plant height, LAI,
root length and DMP (Table 1). The reason might be
due to better availability of moisture in the soil with the
application of FYM which in turn enhanced the release
of nutrients from the soil complex with help of increased
activity of beneficial microorganisms. Azophos played a
very significant role in improving soil fertility by fixing
atmospheric nitrogen, both in association with plant
roots and in a free living status, solubilized insoluble soil
phosphates and produced plant growth substances in
4
cumulative effect of increased growth parameters such

as taller plants, LAI and DMP. Similarly, stover yield was
also increased under this INM practice.
soil. This resulted in more uptake of nutrients by maize

crop for its normal metabolic activities. The improved
soil moisture status and increased nutrients uptake were
the base for quick crop growth which resulted to get
taller plants, LAI and DMP which in turn increased yield
attributes and grain yield of maize under above promising
INM practice. The benefits of INM practice in improving
LAI were observed by Dodamani (1997) and increased
DMP by Kavitha and Swarajya Lakshmi (2002). The
application of organic manure along with recommended
dose of fertilizers helped maize crop to get increased
growth and yield as pointed out by Nanjundappa et al.
(2001). This is in agreement with present study. The
yield attributing characters such as total number grains
cob-1 and shelling percentage were increased due to INM
practice of 75% N through inorganic fertilizers + 25%
N through FYM + Azophos (Table 2). The combined
effect of organic, inorganic and biofertilizer application
on the yield attributes was reported by Nanjundappa et
al. (2001). The favourable maintenance of soil moisture
status and nutrients availability by incorporation of
FYM in addition to biofertilizer and inorganic fertilizers
application contributed in increasing plant height, LAI
and DMP. The above appreciable increase in growth
parameters was reflected in increasing yield attributing
characters. This helped to retain more rain water in
the soil to a greater possible extent and produced more
grain yield of 47.0 to 47.1 per cent over organic manure
application alone under favourable soil moisture status.
This finding is in conformity with the results of Kavitha
and Swarajya Lakshmi (2002). The yield increase
achieved in the above promising INM practice was a
Pre-monsoon sowing in broad bed and furrow

method with application of promising INM practice
registered more grain and stover yield of maize (Table
3). The favourable physiological functions carried out in
plant system might have helped the crop for better uptake
of water and nutrients under the above combined effect
of pre-monsoon sowing in broad bed and furrow with
application of promising INM practice. The combination
of insitu moisture conservation methods with time of
sowing and INM practice registered more grain and
stover yield of sorghum as reported by Hebbi (2000).
The improved agronomic practice of premonsoon sowing in broad bed and furrow combined
with INM practice of application of 75% N through
inorganic fertilizers + 25% N through FYM + Azophos
resulted in producing maximum grain yield which in turn
produced higher net return (Rs 7175 to 15031) and B:C
ratio (1.76 to 2.60) (Table 3).
The adoption of pre monsoon sowing in broad
bed and furrow combined with application of 75% N
through inorganic fertilizers + 25% N through FYM +
Azophos registered higher grain yield of maize (3754 kg
ha-1 and 2345 kg ha-1), net return (Rs.15031 and Rs.7175
ha-1) and B:C ratio (2.60 and 1.76) during 2001-02 and
2002-03, respectively. Hence, this combination can be
practiced for getting higher productivity and economic
returns.
References
Baskaran, R, Solaimalai, A., Joseph, M., Sudhakar, P. and S.E. Naina Mohammed. 2001. Land configuration measures
for insitu water harvesting in rainfed sorghum. National seminar on Technology option for dryland Agriculture
held at AC & RI, Madurai during Nov.20-22.
Dodamani,S.V. 1997. INM in sunflower. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, AC&RI., University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore,
Karnataka.
Hebbi. 2000. Influence of insitu moisture conservation practices in sunhemp green manuring and levels of N on rabi
sorghum. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, University of Agric. Sci., Bangalore.
Kavitha, P and G. Swarajya Lakshmi. 2002. Effect of different sources of nitrogen on yield and quality of sunflower
(Helianthus annuus L.). J. Oilseeds Res. 19(2): 250-251.
Nanjundappa,G., Shivaraj,B., Janarjuna,S. and S.Sridharan. 2001. Effect of organic and inorganic source of nutrients
applied alone or in combination on growth and yield of sunflower. Helia, 24(34): 115-120.
Patil,S.N., Mazumdar,G.K. and D.B.Pore. 1991. Effect of moisture conservation measures on growth and yield of
sorghum-pigeonpea intercropping in watershed area. Indian J. Soil Conservation, 19(1-2): 6-11.
Senthilvel, T. 1996. Studies on dry seeding and configuration and phosphorus management on the productivity of
rainfed maize (Zea mays L.) in vertisols with residual effect of phosphorus on blackgram. Ph.D Thesis, Tamil
Nadu Agrl. Uniuersity, Madurai..
Singh,R.P., Das,S.K., Bhaskar Rao,V.M. and M.Narayana Reddy. 1990. Towards sustainable dryland agricultural
practices. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad.
Tumbare,A.D. and S.V.Bhoite. 2000. Effect of moisture conservation techniques on growth and yield of pearlmilletgram sequence in watershed. Indian J. Dryland Agric. Res. & Dev., 15(2): 94-95.
Wani,A.G., Tumbare., A.D., Bhale,T.M. and S.H. Shinde. 1997. Response of pearl millet to N and moisture
conservation practices under rainfed conditions. Indian J. Dryalnd Agric. Res. & Dev., 12(2): 130-132.
Table 1. Effect of insitu moisture conservation methods, time of sowing and

INM practices on growth characters of maize
Treatments
Plant height at
harvest (cm)
LAI at 60 DAS
2002
2002
2003
Root length at
harvest (cm)
Dry matter
production at
harvest (kg/ha)
2003
2002
2003
2002
2003
Insitu moisture conservation methods with time of sowing

M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
SEd
CD (0.05)
INM practices
S1
S2
S3
S4
SEd
CD (0.05)
137.4
109.4
176.6
142.9
189.4
151.3
4.09
9.12
97.6
96.7
124.3
123.0
131.6
130.3
2.45
5.47
4.10
3.15
5.32
4.10
5.72
4.50
0.13
0.29
2.76
2.72
3.57
3.53
3.90
3.80
0.06
0.15
21.0
19.5
26.4
21.9
28.6
23.5
0.49
1.09
17.0
16.6
18.9
18.5
22.9
22.5
0.31
0.85
12785
10228
17048
13637
18331
14664
419.5
934.9
8924
8834
11864
11745
12758
12629
255.2
568.6
152.6
175.0
154.9
122.2
2.17
4.56
117.5
134.9
119.6
93.7
1.30
2.75
4.50
5.23
4.56
3.66
0.06
0.14
3.37
3.92
3.42
2.64
0.03
0.07
24.0
27.5
24.4
19.1
0.25
0.54
19.7
22.7
20.0
15.7
0.21
0.42
14639
16805
14788
11564
222.6
467.5
11263
12930
11378
8931
135.9
285.4
Table 2. Effect of insitu moisture conservation methods, time of sowing and INM practices
on yield attributes and RUE and soil moisture content in maize
Treatments
No. of
grains/cob
Shelling
percentage
RUE
Soil moisture
content at
30-45 cm
depth at harvest
2002
2003
2002
2003
2002
2003
2002
M1
2003
212
149
71.3
60.7
21.0
17.0
11.1
8.1
M2
172
146
69.8
60.5
19.5
16.6
9.3
7.9
M3
279
193
72.7
61.2
26.4
18.9
13.2
10.5
M4
222
166
70.8
60.0
21.9
18.5
14.2
10.3
M5
303
208
74.1
62.6
28.6
22.9
13.9
10.8
M6
240
205
72.2
62.4
23.5
22.5
12.2
10.6
SEd
6.74
3.96
0.21
0.13
0.49
0.31
0.26
0.20
CD (0.05)
15.03
8.83
0.48
0.30
1.09
0.85
0.59
0.42
S1
240
183
72.4
60.8
24.0
19.7
7.3
7.8
S2
275
194
73.3
62.9
27.5
22.7
8.4
9.0
S3
243
186
72.5
61.9
24.4
20.0
9.6
10.2
S4
195
149
70.0
59.0
19.1
15.7
11.1
11.7
SEd
3.57
2.10
0.11
0.07
0.25
0.21
0.10
0.11
CD (0.05)
7.51
4.41
0.24
0.16
0.54
0.42
0.20
0.22
INM practices
Table 3. Effect of insitu moisture conservation methods, time of sowing and INM
practices on grain yield, stover yield, net return and BC ratio
Treatments
Grain yield
(kg/ha)
2002
2003
Stover yield
(kg/ha)
2002
Net return
(Rs/ha)
BC ratio
2003
2002
2003
2002
2003

M1
2351
1599
4513
3876
3558
1863
1.74
1.21
M2
1881
1550
3609
2789
3490
3158
1.40
1.18
M3
2977
2021
6061
3834
3890
3850
2.06
1.41
M4
2381
1960
4813
3719
5978
3469
1.64
1.37
M5
3201
2178
6470
4124
11240
4812
2.19
1.51
M6
2560
2113
5175
4000
7035
4390
1.74
1.46
SEd
68
54
150
134
CD (0.05)
150
120
330
296
S1
2583
1919
5167
3616
7891
3569
1.58
1.40
S2
3000
2232
5931
4247
10337
5301
2.12
1.57
S3
2610
1945
5219
3652
7540
3211
1.79
1.34
S4
2040
1517
4081
2712
3691
1226
1.37
1.12
SEd
39
29
77
69
CD (0.05)
83
62
162
146
M1S1
2374
1615
4467
2924
6905
1966
1.81
1.23
M1S2
2758
1875
5248
3435
9131
3379
2.04
1.38
M1S3
2398
1632
4513
2953
6536
1550
1.72
1.17
M1S4
1874
1275
3350
2193
3660
557
1.38
1.05
M2S1
1900
1566
3440
2836
3805
1650
1.45
1.19
M2S2
2206
1817
4041
3331
5517
3005
1.63
1.34
M2S3
1920
1583
3475
2864
3408
1234
1.37
1.13
M2S4
1501
1236
2580
2127
1230
426
1.13
1.04
M3S1
3006
2034
5957
3898
10530
4183
2.17
1.46
M3S2
3491
2373
6998
4579
13426
5913
2.44
1.63
M3S3
3037
2064
6018
3938
10206
3848
2.07
1.40
M3S4
2374
1614
4467
2924
5399
1454
1.54
1.14
M4S1
2404
1972
4587
3781
6575
3783
1.73
1.42
M4S2
2792
2301
5388
4441
8830
5647
1.95
1.60
M4S3
2429
2002
4634
3819
6212
3446
1.65
1.36
M4S4
1899
1565
3440
2836
2293
998
1.23
1.10
M5S1
3232
2197
6407
4194
11893
5130
2.30
1.56
M5S2
3754
2553
7525
4924
15031
7175
2.60
1.76
M5S3
3265
2230
6427
4235
11583
4813
2.20
1.50
M5S4
2553
1735
4805
3146
6453
2130
1.64
1.21
M6S1
2585
2131
4935
4068
7643
4703
1.83
1.51
M6S2
3003
2478
5794
4776
10092
6688
2.07
1.71
M6S3
2612
2163
4983
4107
7292
4379
1.75
1.45
M6S4
2042
1682
3702
3051
3111
1788
1.30
1.17
SEd
84
53
176
115
CD (0.05)
180
113
382
245
INM practices
Treatment combination
2
Sustainable Yield Index of
Rainfed Sorghum under
different Rainfall Situation in
Vertisols of South Tamil Nadu
K. Baskar1, V.Subramanian2 and G. Maruthi Sankar3, 1Associate Professor (Soil Science) and
4
Professor & Head (Soil Science), Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti. 3rincipal Scientist
(Agricultural Statistics), CRIDA, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad500059.
effects of soil and fertilizer nutrients on sorghum yield in

different rainfall situations using regression models and
optimize fertilizer doses at varying soil test values for
attaining sustainable yield in a semi-arid vertisols.
Introduction
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is an important
cereal crop grown under rainfed conditions in several
states of India. In Tamil Nadu, since the North-East
monsoon occurs during October to January, this crop is
grown during this period as rainfed crop. Among different
input variables, effect of fertilizer is greatly influenced by
soil moisture available at the time of sowing and during
crop growth period, while the soil moisture content,
retention and supply are directly influenced by amount
and distribution of rainfall under rainfed conditions.
Mathur (1997) studied long term effects of fertilizer
on yield and soil fertility under cottonwheat rotation
in arid soils of NorthWest Rajasthan. Prihar and Gajri
(1988) examined usefulness of fertilizer application to
rainfed crops and described strategies for rationalizing
the application in relation to seasonal water supply and
available soil fertility. Precise information on sustainable
treatments and optimum fertilizer requirement at varying
soil test values and rainfall situations is lacking for rainfed
crops. An attempt is made in this paper to assess the

Fifteen trials on sorghum (Sorghum bicolor
L.) were conducted in a fixed site during North-East
monsoon season of 1982 to 2005 in a semi-arid vertic
inceptisol at Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti.
The research center is located at a latitude of 9.12
North, longitude of 77.53 East and altitude of 166.42
m above mean sea level. Nine fertilizer treatments of N
through urea, farmyard manure (FYM) and crop residue
in combination with single super phosphate (SSP) were
tested in each season. The treatments were (i) Control;
(ii) 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P/ha (SSP); (iii) 20 kg N (urea)
+ 10 kg P/ha (SSP); (iv) 20 kg N (crop residue)/ha; (v)
20 kg N (FYM)/ha; (vi) 20 kg N (crop residue) + 20 kg N
(urea) + 10 kg P/ha (SSP); (vii) 20 kg N (FYM) + 20 kg
N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha (SSP); (viii) 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg
P (SSP) + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha; and (ix) FYM @ 5 t/ha.
9
The crop residue and FYM contained 0.53 and 0.50%

N; 0.07 and 0.16% P; 0.80 and 0.43% K respectively
on dry weight basis. The trials were conducted in a net
plot size of 7.5 m x 3.6 m with row x plant spacing of
45 cm x 15 cm in a Randomized Block Design with 3
replications. Initial soil samples were collected in each
plot from a depth of 030 cm and analyzed for alkaline
permanganate N (Subbaiah and Asija, 1956), Olsens P
(Olsen et al., 1954) and ammonium acetate K (Jackson,
1973). The site of the experiment is a Typic Chromustert
with clay texture, pH of 8.2, Electrical conductivity of
0.5 dS/m, organic carbon of 4.3 g/kg, available soil N
of 80 kg/ha, P of 10 kg/ha and K of 586 kg/ha. The
soil depth varied from 110 to 150 cm with an infiltration
rate of 0.9 cm/hr. The soil has 46.4 to 61.2% clay,
10.0 to 17.5% silt and 12.6 to 24.5% coarse sand. The
bulk density varied from 1.23 to 1.32 kg/m3 with field
capacity of 35% and permanent wilting point of 14%.
in 2 years, 250500 mm from 21 rainy days in 10

years and 500750 mm from 30 rainy days in 3 years.
Under < 250 mm rainfall, sorghum had a duration of
104 (1995) to 122 days (1985) with a mean of 113
days and coefficient of variation of 11.3%. The duration
ranged from 88 (1983) to 138 days (2005) with a mean
of 112 days and variation of 14.8% in 250500 mm
compared to 103 (1987) to 114 days (1997) with a
mean of 109 days and variation of 5.1% in 500750
mm situation. A mean rainfall of 117.1 mm with
variation of 24.9%, 361.6 mm with variation of 21.2%
and 618.2 mm with variation of 4.5% occurred in <250,
250500 and 500750 mm situations respectively. The
crop growing period, rainy days, crop seasonal rainfall,
date of sowing and harvest in different years are given
in Table 1.
Rainfall and its distribution during crop

growing period
Analysis of variance of soil nutrients and yield

in different rainfall situations ANOVA indicated no
significant difference between treatments for their effect
on yield and soil nutrients in <250 mm rainfall, while the
differences were significant for both yield and soil N, P
and K in 250500 mm and only yield, soil N and P in
500750 mm rainfall situation (Table 2). The treatments
gave a mean yield of 384 kg/ha with variation of 21.4%,
1063 kg/ha with variation of 20.1% and 854 kg/ha with
variation of 19.8% in <250, 250500 and 500750 mm
rainfall respectively. All the treatments gave
The earliest date of sowing of sorghum was on

29th September (1995), while the latest was on 27th
October (1984 and 1985). The earliest date of harvest
of the crop was on 7th January (2004), while the latest
was on 25th February (1986). Out of 15 years, crop
seasonal rainfall was < 250 mm from 11 rainy days
Table 1. Date of sowing and harvest of sorghum and crop
seasonal rainfall at Kovilpatti
Year Variety
DOS
Rainfall: < 250 mm
1985
K Tall
1995
K-8
Mean
CV (%)
Rainfall : 250500 mm
1982
CSH-6
1983
CSH-6
1984
CO-25
1986
K Tall
1991
K-8
1993
K-8
1999
K-8
2001
K-8
2003
K-8
2005
K-8
Mean
CV (%)
Rainfall : 500750 mm
1987
K Tall
1989
K Tall
1997
K-8
Mean
CV (%)
DOH
CGP
RD
CRF
27Oct
29Sep
25Feb
10Jan
122
104
113
11.3
14
8
11
38.6
137.7
96.4
117.1
24.9
16Oct
18Oct
27Oct
2Oct
30Sep
14Oct
13Oct
1Oct
4Oct
1Oct
31Jan
13Jan
9Feb
4Feb
12Feb
24Jan
25Jan
26Jan
7Jan
15Feb
108
88
106
126
136
103
105
118
96
138
112
14.8
25
28
14
15
22
27
18
13
19
24
21
26.7
385.4
484.8
357.6
307.3
265.5
426.8
292.0
310.6
317.5
468.8
361.6
21.2
1Oct
5Oct
10Oct
11Jan
22Jan
31Jan
103
110
114
109
5.1
29
21
39
30
30.4
634.2
634.6
585.7
618.2
4.5
10
Table 2. Mean and variation of yield and soil nutrients in

different rainfall situations
Variable
T1
T2
T3
Rainfall : < 250 mm (1985 & 1995)
Yield
250
488
448
(19.0)
(21.0)
(34.0)
Soil N
112
125
124
(42.5)
(11.9)
(18.2)
Soil P
8.7
9.1
8.6
(39.0)
(28.0)
(26.3)
Soil K
323
367
338
(15.1)
(27.4)
(17.6)
Rainfall : 250500 mm (1982, 1983,
Yield
785
1195
965
(59.2)
(45.7)
(49.8)
Soil N
95
112
100
(20.6)
(16.6)
(19.9)
Soil P
8.3
10.0
9.1
(40.0)
(14.6)
(36.2)
Soil K
456
485
482
(43.8)
(29.9)
(38.3)
Rainfall : 500750 mm (1987, 1989
Yield
493
997
765
(40.6)
(16.5)
(28.6)
Soil N
93
134
117
(10.9)
(13.5)
(5.6)
Soil P
6.8
9.9
8.6
(18.4)
(8.2)
(14.1)
Soil K
301
315
335
(13.2)
(12.8)
(20.7)
T4
T5
T6
354
290
317
(23.2)
(2.9)
(4.7)
123
99
123
(4.0)
(15.1)
(21.8)
9.7
10.6
10.0
(5.1)
(7.4)
(23.5)
349
360
402
(19.7)
(27.7)
(31.2)
1984, 1986, 1991, 1993,
879
923
1102
(60.9)
(55.9)
(69.3)
102
97
116
(19.4)
(14.4)
(17.3)
8.7
9.1
9.9
(26.7)
(28.0)
(24.1)
483
507
533
(35.2)
(34.9)
(31.3)
& 1997)
870
756
944
(51.6)
(31.7)
(32.1)
106
100
118
(9.1)
(14.4)
(1.7)
8.6
8.7
9.5
(9.5)
(10.8)
(9.5)
313
332
319
(21.3)
(16.3)
(22.5)
T7
T8
T9
Mean
394
480
(24.8)
(40.6)
120
113
(3.0)
(10.7)
10.5
9.8
(2.7)
(8.0)
367
353
(27.6)
(14.8)
1999, 2001, 2003
1246
1339
(52.2)
(48.4)
117
115
(17.2)
(21.3)
10.7
10.5
(22.6)
(31.2)
512
496
(33.6)
(33.7)
436
384
(36.9)
(21.4)
97
115
(19.0)
(18.2)
9.1
9.5
(3.1)
(15.7)
366
358
(25.5)
(7.4)
& 2005)
1136
1063
(66.3)
(20.1)
91
105
(11.8)
(12.9)
9.4
9.5
(32.7)
(14.1)
515
496
(33.5)
(6.4)
1072
(29.2)
107
(10.6)
9.1
(15.3)
311
(22.6)
619
(42.5)
102
(20.1)
7.7
(29.7)
363
(8.3)
1168
(16.4)
113
(1.0)
9.8
(11.0)
361
(4.3)
854
(19.8)
110
(10.8)
8.7
(6.2)
328
(7.9)
LSD
NS
NS
NS
NS
190
12.1
1.2
28.5
292
20.6
0.9
NS
kg/ha with variation of 6.4% was observed in 250500

mm, compared to 358 kg/ha with variation of 7.4%
in <250 mm and 328 kg/ha with variation of 7.9% in
500750 mm rainfall.
Values in parentheses are coefficient of variation (%)

T1 : Control
T2 : 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P/ha
T4 : 20 kg N/ha (crop residue)
T6 : 20 kg N (crop residue) + 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/
ha
T7 : 20 kg N (FYM) + 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha
T8 : 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha
Superiority of Fertilizer Treatments in

Different Rainfall Situations
The treatments were compared based on LSD
criteria and superior treatments for yield and soil nutrients
in 250500 and 500750 mm rainfall situations were
identified (Table 3). Application of 40 kg N (urea) + 20
kg P + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha gave significantly higher yield
of 1339 kg/ha in 250500 mm and 1168 kg/ha in
500750 rainfall. However, 20 kg N (FYM) + 20 kg
N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha in 250500 mm and 40 kg N
(urea) + 20 kg P/ha in 500750 mm rainfall maintained
significantly higher soil N of 117 and 134 kg/ha and
soil P of 10.7 and 9.9 kg/ha respectively, while 20 kg N
(crop residue) + 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha maintained
soil K of 533 kg/ha in 250500 mm rainfall.
LSD: Least significant difference (p<0.05)

T3 : 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha
T5 : 20 kg N/ha (FYM)
T9 : FYM @ 5 t/ha
a significantly higher yield but with a relatively higher
variation in 250500 mm, followed by 500750 and
<250 mm rainfall situation.
The treatments gave a mean soil N of 115 kg/
ha with variation of 18.2% in <250 mm, followed by
110 kg/ha with variation of 10.8% in 500750 mm
and 105 kg/ha with variation of 12.9% in 250500 mm
rainfall. A mean soil P of 9.5 kg/ha was observed with
variation of 15.7 and 14.1% in <250 and 250500 mm
respectively, compared to 8.7 kg/ha with variation of
6.2% in 500750 mm rainfall. A mean soil K of 496
It is observed that 20 kg N (FYM) + 20 kg N (urea)

+ 10 kg P/ha and 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P + ZnSO4 @
25 kg/ha were superior in 250500 mm, while 40 kg N
(urea) + 20 kg P/ha and 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P +
11
Table 3. Superiority of fertilizer treatments for sorghum

yield and soil nutrients at Kovilpatti
Superior
treatment
T2 >
T3 >
T4 >
T5 >
T6 >
250500 mm
Yield
SN
SP
SK
Total
Yield
SN
SP
Total
T1, T3,
T4, T5
T1, T3,
T5, T9
T1, T4
T1
11
T1, T9
T1, T4,
T5, T7,
T8, T9
T1
T1, T3,
T4, T5,
T9
T1, T9
T1, T9
T1, T9
T1, T3,
T4, T9
13
T1, T9
T1, T3,
T4, T5,
T9
T1
11
23
46
T7, T8
T1, T4
T1, T3,
T4, T5
T8 >
T1, T3,
T4, T5,
T6, T9
T1, T4,
T5
19
Total
2
T1
T7 >
T9 >
500750 mm
T1, T3,
T4, T5,
T9
T1, T3,
T4, T5,
T9
T1, T3,
T4 T5,
T9
19
T1, T4
T1, T4,
T5, T9
T1, T4,
T5
13
T1
T1, T2,
T3, T4,
T8
T1, T3,
T4
1
14
16
T1, T3,
T5, T9
T1
15
T1, T3,
T4, T5,
T9
T1, T2,
T3, T4
15
T1 : Control,T2 : 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P/ha, T3 : 20

kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha
T4 : 20 kg N/ha (crop residue),T5 : 20 kg N/ha
(FYM),
T6 : 20 kg N (crop residue) + 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/
ha
T7 : 20 kg N (FYM) + 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha,
T8 : 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha,
T9 : FYM @ 5 t/ha
66
T1, T9
14
T1
T1
3
3
2
7
Correlation of yield with crop seasonal

rainfall, soil and fertilizer nutrients
The sorghum yield had a significant positive
correlation of 0.48 with soil N, 0.73 with soil P and
0.47 with soil K and 0.39 with fertilizer P in 500750
mm, while it had a significant positive correlation of 0.23
with fertilizer P and negative correlation of 0.22 with
soil N and 0.28 with soil K in 250500 mm rainfall.
In <250 mm, it had a significant positive correlation of
0.47 with soil K, 0.55 with fertilizer N and 0.65 with
fertilizer P. Significant negative correlation of 0.52,
0.38 and 0.38 was found between yield and rainfall in
<250, 250500 and 500750 mm rainfall respectively.
Soil N and P had a significant correlation of 0.57 in
<250 mm, 0.41 in 250500 mm and 0.68 in 500750
mm. Soil N had a significant correlation of 0.38 with
soil K and 0.24 with organic N in 250500 mm; and
0.38 with fertilizer N in 500750 mm rainfall. Soil P
had a significant correlation of 0.71 in 250500 mm
and 0.49 in 500750 mm with soil K and 0.41 with
fertilizer P in 500750 mm rainfall. Soil nutrients had
a significant correlation among themselves in 250500
mm, compared to soil and fertilizer nutrients in 500
750 mm rainfall.
ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha were superior in 500750 mm

rainfall in a maximum number of treatment comparisons.
Prihar and Gajri (1988) recorded usefulness of fertilizer
application to rainfed crops and described strategies for
rationalizing the application in relation to seasonal water
supply and available soil fertility.
Application of 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P + ZnSO4
@ 25 kg/ha for yield and soil N; 20 kg N (FYM) + 20
kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha for soil P and 20 kg N (crop
residue) + 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg P/ha for soil K were
superior in 250500 mm rainfall. Similarly, 40 kg N
(urea) + 20 kg P + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha for yield and
soil P; and 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P/ha for soil N were
superior in 500750 mm rainfall.
12
Table 4. Regression models of yield through soil and

fertilizer nutrients in different rainfall situations
R2
Fertilizer equation
Y = 613 9.95 (SN) + 173.05 * (SP)

+ 1.44 ** (SK) + 25.41 (FN) 0.08 (FN2)
+ 23.85 (FP) 0.35 (FP2) + 22.01 (ON)
0.85 (ON2) 4.26 (ZN) 0.20 (FN) (SN)
1.95 (FP) (SP) 0.08 (ON) (SN)
0.91*
66
51.5
FN = 159 1.25 SN
ON = 13 0.05 SN
FP = 34 2.79 SP
250500
Y = 2347 ** 20.16 ** (SN) + 87.09 **

(SP) 0.59 * (SK) + 29.55 * (FN)
0.14 (FN2) + 30.81 * (FP) 0.79 (FP2)
+ 21.18 (ON) 0.30 (ON2) 9.33 (ZN)
0.21 * (FN) (SN) 1.09 * (FP) (SP)
0.13 (ON) (SN)
0.74**
196
35.4
FN = 106 0.75 SN
ON = 35 0.22 SN
FP = 20 0.69 SP
500750
Y = 1719 + 32.99 * (SN) 241.23 *

(SP) + 2.54 * (SK) + 39.85 * (FN)
0.19 (FN2) + 63.86 * (FP) 0.89 (FP2)
+ 26.34 (ON) 0.31 (ON2) 7.63 (ZN)
0.25 (FN) (SN) 1.52 (FP) (SP)
0.15 (ON) (SN)
0.70*
230
46.5
FN = 105 0.66 SN
ON = 42 0.24 SN
FP = 36 0.85 SP
Rainfall (mm)
Regression model
< 250
* and ** indicate significance at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 level

respectively
R2 : Coefficient of determination : Prediction error (kg/ha)
: Sustainable yield indexY : Yield (kg/ha) SN : Soil N (kg/ha)
SP: Soil P (kg/ha)
SK : Soil K (kg/ha)
FN : Fertilizer N (kg/ha)
ON : Organic N (kg/ha)
FP: Fertilizer P (kg/ha)
ZN : Zinc sulphate (kg/
ha)
Sustainable yield index of fertilizer treatments
Optimization of fertilizer doses at varying soil test values

Using fertilizer equations given in Table 4,
optimum fertilizer doses were derived at varying soil test
values for attaining sustainable sorghum yield in different
rainfall situations. At a soil N of 110 kg/ha, fertilizer N
of 22 kg/ha was optimum in <250 mm compared to
24 kg/ha in 250500 mm and 32 kg/ha in 500750
mm rainfall. At same soil N, organic N of 8, 11 and 16
kg/ha was optimum in the respective rainfall situations.
Similarly, at a soil P of 11 kg/ha, fertilizer P of 3, 12
and 27 kg/ha was optimum in <250, 250500 and
500750 mm rainfall respectively. Fertilizer N was not
required beyond soil N of 130 kg/ha in <250 mm, 150
kg/ha in 250500 mm and 170 kg/ha in 500750 mm
rainfall. Fertilizer P was not required beyond soil P of 13
kg/ha in <250 mm, while 8 and 22 kg/ha was required
at a soil P of 17 kg/ha in 250500 and 500750 mm
rainfall situations respectively. Dalal and Mayer (1986)
revealed long term trends in soil properties of nutrients
when cereal crops were grown continuously over years
in Southern Queensland.
Using mean yield of a treatment over years,

maximum yield of 617 (1995), 2451 (1999) and 1342
kg/ha (1989) attained by 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P +
ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha and prediction error of 66, 196 and
230 kg/ha based on regression model of yield under
<250, 250500 and 500750 mm rainfall respectively,
sustainable yield index of treatments was derived using
(2). The index values are graphically plotted against soil
N, P and K and variation of yield in Fig. It is observed
that a mean yield of 384, 1063 and 854 kg/ha could
be attained with a sustainable yield index of 51.5, 35.4
and 46.5% in <250, 500750 and 250500 mm rainfall
respectively. The treatments had a sustainability of 35
75% for yield variation of 25% in <250 mm compared
to 3555% with yield variation of 5075% in 250500
mm and 3575% for yield variation of 2550% in 500
750 mm rainfall. Application of 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg
P/ha was efficient in <250 mm with sustainability of
68.4%, while 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P + ZnSO4 @ 25
kg/ha was efficient in 250500 and 500750 mm with
sustainability of 46.6 and 69.9% respectively.
Based on soil N, the treatments had a

sustainability of 3575% at 115135 kg/ha in <250 mm,
1555% at 85115 kg/ha in 250500 mm and 35
75% at 95115 kg/ha in 500750 mm rainfall. Based
on soil P, the treatments had a sustainability of 3575%
in <250 mm and 1535% in 250500 mm at 811 kg/
ha compared to 1555% at 6.59.5 kg/ha in 500750
13
Fig. Sustainability of treatments at different soil test values and variation in sorghum yield.
ha and 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P/ha were superior in

250500 and 500750 mm rainfall. Application of 40
kg N (urea) + 20 kg P/ha gave maximum sustainable
yield index of 68.4% in <250 mm, while 40 kg N (urea) +
20 kg P + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha gave maximum of 46.6%
in 250500 mm and 69.9% in 500750 mm rainfall.
Fertilizer N of 22 kg/ha and organic N of 8 kg/ha was
optimum when rainfall was <250 mm compared to 24
and 11 kg/ha in 250500 mm and 32 and 16 kg/ha in
500750 mm at soil N of 110 kg/ha. Fertilizer P of 3, 12
and 27 kg/ha was optimum at a soil P of 11 kg/ha in the
three respective rainfall situations. The study indicated
that application of optimum fertilizer doses based on
soil tests would provide sustainable sorghum yield in
different rainfall situations in a semi-arid vertisols.
mm rainfall. Based on soil K, the treatments had a

sustainability of 1555% at 450550 kg/ha in 250500
mm compared to 3575% at 300400 kg/ha in <250
and 500750 mm rainfall.Similar result was observed by
Prasad and Goswami (1992)
Based on long term trials conducted for 15 years
in a fixed site in a semi-arid vertic inceptisol at Kovilpatti,
efficient fertilizer treatments which provided significantly
higher sorghum yield and maintained maximum soil N,
P and K were identified. Based on regression analysis
of yield through soil and fertilizer nutrients, optimum
fertilizer N and P were derived for varying soil test values
in <250, 250500 and 500750 mm rainfall. Based on
ANOVA, 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P + ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/
14
References
Dalal, R.C. and Mayer, R.J. (1986). Long term trends in fertility of soils under continuous cultivation and cereal
cropping in Southern Queensland : In Overall changes in soil properties and trends in winter cereal yields.
Australian Journal of Soil Research, 24 : 265279.
Mathur, G.M. (1997). Effects of long term application of fertilizers and manures on soil properties under cottonwheat
rotation in North West Rajasthan. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science, 42 (2) : 288292.
Prasad, R. and Goswami, N.N. (1992). Soil fertility restoration and management for sustainable agriculture in South
Asia. Advances in Soil Science, 17 : 3777.
Prihar, S.S. and Gajri, P.R. (1988). Fertilization of dryland crops. Indian Journal of Dryland Agricultural Research
and Development, 3 (1): 133.
15
3
Modeling Organic Carbon
Status under Permanent
Manurial Experiment in Rainfed
Vertisols of Semi-arid Region of
South Tamil Nadu
K.Baskar1,V.Subramanian2 and G.Maruthi Sankar3, 1Associate Professor (Soil Science) and
4
Professor & Head (Soil Science), Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti. 3rincipal Scientist
(Agricultural Statistics), CRIDA, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad.
during 1995 to 2005. The study was conducted to

assess the changes in soil organic carbon as influenced
by different climatic variables over a period of time.
The PME were conducted with a set of 9 fertilizer
treatments viz., Control, 40 kg N + 20 kg P/ha (RDF),
20 kg N + 10 kg P/ha, 20 kg N/ha (Farm residue), 20
kg N/ha (FYM), 20 kg N (Farm residue) + 20 kg N (urea)
+ 10 ka P/ha, 20 kg N (FYM) + 20 kg N (urea) + 10 kg
P/ha, 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P + 25 kg ZnSO4/ha and
FYM @ 5 t/ha (farmers practice).
Introduction
Soils are a major carbon pool and are estimated
to contain 1220 to1550 Pg C in organic form and
almost half in inorganic form. Amongst different soil
orders Histosols contain maximum and Vertisols
contain minimum carbon. In general, Inorganic C in
soils is generally very stable but SOC is very reactive
and a large quantity can be lost through changes in
land use especially from ploughing and erosion. Most
of the good lands in tropics are already under intensive
cultivation leading to depletion of soil organic carbon
(Datta et al. 2001). The present investigation is to know
the modeling of changes in soil organic carbon through
soil temperature, rainfall and evaporation under dryland
vertisol tract of Tamil Nadu.

The soil organic carbon (%) was observed in each
plot of the 9 fertilizer treatments under PME during the
eleven year study. The organic carbon ranged from a
minimum of 0.26% under control to a maximum of
0.62% under 20 kg N/ha (FYM) over years. The control
had a minimum mean organic carbon of 0.34% with
a coefficient of variation of 24%, while FYM @ 5 t/
ha (farmers practice) had a maximum mean of 0.48%
with a lower variation of 17.3% over years. However,

Permanent Manurial experiment (PME) on pearl
millet sorghum rotation was conducted at Agricultural
Research Station, Kovilpatti under semi-arid vertisol
16
September to February were calibrated with the pooled

data observed under PME during 1995 to 2005. The
estimates of regression coefficients of soil temperature,
rainfall and evaporation, along with coefficient of
determination (R2) and sustainable index of treatments
for organic carbon build-up in the soil are given in
Table 1. The model of T4 was having a maximum and
significant organic carbon predictability of 0.48, while T8
had minimum predictability of 0.39. However, T6 gave
a minimum prediction error of 0.054%, while T4 and
T9 had a maximum prediction error of 0.067% based
on the models. The sustainable index of organic carbon
was found to be maximum of 66.6% for T9, followed by
T7 with 66.5%, T5 with 64.5% and T6 with 63.9%, and
while control had a minimum sustainability of 44.8%
based on the trials conducted under PME.
Fig.1. Performance of treatments for soil organic carbon

under PME during 1995 to 2005 at Kovilpatti.
the treatment of 20 kg N (Farm residue) + 20 kg N

(urea) + 10 kg P/ha had the lowest variation of 15.4%
over years in the study. It is observed that the soil had a
maximum organic carbon of 0.54% in 1995 and 1996
with a variation of 11.4 and 7.3% respectively, while
it depleted to a minimum of 0.36% in 1999 and 2005
with a variation of 15.1% and 18.8% respectively over
9 treatments of fertilizer examined in the study. The
* & ** indicate significance at 5 & 1% level. Values

in parentheses are ranks assigned to treatments Based
on the regression models, the soil temperature observed
under 57.5, 1015 and 2030 cm depth at 7.28 AM
was having a significant influence on soil organic carbon
Table 1. Regression models of organic carbon through soil temperature,

rainfall and evaporationunder PME at Kovilpatti
Treatment
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
Regression model
OC = 0.30 0.044 ** (ST1) + 0.081 ** (ST2) 0.038 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.005 (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.24 0.032 ** (ST1) + 0.063 ** (ST2) 0.029 ** (ST3)
0.003 (ST4) + 0.002 (ST5) + 0.005 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.30 0.036 ** (ST1) + 0.081 ** (ST2) 0.044 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.002 (ST5) + 0.003 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.31 0.033 ** (ST1) + 0.083 ** (ST2) 0.048 ** (ST3)
0.003 (ST4) + 0.003 (ST5) + 0.004 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.39** 0.021 * (ST1) + 0.061 ** (ST2) 0.04 ** (ST3)
0.003 (ST4) + 0.004 (ST5) + 0.003 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.34** 0.023 ** (ST1) + 0.062 ** (ST2) 0.035 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.002 (ST5) + 0.002 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.35** 0.032 ** (ST1) + 0.071 ** (ST2) 0.038 ** (ST3)
0.001 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.003 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.31* 0.029 ** (ST1) + 0.066 ** (ST2) 0.035 ** (ST3)
0.001 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.002 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.38* 0.033 ** (ST1) + 0.075 ** (ST2) 0.039 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.003 (ST5) + 0.001 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
R2
0.45**
(4)
0.40**
(8)
0.47**
(2)
0.48**
(1)
0.46**
(3)
0.44**
(6)
0.44**
(5)
0.39**
(9)
0.40**
(7)
0.062
(6)
0.056
(2)
0.065
(7)
0.067
(9)
0.060
(5)
0.054
(1)
0.058
(3)
0.059
(4)
0.067
(8)
44.8
(9)
55.5
(7)
54.0
(8)
58.5
(5)
64.5
(3)
63.9
(4)
66.5
(2)
58.2
(6)
66.6
(1)
compared to the soil temperature observed at 2.20 PM.

The soil temperature in 57.5 and 2030 cm depth was
found to have a significant negative influence, while the
soil temperature in 1015 cm depth had a significant
positive influence on the soil organic carbon based on
the models of all the 9 treatments examined in the study.
The soil temperature observed in 57.5 cm at 2.20 PM
had a negative influence, while the temperature in 1015
and 2030 cm had a positive influence on soil organic
changes in soil organic carbon in different treatments

during 1995 to 2005 under PME are also depicted in
Fig.1.
The Regression model of changes in organic
carbon through climatic variables under PME was
worked out. Treatment-wise regression models to predict
changes in soil organic carbon through soil temperature
observed at 7.28 PM and 2.20 PM in 57.5, 1015
and 2030 cm depth, rainfall and evaporation during
17
carbon, but was not significant based on the models. A

positive effect of rainfall and evaporation on soil carbon
were observed under all fertilizer treatments, however,
rainfall had a significant effect only under control (Lal et
al. 2001).
Ranking and Selection of Superior

Fertilizer Treatments for Sustainable
Organic Carbon
Ranks were assigned to treatments for the
performance based on soil organic carbon build-up or
depletion in different years under PME during 1995 to
2005 (table 2) and rank sum l1 was derived. Ranks
were also assigned to treatments for the mean organic
carbon, coefficient of determination, prediction error and
sustainable index based on regression models calibrated
for the pooled data over years and rank sum (l2) was
derived. Based on the pooled rank sum of l1 and l2, a
superior fertilizer treatment was selected. A graphical plot
of rank sums l1 and l2 derived for fertilizer treatments
tested under PME is given in Fig.2. The study has clearly
indicated that T9 was superior with a minimum rank
sum of 22 and 17 under PME for soil organic carbon
observed in individual years (l1) during 1995 to 2005,
Fig.2. Performance of treatments for soil organic carbon

under PME during 1995 to 2005 at Kovilpatti.
and mean, coefficient of determination, prediction error

and sustainable index (l2) over years at Kovilpatti under
semi-arid vertisols.
Based on a detailed regression and rank analysis
of fertilizer treatments, the study has clearly indicated
that T9 was superior with a minimum rank sum of
22 and 17 in PME for soil organic carbon observed in
individual years (rank sum 1) during 1995 to 2005, and
mean, coefficient of determination, prediction error and
sustainable index (rank sum 2) over years in the study.
Table 2. Ranking of treatments for organic carbon status in individual years, mean, coefficient of determination,
prediction error and sustainable index over years at Kovilpatti
Treatment
PME
1
Rank sum
Rank
T1
96
28
124
T2
74
24
98
T3
82
25
107
T4
57
20
77
T5
38
14
52
T6
33
15
48
T7
33
12
45
T8
63
25
88
T9
22
17
39
References
Datta, M., Bhattacharya, B.K. and Saikh (2001). J.Indian Soc.Soil Sci.49, 104.
Lal,R., Kimble, J. and Follet ,R. (1998). In Management Of Carbon Sequestration in Soil (Lal,R., Kimble, J.M., Follet,
R.E. & Stewart, B.A. eds.) CRC Boca Raton,pp 1-10.
Aggarwal,R.K., Praveen-Kumar & Power, J.F. (1997). Soil Tillage Res.41, 43.
18
4
Land configuration and rain
water management for higher
cotton productivity in rainfed
deep vertisol
Dr. V. Ganesaraja, Dr. S. Senthivel, Dr. V. K. Paulpandi, Dr. R. Balasubramanian and M. P.
Kavitha Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai India.
Introduction
The Kovilpatti taluk of Thoothukudi district in

Southern Tamil Nadu is one of the rain shadow areas
where rainfall is erratic and undependable. The deep
vertisol in these areas has the potential for holding
maximum possible quantity of water received from
rainfall for crop production. Sorghum, cotton and
pulses are the important mandate crops under rainfed
cultivation in the region besides having some area under
chillies and other millets.
Field experiments were conducted at Agricultural

Research Station, Kovilpatti to study the effect of land
configuration and rain water management on cotton
productivity during North East Monsoon Season of
1999 and 2000.
The experiments were laid out in split plot design
with three replications. The cotton variety MCU 10 was
sown as dry sowing after treating the seeds with 2 % KCl
solution and cow dung slurry as per treatment. The seeds
were sown at 45X 15 cm spacing. The recommended
weed and fertilizer management practices were taken.
The observed data on growth, yield attributing characters
and cotton yield were statistically scrutinized. The soil
moisture content at three different depths in 0-15, 1530 and 30-45 cm were taken.
Rainfed agriculture in this zone is facing many

problems associated with the vagaries of monsoon
especially during North East Monsoon season when the
commencement of rains may be quite early or considerably
delayed (Ganesaraja, et al., 2001). This condition of
uncertainty warrants efficient use of rainwater which will
pave the way for getting successful crop production.
19
Treatment Details Main plot:
farm wastes recorded improved growth

characteristics and there by higher seed
Land configurations
Mulching
cotton yield of 623 kg/ha and it was
M1- Control
S1-Control
on par with dust mulching (610 kg/ha).
M2- Compartmental bunding
S2- Mulching with farm wastes
This could be due to higher soil moisture
M3- Ridges and furrows
S3-Dust mulching
content resulted in better growth and yield
M4-Tied ridging
Sub Plot Seed treatment
attributes and thereby yield (Selvaraju et
M5-Broadbed and furrows
SS1-Seed treatment with cowdung slurry
al.,1999).The different methods of seed
SS2- Seed treatment with 2 % KCl
treatments did not exhibit any significant
influence on seed cotton yield. Regarding
the soil moisture content, compartmental bunding
The mean of two years data revealed that
recorded higher soil moisture content of 26, 43, 31.01
among the land configuration methods, Compartmental
and 33.66% at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm respectively.
bunding recorded higher plant height (89.1 cm), LAI
The farm waste mulching recorded higher soil moisture
(5.09) and dry matter production (4245 kg / ha). This
content of 24.75, 26.12 and 27.18% at 0-15, 15-30
treatment recorded higher Boll weight (2.73 g) and seed
and 30-45 cm respectively. The lower soil moisture
cotton yield of 675 kg/ha and was closely followed by
content of 20.01, 21.01 and 22.75 % were noticed with
broad bed furrow system (672 kg/ha). Mulching with
control.
References
1.Ganesaraja, V., M.Raveendran, A.Gurusamy, S.Subbiah, T.N.Balasubrmanian and Y.S. Ramakrishna. 2001. Climate
probability estimates of Kovilpatti taluk of Southern Tamil Nadu. pp.14-15.
2..Selvaraju, R., P.Subbian, A.Balasubramanian and R.Lal.1999. Land configuration and soil nutrient management options for
sustainable crop production on alfisols and vertisols of southern peninsular India. Soil and Tillage Research 52(3&4):
203-216.
20
Table 1. Effect of land management practices and mulching on growth characteristics and
Growth Characteristics at 120 DAS
Treatment details
Boll
Plant Height
(cm)
LAI
Seed cotton
DMP
(kg / ha)
weight
(g)
yield
(kg / ha)
Land configurations
M1- Control
83.1
3.65
3147
2.49
522
89.1
5.09
4245
2.73
675
85.6
4.67
3346
2.52
573
M4-Tied ridging
86.0
4.85
3548
2.62
592
86.9
4.95
3946
2.67
672
SEd
0.44
0.66
55.50
0.015
22
CD(P=0.05)
0.90
0.14
113.69
0.030
50
Mulching
S1-Control
82.3
4.58
3425
2.54
588
88.7
4.71
3856
2.69
623
S3-Dust mulching
87.4
4.63
3658
2.59
610
SEd
0.34
0.05
42.99
0.011
13
CD(P=0.05)
0.69
0.11
88.06
0.023
27
Seed treatment
85.9
4.61
3568
2.60
605
SS2- Seed treatment with 2% KCl
86.3
4.67
3724
2.61
609
SEd
0.03
0.003
6.58
0.004
NS
CD (P=0.05)
0.06
0.006
13.44
0.008
Table 2. Soil moisture content

Treatment details
Soil moisture content (%)

0-15 cm
15-30 cm
30-45 cm
M1- Control
20.01
21.01
22.75
26.43
31.01
33.66
22.65
24.75
25.71
M4-Tied ridging
22.05
24.92
25.85
24.01
25.09
26.08
S1-Control
21.03
24.32
26.25
24.75
26.12
27.18
S3-Dust mulching
23.32
25.60
27.05
23.01
25.31
26.71
SS2- Seed treatment with 2 % KCl
23.07
25.38
26.92
Land configurations
Mulching
Seed treatment
21
Studies on The Effect of Insitu

Moisture Conservation Methods
and Integrated Nutrient
Management Practices on
The Productivity of Sunflower
(Helianthus Annus L.) in
Rainfed Vertisols
Dr.V.K.Paulpandi, Dr.V.Ganesaraja, Dr. R. Balasubramanian and M. P. Kavitha
Department of Agronomy Agricultural College and Research Institute Madurai , India
+ 5 per cent over control at any given level of productivity

(Venkateswarlu, 1987). Appropriate land configurations
such as broad bed and furrow and compartmental
bunding hold great promise for insitu conservation of
soil, water and plant nutrients.
Introduction
India occupies a premier position in global
scenario accounting for 19 per cent area and 9 per cent
production which has undergone a dramatic change in
recent years, wherein the oil seed sector becomes a net
foreign exchange earner leading to yellow revolution.
The combination of organic waste like composted

coirpith and chemical fertilizers plays a key role in
modern dryland agriculture in increasing the productivity
of crops and sustained management of soil fertility and
inturn soil health.
Among the oil seeds, sunflower gained

importance due to its special features such as short
duration, photoperiod insensitivity, drought evidence,
and fast recovery for drought stress, adaptability to wide
range of soil climatic conditions, lower seed rate and
high seed multiplication ratio. The sunflower seeds have
a high oil content (40 -50 per cent), which is a high
quality cooking oil because of low saturated and high
polyunsaturated fatty acids in lowering down the level of
harmful serum cholesterol property (Giriraj,1988).

The field experiments were conducted at
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Regional Research
Station (RRS), Aruppukottai, Tamil Nadu during North
East monsoon season of 2001-2002 and 2002-2003
under rainfed condition. The soils of the experimental
fields were medium deep, well drained, vertisol (Typic
Chromusterts) with a pH of 8.5 in both the seasons.
The soil was low in available N (192.5 and 171.5 kg
ha-1), low in available P (7.32 and 9.0 kg ha-1) and high in
The major constraint for lower productivity of

crops in dry land is the inadequacy of the soil moisture and
poor fertility status of the soil. The land configurations
are site specific and lead to a yield advantage of about 20
22
available K (358.7 and 300.0 kg ha-1) during 2001-2002

and 2002-2003 respectively. Sunflower variety Co 4,
released by the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University was
selected for this study. The experiments were laidout in
split plot design with three replications.
and applied near the base of the sunflower plants at 30

DAS as per the treatment schedule. Solubor (Na2 B4
O7 5H2O + Na2 B10 O16. 10 H2O) was used as boron
source. It contains 20 to 21 per cent boron. As per the
treatment schedule 0.2 per cent boron was sprayed at
ray floret stage and the second spray on 10 days after
first spray.
Main plot consisted of three treatments viz,. M1Flat bed, M2- Compartmental bunding and M3- Broad
bed furrow. The subplot consisted of eight treatments
viz., S1 - Recommended dose of nutrients (RDN) @
40:20:20 kg N, P2O5 and K2O ha-1 through inorganic
fertilizers, S2 - 100% N through composted coirpith
(CCP), S3 - Recommended dose of nutrients (RDN) as
inorganic fertilizers + 0.2% boron foliar spray at ray
floret stage and 10 days after first spray, S4 - 100% N
through CCP + 0.2% boron foliar spray at ray floret
stage and 10 days after first spray, S5 - 75% N through
inorganic fertilizer + 25% N through CCP + Azophos
(seed and soil application), S6 - 75% N through inorganic
fertilizers + 25% N through CCP + Azophos (seed and
soil application) + 0.2% boron foliar spray at ray floret
stage and 10 days after first spray, S7 - 50% N through
inorganic fertilizer + 50% N through CCP + Azophos
(seed and soil application) and S8 - 50% N through
inorganic + 50% N through CCP + Azophos (seed + soil
application) + 0.2% boron foliar spray at ray floret stage
and 10 days after first spray.
Observations on all the growth and yield

attributes were taken. The capitulum of border plants
on all the sides of the plot were harvested first and then
net plots were harvested separately and dried. Threshing
of the capitulum was done manually and seeds were
separated, sun dried and the yield was recorded. Data
on soil moisture content was estimated by gravimetric
method at 25, 45, 65 DAS and at harvest in 0-15, 1530 and 30-45 cm depth during both the years of study.

Growth Attributes
All the treatments exerted a distinct effect on
growth attributes of sunflower (Table 1). Among insitu
moisture conservation methods, sowing on broad bed
and furrow (BBF) treatment (M3) recorded the higher
plant height (156.1 cm), maximum LAI (4.27) and
maximum DMP (5393 kg ha -1) at harvesting stage.
(Table 1). The favourable moisture situation created in
BBF might have increased more moisture and nutrient
uptake by the sunflower crop with the help of increased
root growth resulted in increased plant height as reported
by Tumbare and Bhoite (2000). The BBF method of
insitu moisture conservation could produce more DMP
of 15 to 26 per cent increase over flat bed method. The
reason for obtaining more DMP in BBF might be due to
the availability of required moisture status.
Land management methods (insitu moisture

conservation methods) were carried out in respective
plots as per the treatment schedule. The plot size of 6.0
x 4.5 m was uniformly adopted for all insitu moisture
conservation methods. The CCP was incorporated
basally after forming land management methods but
before levelling of the field. Coirpith was decomposed at
RRS, Aruppukottai farm by adopting the methodology
given by Nagarajan et al. (1987).
Among integrated nutrient management practices

(INM), application of 75% N through inorganic + 25%
N through CCP + Azophos + 0.2% boron spray (S6)
recorded higher plant height (155.9 cm), maximum LAI
(4.45) and maximum DMP (5962 kg ha-1 ) at harvesting
stage. The reason might be due to better availability
of moisture with the help of CCP application which
retained more quantum of moisture in the soil. The
above treatment combination of inorganic and organic
source with biofertilizer had a greater effect in enhancing
the release of nutrients from the soil complex with the
help of increased activity of beneficial microorganisms
resulted in more uptake of nutrients by sunflower crop
for its normal metabolic activities.
Organic manure (CCP) to substitute 100 or 50 or

25 per cent nitrogen was worked out based on N content
for individual application as per treatment schedule.
Recommended dose of inorganic fertilizers such as
40 kg N as urea, 20 kg P as single super phosphate
and 20 kg K as muriate of potash ha-1 were applied as
basal manure. Calculated quantity of organic manure to
substitute 100 or 50 or 25 per cent of recommended
N along with inorganic source of fertilizers as per the
treatment schedule was also applied as basal. All the
treatments received a uniform dose of 20 kg P2O5 and
20 kg K20 ha-1 as basal through inorganic fertilizers.
Azophos @ 2 kg ha-1 was mixed with 50 kg fine sand
23
translocation of assimilates from stem and leaves to

sunflower head coupled with required nutrient uptake by
the crop. Among different INM practices tried, application
of 75% N through inorganic + 25% N through CCP +
Azophos + 0.2% boron spray (S6) registered higher head
diameter (14.9 cm) , increased number of filled seeds
head-1 (446) ,seed yield (1082 kg ha-1 ) and stalk yield
( 3493 kg ha-1). In the present study the inclusion of
CCP in the promising INM of 75% N through inorganic
+ 25% N through CCP + Azophos + 0.2% boron spray
combination helped to retain more rain water in the soil
to a greater extent possible and produced more seed yield
of 22.1 to 26.4 per cent over RDN as inorganic fertilizer
application. This finding is in conformity with the results
of Kavitha and Swarajya Lakshmi (2002). An interaction
effect of broad bed and furrow combined with INM
practice of 75% N through inorganic + 25% N through
CCP + Azophos + 0.2% boron spray registered higher
seed yield of 1193 kg ha-1. The favourable maintenance
of soil moisture status and nutrient availability by the
incorporation of CCP in addition to biofertilizers and
inorganic fertilizers application contributed to the
appreciable increase in growth parameters reflected in
increasing yield attributing characters. (Sivamurugan,
1998).
Soil moisture Content

Data on soil moisture content was estimated at
25, 45, 65 DAS and at harvest in 0-15, 15-30 and 3045 cm depth during both the years of study. In general,
soil moisture content increased with increase in soil
depth. Among insitu moisture conservation methods, at
45 cm soil depth, BBF method (M3) registered higher
soil moisture content of 34.2, 23.1, 16.3 and 15.1 per
cent at 25, 45, 65 DAS and at harvest. (Table 2) This
might be attributed due to the better collection of rain
water in the furrows and absorption of rain water in
the broad bed and furrow with the help of horizontal
movement of water from furrow to the inner layer of
broad bed and furrow during dry spell period. This type
of enrichment of moisture could help to maintain the
soil moisture content for better crop growth and yield in
BBF. (Anon, 1981).
Regarding the nutrient management practices,
100 % N substitution (S2) registered higher soil moisture
content of 34.5, 23.2, 16.3, 15.4 per cent at 25, 45, 65
DAS and at harvest. CCP applied at 100% N substitution
recorded higher percentage of soil moisture content
followed by INM practice of 50% N through inorganic +
50% N through CCP + Azophos. This might be due to
higher moisture holding capacity of coirpith as reported
by Ramaswami and Sree Ramulu (1983). The higher
moisture retention capacity of coirpith might be due to
its high carbonaceous nature (Mayalagu et al., 1983).
Higher net return (Rs.4827) and BCR (1.74)

were obtained in BBF method (M3).The net returns and
BCR were found higher under INM practices of 75% N
through inorganic + 25% N through CCP + Azophos +
0.2% boron spray (S6) which recorded the net return of
Rs 6312 and BCR of 1.87 . Profound influence of insitu
moisture conservation methods for better crop growth
and yield could result in improving the net returns and
benefit cost ratio under BBF over compartmental bunding
and flat bed methods. The results are in conformity with
the findings of Senthivel (1996)
Yield and economics: Regarding the yield

parameters and seed yield, the BBF method (M3) resulted
in higher head diameter (14.5 cm) , increased number of
filled seeds head-1 (428), seed yield (983 kg ha-1) and stalk
yield (3388 kg ha-1) . (Table 3). Favourable yield attributing
characters obtained in BBF was due to unrestricted
moisture status in the soil for better accumulation and
24
References
1.Anonymous. (1981). Annual Report of International crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. Patancheru,
Hyderabad.
2.Giriraj, K., (1988). In: National Seminar on Strategies for Making India Self reliant in Vegetable Oils, September
5-9, 1998. Hyderabad.
3.Kavitha, P and Swarajya Lakshmi. G. 2002. J. Oilseeds Res. 19(2): 250-251.
4.Mayalagu, K., et al., (1983). In: Proc. of National seminar on utilization of organic wastes. Tamil Nadu Agrl.
University, AC&RI., Madurai, 110-116
5.Nagarajan, R., et al., (1987). Coirwaste in Crop Production. Bulletin unpublished, Centre for Soil and Crop
Management Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore and Central Coir Research Institute,
Coir Board, Kalavoor.
6.Ramaswami, P.P. and Sree Ramulu.U.S. (1983). In: Proc. National Seminar on utilisation of organic wastes. (Ed.)
U.S.Sree Ramulu, March 24-25 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. pp.101-103.
7.Senthivel, T. 1996. Studies on Dry seeding, Land configuration and phosphorus management on the productivity
of rainfed maize in vertisol with residual effect of phosphorus on blackgram. Ph.D Thesis, TNAU,
Coimbatore.
8.Sivamurugan. (1998). M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
9.Tumbare,A.D. and S.V.Bhotie. (2000). Indian J. Dryland Agric. Res. & Dev., 15: 94-95.
10.Venkateswarlu, J. (1987). Adv. Soil Sci., 7: 165-221.
25
Table 1. Effect of insitu moisture conservation methods and INM practices on growth
attributes of sunflower at harvesting stage (pooled data of two years)
Treatments
Plant height
(cm)
Leaf Area
Index
Dry matter
production
(kg ha -1)
139.3
149.7
156.1
3.2
9.0
3.26
3.97
4.27
0.10
0.27
4403
5051
5393
91
252
147.0
135.0
148.1
135.7
154.6
155.9
151.0
152.1
3.2
6.4
3.85
3.04
3.91
3.03
4.41
4.45
3.99
4.02
0.06
0.13
4805
3854
5261
4166
5400
5962
4852
5295
67
136
Insitu moisture conservation methods

M1 Flat bed
M2 CB
M3 BBF
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
INM practices
S1 100% RDN
S2 CCP at 100% N
S3 100% RDN + 0.2% B
S4 CCP at 100% N + 0.2% B
S5 75% N inorg. + 25% N CCP + Azophos
S6 75% N inorg. + 25% N CCP + Azophos + 0.2% B
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
Table 2. Effect of insitu moisture conservation methods and INM practices on soil moisture
content (%) at 45 cm depth of sunflower (pooled data of two years)
Treatments
Insitu moisture conservation methods
M1 Flat bed
M2 CB
M3 BBF
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
INM practices
S1 100% RDN
S2 CCP at 100% N
S3 100% RDN + 0.2% B
S4 CCP at 100% N + 0.2% B
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
25 DAS
45 DAS
65 DAS
Harvest
31.5
33.9
34.2
0.4
1.2
19.8
22.4
23.1
0.2
0.7
14.6
16.0
16.3
0.1
0.3
13.8
14.9
15.1
0.1
0.3
32.1
34.5
31.8
34.4
32.5
33.0
33.5
33.9
0.5
1.0
20.2
23.2
20.2
23.3
21.3
21.4
22.3
22.4
0.1
0.2
15.0
16.3
15.0
16.3
15.4
15.6
15.8
15.9
0.04
0.08
13.9
15.4
13.8
15.3
14.4
14.3
14.9
15.1
0.05
0.10
26
Table 3. Effect of insitu moisture conservation methods and INM practices on yield
attributes,yield and economics of sunflower (pooled data of two years)
Treatments
M1 Flat bed
M2 CB
M3 BBF
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
INM practices
S1 100% RDN
S2 CCP at 100% N
S3 100% RDN + 0.2% B
S4 CCP at 100% N + 0.2% B
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
Head
Number
diameter
of filled
(cm)
seeds head1
11.2
282
13.6
413
14.5
428
0.2
5
0.6
14
12.9
10.9
13.5
11.4
14.5
14.9
13.2
13.6
0.1
0.2
369
265
418
297
391
446
382
429
3.0
6.0
27
Seed
Stalk
Net
yield
yield
return
kg ha-1 kg ha-1 (Rs ha-1)
772
2397
2850
922
3173
4163
983
3388
4827
17
76
46
211
856
685
948
752
974
1082
875
967
10
20
3122
2570
3155
2599
3451
3493
3182
3206
53
108
4473
822
5178
1197
5395
6312
3745
4454
-
Benefit
cost
ratio
1.43
1.58
1.74
1.71
1.11
1.77
1.14
1.79
1.87
1.52
1.58
-
6
Study on The Insitu- Moisture
Conservation Practices Over
Rain Fed Cotton in Vertisols of
Southern Region of Tamil Nadu
T. Ragavan, N. S. Venkataraman, T. Saravanan and S. Somasundaram
Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu-628 501.
Hence an experiment was conducted to study the sowing

time, land management and cultivars interaction under
rainfed vertisol condition.
Introduction
Dry farming is the practice of crop production
entirely with rain water received during crop season
or on conserved soil moisture in low rainfall areas. Insitu moisture conservation practices not only reduce
the run-off, soil and nutrient losses but also improve
soil physical properties, nutrient status and moisture
content, there by improving and sustaining the crop
yields. Adequate availability of conserved moisture
through various in situ moisture conservation practices
helps in improving the crop growth and productivity.
Cotton is an important commercial crop grown under
black cotton soils under semi arid region in Tamil Nadu.
For upholding the productivity of rainfed crops sowing
time is an important parameter under rainfed condition,
where in crop growth is decided by the environment.
Even under optimum conditions small variations in
temperature influenced the growth and development of
crops (Bishnoi, 2002). There is limited information on
the effect of insitu moisture conservation practices under
varied sowing windows under rainfed vertisol condition.

The Field experiment was conducted at
Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti under rainfed
vertisol condition for the two consecutive years from
2003 and 2004 at during North East Monsoon season.
The study was aimed to determine the effect of in-situ
moisture conservation practices under varied time for
sowings with different cultivars on the yield components
and yield of rainfed cotton. The soil of the experimental
site was vertisol (Typic Chromusterts) with PH of 8.1.
The soil is low in available N and P, high in K. The soil
organic content of the soil was 0.37. The soil texture
is clayey having the bulk density of 1.27 kg/m3 with
field capacity of 35 per cent and permanent wilting
point of 14 per cent. In the experiment, in situ moisture
conservation practices viz., flat beds of size 8x5 m and
the broad bed and furrows at 150 cm were formed with
28
bund former and tractor drawn broad bed and furrow

former respectively. The different dates of sowing
Effect of Moisture Conservation Practices

The insitu-moisture conservation practices in
rainfed vertisols exerted significant influence on the
growth, yield attributes and kapas yield of cotton. In
the pooled data, the kapas yield of cotton was increased
significantly by 62.2 per cent with the formation of
flat bed and further yield was doubled with broad bed
and furrow compared with control (5.38 Q/ha). Insitumoisture conservation measures improved soil moisture
in 0-15, 15-30 and 30-60 cm soil depths from sowing to
till harvest, especially with broad bed and furrow system
causing the difference in yield in the present study (Table 2).
Patil and Sheelavantar (2000) observed that the increase
of crop yields due to the formation of insitu moisture
conservation practices viz, broad bed and furrow and flat
bed over the control. The reason for increased yield was
mainly due to the higher availability of moisture (Fig.1).
Higher number of sympodial branches, boll numbers
(10.4) and boll weight (3.89) were significantly higher
with broad bed and furrow compared to flat bed system
of moisture conservation. Higher yields with adoption of
insitu moisture conservation measures are also reported
by Velayudam et al (1997).
namely, pre monsoon (39th standard week),

monsoon (41st standard week) and late monsoon (43rd
standard week) period with cotton cultivars KC 2, SVPR
2 and K11 were tried. The sowing was taken by the
hand dibbling method and the recommended fertilizers @
40:20:0 kg NPK ha-1 was applied as basal with adequate
soil moisture. The experiment was laid out in split-split
plot design with three replications. The recommended
package of management technologies were followed for
the crop. The rain fed region of this tract experiences
with annual rainfall of 721 mm and seasonal rainfall
during North East Monsoon of 385 mm received in 27
rainy days. The rainfall during the crop growing season
was 317.5 mm and 458.5 mm during NEM season of
2003 and 2004 respectively.

Effect of Sowing Dates
The cotton crop sown under different dates of
sowing exerted significant variation in the growth, yield
attributes and kapas yield of cotton (Table.1). The plant
height, number of sympodial branches, bolls per plant
and kapas yield of cotton was significantly higher at pre
monsoon sown crop followed by monsoon sown. The
late monsoon sown crop registered lesser values of these
attributes. The boll weight was higher at premonsoon
sown cotton and it was comparable with monsoon sown
crop and significantly superior to the late sown. The
higher yield attributes and kapas yield under premonsoon
crop might be due to the crop utilized the entire rainfall
of 336.5 and 458.5 mm during crop growth period
respectively of 2003 and 2004 received during 39th
std week to 8th std week. More over the premonsoon
shower with subsequent rainfall favoured the better
establishment, initial vigour of the crop and good growth
development of the crop. Where as the monsoon and
late monsoon sown crops utilized the rainfall of 271.7,
225 mm and 363.9, 267.7mm respectively of 2003
and 2004. The delayed sowing reduced the plant growth
and yield attributes due to lesser biomass accumulation.
This is in conformity with the findings of Raj Singh et
al (2002).
Effect of Cultivars
The performance of different cultivars under
moisture conservation practices in rainfed vertisols
showed that the cultivar KC 3 and SVPR 2 were
performed significantly better than the K11. This might
be due to the genetic potentiality of the cultivars tried
under moisture conservation practices. More over, KC
2 and SVPR 2 were derivative from the Combodia type
of cotton, and K11 is the derivative of Hirsutum type.
The hirsutum type of cultivar is desi cotton type with
prolified root system, highly resistant to drought and
comparatively less yielder than the combodia type.
However the moisture conservation practices with pre
monsoon sowing favoured the better development of
growth, yield attributes and kapas yield of cotton.
From the experimental results it was concluded
that the premonsoon sowing of combodia type of cotton
cultivars with insitu moisture conservation practices of
broad bed and furrow system under vertisol condition
was found to give higher kapas yield of rainfed cotton.
29
References
1.Bishnoi, O .P, 2002 .Impact of meteorological variables on the growth and development of wheat varieties. J. of
Agrometeorology.4(1):9-15.
2.Patil,S.L. and M.N. Sheelavantar.2000. Yield and yield components of rabi sorghum as influenced by insitu moisture
conservation practices and integrated nutrient management in vertisols of semi-arid tropics of Indian. Indian
J.of Agronomy, 45(1): 132-137.
3.Raj Singh,V.U.M.Rao and Diwan Singh.2002. Biomass partionting in Brassica as affected by sowing dates. J. of
Agrometeorology.4(1):59-63.
4.Velayudham, K.,Rajendran.P and S.Krishnaswamy.1997. Field evaluation of insitu moisture conservation practice.
Madras Agric.Journal, 84(2):80-82.
30
Table 1. Effect of in-situ moisture conservation practices under

different time of sowing in rain fed vertisol condition.
Plant
height
(cm)
84.5
76.4
64.2
2.71
5.60
77.8
72.1
61.5
1.72
3.58
76.4
81.3
113.8
2.08
4.22
Treatments
Premonsoon sown
Monsoon sown
Late monsoon sown
SEd
CD(0.05)
Flat bed
BBF
Control
SEd
CD(0.05)
KC 2
SVPR 2
K 11
SEd
CD(0.05)
No. of
sympodial
branches
9.2
8.4
5.4
0.35
0.72
8.4
9.3
6.1
0.26
0.54
9.7
10.2
11.7
0.32
0.66
No. of
bolls /
plant
12.4
10.6
6.8
0.47
0.96
9.2
10.4
6.8
0.34
0.86
11.2
14.4
8.3
0.67
1.18
Kapas
yield
(kg/ha)
8.59
6.28
3.76
0.84
1.72
6.68
8.27
4.38
0.46
0.91
7.79
8.82
3.54
0.54
1.05
Boll
weight
(cm)
3.93
3.72
2.54
0.28
0.55
3.56
3.89
3.14
0.09
0.18
3.98
4.21
2.43
0.15
0.32
Table.2.Effect of insitu moisture conservation practices on the soil moisture content

at different depths under rainfed vertisol condition.
Soil depth (cm)
Growth stages
Germination
Vegetative
Flowering
Maturity
Mean
0-15
Flat bed
29.7
29.4
23.24
15.05
24.35
BBF
32.98
35.04
30.46
17.12
28.9
15-30
Flat bed
BBF
29.4
31.9
31.1
35.02
25.94
30.4
18.53
19.32
26.24
29.16
Flat bed
28.53
33.5
31.2
21.08
28.58
30-60
BBF
30.35
35.73
30.64
19.78
29.13
Fig. 1. Effect of insitu moisture conservation practices on the soil

moisture content under rainfed vertisol condition.

31
7
Influence of Tillage, Land
Treatment and Organic Residue
Management on Soil Health and
Yield of Cotton in a Vertisol
under Dry Farming
S. Suresh and D. Jawahar*
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Pechiparai 629 161 Tamil Nadu
available Olsens- P 8.6 kg/ha and available N NH4OAc-K

423 kg/ha. The treatment details are as follows.
Introduction
In southern Tamil Nadu more than 70% of the
area is rainfed. The Kovilpatti region is a representative
of typical dryland and cotton is grown in Vertisols. The
climate of the region is semi-arid with uneven and erratic
distribution of rainfall. The mean annual
Treatment Details
Tr. No. Treatment Details
Conventional Tillage (CT)
T1
T2
CT+Broad Bed Furrow System (BBF)
Reduced Tillage(RT)+BBF +Green Manure(GM)
T3
RT+BBF +GM+ ZnSO4
T4
CT- Conventional tillage, RT- Reduced Tillage,
BBF- Broad Bed Furrow and GM- Green Manure
*AC&RI, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,

Killikulam rainfall is less 700 mm. Cotton area and
productivity have been shrinking over years mainly due
to soil degradation (Muthuvel et. al., 1989). Management
practices for improving soil health are required for
sustaining the cotton productivity of the region.
In CT - one disc ploughing and two tiller

ploughing, RT - one disc ploughing and one tiller
ploughing with application of pre-emergence herbicide
viz., fluchloralin @ 3.3 l /ha. The BBF was made as
100 cm wide flat bed and 50 cm wide furrows. The
green manure crop cowpea (C 152) was grown between
two rows of cotton and incorporated at 35-40 days after
sowing. The Recommended Dose of Fertilizer namely
40:20:0 kg/ha of N: P: K was applied as common dose

Field experiments were conducted during Rabi
(October to February) season of 2001-2002 and 20032004 with the following treatments to assess the tillage
requirement and land configuration in order to improve
the soil health and productivity of cotton under dry
farming in a Vertisol. The initial soil characteristics were
pH-8.1, EC-0.8 dS/m, available KMnO4-N 121 kg/ha,
32
Results
extraneous application of zinc further enhanced the yield

of cotton. The reduced tillage and the broad bed furrow
system favoured moisture conservation by way of water
harvesting and build up of the soil structure as stated
by Muthuvel et. al. (1989).The incorporation of green
manure increased the soil organic carbon content (0.58
per cent) to a marginal extent and the porosity of the soil
(49.1 per cent) to a marginal extent.
Yield of seed cotton
Residual Soil Characteristics
The pooled analysis results revealed that the

reduced tillage combined with BBF system and ZnSO4 @
25 kg/ha along with cow pea green manure incorporation
recorded the highest plant height (53.8 cm), number
of branches/plant (11.6), number of bolls/plant (7.7),
number of squares/plant (6.1) and seed cotton yield
(754 kg/ha) (table 1). The favourable effect of green
manure application on the improvement in the nutrients
availability, physical properties and root establishment
was reported by Anon, 2000. Further the soil is inherently
deficient in DTPA-extractable zinc. The calcareous nature
further induced more Zn deficiency in the soil. Therefore
Reduced tillage combined with BBF system and

ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha along with cow pea green manure
incorporation recorded highest residual soil KMnO4-N
(140 kg/ha), highest residual soil Olsens- P (9.4 kg/
ha) and highest residual soil NNH4OAc- K (444 kg/ha)
than other treatments. This highlighted the favourable
influence of these treatments in sustaining the soil
fertility status.
for all the treatments.The ZnSO4 was applied @ 25

kg/ha. The test crop Cotton variety KC2 was raised.
The experiment was conducted in Randomized Block
Design in10 farm holdings as the replications. The crop
was protected from pest and diseases by adopting need
based plant protection measures.
Conclusion
From the above study, it can be concluded
that the reduced tillage of one disc followed by tiller
ploughing combined with BBF system and application
of recommended dose of fertilizers along with ZnSO4
@ 25 kg/ha and green manure incorporation recorded
highest plant height, number of branches/plant,
number of bolls/ plant and seed cotton yield. The
above treatment sustained soil health and fertility and
also recorded higher B:C ratio. Therefore the reduced
tillage of one disc followed by tiller ploughing combined
with BBF system and application of recommended dose
of fertilizers along with ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ha and green
manure incorporation imperative for sustaining the soil
health and yield of cotton under dry farming.
Table 1. Effect of treatments on the biometric
characteristics, yield of cotton and soil properties

Treat- ments
CT
CT+BBF
RT+BBF +GM
RT+BBF +GM+ ZnSO4
SEd
CD (0.05)
Plant
height
(cm)
48.2
52.5
53.3
53.8
0.47
0.95
Branch/ Bolls/
plant
plant
9.5
6.3
11.5
11.6
0.2
0.4
5.9
6.9
7.3
7.7
0.1
0.2
Squares/ Seed KMnO4N Olsen-P

NN
plant cotton
kg/ha
NH4OAcyield
K
(kg/ha)
4.2
606
123
8.2
425
5.3
685
128
8.5
429
5.9
737
137
9.2
437
6.1
754
140
9.4
444
0.1
6.3
1.2
0.1
1.4
0.2
13
2.3
0.2
2.8
33
Org.
C
(%)
B:C
ratio
0.55
0.55
0.58
0.58
0.003
0.006
1.32
1.47
1.50
1.48
References
Anonymous 2000 Annual Report of All India Coordinated Research Project, CRIDA, Hyderabad.
Muthuvel, P., Pallikondaperumal, R.K, Sivasamy, R., Subramanian, V and Sree Ramulu, U.S. 1989. Soil fertility under
continuous cropping of cotton- pearl millet in dryland vertisol. Madras Agric. J 76 (4): 189-191.
34
8
Effect of In-Situ Moisture
Conservation and Nitrogen
Management in Dry Land
Agroforestry Systems
S. Radhamani and P. Subbian, Department of Agronomy Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
to the farming system, combining perennial trees with

seasonal crops would be more appropriate. A study was
hence carried out to identify the efficiency of this system
for the rainfed agro-ecosystem of Tamil Nadu.
Introduction
Rainfall is the major deciding factor for the
success of crop production in dry lands. Even the rainfall
is fairly high, it is often wasted as runoff, percolation and
evaporation. It is necessary to maximize its retention in
soil and consumed by the crops. The major focus should
be to improve the surface infiltration and retention of
soil moisture within the root zone. Present farming
systems under dry lands are characterised by low and
unpredictable yield due to inefficient use of rainfall, rare use
of fertilizers, non inclusion of high yielding varieties and
lack of improved soil conservation (Pathak and Laryea,
1995). Efficient resource management including insitu
conservation of moisture, crop production technologies,
nutrient management and alternate land use systems are
the key issues to increase the productivity of the dryland
areas. In drylands, agroforestry is an important option
to enhance the productivity by utilizing the off-season
rainfall and as an alternate land use system adopted to
replace or modify the traditional land use (Singh and
Osman, 1995). For providing stability and sustainability
Maerials and Methods

Field experiments were conducted at Research
Farm, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore during North East monsoon
seasons of 1999 and 2000. The soil of the experimental
site was vertisol having low available nitrogen (147 kg
ha-1), medium available phosphorus (137 kg ha-1 ) and
high available potassium (432 kg ha-1). The pH of the
soil was 7.9 with an EC of 0.37 d Sm-1. Amount of
rainfall received during the North East Monsoon seasons
of the years 1999 and 2000 were 422.6 and 291.2 mm,
respectively. The cropping systems studied were grain
sorghum (CO 26) + cowpea (CO 4), fodder sorghum
(CO 27) + cowpea (CO 4) and Cenchrus glaucus. The
experiment was laid out in split plot design with three
replications. The main plot treatments comprised of tree
35
species viz., Ailanthus excelsa(T1), Ceiba pen tandra (T2)

and Emblica officinalis (T3) and moisture conservation
practices viz., Tied ridges(M1) and Flat bed (M2). Sub
plot treatments consisted of nutrient management
practices viz:,100 per cent N through fertilizer(N1)
and 50 per cent N through fertilizer + 50 per cent N
through goat manure(N2). Tree seedlings were planted
well in advance during the North East Monsoon of 1998
for establishment. Crops were grown as intercrops in
between the tree seedlings during North East Monsoon
seasons of 1999 and 2000. Tied ridges were formed
at third week after germination of the seeds as per the
treatments. Recommended fertilizer schedule of 40 : 20
kg N and P ha-1 was adopted. Goat manure was applied
basally on equal N basis and incorporated as per the
treatments assigned. Productivity in terms of grain and
fodder yields were recorded and converted into sorghum
fodder equivalent yield and expressed as tones per ha.
Crop and Soil Nutrient Studies

The increased total nutrient uptake of the crops
with E.officinalis might be attributed to less competition
between the tree and crop component as compared
to other tree species. Higher total nutrient uptake in
sorghum + cowpea cropping systems was recorded with
tied ridges than flat sowing during first year. The possible
reason might be the availability of higher moisture
during all the growth stages which in turn increased the
uptake of nutrients by sorghum and cowpea. Shaikh
et al. (1995) reported that total N and P uptake were
higher with ridges and furrow sowing as compared to
normal sowing in rainfed pearl millet. Bhan et al. (1998)
also reported that ridging and furrowing increased the N
uptake of rainfed sorghum. Non receipt of rainfall after
the formation of tied ridges and also inadequate soil
moisture at critical growth stages of the crop might have
reduced the uptake of nutrients which in turn reduced
total nutrient uptake during second year.

Soil Moisture Status
The nutrient uptake was increased with

application of 50 per cent N through fertilizer and
50 per cent N through goat manure. Higher nutrient
uptake might be due to continuous and steady
availability of nutrients due to chelation effect of organic
acids released during decomposition of organic matter
(Tomar et al., 1984). The addition of basal dose of N
along with goat manure could have narrowed down the
C:N ratio and increased the N availability as reported by
Hofman et al. (1986). Higher P uptake might be due to
availability of moisture and better root growth created by
application of goat manure. Increased P uptake coupled
with N uptake in sorghum plant was already reported
by Roy and Wright (1974). Increased P uptake was
attributed to the increased solubilisation of insoluble P
fraction during humification and reduced P fixation in
the soil particles due to the protective action of manure
by releasing organic acids during the decomposition.
Increased uptake of N and P might have helped to extract
more K from the soil resulting in higher K uptake under
the application of goat manure.
Higher soil moisture content was recorded with

E.officinalis than other tree species in all the cropping
systems. This might be due to less competition among
the plants and E.officinalis for moisture. Lower available
soil moisture was recorded with C.pentandra which
might have utilized more moisture for its growth and
produced higher basal diameter with compact crown.
Odhiambo et al. (1999) reported that 60 and 55 per
cent of the root biomass of Gliricidia and Grevillea was
within the top 30 cm of soil.
Soil moisture content was higher under tied
ridges than flatbed sowing during first year. Less runoff
and more opportunity time for infiltration might have
favoured the better infiltration of water into the deeper
soil layers which in turn increased the soil moisture
status under this treatment. During the second year, due
to non receipt of adequate rainfall after the formation
of tied ridges, not much variation between the moisture
conservation practices was recorded. Kolekar et al. (1998)
also reported that tied ridges recorded higher moisture
content and increased the crop yield. Application of goat
manure along with inorganic fertilizer conserved higher
soil moisture throughout the crop period due to high
water holding capacity of soil which caused increase in
absorption and retention of rain water. This might have
reduced the bulk density of soil and increased infiltration
rate and hydraulic conductivity, and hence improving
water holding capacity of the soil (Sugandaraj,1990).
Higher post harvest soil available nutrients

with E.officinalis as compared to other tree species
might be due to less removal of nutrients with this tree
component. Inclusion of cowpea with sorghum recorded
higher available N, P and K content of the soil which
might be due to the legume which fixes atmospheric
nitrogen in the soil. Improvement in the soil N and K
status was observed with the combined application of
36
organic and inorganic sources. The magnitude of loss

of P was lowered with the application of goat manure to
supply 50 per cent of the recommended N as compared
to 100 per cent N through inorganic fertilizer alone.
Less gain under inorganic source might be due to loss of
N by volatilization.
et al. (2000) also reported that higher sorghum grain

equivalent yield was obtained with combined application
of both organic and inorganic source of nutrients.
Economic Analysis
The highest net return (Rs.7385) and B:C ratio
(2.18) were obtained under grain sorghum with cowpea
intercropped under tied ridges with application of 50
per cent N through fertilizer and 50 per cent N through
goat manure during the year 1999. Similar results were
earlier reported by Balasubramanian et al. (1982) who
reported that sorghum intercropped with two rows of
cowpea under paired row system gave the highest net
return. This was followed by fodder sorghum + cowpea,
which produced higher net return (Rs.1554) and B : C
ratio (1.40) with the above treatment. Whereas during
the year 2000, due to inadequate rainfall and soil
moisture during reproductive and maturity phases the
grain yield was reduced in the grain sorghum + cowpea
system which in turn reduced the net return and B: C
ratio (Table 2). With less amount of rainfall the grass
system produced higher yield and net return during the
year 2000.
Productivity of The Cropping Systems

The total drymatter production (DMP) and
sorghum fodder equivalent yield of the grain sorghum
+ cowpea and fodder sorghum + cowpea systems were
higher with E. officinalis with tied ridges and application
of 50 per cent N through inorganic fertilizer and 50 per
cent N through goat manure in both the years (Table 1).
The tree species and moisture conservation practices had
no significant influence on the total DMP and sorghum
fodder equivalent yield of C. glaucus in both the years.
Among the N management practices, application of 50
per cent N through inorganic fertilizer and 50 per cent
N through goat manure recorded the highest total DMP
and sorghum fodder equivalent yield of C. glaucus in
both the years.
Among the three systems tried, higher sorghum
fodder equivalent yield was recorded with grain sorghum
+ cowpea as compared to fodder sorghum + cowpea
and C. glaucus . This was due to higher market value
for grain than the fodder. Due to adequate supply of
moisture through rainfall sorghum fodder equivalent yield
was higher during 1999. Crops grown with E. officinalis
recorded higher sorghum fodder equivalent yield.
The possible reason might be due to less competition
posed by E. officinalis than other trees. Similarly higher
sorghum fodder equivalent yield recorded under tied
ridges and application of 50 per cent through inorganic
N and 50 per cent N through goat manure which might
be due to adequate moisture and nutrient supply. Arya
From the above study it could be inferred that less

competition posed by Emblica officinalis and improved
moisture status of the soil under tied ridges along with
combined application of organic manure and inorganic
fertilizer under grain sorghum + cowpea system which
utilized the resources in a better way and produced higher
grain yield during first year, which in turn increased the
gross return, net return and B: C ratio. Even with less
rainfall, grass produced substantial yield and also due
to less cost of cultivation the Cenchrus glaucus system
recorded higher gross return, net return and B: C ratio
during second year as compared to grain or fodder
sorghum with cowpea as an intercrop.
37
References
1.Arya, R.L., K.P.Niranjan, A.Singh and J.B.Singh. 2000. Production potential and sustainability of food-fodder alley
cropping system under rainfed conditions. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 70(2): 73-76.
2.Balasubramanian, A., K.V.Selvaraj, M.N.Prasad and O.Thangavelu. 1982. Intercropping studies in dryland sorghum.
Sorghum Newsletter, 25: 45.
3.Bhan, S., S.K.Uttam and Radhey Shyam. 1998. Effect of moisture conservation practices and nitrogen levels on
jowar (Sorghum bicolor L.) under rainfed condition. Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Partrika, 13(3/4) : 93-99.
4.Hofman, G., C.Ossemerct, G.Ide and M.Vanruymbeke. 1986. Nitrogen study from soil types with various organic
matter treatments. Plant and Soil, 91(3) : 411-415.
5.Kolekar, P.T., N.K.Umrani and D.V.Indi. 1998. Effect of moisture conservation techniques and nitrogen on growth
and yield of rainfed rabi sorghum. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ., 23(1): 26-28.
6.Odhiambo,H.O., C.K.Ong, J.Wilson, J.D.Deans, J.Broadhead and C.Black. 1999. Tree crop interactions for below
ground resources in drylands: Root structure and function. Ann. Arid Zone, 38 (3) : 221-237.
7.Pathak, P. and K.B.Laryea. 1995. Soil and water conservation in the Indian SAT; Principles and improved practices.
In: Sustainable development of dryland agriculture in India. (Ed.) R.P.Singh, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, p.
83-92.
8.Roy, R.N. and B.C.Wright. 1974. Sorghum growth and nutrient uptake in relation to soil fertility and NPK uptake
pattern by various plant parts. Agron. J., 66(1) : 5-10.
9.Shaikh, A.A., A.S.Jadhav and M.J.Wallamwar. 1995. Effects of planting methods, mulching and fertilizers on yield
and uptake of rainfed millet. J.Maharashtra Agri. Univ., 20(1) : 146-147.
10.Singh, R.P. and M. Osman. 1995. Alternative land use systems for drylands. In: Sustainable development of
dryland agriculture in India. (Ed.) R.P.Singh, Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, p.375-398.
11.Sugandaraj, S. 1990. Evaluation of sorghum based cropping system and its nutrient requirement for rainfed
vertisols. M.Sc (Ag.) Thesis, Tamil Nadu Agri. Univ., Coimbatore.
12.Tomar, N.K., S.S.Khanna and A.P.Gupta. 1984. Evaluation of rock phosphate superphosphate mixtures by
incubation in orgnaic matter for efficient use in wheat. Fert. News, 29(5) : 37-38.
38
Table 1. Sorghum fodder equivalent yield (t ha-1) of the cropping systems

Treatment
Sorghum + cowpea
(grain)
1999
2000
27.3
9.7
24.3
10.1
27.3
11.4
1.76
0.53
27.8
10.4
24.8
10.4
1.40
NS
24.2
10.1
28.5
10.7
1.59
0.48
T1
T2
T3
CD at 5%
M1
M2
CD at 5%
N1
N2
CD at 5%
Sorghum + cowpea
(fodder)
1999
2000
11.8
7.5
11.2
7.5
11.6
8.7
NS
0.40
12.1
7.9
10.9
7.9
0.75
NS
11.2
7.7
11.9
8.1
0.61
0.31
Cenchrus glaucus
1999
11.0
10.9
10.9
NS
10.9
10.9
NS
10.5
11.4
0.59
2000
9.1
9.1
9.1
NS
9.1
9.1
NS
8.7
9.5
0.26
39
Table 2. Economic analysis (Rs ha-1) of the cropping systems (1999 and 2000)
Treatment
Sorghum + cowpea
(grain)
T1M1N1
M1N2
M2N1
M2N2
T2M1N1
M1N2
M2N1
M2N2
T3M1N1
M1N2
M2N1
M2N2
Sorghum + cowpea
(fodder)
1999
Cenchrus glaucus
Sorghum + cowpea
(grain)
2000
Sorghum + cowpea
(fodder)
Cenchrus glaucus
Net
return
B:C
ratio
Net
return
B:C
ratio
Net
return
B:C
ratio
Net
return
B:C
ratio
Net
return
B:C
ratio
Net
return
B:C
ratio
4442
6900
3891
5778
3495
5593
2712
4110
4276
7385
4125
5253
1.69
2.10
1.62
1.94
1.54
1.89
1.44
1.68
1.66
2.18
1.66
1.87
904
1216
858
1152
529
1294
549
735
757
1554
456
1005
1.22
1.31
1.22
1.31
1.13
1.33
1.14
1.20
1.18
1.40
1.12
1.27
687
1163
933
1392
676
1160
870
1356
647
1156
864
1363
1.18
1.32
1.27
1.41
1.18
1.32
1.25
1.40
1.17
1.32
1.25
1.40
-2539
-2037
-2296
-1775
-2307
-1933
-2070
-1634
-1804
-1485
-1531
-1651
0.61
0.67
0.63
0.70
0.64
0.69
0.67
0.73
0.72
0.76
0.75
0.73
-1026
-694
-849
-473
-1037
-767
-829
-514
-540
-167
-329
-297
0.75
0.82
0.78
0.87
0.75
0.80
0.79
0.86
0.87
0.96
0.92
0.92
759
1217
941
1448
744
1183
948
1406
721
1270
957
1411
1.26
1.43
1.35
1.57
1.26
1.43
1.35
1.55
1.25
1.46
1.36
1.55
9
Effect of Moisture Conservation
and Watering On Growth of
Tree Seedlings under Drylands
S. Radhamani and P. Subbian , Department of Agronomy, TNAU, Coimbatore.
the practices to increase the moisture availability and

for checking evaporation losses for efficient utilization
of moisture for the establishment of tree seedlings under
dry land.
Introduction
Agro forestry is a part of alternate land use
system which encompasses all techniques that attempt
to establish or maintain trees and agricultural production
on the same piece of land. For providing stability and
sustainability to the farming system, tree cum crop
farming will be the most appropriate one. Deficiency
of moisture and extremes of temperature in arid and
semiarid condition adversely affect the early growth and
establishment of trees. The percolated water during
the rainy season is not used by the trees in their early
establishment. Application of mulching material on the
soil surface increases the moisture availability and growth
of tree seedlings (Shukla, 1998). Coir pith, a waste from
the coir industry, having less economic value and high
water holding capacity, can be used as a mulching
martial. Pitcher irrigation is a technique of growing
plants using small amount of water with earthern pots
buried in the soil. According to Chauhan et al (1999),
the water loss was found negligible in pitcher method
of irrigation. Hence, a study was carried out to evaluate

Field experiments were conducted at
Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore during 1999 and 2000 to
evaluate techniques suitable for the establishment and
growth of tree seedlings under drylands. The soil of
the experimental site was vertisol having low available
nitrogen (147 kg ha-1), medium available phosphorus
(137 kg ha1 ) and high available potassium (432 kg ha-1).
The pH of the soil was 7.9 with an EC of 0.37 d Sm1.
The experiment was laid out in split plot design with
nine replications. The main plot treatments consisted of
tree species viz., Ailanthus excelsa (T1), Ceiba pentandra
(T2) and Emblica officinalis (T3) and sub plot treatments
consisted of mulching viz., mulching with coir pith
(M1) and without mulching (M2) and watering methods
40
Reduction in soil temperature through the application of

coir pith was also reported by Singh and Prasad (1993),
who recorded 0.5oC to 6oC reduction in soil temperature
in coir pith mulching. With regard to watering, pitcher
irrigation recorded lesser soil temperature than control.
viz., pitcher irrigation (P1) and control (P2). One year

old tree seedlings were planted during the North East
Monsoon season of 1998. The total rainfall received
during 1999 and 2000 were 536.4 and 557.7mm,
respectively. Among the total rainfall, 54.3 and 20.0
mm of rainfall was received during summer 1999 and
2000, respectively. During the Summer, weeding was
done around the trees and the treatments were imposed.
Pitcher pots having 5 lit capacity were installed as per
the treatments, 15 cm from the base of the seedlings
in the first year of establishment during Summer. Coir
pith was applied 50 cm diameter around the trees at the
rate of 5 kg as per the treatments assigned. The pitcher
pots were filled after draining the entire water once in a
week. A common watering was done to all the seedlings
once in 15 days in order to maintain the population. Soil
moisture content was estimated gravimetrically and soil
temperature was recorded at 15 and 30cm depth before
filling the pots.
Growth of Tree Seedlings

The growth of trees was better with moisture
conservation and pitcher irrigation as compared to
control during Summer. Among the trees, the E. officinalis
recorded greater increment in height as compared to
C. pentandra and A. excelsa in all the seasons. With
coir pith mulching and pitcher irrigation, the increment
in height as well as basal diameter was greater with E.
officinalis than other tree species during Summer(Table
2). This indicated the better response of E. officinalis
for the mulching and pitcher irrigation. Results are in
accordance with the findings of Solanki et al. (1999)
who reported better growth of E. officinalis with various
in situ moisture conservation techniques.
Increased height and basal diameter with pitcher

irrigation might be due to higher moisture availability at
the root zone which in turn helped in efficient utilization
of the applied water by reduced water loss through
evaporation. Similar views were also reported by
Chauhan et al. (1999). Narvane and Desai (1989) also
reported that the plant height, stem girth and leaf area
of mango saplings were highest with sub soil irrigation
though pitcher. The highest tree seedling height and
basal diameter with application of coir pith mulching
might be due to higher soil moisture content and lower
soil temperature which would have created favorable
environment in the root zone, in turn increasing the
growth of the tree seedlings.
Soil Moisture
The soil moisture content was varying among the
tree species. E. officinalis recorded higher soil moisture
content than A. excelsa and C. pentandra . Mulching
with coir pith recorded higher soil moisture content than
without mulching in both the seasons. With regard to
watering, soil moisture content was higher in pitcher
as compared to without pitcher irrigation. Among the
different depths, the soil moisture content was higher
in 15-30 cm depth than 0-15 cm depth in both the
seasons(Table 1). According to Subramanian and
George (1998) soil moisture in the coir pith mulched plot
remained higher than control and the fall in moisture per
cent was also gradual in mulched plots.
From the above study it could be inferred that

coirpith mulching with pitcher irrigation produced
better growth of tree seedlings and among the trees E.
officinalis had better response to mulching and pitcher
irrigation than C. pentandra and A. excelsa under
dryland situation.
Soil Temperature
There was noticeable difference in the soil
temperature between coirpith mulched and unmulched
treatments. Coirpith mulching recorded lesser soil
temperature than without mulching. The soil temperature
was less in 30cm depth as compared to 15cm depth.
41
References
1.Chauhan, V., R.A.Singhania, S.K.Singh and Ashok Kumar. 1999. Impact of saline water by pitcher method on
chillies production A study. Indian J. Agric. Res., 33(1): 62-66.
2.Narvane, S.M. and U.T.Desai. 1989. Influence of irrigation methods and mulching on the establishment of mango
saplings. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ., 14(3) : 381-383.
3.Shukla, S.K. 1998. Tips to grow aonla in red soil. The Hindu, 10-12-98.
4.Singh, S.B. and K.G.Prasad.1993. Use of mulches in dryland afforestation programme. In: Afforestation of arid
lands. (Eds.) A.P.Dwivedi and G.N. Gupta. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur,P.181-190.
5.Solanki, K.R., R. Newaj, S.K.Shukla, A.K.Bisaria, A.K.Handa, Ajit and Anil Kumar. 1999. Performance of Aonla
in agroforestry with application of root management and moisture conservation technique. Annual Report,
NRCA, p.47-48.
6.Subramanian, V. and M.George. 1998. Retain soil moisture with coir pith. The Hindu, 11-06-1998.
42
Table 1. Effect of treatments on soil moisture content (per cent) (Summer 1999 and 2000)
Treatment
Summer 1999
0-15cm
March
13.32
11.94
12.15
10.43
13.80
10.73
11.61
10.62
14.95
11.50
12.09
10.91
T1M1P1
P2
M2P1
P2
T2M1P1
P2
M2P1
P2
T3M1P1
P2
M2P1
P2
April
16.91
12.39
16.70
10.50
15.00
11.00
12.43
10.91
16.34
10.81
13.72
10.63
Summer 2000
15-30 cm
May
14.32
11.42
13.14
10.33
14.70
11.35
12.11
10.83
16.02
10.90
12.81
10.83
March
18.80
16.90
18.08
16.89
19.52
15.91
17.90
15.92
18.80
16.01
17.14
15.92
April
17.25
16.51
17.32
16.40
18.94
15.75
17.03
15.81
19.23
16.16
18.42
15.85
0-15cm
May
18.61
16.32
18.44
16.41
20.01
16.14
19.72
15.90
20.00
16.03
19.60
15.90
March
15.63
13.10
14.81
11.52
15.13
12.82
14.54
11.30
15.83
13.22
14.71
11.44
15-30 cm
April
11.08
10.86
11.05
10.53
11.02
10.88
10.96
10.67
13.90
12.59
13.71
10.70
May
11.38
10.96
11.18
10.38
11.85
10.73
11.60
10.52
11.96
10.40
11.58
10.01
March
15.80
13.52
14.91
12.31
15.33
12.90
14.91
11.42
16.11
14.02
14.15
11.52
April
11.27
10.94
11.17
10.61
11.69
11.37
11.65
10.91
18.99
13.83
13.92
11.50
May
11.45
10.99
11.24
10.43
12.32
12.14
12.31
10.74
12.58
11.89
12.29
10.80
Table 2. Effect of treatments on height (cm) and basal diameter (cm) of tree seedlings (Summer 1999 and 2000)
43
Height (cm)
Summer 1999
Treatment
Basal diameter (cm)

Summer 2000
7 months 9 months Increase 19 months

after
after
in height
after
planting
planting
(cm)
planting
Summer 1999
21 months
after
planting
Increase
in height
(cm)
7 months 9 months
after
after
planting
planting
Summer 2000
Increase 19 months 21 months

in dia
after
after
(cm)
planting
planting
Increase
in dia
(cm)
T1
33.2
40.7
7.5
78.5
85.3
6.8
1.60
1.83
0.23
3.58
3.87
0.29
T2
46.3
54.2
7.9
129.3
137.8
8.5
1.57
1.72
0.15
4.83
5.06
0.23
T3
72.2
88.8
16.6
211.8
227.0
15.2
1.10
1.62
0.52
3.56
3.96
0.40
SEd
0.29
0.34
0.32
0.51
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
CD (P=0.05)
0.61
0.72
0.68
1.09
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.04
M1
51.1
61.9
11.3
148.8
163.6
14.8
1.47
1.80
0.37
4.38
4.75
0.37
10.0
5.5
0.24
0.25
M2
50.0
60.5
130.9
136.4
1.37
1.65
3.60
3.85
SEd
0.22
0.26
0.32
0.25
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
CD (P=0.05)
0.43
0.52
0.64
0.49
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.04
P1
49.6
62.9
12.5
158.9
172.8
13.9
1.43
1.72
0.31
4.56
4.95
0.39
8.8
6.5
0.30
0.23
P2
51.5
59.5
120.8
127.3
1.41
1.73
3.42
3.65
SEd
0.22
0.26
0.32
0.25
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
CD (P=0.05)
0.43
0.52
0.64
0.49
0.02
NS
0.04
0.04
10
Land Management Practices
for In-Situ Water Harvesting in
Drylands
Rajeswari. M*, I Seegan Paul** and V. Subramanian***
m dimension. Since the sequential cropping system

followed in these area is a cash crop followed by cereal
crop, Cotton intercropped with blackgram followed by
sorghum crop was chosen as the crop rotation. The
runoff was recorded using H-Flumes and stage level
recorders. The soil moisture was estimated by gravimetric
method.
Introduction
Vertisols constitute 23.1 per cent of rainfed lands
in the country and possess great production potential.
These soils are poor in organic matter and structure
and suffer from higher expansion and shrinkage.
These soils disperse easily resulting in low infiltration
rate and high runoff which eventually leads to poor soil
moisture storage and low yield. These constraints can
be alleviated by adopting in-situ moisture conservation
practices which help to slow down the runoff and
increase infiltration ultimately resulting in improved soil
moisture storage.

Effect of Land Treatments on Runoff
The runoff as percentage of rainfall recorded
from different land treatments is presented in Table 1.
The mean values of runoff for 4 years revealed that

compartmental bunding was superior to other treatments
since only 11.82 per cent of the seasonal rainfall was
lost as runoff when compared to the farmers practice
which registered 30 per cent of runoff. The percentage
reduction in runoff due to the land treatments was 60,
48.3 and 27.0 per cent in compartmental bunding,
vettiver and broad bed and furrows respectively.
Field experiments were conducted in vertisols

at Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti. Four land
treatments viz., Broad bed (1.5 m width) and furrow
(30 cm width), compartmental bunding of size 8x5 m,
planting of vettiver across the slope at 25 m interval
and farmers practice of ploughing across the slope
were evaluated in non-replicated plots of 100 x 30
44
Table 1. Runoff as percentage of rainfall for different land

treatments
Tr. No.
T1
Treatment
Farmers practice (Control)
Runoff as percentage of rainfall

2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2004-05
Mean
13.37
32.56
36.09
36.62
29.66
T2
2.50
9.50
20.66
14.60
11.82
T3
Broadbed and furrows
11.14
20.78
31.29
23.41
21.66
T4
Vettiver
6.77
13.90
22.83
17.82
15.33
The effect of the land treatments on yield over

years was compared by converting the cotton and
blackgram yield into sorghum equivalent yield and
statistical analysis was done treating the yield of different
years as replications (Table 4).
Effect of Land Treatments on Soil

Moisture Storage
The mean soil moisture content in (0-45
cm) depth of the soil during the months of October,
November and December were estimated by gravimetric
method and compared to assess the effectiveness of the
land treatments (Table 2).
Table 2. Mean soil moisture content (% dry
basis)
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Among the land treatments, compartmental

bunding has recorded the highest sorghum equivalent
yield (1982 kg/ha) which was 25.4 per cent higher than
control with a mean B: C ratio of 1.40. The results
Treatment
Mean soil moisture content (%db)
Farmers Practice
Broad bed and furrow
Vettiver
Rainfall (mm)
23.38
25.33
24.14
24.30
289.4
24.95
24.50
24.65
24.87
306.2
21.43
23.24
22.11
23.30
289.2
25.24
30.93
29.45
31.00
317.5
confirm with the findings of Robinson et.al (1986).

Radder et.al.,(1991) reported that yield increase of 24
and 56 per cent could be obtained with compartmental
bunds of 4.5 4.5 m and 3 m 3 m respectively in
deep black soils.
The soil moisture stored in the land treatments

was found to be non significant. However compartmental
bunding has recorded numerically higher values of
moisture content. Channappa (1974) has reported that
compartmental bunding is the best in-situ moisture
conservation practice.
Influence of Land Treatments on Yield

of Crops
The yield data of cotton + black gram and
sorghum crops raised in rotation is furnished in Table
3.
Table. 3 Yield of crops due to different land
treatments
Tr. No.
Treatment
Grain (kg/ha)
2000-01
Sorghum
2001-02
Cotton
Blackgram
2002-03
2004-05
Sorghum
Sorghum
T1
1115
476
178
1166
2078
T2
1577
608
231
1332
2501
T3
1305
512
189
1232
2313
T4
Vettiver
1017
551
207
1265
2306
45
Table 4. Yield of crops in sorghum equivalent for different

land treatments
Tr. No.
T1
T2
T3
T4
CD 0.05
Grain (kg ha-1)
Treatment

Vettiver
2000-01
2001-02
2002-03
2004-05
Mean
1115
1577
1305
1017
1962
2517
2103
2274
1166
1332
1232
1265
2078
2501
2313
2306
1580
1982
1738
1716
187
Mean
Benefit/
cost ratio
of all
products
1.18
1.40
1.24
1.22
Conclusion
For semi - arid vertisols, having a land slope of one per cent and an annual rainfall of 600-700 mm, the land
treatment, compartmental bunding (8m x 5m) formed across the slope helps in reducing runoff to the tune of 60
percent resulting in 25 per cent yield increase in sorghum with a B:C ratio of 1.40.
References
Channappa, T.C. (1974). In-situ moisture conservation in arid and semi-arid tropics. Indian J. Soil conservation, 22
: 1-2.
Radder, G.D., C.J. Itnal, B.M. Birdar and V.S. Surkod (1991). Compartmental bunding an effective in-situ moisture
conservation practice on medium deep black soils. Indian J. Soil conservation, 51 : 1-2.
46
Theme 2
Water Harvesting at
Micro-Watershed Level
11
Harvesting Of Surface Runoff
for Ground Water Recharge
- A Case Study of Koilmalai
Watershed
M. Sivakumar , Scientist-C, Central Ground Water Board, SECR, Chennai
About Koilmalai Watershed
Drainage Pattern
The watersheds/ river basins referred as

hydrologic units (HUs) are independent of territorial
boundaries. Parts of blocks namely Anaicut, Madhanur
and Alangayam of Vellore district and Jawadhu hills and
Pudupalayam of Thiruvannamalai district forms the total
area of koilmalai watershed. The details of location and
administrative set up of Koilmalai watershed are shown
in fig- 1. The koilmalai water shed is having an area of
200.83 Sq. km and lie between north latitudes 12.56
and 12.75 and east longitudes 78.79 and 78.95. About
60% of water shed area is falling within administrative
boundary of Vellore district and remaining area falling
within administrative boundary of Thiruvannamalai
district. Topographically, about 58.6 Sq.km area of
watershed is having plain to undulating topography and
142.23 Sq.km areas are covered with hills and dense
forest. In general, most part of watershed is having steep
slope due to many hills ranges, which is responsible
for generation of sudden overland flow even for small
shower. Plain to undulating topography exists mostly
in the downstream side of watershed and valley and
plateaus of hilly regions.
The Koilmalai watershed area drained by a

stream called Koilmalai Ar. The two major tributaries
of Koilmalai Ar are Mamarattur Ar and Periya Ar.
The stream Mamarattur Ar originates near Nayakkanur
village in Alangayam block of Vellore district at an
elevation of 710 m amsl and flow northwards across
Alangayam Reserve forest. The stream Periya Ar
originate near Melmarattur village in Jawadhu hills block
of Thiruvannamalai district at an elevation of 900 m
amsl and flow towards SW direction across virappanur
reserved forest. These two streams join together at an
elevation of 510 m amsl in the dense Jawadhu hills of
virappanur reserve forest and flow towards NE direction
with the name Koilmalai Ar. The total length of
stream is of 28.33 km. The stream traverse 20.6 km
within hilly terrain from the elevation of 710 m amsl
at Nayakkanur village to 410 m amsl at Melarasmpattu
village and rest in plain further down to 330 m amsl
at china cheripadi village, which is the mouth of the
watershed. The stream is 5th order stream and the total
no of stream segments of all order within the watershed
is 865 nos., which include 669 first order, 148 second
49
or black in colours and or mixture of both at some

places. The loamy structure of soil or the intermixture
of fine and thick particles make it suitable for cultivation
of large variety of crops than black soils. The areal
distribution of soils in Koilmalai watershed is depicted in
fig-3. Infiltration capacity of soils is one of the important
factors controlling the recharge of water into the aquifer
systems. In the field, soil infiltration test were conducted
at 8 sites. The tests were conducted for durations
ranging from 280 to 420 minutes. The locations of
soil infiltration tests conducted in the field are shown
in fig-3. The infiltration test conducted on sandy soil /
gravelly soil have shown higher rate of infiltration, which
are classified under Rapid Infiltration. The infiltration
rate of loamy clay and silty clay are in the range of
1.2 3.1 mm/hr. In general, the infiltration rate in the
majority of cases is moderate to rapid.
order, 38 third order and 9 forth order streams. The

drainage pattern of Koilmalai watershed is shown in
fig-2. Morphometrically, the shape of the watershed is
strongly elongated in nature and having very high relief
and steep slopes. Moderately high drainage density and
less value of length of overland flow are indicative that
the regions of weak or impermeable sub surface materials
sparse vegetation and mountainous relief facilitate poor
groundwater recharge.
Rainfall
The rainfall data collected from the gudiyatham
rain gauge station over the period of 100 years is
considered for analysis. Based on the statistical analysis
of 100-years annual rainfall data, the annual normal
rainfall of watershed is worked out as 900.97 mm, of
which 768.87 mm received during monsoon periods.
Based on the probability analysis of annual normal
rainfall data, the average annual rainfall at 50% and
75% dependability work out as 861 mm, 733 mm
respectively and average monsoon rainfall at 50% and
75% dependability work out as 621.5 mm and 739
mm respectively. The rainfall occurring during nonmonsoon seasons do not produce significant quantity of
surface run off and even some time negligible. Hence,
monsoon rainfall at 75% dependability i.e. 621.5 mm
is considered for the computation of surface runoff of
Koilmalai watershed.
Soils & Infiltration Study

The soils of Koilmalai watershed can be classified
broadly into types namely clayey and loamy. The
distribution of important soil types in the watershed,
based on the map prepared by the National Bureau of
Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (ICAR) in cooperation
with Department of Agriculture, Tamil Nadu (1996).
Moderately deep, somewhat excessively drained, gravely
clay soils occur on moderately sloping high hills and hill
ranges. Shallow, somewhat excessively drained, gravely
loamy soils are found on moderately sloping foot slopes.
Moderately deep, somewhat excessively drained, gravely
loam soils occur on high hills. The soils are either red
Estimation of Surface Runoff

Koilmalai watershed is an un-gauged one and
runoff of the basin can be computed using empirical /
rational methods. A number of formulae and tables are
available for different types of catchments in India (Dhir
et al., 1955). The most commonly used ones being those
developed by Strange, Inglis, Lacey and Khosla (Dhir
et.al., 1955). All these methods have been used in the
present study to assess the monsoon runoff generated in
the watershed.
The computation of surface runoff of koilmalai
watershed using Ingles and Khoslas formula is much
50
higher i.e. the runoff co-efficient which is defined as

the ratio of runoff to precipitation, is about 36% and
78% respectively. But in case of strange curves, Laceys
formulae and Barlows methods, the computed runoff
values are more less equal and within agreeable limit.
In these methods, the runoff coefficient is in the range
of 14% to 20%, which is considered to near realistic
value. Hence, in order to eliminate the over estimation
of runoff of watershed, the lowest value of 18.07 MCM
obtained using Strange table is taken as the total surface
water available in the watershed.
Assessment of Ground Water Resources

The assessment of ground water is needed to
meet the water requirements of domestic, irrigation and
industrial sectors. The Central Ground Water Board,
SECR, Chennai in co-ordination with state has done
block wise assessment of ground water resources for
Tamil Nadu using GEC-97 methodology and published
during 2004. The parts of Anaicut, Madhanur and
Alangayam blocks of Vellore district and parts of Jawadh
hills and pudhupalayam blocks of Thiruvannamalai
district form the total area of Koilmalai Watershed. The
net ground water resource of these blocks, stage of
ground water development and draft were extracted from
the above said report. Out of these, four blocks namely
Anaicut, Madhanur, Alangayam and Pudhupalayam are
categorised as over-exploited blocks, where the stage
of ground water development is more than 100%. In
case of Jawadhu hills block, the stage of groundwater
development is 99% and is categorised as critical.
Committed Storage
Dams/ Reservoirs and tanks/ponds are the
important surface water bodies constructed across
river/ stream to store surface flow for various purposes.
Theses structures were built traditionally for domestic
and irrigational uses. As on today, there are no major/
medium level dams/ reservoirs constructed in the
watershed except some traditional water bodies like
tanks and ponds. There are about 16 tanks and ponds in
the watershed. The total water spread area of all tanks is
about 0.556 Sq.km. It is assumed that the height of tank
bunds are of 1 m above the bed level and these tanks
were get filled twice in a year. Hence the total surface
runoff harvested in tanks is the committed storage of
watershed, which is 1.112 MCM per year. The water
impounded in the check dams and percolation ponds
constructed across a few minor streams in the watershed
has not been included in the computations as it is
considered negligible.
In case of Koilmalai watershed, about 70% of

watershed area covered by hills and forest ranges having
slope more than 20% are identified and deleted, as these
areas are not likely to contribute groundwater recharge.
However, the areas of valley and plateau and plain to
undulating topography having slope less than 20% is
considered for recharge computation. Hence, the ground
water resources of kolimalai watershed is computed on
prorate basis. Accordingly, the net ground water available
within the watershed for all uses is computed as 6.411
MCM.
Results and Discussions
Computation of Non-Committed Surface Water Resources
The Koilmalai water shed is having an area of

200.83 Sq. km and lie between north latitudes 12.56
and 12.75 and east longitudes 78.79 and 78.95.
About 70% of the watershed area is covered by hills
& reserved forests and remaining area has a plain to
undulating topography. A stream called Koilmalai Ar
drains the entire watershed. The stream is a 5th order one
and ephemeral in nature and traverse for a distance of
28.33 km within the watershed. The total no of stream
segments of all order within the watershed is about
865 nos, of which 669 first order streams, 148 second
order streams, 38 third order streams and 9 forth order
streams. The soils of Koilmalai watershed can be broadly
The quantum of non-committed surface water

resources available in the watershed is the difference
between the annual runoff in the entire watershed and the
committed water supply required for filling up the surface
water bodies. Based on the computations shown above,
the non-committed surface water resource available in
Koilmalai watershed is of the order of 16.958 MCM.
This could be effectively utilized for creating additional
irrigation potential in the plains of the watershed as well
as for augmentation of ground water resources through
scientifically designed artificial recharge structures
constructed at suitable locations.
51
the sufficient surface flow available in the watershed, so

far no irrigation project was done to meet the domestic/
irrigation demands. Hence almost the entire demands
are meet through ground water only. The block wise
computation of resources have already been shown that
all the blocks falling in watershed are classified under
overexploited blocks, which means the annual ground
water extraction is more than the annual recharge.
However, the non-committed surface water resource of
16.958 MCM can be utilized scientifically and integrated
manner. All the tanks in the watershed must be revitalized
and their bunds and allied structure are strengthened to
augment the surface storage and the remaining flow can
be utilized for ground water recharge. The detailed study
on integrated surface and groundwater management
could be done to effectively utilized surplus runoff for
creating additional irrigation potential in the plains of
the watershed as well as for augmentation of ground
water resources through scientifically designed artificial
recharge structures constructed at suitable locations.
classified as clayey and loamy types. Sandy soil / gravely

soil have shown higher rate of infiltration, which are
classified under Rapid Infiltration. The infiltration rate
of loamy clay and silty clay are in the range of 1.2 3.1
mm/hr and are classified under moderate type.
Morphometrically, the shape of the watershed is
strongly elongated in nature and having very high relief
and steep slopes. Moderately high drainage density
and less value of length of overland flow are indicative
that the regions of weak or impermeable sub surface
materials sparse vegetation and mountainous relief and
poor groundwater recharge.
Based on the statistical analysis of 100-years
annual rainfall data, the annual normal rainfall of
watershed is worked out as 900.97 mm, of which 768.87
mm received during monsoon periods. The estimated
surface runoff of Koilmalai watershed is about 18.07
MCM, of which the committed storage of watershed for
the existing 16 nos. of tanks and ponds were worked
out as 1.112 MCM. The net ground water available
within the watershed for all uses is 6.411 MCM. The
non-committed surface water resource available in the
Koilmalai watershed is of the order of 16.958 MCM.
Acknowledgement
The author is very much thankful to Sh. B.M.Jha,
Chairman, Central ground Water Board, Faridabad and
Dr.N.Varadaraj, Regional Director, Central Ground Water
Board, SECR, Chennai for their encouragement and
permission to participate in the International Seminar.
Since the high relief of morphology present

in the watershed favours good generation surface
runoff but the presence of clayey and loamy soils not
conducive for good ground water recharge. In spite of
52
Theme 3
Enhancing Water Productivity
in Rainfed Areas
12
Irrigation Scheduling in Long
Pepper (Piper Longum) under
Partial Shade
Anilkumar, A. S., Suharban, M, Hajilal, M. S., Sherief, A. K. and Harikrishnan Nair, K
et al., 1993). With this background an experiment was

conducted to find out the effect of irrigation interval and
organic manure on the productivity and quality of long
pepper intercropped in coconut gardens.
Introduction
Piper longum is popularly known as thippali
or long pepper. It is a slender aromatic climber with
perennial woody roots. Dried spike is the economic part
commonly used in ayurvedic and unani medicines. It is
a major constituent of the ayurvedic drugs prescribed
for increasing immunity against AIDS virus and it
acts as immunostimulant. It is an integral component
of Trikadu an ayurvedic formulation, prescribed
against several respiratory complaints. Regulation of
soil moisture is beneficial for improving the growth,
productivity and quality of long pepper. It also helps for
optimum utilization of irrigation water besides extending
the area under irrigation. Organic matter content of the
soil is intimately related to its productivity because it
acts as a store house for nutrients, increases exchange
capacity, provides energy for microbial activity, increases
water holding capacity, improves soil structure, reduces
crusting and increases infiltration and buffers the soil
against changes in acidity, alkalinity and salinity (Tisdale,

The field experiment was conducted during
2004- 06 at the College of Agriculture, Vellayani in the
interspaces of a thirty to forty year old coconut garden.
The treatments consisted of combinations of nine levels
of irrigation intervals, viz, irrigation at canopy air
temperature difference of 0oC, 1oC, 2oC and irrigation
at 5 mm, 10 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm and 30
mm of CPE (cumulative pan evaporation) and two levels
of organic manure, viz, FYM @ 20 t ha-1 and control.
The experiment was laid out in split plot design. Viswam
variety of long pepper was planted in the interspaces
of a coconut garden at a spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm.
Uniform dozes of FYM @ 20 t ha-1 year-1 and NPK @
60: 60: 120 kg ha-1 year-1 were given. The crop attained
stability in yield after one year of establishment and the
55
faster rate. Hence, application of FYM @ 20 t ha-1 might

have benefited the growth.
treatments were imposed during the second year of crop

growth. Infra red thermometer and vapour pressure
osmometer were used for the measurement of canopy
temperature and osmotic potential respectively.
Quality parameters, viz, osmotic potential, crude

extract and alkaloid content were estimated and the
results indicated the superior performance of irrigation
scheduling at canopy air temperature difference of 10C
and irrigation scheduling at CPE 15 mm. Application of
organic manure @ 20 t ha-1 was beneficial for significant
improvement in osmotic potential, crude extract per cent
and alkaloid content. Irrigation scheduling at 15 mm CPE
resulted in maximum benefit cost ratio of 1.76 followed
by irrigation scheduling at canopy air temperature
difference of 10C. Although the effect of organic manure
was not significant, incorporation of FYM @ 20 t ha-1
increased benefit cost ratio compared to control.

Data on biometric characters, spike number
and spike yield of long pepper are presented in Table
1. Biometric characters, yield attributes and yield were
significantly influenced by treatment effects. Irrigation
scheduling at CPE 15 mm combined with FYM
application @ 20 t ha-1 year-1 improved vine length, leaf
number and number of spikes. Irrigation scheduling at
canopy-air temperature difference of 10C and irrigation
scheduling at CPE of 15 mm were found beneficial
for increasing both fresh and dry spike production,
spike number and crude extract. FYM enhanced spike
production and crude extract per cent compared to the
control.
Management practices adopted for increasing

the productivity of the intercrop, ie, long pepper also
influenced the productivity of the main crop. The
indirect influence of irrigation interval and FYM on
the productivity of the main crop, ie coconut was
remarkable. The highest nut yield of 153 nos palm-1
year-1 was observed when irrigation was scheduled at
15 mm CPE followed by scheduling irrigation at 10
mm CPE. Similarly, manuring the intercrop, ie, long
pepper with FYM @ 20 t ha-1 resulted in enhancing the
productivity of the main crop from 131 to 142 nos palm-1
year-1. Coconut is a crop which produces nuts round the
year. Therefore, year round availability of soil moisture
is essential for its unhindered growth Moisture stress
leads to stunted growth, drooping of leaves, immature
nut fall and decreased yield (Peter, 2002). Soil fertility
management is also equally important in boosting
coconut yields. Inter row zone management of intercrops
favourably influenced the growth and productivity of the
predominant crop,ie, coconut.
Interaction effects of irrigation interval and levels

of organic manure on biometric characters, spike number
and spike yield are furnished in Table 3. Interaction effects
showed significant variation with respect to on biometric
characters, spike number and spike yield. Integration of
irrigation scheduling at canopy-air temperature difference
of 10C and irrigation scheduling at CPE of 15 mm along
with incorporation of FYM @ 20 t ha-1 is beneficial for
improving both quantity and quality of the officinal part.
This might be due to better growth of plants associated
with favourable soil moisture regimes. Long pepper
responds very well to nutrient application. Nutritional
disorders are common in long pepper because being a
perennial it occupies the same impoverished soil year
after year (Krishnan, 2003). Frequent harvest of long
pepper spikes results in depletion of soil fertility at a
References
1.Krishnan, B. 2003. Rhizosphere modulation for higher productivity in long pepper (Piper longum Linn.). M.Sc
(Ag) thesis submitted to Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara
2.Peter, K.V. 2002. Plantation crops. National Book Trust, India, p. 332
3.Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.C., Beatson,J.D. and Havlin,J.L. 1993. Soil fertility and fertilizers. Prentice Hall of India.
Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, p.613
56
Table 1. Performance of long pepper as influenced by irrigation intervals and levels of organic manure.
Treatments
Vine
length
(cm)
Irrigation intervals
CT-AT = 0
CT-AT=10C
CT-AT=20C
CPE 5 mm
CPE 10 mm
CPE 15 mm
CPE 20 mm
CPE 25 mm
CPE 30 mm
CD (0.05)
Levels of organic manure
FYM
Control
CD (0.05)
Leaf
number
Spike yield (t ha-1)
Spike
number
Fresh
Dry
Benefit cost
ratio
69
81
72
60
53
83
52
43
62
13.5
9
10
10
8
7
12
7
7
9
1.8
6.75
8.0
6.75
5.5
5.25
8.75
5.25
4.75
7.5
1.38
2.70
3.05
2.53
2.78
2.61
3.08
1.49
1.32
0.85
0.25
0.54
0.61
1.51
1.56
1.52
1.62
1.30
1.26
1.17
4.91
1.54
1.74
1.44
1.60
1.48
1.76
0.84
0.75
0.48
0.41
66
55
5.1
10
7
0.8
7.06
5.94
0.64
2.55
1.99
0.13
0.51
0.40
2.65
1.39
1.19
NS
Table 2. Quality parameters of long pepper and productivity of coconut as influenced

by irrigation intervals and levels of organic manure
Treatments
Irrigation intervals
CT-AT = 0
CT-AT=10C
CT-AT=20C
CPE 5 mm
CPE 10 mm
CPE 15 mm
CPE 20 mm
CPE 25 mm
CPE 30 mm
CD (0.05)
Levels of organic manure
FYM
Control
CD (0.05)
Osmotic
potential
(m mole kg-1)
Crude
extract
(%)
Alkaloid
(%)
Productivity of
coconuts (nut
palm-1 year-1)
718
840
650
720
625
810
630
568
565
77.3
8.69
9.76
8.56
9.44
8.37
9.69
8.31
7.75
8.31
-
5.5
5.8
5.2
5.6
5.4
5.8
5.2
4.9
4.8
0.62
135
144
128
145
150
153
142
119
112
15.4
734
627
51.3
9.21
8.32
NS
5.6
5.2
0.36
142
131
9.2
57
Table 3. Performance of long pepper as influenced by the interaction

effects of irrigation intervals and levels of organic manure
Treatments
W1 F1
W1 F2
W2 F1
W2 F2
W3 F1
W3 F2
W4 F1
W4 F2
W5 F1
W5 F2
W6 F1
W6 F2
W7 F1
W7 F2
W8 F1
W8 F2
W9 F1
W9 F2
SE m
CD (0.05)
Vine
length
(cm)
78
61
84
78
77
68
67
54
56
50
89
77
57
47
55
31
36
28
4.8
15.4
Leaf
number
Spike
number
10.0
8.0
11.5
8.5
11.5
9.0
10.5
6.5
8.0
6.0
12.5
11.5
7.0
7.5
8.5
6.5
11.5
8.0
0.77
2.47
7.0
6.5
8.5
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.5
4.5
6.0
4.5
9.0
8.5
5.5
5.0
5.5
4.0
8.5
6.5
0.6
1.92
Spike yield (t ha-1)

Fresh
3.08
2.31
3.36
2.75
2.70
2.37
3.03
2.53
2.97
2.26
3.25
2.92
1.82
1.16
1.71
0.94
1.05
0.66
0.12
0.40
Dry
0.62
0.46
0.67
0.55
0.54
0.47
0.61
0.51
0.59
0.45
0.65
0.58
0.36
0.23
0.34
0.19
0.21
0.13
2.49
7.96
Crude
extract
(%)
9.38
8.0
10.13
9.38
8.88
8.25
9.88
9.0
9.13
7.63
10.25
9.13
9.13
7.5
8.13
7.38
8.0
8.63
-
58
13
Changes in Irrigation
Management System among
Cauvery Old Delta Farmers
T. Damodharan*, M. Asokhan**, G. Ranganathan*** & I. Md. Iqbal****
Introduction
succeeding years was studied The Cauvery and Vennar

rivers systems together contributed 77.12 percentage of
the total area under the old ayacut. A sample size of 180
farmers and 75 Extension personnel were interviewed
with structured schedule. The flooding type of irrigation
method , alternate wetting and drying , field to field
irrigation , individual field channel irrigation , providing
drainage structures , adjusting period of raising nursery ,
practicing summer ploughing and application of organic
manures (100.00 to 33.89%) were majorchanges in
irrigation management system among Cauvery old delta
farmers
Water is one of the most important essential

inputs for agriculture. Plants require it continuously
during their life and in large quantities. water is the
basic component. In rice cultivation whether rainfed,
lowland, upland, deep-water, flood-prone or irrigated,
water is intimately linked to it. Intensive or extensive
cultivation of land depends mainly on the availability
of water. Water can create, preserve and destroy the
life on the earth and therefore, water must be used in
a precise way with due care and caution as lack of it
may create dryness, deluge; both may cause lives and
properties on earth. Cauvery is one of the major rivers
of the Indian Peninsula and it is the most important river
of Tamil Nadu. This is held in high esteem by the people
of Tamil Nadu as the natures precious boon. The study
has been designed to assess the irrigation management
changes among Cauvery old delta farmers.In Tamil
Nadu, Cauvery is the most important river basin system
providing irrigation to the delta districts and accounting
for maximum area under rice. Changes in irrigation
management system before 2001 and there after in the
Methodology
In Tamil Nadu, Cauvery is the most important
river basin system providing irrigation to the delta
districts and accounting for maximum area under rice.
The year 2001-02 was taken into consideration as base
year since the date of release of water for irrigation has
coincided the date contemplated normally for the release
of water for irrigation purposes in the old delta system.
The irrigation management changes before this year
and there after in the succeeding years was studied .Old
59
individual channel had increased from 21.11 to 49.44

per cent in the study area. River wise analysis revealed
25.55 to 53.33 per cent and 16.67 to 45.55 per cent
of increased changes in Cauvery and Vennar river basins
respectively. Among the three categories, in head
reach (9.44 to 17.78%), mid reach (6.67 to 17.22%)
and tail end (5.00 to 14.44%) also it had increased in
individual field channel irrigation. It implied that there
were increased changes in irrigation water conveyance
through individual field channel. Under limited water
availability, awareness on importance of individual field
channel irrigation had changed the farmers for taking the
water through separate field channels (Kannivaikkal).
Use of either pipelines or hose for conveying the bore
well water to nursery and main field was also observed
in the study area. This finding is in line with Kavitha
(2001) and Balasubramaniam. (2005).
delta districts was purposively selected. . The Cauvery

and Vennar rivers systems together contributed 77.12
percentage of the total area under the old ayacut.. There
were 114 numbers of A class channels in the Cauvery
river basin and 97 numbers of A class channels in
Vennar river basin . These Aclass channels were taken
into consideration and classified under head, mid and tail
end regions Six A class channels were selected in each
river basin using random sampling, A sample size of
180 farmers was fixed for the study which was equally
chosen from Cauvery and Vennar river basin systems.
75 Extension personnel from Thanjavur, Thiruvarur and
Nagapattinam districts. Interview schedule was used
for the collection of data from the respondents.
Irrigation water conveyance

Field to Field Irrigation
Excess wThis referred to the practices

reommndated to cultivate crop during late release of
mettur water ater management
It could be observed from Table 38 that the

conveyance of the irrigation water through field to field
had decreased from 78.89 to 50.56 per cent in Cauvery
old delta. Among the three categories, in head reach
(20.00 to 11.67 %), mid reach (30.56 to 20.00 %) and
tail end also (28.33 to 18.89 %) there was a decrease
on field to field irrigation which was a very good sign.
This referred to the sprouted seeds used for for sowing
followed by ash application 3.4.6.11. Planting under
water logged conditionsThis referred to the use of aged
seedlings for planting 3.4.6.12 Flood damaged crop
maintenanceThis referred to the practices like gap filling
or replanting to maintain the plant population.3.4.6.13
Drainage management. This referred to the providing
drainage structures to drain the stagnated water.
Providing Drainage Structures

This referred to the sprouted seeds used for for
sowing followed by ash application
3.4.6.11. Planting under water logged conditions
This referred to the use of aged seedlings for planting
3.4.6.12 Flood damaged crop maintenance
This referred to the practices like gap filling or replanting
to maintain the plant population.
3.4.6.13 Drainage management
This referred to the providing drainage structures to drain
the stagnated water.
It could be observed from the Table 40 the
percentages of respondents providing drainage structures
had increased from 52.78 to 75.01 per cent in Cauvery
old delta. River wise analysis revealed 52.23 to 75.56
per cent and 53.33 to 74.44 per cent of changes in
Cauvery and Vennar river basins respectively. Among the
three categories, in head reach (17.78 to 21.67%), mid
reach (22.22 to 30.56%) and also in tail end (12.78 to
22.78%) it had increased. Under prevailed water logged
situation, the farmers were providing drainage structures
(Thondukal) on temporary basis. For proper irrigation
and drainage the farmers were providing a slope in the
head portion of the field for facilitating quick drainage in
their field portion.
The highest percentage of decrease in field to

field irrigation was noticed in Vennar river basin (28.89%)
followed by Cauvery river basin (27.78 %). Among the
reaches the mid had ranked first (10.56 %) followed
by tail end (9.44 %) and head (8.33 %). Considerable
quantities of water which could be used for irrigation are
lost during irrigation water conveyance by field to field
irrigation. Provision of separate channels for irrigation
and drainage will go a long way for increased water use
efficiency. Awareness on the advantages of individual
field channel irrigation might be the reason for the
decreased change
Individual Field Channel Irrigation
It could be observed form Table 39 that the
percentage of respondents irrigationg their field through
60
ploughing in Cauvery old delta. The highest percentage

of practicing summer ploughing was noticed in Vennar
river basin (20.01 %) followed by Cauvery river basin
(18.89 %). Among the reaches the tail end had ranked
first (8.33 %) followed by head (6.11 %) and mid (5.00
%). In the study area, due to the delayed receipt of water,
the farmers were practicing summer ploughing for
availing the benefits of summer rains as well as to start
the cultivation operations without any delay and getting
the canal water. This might be the reason for increased
change. However, there is a felt need to motivate all the
farmers for summer ploughing which is very essential in
order to conserve moisture. This finding is in line with
Kavitha (2001) and Balasubramaniam (2005).
Adjusting The Period of Raising Nursery

percentage of changes in adjusting period of raising
nursery had decreased from 47.23 to 25.01 per cent in
Cauvery old delta. River wise analysis revealed 47.78 to
24.45 per cent and 46.67 to 25.56 per cent in Cauvery
and Vennar river basins respectively. Among the three
categories, in head (11.67 to 7.78%), mid reach (15.00
to 6.67%) and also in tail end (20.56 to 10.56%) it had
decreased. In areas prone for water logging in the North
East Monsoon period, farmers earlier had the practice of
growing either early planting or delayed planting to tide
over the ill effects of the heavy down pour resulting in
total loss of crop. But now farmers could not adopt this
practice fully since the canal water supply was not definite
due to poor storage position in the Mettur reservoir. As
such the farmers during these uncertain periods got
flood and crop losses by taking the cultivation without
advance planning. Farmers with supplemental irrigation
could have raised nursery as planned. But majority of
farmers, who were solely dependent on canal water,
were forced to take up nursery at the time of canal water
released. This had resulted in uncertain floods and crop
loses. This was observed mostly in single crop wetland
areas.
Organic Manures Application

application of organic manures had decreased from
100.00 to 33.89 per cent in Cauvery old delta. River
wise analysis revealed 100.00 to 30.01 per cent and
100.00 to 37.78 per cent in Cauvery and Vennar river
basins respectively. Among the three categories, in head
reach (29.44 to 7.22%), mid reach (37.22 to 12.78 %)
and also in tail end (33.33 to 13.89 %) the application of
organic manures application was on the declining trend.
This referred to the sprouted seeds used for for sowing
followed by ash application 3.4.6.11. Planting under
water logged conditionsThis referred to the use of aged
seedlings for planting 3.4.6.12 Flood damaged crop
maintenanceThis referred to the practices like gap filling
or replanting to maintain the plant population.3.4.6.13
Drainage management
Soil moisture conservation

Summer Ploughing
percentage of respondents practicing summer ploughing
had increased from 34.45 to 53.89 per cent in Cauvery
old delta. River wise analysis revealed 28.90 to 47.78 per
cent and 40.00 to 60.00 per cent in Cauvery and Vennar
river basins respectively practiced summer ploughing.
Among the three categories, in head reach (7.78 to
13.89 %), mid reach (10.56 to 15.56 %) and also in tail
end (16.11 to 24.44 %) there had been an increase in
summer ploughing. This referred to the sprouted seeds
used for for sowing followed by ash application 3.4.6.11.
Planting under water logged conditionsThis referred
to the use of aged seedlings for planting 3.4.6.12
Flood damaged crop maintenanceThis referred to the
practices like gap filling or replanting to maintain the
plant population.3.4.6.13 Drainage management This
referred to the providing drainage structures to drain the
stagnated water.
This referred to the providing drainage structures

to drain the stagnated water. The highest percentage of
decrease in organic manures application was noticed in
Cauvery river basin (70.00 %) followed by Vennar river
basin (62.23 %). Among the reaches the mid had ranked
first (24.44 %) followed by head (22.22 %) and tail end
(19.44 %). Since the farmers could not accumulate
sufficient quantity of farm yard manure for want of cattle
population, the results are justified.
Analysis of variance on irrigation management
changes among Cauvery old delta farmers.
Analysis of variance was worked out to find out
significant differences among the farmers from each of
the two river basins on irrigation management. The
results are presented in Table 44.
The analysis further revealed that overall

19.44 per cent of the respondents practiced summer
It could be observed from the Table 44 that

61
there existed a significant difference among the farmers

in Cauvery and Vennar river basins with regard to
irrigation management. This was confirmed by a
significant F value at one per cent level. The farmers
in Cauvery and Vennar river basins were differed in
the following aspects. Compare to Vennar river basin
(14.45%), Cauvery river basin (33.33%) farmers had
higher percentage of supplemental irrigation source.
Vennar river basin farmers were Table 44. Analysis of
variance on irrigation management changes among
Cauvery old delta farmers blessed with good irrigation
structures (62.23%).
Groups
Between groups
Within groups
Total
Degrees of freedom
14
165
179
The decreased changes on trimming of field bunds

(35.56%) and field to field irrigation (28.89%) were higher
in Vennar river basin. There was a declined in raising
nursery nearer to water source (18.89%), preference of
long duration rice varieties (34.44%), flooding method
of irrigation (20.01%), adjusting the period of raising
nursery during prevailed rainy season (23.34%) and
organic manures application (70..00%) among Cauvery
river basin farmers. There was no difference between
Cauvery (22.22%) and Vennar (22.23%) river basin
farmers on preference of short duration rice varieties.
Based on the findings it may be concluded that
the changes had been taken in the irrigation management
among Cauvery old delta farmers.
Sum of squares
319.500
373.450
692.950
** : Significant at 0.01% level
Mean square
22.821
2.263
F
10.083
Conclusion
Compare to Vennar river basin (36.67%), Cauvery

river basin farmers had higher percentage of favourable
response towards continued rice cultivation (58.89%).
The data in Figure 19. shows that there was higher
percentages of increased changes on use of cage wheel
(18.89%), use of land leveller (84.45%) semi dry sowing
(13.33%), individual field channel irrigation (28.89%)
and summer ploughing (20.01%) were observed among
Vennar river basin farmers. The higher percentage of
increased changes among Cauvery river basin farmers
were strengthening of field bunds (46.67%), contingent
cropping (37.77%), alternate wetting and drying method
of irrigation (32.22%) and providing drainage structures
(23.34%).
The flooding type of irrigation method had

decreased from100.00 to 82.22 per cent , alternate
wetting and drying had increased to 27.22 per cent, field
to field irrigation had decreased from 78.89 to 50.56 per
cent, individual field channel irrigation had increased from
21.11 to 49.44 per cent. percentage of respondents
providing drainage structures had increased from 52.78
to 75.00 per cent, adjusting period of raising nursery had
decreased from 47.21 to 25.00 per cent, percentages
of respondents practicing summer ploughing (34.45 to
53.89%) and application of organic manures (100.00 to
33.89%) had decreased were major changes in irrigation
management system among Cauvery old delta farmers.
Refrences
Kavitha, S. 2001. Integrated Water Management - An Ex-post Facto Study on Differential Knowledge And Adoption
Behaviour of Rice Growers. Unpub. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore.
Balasubramaniam, P. 2005. Developing TOT Strategy for Water Management in Canal Command Area of Lower
Bhavani Project, Unpub. Ph.D. Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore.

62
14
Characterization of Sorghum
Germplasm for Drought
Tolerance
K. Ganesamurthy*, D. Punitha , A. R. Muthiah and T. S. Raveendran
is essential .Based on the importance, a total of 100

sorghum accessions was screened for drought tolerance
using drought tolerance indices.
Introduction
Sorghum is one of the most important crops
grown for food and feed. In Tamil Nadu it is cultivated over
an area of 3.5 lakh hectares with an annual production
of 3.46 lakh tonnes with a productivity of 984 kg/ha
of grain. It is a dual purpose crop and is valued both for
its grain as well as for its excellent fodder. It forms the
major source of staple food among the rural population
in the state. It is the crop suited to hot and dry ecologies
where it is difficult to grow other food grains. Owing to
its drought tolerance capacity, its cultivation in drought
prone areas is effectively providing food and fodder
through on sustainable basis. (kong et al., 2000). The
potential of this low input demanding crop for diverse
uses such as feed and biofuel crop besides as a supplier
of raw materials for other industrial uses is anticipated
to bring significant benefits to the farmers in the years
to come. Hence, to meet out the need of sorghum
based industries and to cater the basic requirement of
the farming community, identification of genotypes
with high, stable yields with drought tolerance capacity
Genetic improvement mainly depends upon the

amount of genetic variability present in the population.
In the present investigation, an attempt was made to
study the genetic variability in germplasm accessions
for biometrical traits in order to gather knowledge of
yield and yield component characters towards drought
tolerance in sorghum crop

In the present investigation comprised of 100
accessions of sorghum, which include local land races,
adapted to different agroclimatic zones of Tamil Nadu.
The trial was laid out in a randomized block design (RBD)
with two replications under two different situations
at Department of millets, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore during 2006-2007. The first
set was under irrigation and another set was treated
as drought imposed. Water stress was imposed by with
63
variation, heritability and expected genetic advance are

given in table 1 and 2. The results furnished hereunder
only for the stress condition. The analysis of variance
for the various component traits of drought tolerance
revealed significant differences among genotypes under
study. Based the mean performance, the genotypes
such as CO 21, CO 22, Tenkasi 1, AS 2059, AS 2752,
AS 5078, AS 5057, AS 8021, AS 4289, AS 8038,
AS6616, K 3, MS 7819, MS 7837, Murungapatti local,
Uppam cholam, VS 1564, VS 1560, CO 24 and CO 1
recorded good performance and had high mean values
for relative water content, SPAD chlorophyll reading, root
length, root volume, root dry weight, ear head weight,
1000 grain weight, harvest index, grain yielding and
had low score for stay green when compared to other
genotypes under stress and they have been reported
on par with the drought resistant check B 35. Earlier
findings of Nour and Weible (1978), Yadav et al., 2002,
Blum et al.,(1989) Jordan and Miller (1890), Xu et al.,
(2000), Dale et al (1980) on phenotypic and physiological
traits for drought resistance were in agreement with the
present investigation.
holding irrigation at anthesis stage and continued till

maturity. One set of treatments with normal irrigations
from planting to maturity served as control. The drought
indices like drought susceptibility index, relative yield,
yield stability ratio were recorded for characterizing the
drought tolerant genotypes. Observations on metric traits
like plant height, days to 50% flowering, earhead length,
leaf area index, relative water content, SPAD chlorophyll
reading, root length, root volume, root dry weight,
earhead weight, 1000 grain weight, biological weight,
stay green score, harvest index and grain yield were
recorded on single plant basis for five randomly selected
competitive plants in each genotype from replication of
each set separately. The genetic information has been
sought through analysis of genetic variability, heritability
in broad sense and genetic advance as per cent of mean
was estimated according to Allard (1960). Phenotypic
and genotypic co-efficient variation was estimated as
per Burton (1991). Genetic advance as % of mean was
estimated according to Johnson et al., (1955).

The mean, phenotypic (2p) and genotypic
variances, the co-efficient of phenotypic and genotypic
CHARACTERS
Plant height (cm)
Days to 50% flowering

Ear head length (cm)
Leaf area index
Relative water content%
SPAD Chlorophyll reading
Root length (cm)
Root volume (cc)
Root dry weight (g)
Ear head weight (g)
1000 grain weight (g)
Biological yield (g)
Stay green
Harvest index
Grain yield (g)
Grand
mean
231.31
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
S
I
238.41
66.35
63.2
23.43
27.03
2.46
3.04
65.3
31.02
45.06
24.91
29.61
21.61
25.85
24
25.82
25.47
32.36
26
29.06
131.72
141.97
3.4
2.32
0.24
0.29
31.02
40.43
Table 1. Grand Mean, Range ,Genetic parameters for the

drought tolerant component traits. ( I- Irrigated, S-Stress )
Range
VP
Vg
PCV%
GCV%
109.20 347.70
114.5-358
58-74
54-72
8.70-35
13.5-37
1-4.60
1.3-5.3
46.20-79
11-48.30
30-58
9-39.0
16.4-42.6
8.40-37
11.3-38
10.00-36
12.4 -38
9.60-42.80
17.3-45.0
9.20-41
16.1-42.6
80-205.40
91.3-218.6
1.60-5
1.3-4.3
0.09-0.43
0.2-0.5
16-46
26.6-56.1
2718.94
2714.58
22.54
22.52
Genetic
advance
107.24
2794.09
9.53
10.09
17.51
14.27
0.62
0.69
61.60
105.37
43.38
31.39
23.72
47.63
39.09
30.61
18.69
36.05
24.62
43.40
27.48
538.83
563.35
0.90
0.54
0.004
0.003
54.00
38.13
2789.74
8.68
9.16
16.17
12.75
0.61
0.68
59.42
103.15
41.68
28.76
21.58
45.28
37.11
28.63
16.72
34.07
22.50
41.29
25.38
534.44
556.94
0.88
0.52
0.004
0.003
51.89
34.90
22.17
4.65
5.04
17.86
13.98
32.05
27.46
12.02
33.09
14.61
22.49
16.45
31.93
24.18
23.05
16.74
23.57
15.33
25.33
18.03
17.62
16.72
28.00
31.84
28.06
21.35
23.69
15.27
22.15
4.44
4.80
17.16
13.21
31.71
27.19
11.80
32.74
14.32
21.52
15.68
31.13
23.56
22.29
15.83
22.91
14.65
24.71
17.33
17.55
16.62
27.54
30.96
27.67
20.74
23.22
14.61
108.72
5.79
5.94
7.96
6.95
1.59
1.69
15.60
20.70
13.03
10.57
9.13
13.51
12.22
10.66
7.97
11.69
9.33
12.91
9.97
47.42
48.33
1.90
1.44
0.14
0.12
14.54
11.64
64
Selection for drought tolerance involves

evaluating genotypes for either high yield potential or
stable performance under varying degrees of water
stress. Drought susceptibility index (DSI) and relative yield
(RY) values were used to describe the yield stability and
yield potential. Promising drought Tolerant Genotypes
identified through drought tolerance indices are given in
Table 2.
was depicted in graph 1. Swarup and chaugle (1982))

reported that heritability estimates along with genetic
gain are usually more efficient than heritability values
alone in predicting the final out come of selection. In this
study, the characters such as stay green, leaf area index,
root volume, plant height and harvest index sowed
high heritability estimates associated with high genetic
advance indicating the presence of additive gene effect.
High heritability accompanied by high genetic gain is
Table 2. Promising Drought Tolerant Genotypes

S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Genotypes
B35
CO21
CO22
AS5078
K3
Murungapatti local
VS1564
VS1560
AS6616
DSI
0.48
0.44
0.40
0.40
0.94
0.81
0.42
0.92
0.66
RY
0.91
0.95
0.92
0.97
0.96
0.93
0.96
0.94
0.91
S.No.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
These genotypes had the low drought

susceptibility index (<1) and high relative yield (> mean
RY). These results are similar to the findings of Ahmed
et al. (2003) where they selected the drought tolerant
genotypes based on the low drought susceptibility index
and high relative yield and showed that the genotypes
with high relative yield performed relatively well under
drought.
Genotypes
AS8038
Tenkasi1
MS7819
AS2059
AS8021
AS4289
CO24
AS2752
CO1
DSI
0.58
0.64
0.62
0.87
0.55
0.21
0.78
0.49
0.72
RY
0.94
1.00
0.96
0.93
0.94
0.93
1.00
0.95
0.82
an indication of the additive genetic effects (Panse and

Suthatme, 1987). Thus selection of these traits is likely
to accumulate more additive genes leading to further
improvement in their performance and these traits can
be used as selection criteria in sorghum drought tolerance
improvement programme.All the characters under study
exhibited high heritability and expected genetic advance.
Among the characters studied, high estimates of
heritability (>80%) and genetic advance expected (>40%)
were obtained for stay green, leaf area index, plant
height, root volume and harvest index. These characters
exhibited high heritability along with high genotypic coefficient of variation indicating importance of additive
genetic variance for these characters.
In general, the estimate of phenotypic coefficient of variation was higher than those of genotypic
co-efficient of variation for all the traits indicating the
influence of environment on the expression of these
character (Table 1). The data further indicated that
characters like stay green, root volume, leaf area index,
plant height and harvest index showed high value for
phenotypic and genotypic co-efficient of variation. High
values of GCV for these characters suggest better scope
of improvement by selection. Days to 50% flowering
showed the lowest co-efficient of variation at phenotypic
and genotypic levels. Similar results were reported for
theses traits with respect to PCV and GCV Geleta and
Daba (2005).
The character days to 50% flowering recorded

the lowest heritability estimate indicating larger influence
of environmental conditions on these characters.
Based on above discussion, it is suggested that due
weightage should be given to stay green, leaf area index,
root volume, plant height and harvest index for selection
of drought tolerance in sorghum. The genotypes such as
B35, CO21, CO22, AS5078 ,K3 ,Murungapatti local
,VS1564, VS1560 , AS6616 , AS8038 , Tenkasi1,
MS7819 ,AS2059 AS8021 AS4289, CO24 ,AS2752
,CO1 were found to be promising for drought and can
be used as the parents for future breeding programmes,
where the sorghum varietal improvement for drought
conditions could be achieved.
However it is not possible to determine the

amount of heritable variation with the help of genotypic
co-efficient variation alone. Burton (1952) suggested
that the study of genotypic co-efficient of variation
along with heritability estimates is needed to obtain
the best results on the extent of heritable variation.
Heritability estimate for all the traits for stress condition
65
References
1.Allard , R.W.(1960).Principles of plant breeding, pp. 89 98 ,John Wiley and Sons, Inc.New York
2.Blum, A., J. Mayer and G. Golan. 1989. Agronomic and physiological assessments of genotypic variation for
drought resistance in sorghum. Aust. J. Agric. Res., 40: 49-61.
3.Burton, G. W. 1952. Quantitative inheritance in grasses. Proc. 6th int. Grassland Cong., 1: 24 - 84.
4.Dale, R. F., D. T. Coelho and K. P. Gallo.1980. Prediction of daily green leaf area index for corn. Agron. J., 72:
999-1005.
5.Geleta, N. and C. Daba. 2005. Inter relationships among quantitative traits in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench) landraces from Northern Ethiopia. Crop Res., 30(3): 432-438.
6.Johnson, H.W., H.F. Robinson and R.E. Comstock. 1955. Estimates of genetic and environmental variability in
soybean. Agron. J., 47: 314-318.
7.Jordan, W.R. and F.R. Miller. 1980. Genetic variability in sorghum root systems: implications for drought tolerance.
In Adaptation of plants to water and high temperature stress.N.C. Turner and P.J. Kramer (Eds.). John
wiley, Newyork, pp. 383-399.
8.Nour, A.E.M. and D.L. Weibel. 1978. Evaluation of root characteristics in grain sorghum. Agron. J., 70: 217218.
9.Panse, U. G. and P. V. Sukhatme. 1961. Statistical method for Agricultural workers. ICAR, New Delhi. pp.381.
10.Swarup , V. and Chaugle,D.S.(1982). Studies on genetic variability in sorghum 1. Phenotypic variation and its
heritable componet in some important quantitative characters contributing towards yield. Indian J. Gene. 22
: 31 36.
11.Xu, W., D.T. Rosenow and H.T. Nguyen. 2000a. Stay green trait in grain sorghum: Relation ship between visual
rating and leaf chlorophyll concentration. Plant Breed., 119: 365-367.
66
15
Effect of Mulching, Irrigation
and Growth Regulants on
Growth and Yield of Curry Leaf
In Winter
P. Jansirani*, R. Subha**, D. Durgadevi*** and K. Rajamani*
Earlier reports are available on manipulation

of crop growth through some agronomic practices
and application of chemicals etc. in many horticultural
crops viz., annual moringa (Vijayakumar, 2001), Okra
(Maheskumar and Sen, 2005). With this back ground in
view, an investigation was carried out to study the effect
of mulching application of nutrients, growth regulants
on growth, yield and quality of curry leaf during winter.
Introduction
Carry leaf (Murraya Koeingii) is an important
herbal spice crop grown for its aromatic leaves. An
essential volatile oil extracted from its fresh leaves is
commercially exploited. Both of its fresh leaves and
essential oil has got export value curry leaf has greater
use as antioxidant and anticarcinogenic potential
properties. Though Tarai region (Uttar Pradesh) is
considered as the probable origin curry leaf is cultivated
commercially in few southern states of India. The annual
growth pattern of curry leaf showed that it has peaks in
monsoon and summer and its growth is limited during
winter season. However, the demand for fresh curry leaf
is ever growing throughout the year. The market price
analysis indicated a high returns with poor crop during
winter i.e. during the months of November, December
and January. Proper cultivation and management
practices of this commercially important crop is to be
analyzed to fetch continuous and the maximum returns
throughout the year.

The investigation was carried out to study of
different mulches and efficacy of growth regulants on
growth and yield of curry leaf during winter season. The
field experiment was conducted from October 2006 to
January 2007 in a farmers
field at Karamadai
in Mettupalayam block of Coimbatore district of South
India. A local collection of curry leaf viz., Senkaampu
of 5 years old plants is utilized for the study. The crop
is grown under organic manures mainly. However, little
amount of inorganic fertilizers are applied at the rate
of 100 g of NPK per plant after pruning of every crop.
67
The fresh leaf weight without petiole and fresh

leaf yield per plant was observed to be the highest in
plants sprayed with panchagavya three percent and
similar results were observed by Sivakumar (2004) in
Solanum.
Regular cultural operations were followed as per the

standardized package of practices to curry leaf.
The experiment was laid out in randomized
block design with eleven treatments and replicated
thrice. The treatments were, mulching with block
polythene sheet (200 microns) (T1), mulching with coir
pith (T2), irrigation (T3), water spray (T4), foliar spray
of Panchagavya (three percent) (T5), foliar spray of GA
at 50 ppm (T6) urea at 0.5, percent (T7), Humic acid
0.2 percent, (T8), Salicylic acid 100 ppm (T9), Salicylic
acid 200 ppm (T10) and control (T11). Water spray and
surface irrigation in the early morning hours were given
once in 15 days.
Among the treatments of the present study

to increase the fresh curry leaf yield per plant,
application of three percent panchagavya (T5) was
found to record the highest fresh leaf yield of 450.65
g per plant. It was also noticed that the treatments
T8 humic acid 0.2 percent spray (438.74 g) and
T2-mulchingwith coir pith (435.65g), were also found
to record a considerable yield increase next to the best
treatment (T5).
The plant biometrical traits, viz., plant height

number of secondary branches per plant, number of
leaves per rachis, fresh leaf weight per rachis (without
petiole) fresh leaf yield per plant, shelf life and essential
oil content were recorded and analyzed statisfically
(Panse and Sukhatme, 1985).
The quality traits viz., shelf life of fresh leaves

under ambient temperature (4.0 days) in poly bags with
five percent vent and essential oil content (0.187 per
cent) were also observed to be the highest in plants
sprayed with panchagavya three percent. Similar
influence of panchagavya on quality improvement as
enhancement in essential oil content was reported in
advance by Krishnamoorthy (1985), Arularasu (1995) in
ocimum sanctum.

Fresh curry leaf was harvested during January
2007 after four months of treatments application. The
results of the study revealed (Table 1) that the mean
performance of plant height in all the treatments
ranged from 81-91 cm in control (T11) to 99-91 cm in
T5 (Foliar spray of panchagavya three percent) followed
by T8 (foliar spray of (Humic acid 0.2 percent) as 98.62
cm. The number of secondary branches per plant and
number of leaves per rachis were also found to he the
highest inT5 (the plants sprayed with panchagavya
three percent) as 22.23and 18.25 respectively. The
possible reason for the acceleration of growth by the
application of panchagavya might be due to presence
of more of nitrogen, the chief constituent of protein
essential for the formation of protoplasm which led
to cell division and cell enlargement (Balkey, 1974).
During winter season, increase in number of laterals by
the application of panchagavya might be due to increase
in osmotic effects and uptake of nutrients as confirmed
by Sridhar (2003) in Solanum nigrum. The increased
number of leaves per rachis was due to the increased
meristammatic activity in the plant and enhanced supply
of photosynthates (Khandif, 1998).
At farmers point of view cost economics plays a

vital rate in adopting any new crop production practice.
The ultimate goal is to help the grower to get more profit
with lesser input cost.
The best treatment identified as foliar spray of
three percent panchagavya is recorded the highest cost :
Benefit ratio of 1:5.77 during winter season of curry leaf
production. It was also observed that curry leaf plants
supplied with simple irrigation in the early morning
(T3) hours once in 15 days during winter months was
also observed to improve the fresh curry leaf yield
considerably which is expressed in terms of higher best
benefit ratio of 1:5.00 (except with 0.2 percent humic
acid spray.(T8)).
Hence, it could be concluded that the simple
irrigation in early morning hours in winter months to
curry leaf is a cost effective technology to increase the
fresh curry leaf yield next to foliar spray of panchgavya
three percent.
68
Table : Effect of mulching, irrigation and growth regulants on growth and yield of Curry leaf during winter season
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
Mean
CD at 5%
Plant
height
(cm)
No. of
Secondary
branches
Leaf
number
per
rachis
93.69
91.53
92.44
92.72
99.91
91.62
85.21
98.62
90.52
85.27
81.91
91.22
93.03
20.12
19.02
19.01
17.08
22.23
20.18
18.34
21.28
17.45
18.42
14.25
18.85
2.168
17.18
16.43
15.56
15.23
18.25
14.49
15.89
17.34
16.49
15.68
13.83
16.03
1.866
Fresh
leaf
weight
without
petiole
(g)
1.099
1.265
1.024
1.012
1.275
1.124
1.157
1.196
1.024
1.101
0.960
1.107
0.128
Fresh
leaf
yield
per
plant
(g)
395.87
435.65
405.27
380.34
450.65
350.56
340.71
438.74
310.73
330.54
305.63
376.79
42.566
Shelf
life
(day)
Essential
oil
content
(percent)
C:B
ratio
2.92
2.85
2.50
2.00
4.00
3.50
3.00
3.96
2.56
3.00
2.00
2.935
0.281
0.134
0.136
0.121
0.137
0.187
0.126
0.165
0.171
0.119
0.117
0.122
0.139
0.014
1:3.69
1:4.80
1:5.00
1:4.69
1:5.77
1:4.64
1:4.50
1:5.73
1:4.09
1:4.33
1:4.10
Reference
1.Arularsu,P. (1995). Effect of graded doses of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of herbage and oil in Tulsi
(Ocimum sanctum L.) M.Sc. (Hort.), Thesis, TNAU,Coimbatore.
2.Balkly, S.A. (1974). Effect of fertilization treatments on the yield of Chrysler Imperial rose plants. Agri Res. Rev.
52 (9) : 95-99.
3.Khandait, H.M. 1991.Standardizationof nitrogen, phosphorus and potato levels for flower production of annual
chrysanthemum cv. Yellow. M.Sc. Thesis Dr. Punjab Deshmukh Krishi, Vidyapeeth (PDKV), Akola,
Maharashtra, India.
4.Krishnamoorthy, R., 1985. Studies on the effect of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on growth, her bage
yield and essential oil production in Davana (Artemosia pallens wall.) M.Sc.(Hort.). Thesis, U.A.S. Bangalore,
India.
5.Mahesh Kumar and N.L.Sen, 2005. Effect of zinc, Boton and gibberellie acid on growth and yield of okra. The
Orissa Journal of Horticulture, Vol. 33(2) : 46-48.
6.Panse, V.G. and P.V. Sukhatme (1985). Statistical methods for agricultural wowrks. IVth Edn., ICAR, New
Delhi.
7.Sivakumar, V. 2004. Studies on standardization of protocol for maximization of growth, yield and alkaloid content in
Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) M.Sc. (Hort.). Thesis. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore,
India.
8.Sridhar, T. 2003. Effect of bioregulators on Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.),M.Sc. (Ag.), Thesis, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University,Coimbatore-3,India.
9.Vijayakumar,R.M. (2001, Studies on influence of months of sowing and growth regulation on Annual Moringa,
Ph.D. Thesis, HC&RI, TNAU,Coimbatore-3.

69
16
Horticultural Technologies for

P. Paramaguru1 P. S. Kavitha2 and M. Velmurugan3
The main principles

management are :
Introduction
Asia emerges as the hot spot for poverty,
malnutrition and also for severe land degradation in the
world. In India, the situation is similar as out of 8.52
million poor, 2.21 million are in India and 108.6 Mha
are degraded. There is an urgent need to break the
unholy nexus between drought, land degradation and
poverty using community watersheds to manage the
natural resources such as water and land sustainably for
improving livelihoods. Watershed approach is adopted by
Government of India as a growth engine for development
of rainfed areas.
of
watershed
v Utilizing land according to its capacity and putting

adequate vegetal cover on the soil.
v Conserving as much rainwater as possible at the
place where it falls both at farmlands and common
property resources.
v Draining out excess water with a safe velocity and
diverting it to storage ponds and storing it for future
use.
v Avoiding gully formation and putting checks at
suitable intervals to control soil erosion and recharge
ground water.
v Maximizing productivity per unit of area, per unit of
time, and per unit of water.
v Increasing cropping intensity and land equivalent
ratio through intercropping and sequence cropping.
Watershed
The watershed is a continuous area whose runoff
water drains to a common point, so that it facilitates
water harvesting and moisture concentration.
70
v Safe productive utilization of marginal lands through

alternate land use system.
v Ensuring sustainability of the eco-systems benefiting
the man-animal-plant-land-water-complex in the
watershed.
v Maximizing the combined income from the
interrelated and dynamic crop-livestock-tree-labourcomplex over the years.
v Stabilizing the total income and cut down risks during
aberrant weather situation.
v Improving infrastructural facilities like storage,
transportation and marketing.
arid regions. The climatic conditions are conducive for

production of quality fruits and vegetables. The marked
fluctuations in night and day temperature and low RH
helps in development of sweetness and attractive colour
in fruits and disease-insect incidences are comparatively
low in such climatic situations.
Abiotic stresses owing to scanty rainfall, high
summer temperature, high solar radiation, high wind
velocity, high salinity in irrigation water is also associated
with crop failures. In arid environment, monoculture
system is risk prone as well as less productive.
An integrated approach to develop the farming
systems, and promote horticulture-based land use
systems which have already found to be viable and
suitable for different terrains is to be followed. Following
strategy is proposed:
Arid & Semi Arid Zones

Arid and semi-arid regions occupy large part
of geographical area of India. The arid region receives
less than 450 mm annual rainfall against 450-850 mm
rainfall in semi-arid region. The evapotranspiration is 4-5
fold higher than that of rainfall in the arid region, while it
is only two times higher in the semi-arid region. Natural
resource base is quite fragile in the arid zone. The hot
arid zone is characterized by extremes of temperature (-2
to 480 C), high solar radiation incidence (450 to 500 cal
per sq. cm/day) and high wind velocity. The scare low
rainfall (100-400 m) is also spread over in 9-21 spells.
The soil is generally light textured with 60-90per cent
sand and therefore water holding capacity of the soil is
very poor.
(a)
Identification of potential areas for
expansion under rainfed, full and partially irrigated
horticulture enterprises, using satellite data, Digital Image
Processing Technique and GIS, followed by delineating
potential areas for specific crops on cluster basis in a
given location.
(b)
Emphasis should be on commercially
important crops such as follows:
The importance of weather assumes a greater

significance in rain fed regions. The elements of weather
that characterize the agro climatic environment act as
a natural resource influencing the cropping are rainfall,
temperature, sunshine, wind regime, humidity, and
radiation. The choice of cropping system is mostly
governed by the length of the growing period. The
weather during cropping season strongly influences
the crop growth and it accounts for 2/3rd (67%) of the
variation in productivity, while other factors including
soil and nutrient management accounts for 1/3rd (33%)
of the productivity. Considering the above points it is
advisable to plan the crops in the watersheds viz fruit
crops, Vegetables, Medicinal plants, Multipurpose
trees.
Selection of Crops
a. Fruits
b. Vegetables
c. Spices
d. Ornamentals
e. Medicinal plants :
Horticulture based land use is being increasingly

considered in developmental plans both in arid and semi71
Ao n l a , C a s he w,
Ber, Bael, custard
apple, Tamar i nd,
pomegranate, date
palm, fig, Karonda
etc.,
Brinjal, Muskmelon,
watermelon, Round
melon, Chilli, tomato,
moringa, curry
leaf, chekurmanis,
Vegetable cowpea,
cluster bean,
Cumin, fenugreek,
anardana, garlic and
chillies
Rose (Rosa damascena)
for essence
Senna, Coleus,
periwinkle. Gloriosa,
Aloe vera etc.,
Table 1: Crops suitable for dry lands

S.No
1.
Category
Common name
Scientific name
Fruit crops
Red soil with minimum irrigation
Mango
Guava
Sapota
Pomegranate
Ber
Cashew
Tamarind
Anona
Aonla
Albizia
Leucaena
Acacia
Karuvel
Acacia
Acha
Sesbania
Neem
Acacia
Dalbergia
Pongam
Albizia
Mangifera indica
Psidium guijava
Achras sapota
punica granatum
Ziziphus mauritiana
Anacardium occidentale
Tamarinds indica
Annona squamosa
phyllanthus emblica
Albizia lebbeck
Leucaena leucocephala
Acacia auriculiformis
Acacia nilotica
Acacia procera
Hardwichia binata
Sesbania spp.
Azadirachta indica
Acacia nilotica
Dalbergia sisoo
Pongamia pinnata
Albizia procera
Rain fed regions
2.
Multi purpose tree

Semi arid red soils
Semi arid black cotton soils
Saline & alkaline soils
Multipurpose Tree Crops
apple started from the third year. A few encouraging

mixed planting systems are given below:
The multi purpose Tree Species (MPTS) can

also be grown in these areas. The trees grown in dry
lands take 5-8 years to cover the inter space and suitable
intercrops with rain fed annual crops can be grown.
Selection of suitable Varieties
Aonla : NA7, Krishna, Kanchan and BSR 1
Bael : NB 5, NB 9
Ber
: Umran & Kaithali
(i)
Ber/guava + Tamarind/mango in 4: I ratio
(ii)
(iii)
Pomegranate + Sapota/aonla in 4: I ratio

Drumstick + Tamarind/wood apple in 4: I ratio
(iv)
Custard apple + jamun in alternate pits/rows
(v)
Pomegranate/phalsa + Sapota/aonla in alternate
pits/rows
(vi)
Mango/sapota + papaya in alternate pits/rows
Custard apple : Balanagar, mammoth

Mango : Neelam, Banganapalli, Alphonso, Kalepad
Pomegranate : Jothi, Ganesh
Hortipastoral System
A combination of fruit trees and pasture species
commonly known as hortipastoral system is one of the
several ways to satisfy human needs and alleviate cattle
hunger. A hortipastoral system comprising of hardy
fruit trees is advocated for land capability class (LCC) III
and IV. Two fruit species, viz., guava and custard apple
with 6 m 6 m spacing and interspaces utilized for
raising stylo or Cellchrus by dividing each fruit block into
three.
Sapota : PKM 1, PKM 4 & PKM 5

Tamarind
: PKM 1 & Urigam
Land use systems

Mixed Planting of Fruit Trees
An approach to optimize resource use by
systematic arrangement of diverse plant canopies with
varying growth habits. Alignment of plants of slow and
fast growing types and those with early or late fruit
bearing habits in different formations is the mainstay of
the proposed land use. The key principle is to combine
plants of slow and fast growing types, early and late
bearing fruit plants. Fruiting of drumstick and custard
Silvipastoral System
Marginal dry lands are usually shallow and poor
in nutrients. Yield of arable crops from these lands are
low, uncertain and often not remunerative. The returns
from these lands may improve if they are put to an
72
alternate land use like silvipasture. Silvipasture system

apart from yielding fuel wood and fodder, improves the
soil fertility. After one rotation with silvipasture system
say, 6-8 years arable crops can be grown on the built up
soil fertility, without fertilizer application.
Cropping System
Selection of Planting Materials

The planting materials are of prime importance
in the fruit orchards. They should be originated from
quality scion materials and proper grafting should be
done in the growth phase and union of graft should be
proper and uniform. Pre sowing hardening / pelleting of
seeds is one of the methods which results in modifying
the physiological and biochemical nature of seeds so
as to get the features that are favourable for drought
tolerance. Some of the chemicals used are CCC, NaCl,
CaCl2, ZnSO4 and MnSO4.
No. of fruit trees
Guava+ no pasture
90
Guava + stylo
63
Guava+ Cenchrus
38
Custard apple+ no pasture
73
Custard apple+ stylo
73
Custard apple+ Cenchrus
Establishment in Field
Planting time and planting spot (microsite) is a
pre-requisite for success of any perennial plants on dry
lands. This should be coupled with timely planting (with
onset of monsoon), so that the saplings establish well
before cessation of rains and become hardy enough to
pass through the first summer.
73
Horticulture techniques
Mulching
Mulching minimizes water losses from soil surface
as a result of solar radiation and wind action and by
suppressing weed growth. Mulch also prevents erosion
and adds organic matter to the soil and keeps it cool.
Materials such as hay, straw, cutgrass, dry leaves, weed
materials and polythene can been used for mulching.
Crop
1. Banana
2. Ber
3. Citrus
4. Mango
5. Pomegranate
Establishment in the field can be achieved by

timely planting. In Tamil Nadu June July is the time
suitable for planting in western districts where the rains
from South West monsoon are received. The planting
time for other districts are September October, where
the rains are received due to North East monsoon during
this months. Staking and tieing the grafted plant with 8
type of knot will make the plant to have more anchorage
and withstand the heavy winds. Protecting the young
plant (saplings) from the sunlight has also to be done.
The leaves of coconut or Palmyrah may be staked both
in Eastern and Western side to protect the plants from
sunlight.
Suitable mulching materials

black polythene
black polythene
dry leaves / grasses
black polythene
Sugarcane trash / paddy husk
Vegetative Barriers
Vegetative barriers with Vettiver/cenchrus can
be planted in zigzag manner to conserved soil moisture
and it will bind the soil particles thereby preventing soil
erosion.
Hardening of planting materials viz, layers, grafts

and budlings are necessary to get increase in success
rate. Partial and slow exposure to sunlight will allow the
plants to suit to the filed conditions and there by the
success rate is increased.
Use of Anti-transpirants
Water Harvesting Techniques
Anti- transpirants are the substances which

reduces water loss in the dry region crop plants.
In arid and wasteland water is a major constraint.

The ground water potential is low and the available water
may also be saline or alkaline. Hence, the available rainfall
should be harvested in an effective way. Following are
some of the successful rain water harvesting techniques
that can be adopted in arid and waste lands.
1. Film forming type eg., wax/plastic emulsion spray.

2. Reflectant type eg., White wash @ 2% or Kaolinite
clay @ 3%.
73
of the land on a contour is contour bunding. The long

slope is cut into a series of small ones and each contour
bund acts as a barrier to the flow of water. Contour bunds
are constructed in relatively low rainfall areas, having an
annual rainfall less than 600mm, particularly in areas
having high textured soils.
Farm Ponds
Farm ponds are small tanks constructed to collect
surface run off. Some ponds get water from surface run
off and some from ground water seeping into the pit.
The water stored can be used directly for irrigation, for
the cattle, fish production etc.
Graded Bunds
Percolation Ponds
Percolation ponds are small water harvesting
structures constructed across small natural streams and
water courses to collect and impound the surface run
off, during monsoons.
Graded bunds are constructed in medium high

rainfall areas having an annual rainfall of 600 mm
and above and in the lands having slopes between 2%
and 6%. These bunds are provided with a channel if
necessary.
Drainage Line Treatments
Contour Trenches
The soil gets eroded through rain splash in

the form of sheet, rill and gully erosion. Unattended
development of rills leads to formation of gullies. The
best way to control the gullies is to vegetate the surface
of the gully to protect it from further development.
Temporary gully control structures like brush wood dam,
loose rock dam, wire woven dam etc, made of cheap
and locally available materials can be established.
Contour trenching is excavated trenches along

a uniform level across the slope of the land in the top
portion of catchments. Bunds are formed down stream
along the trenches. The main idea is to create more
favorable moisture conditions and thus accelerate the
growth of planted trees.
Effective Water Utilization
Staggered trenching is excavating trenching of

shorter lengths in a row along the contour with interspace
between them. In Tamil Nadu, contour and staggered
trenches are adopted in high rainfall hilly areas of lands
with slopes steeper than 3%.
Staggered Trenches
The fruit crops in arid and wasteland can be

grown under drip system of irrigation for the effective
utilization of available water. Drip / micro irrigation
has emerged as an ideal technology, through which the
required amount of water is applied to the root zone of
the crop by means of a network of pipes in the form of
drippers. The efficacy under micro irrigation is as high
as 80 90 percent. The system permits the use of
fertilizers, pesticides and other water soluble chemicals
along with the irrigation water at optimum levels.
Bench Terrace
Bench terracing is one of the most popular
structural soil conservation practices adopted by the
farmers of India and other countries for ages on sloping
and undulating lands. Intensive farming can be adopted
in these bench terraces.
Soil Conservation
Contour Stone Wall
Nature takes about 110 years to form 1 cm thick

top soil and it could be brought down to 11 years by
intensive cultivation practices. In arid and wastelands, the
soils are not productive. They are less in nutrients and are
affected by wind erosion. Saline and alkaline conditions
are more prevalent. This necessitates soil conservation in
these areas. The following soil conservation approaches
have to be followed (Shanmugasundaram, 2005).
In this cut stones of size around 20 30 cm are

dry packed across the hill slope to form a regular shape
of random rubble masonry without mortar.
Canopy Management
Management of canopy of fruit trees by training
& pruning is an important horticultural practice where in
the trees will be able to overcome the drought situations
and sturdy ness to with stand the wind and to increase
flowering.
Contour Bunding
The construction of small bunds across the slope
74
Table 1. Canopy management in fruit crops

Fruit crops
Mango
Guava
Sapota
Pomegranate
Ber
Aonla
Cashew
Tamarind
Canopy management
Overlapping, intercrossing, diseased, dried and weak branches have to be pruned during august-September, once in
three years.
Root stock sprouts have to be removed
Pruning of past season terminal growth to a length of 10 to 15 cm is to be done during Sep-Oct and Feb-March
Erect growing branches are to be bent by tying on to pegs.
Root stock sprouts, water shoots, criss cross and lower branches has to be removed
The past season shoot has to be pruned by removing 1/3rd of the length
Root stock sprout has to be removed and a straight stem up to 75 cm from the ground level has to be trained
Pruning in Feb-March to remove crowded branches
Main branches should be allowed to appear at a height of 0.75 to 1.0m above the ground level
Plants are trained to modified central leader system
During March-April pruning and thinning of crowded branches may be done
Trunk is developed to a height of 1m by removing low lying branches
Root stock sprouts are to be removed
Dry and diseased parts are to be removed
Integrated Nutrient Management
4.
In the crop improvement programmes
too, development of varieties suitable to rainfed agriculture
or assumes greater importance. The important crops
are sorghum, maize, pearl millet, millets, groundnut,
sunflower, pigeonpea, greengram and blackgram.
The arid and wastelands are poor in nutrition.

The nutrient status is aggravated due to frequent drought
as well as run off. The critical soil fertility related
issues in drylands are runoff, poor organic matter, poor
physical properties and management practices. To
grow fruit crops in this region it is essential to manure
organically. The constraints of nutrient management can
be overcome by integrated nutrient management with
application of FYM, Green manures, biofertilizers, Neem
cake, vermicompost and application of fertilizers when
moisture is available can be practiced in water sheds.
5.
Indigenous technical know how of farmers
and technologies are being documented and evaluated.
These technologies need be popularized through the
farmer to farmer, innovative research and adoption
programmes.
6.
For dryland zone, dry land horticultural
corps like mango, sapota, guava, ber, jack, lime,
pomegranate, grapes, coconut, banana, cocoa, coffee,
areca etc., in place of irrigated crops may be considered
with a backstop on marketing.
Strategies for Development of

Watersheds
1.
Diversified and sustainable production
systems through practices such as crop diversification,
integrated nutrient management, integrated pest
management efficient in of harvested rainwater,
tree bound farming like agro-forestry, crop rotation,
intercropping and contingent crop planning to meet
weather aberration can be promoted.
7.
Efficient management of marginal
and shallow lands through alternate land use systems.
Multipurpose trees like Subabul, Pongamia, Gliricidia,
Sesbania etc. may be promoted.
8.
Improve in livestock through improved
availability of fodder and better nutritional status and
strengthen livestock support services.
2.
Suitable farming system models involving
Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, Dairy, Poultry,
Sericulture, Bee keeping, Fisheries etc., suitable for a
given location to achieve more income and more yields
per ha of land per unit time can be adopted.
Conclusion
Shifting of low value crops to high value
commodities like fruits, vegetables and medicinal crops
under watershed programme will generate more income
in drylands and also will provide more employment
3.
Water saving agronomic practices,
pressurized systems viz., sprinkler, drip, trickle irrigation
which have already have been accepted needs further
support and funding.
75
opportunities for the rural poor. Further, watersheds

have to be linked with markets and proper infrastructure
facilities have to be created for storage, transportation
and processing, since all fresh horticultural produces are
highly perishable.
to the international quality standards by following the

hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP)
guidelines, Codex standards. India should not loose site
of advantages of dry climatic conditions of arid/semiarid regions for enhancing export promotion of selected
horticultural crops.
In the context of changing global policy

environment due to WTO, it is necessary to adhere
76
17
Production Potential and Water
Use Efficiency of Various
Cropping Systems
S. Porpavai, P. Devasenapthy, T. Jayaraj and K. Sathiyabama
Rice followed by rice is the cropping system

prevailing in Thanjavur district. Recent past the farmers
are unable to cultivate rice crop in time due to delayed
release of water from Mettur Dam. Considering water
availability, labour demand and economics of cultivation,
it is felt that rice based alternate cropping system with
inclusion of pulses, vegetables and oil seeds to suit our
existing situation is necessary to save water, to improve
the soil health and economic status of the farmers.
Hence the present experiment was conducted to find out
the possibility of raising crops other than rice in Kuruvai
and Summer seasons and to find out the production
potential and WUE.
to identify the appropriate alternative, need based and

profitable cropping systems for Cauvery new delta zone
of Tamilnadu. Treatments comprised of ten rice based
cropping systems, viz., rice rice black gram , rice rice
sesame, rice rice bhendi, Lab-Lab rice maize,
onion rice blackgram, ricerice onion, bhendi
rice radish, maize rice sesame , groundnut rice
blackgram and rice ricegreengram were evaluated for
their production potential and economics in randomized
block design with four replications. The crops were raised
under irrigated condition with recommended package of
practices. Production efficiency values in terms of kg
/ ha / day was calculated by total productivity and net
monetary returns of the rotation divided by total duration
of the crop in that rotation (Tomer and Tiwari, 1990).
Field experiments were undertaken during

2000 2005 at Soil and Water Management Research
Institute, Kattuthottam, Thanjavur under All India
Coordinated Research Project on cropping systems,
Production efficiency
Introduction
The production efficiency was the maximum in

onion rice blackgram (79.5 kg / ha / day) followed by
77
in bhendi followed by onion and maize. Both bhendi and

onion being a vegetable crop recorded higher yield and
WUE. In rabi season, no appreciable difference in WUE
was observed where rice was grown in all the treatments.
During summer season radish recorded the highest WUE
followed by bhendi and maize.
bhendi rice radish (71.3 kg / ha / day) sequence due

to higher yield and net returns. The lowest production
efficiency (38.9 kg / ha / day) was noted in the Lab-Lab
rice maize system. This was obviously due to less
production.
Production Efficiency and Water

Use Efficiency in Different Cropping
Systems
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
Crop sequence
Rice - rice - blackgram

Rice - rice - sesame
Rice - rice - bhendi
Lab lab - rice - maize
Onion - rice - blackgram
Rice - rice - onion
Bhendi - rice - radish
Maize - rice - sesame
Groundnut - rice - blackgram
Rice - rice - greengram
CD (P = 0.05)
Production
efficiency
(kg/ha/day)
53.5
47.7
59.2
38.9
79.5
61.0
71.3
42.7
50.7
53.7
Among the ten cropping sequences, maximum

WUE was obtained in the bhendi rice radish cropping
sequence followed by rice rice bhendi and onion
WUE kg/ha/cm
Kharif
65.03
65.82
65.72
41.45
128.56
65.16
150.75
102.56
57.00
64.10
3.12
Rabi
60.93
60.80
61.11
61.20
63.44
60.63
59.14
58.50
61.20
59.63
NS
Summer
50.56
30.72
134.00
100.14
51.60
78.80
162.70
31.00
53.00
53.56
2.35
Total
176.52
157.34
260.83
202.79
243.60
204.60
372.60
192.06
171.20
177.30
8.05
rice blackgram. This may be due to higher system

productivity.
Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

In kharif season the highest WUE was obtained
References
1.Tomar, S. S and Tiwari A. S 1990. Production potential and economics of different crop sequences. Indian Journal
of Agronomy 35 (1 and 2): 30 35.
78
18
Inter Row and Inter Plant Water
Harvesting Systems on The
Productivity of Rain Fed Pearl
Millet Under Vertisol of SemiArid Region
T. Ragavan, N. S. Venkataraman, T. Saravanan and S. Somasundaram
against risks under aberrant rainfall behaviour of dry land

environment. In addition, equalizing nutrient harvest and
its addition is a pre requisite in sustaining productivity
goals. Further an abated up rise in the use of fertilizers
can inflict irreparable damage to land and environment.
An integrated nutrient management aims at sustainable
productivity with minimum deleterious effect of chemical
fertilizers (Abrol and Katyal, 1990). Hence an attempt
has been made to evolve suitable moisture conservation
techniques with integrated nutrient management for
increasing the productivity of pearl millet under rainfed
vertisol condition.
Introduction
Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is one of
the most important cereal crop grown in India, especially
under dry land conditions, Because of its potential for
high grain and dry matter production under water deficit
and high temperature conditions it has made a mark in
drought prone areas. Rainfed pearl millet occupies 1.52
lakh hectare in Tamil Nadu with average productivity of
1121 kg ha-1. More over, in the event of delayed on set
of North East Monsoon rainfall considerable sorghum
and cotton area under rainfed will be occupied by pearl
millet. In this context, enhancement of individual farm
productivity will be useful to increase over all production
of pearl millet in southern zone of Tamil Nadu during
Rabi season with average rainfall of 415 mm, distribute
in 23-28 days. Because of low and erratic distribution
of rainfall the total production and productivity per
unit area from these areas are very low. One way of
improving the productivity in rainfed lands is to adopt
moisture conserving techniques to make available and
best use of rain water. Moisture conservation has long
been recognized as a kind of managemental insurance

A field experiment was conducted at Agricultural
Research Station, Kovilpatti during North East Monsoon
season of 2002 and 2003. The experiment was
conducted in split plot design and replicated thrice. The
soil at experimental site was black soil classified under
the family of Typic chromusterts with low in available N,
P and medium in available K and soil PH was 8.1. The
soil texture is clayey with the bulk density of 1.27 kg/
m3 with a field capacity of 35 per cent and permanent
79
wilting point of 14 per cent. The pearl millet cultivar

ICMV 221 was used as a test crop. The water harvesting
and conserving practices constituted the main plot
treatments viz., sowing across the slope (M1), ridges
and furrows with tide ridging (M2), paired row sowing
30/60 cm and opening wider row at 35 DAS(M3),
intercropping with short duration cowpea (C.152) in
2:1 ratio (M4) and farmers practice (M5). The sub plot
constituted with 100% RDF (N1), 50% RDF + FYM 2.5
t ha-1 (N2), 50% RDF + Bio-fertilizer (N3), 50% RDF +
FYM+ Bio- fertilizer (N4). The soil of the experimental
site was vertisol (Typic Chromusterts) with PH of 8.1.
The rain fed region of this tract experiences with annual
rainfall of 721 mm and seasonal rainfall during North
East Monsoon of 385 mm received in 27 rainy days.
Further, this region is having intermittent dry spells
during the growth season with unpredictable frequency.
The crop was sown with a spacing of 45x15 cm during
41st standard week by dibbling. The recommended dose
of fertilizers 40kg N +20 kg P2O5 ha-1 was applied as per
the treatments. The bio-fertilizer (Azospirillum) as soil
application @ 2 kg ha-1 was applied immediately after
sowing.
for better plant growth and development. This is in

conformity with the findings of Thumbare and Bhoite
(2003). Sowing of Pearl millet in paired row 30/60x15
cm with opening of furrow in wide space at 35 DAS (M3)
was found to be best next to the M2 in terms of higher
grain yield and B: C ratio. (Table.1)
Soil Moisture Content
Effect of Water Harvesting Systems
The soil moisture content at different stages

of the crop growth due to water harvesting systems
revealed that the soil moisture content at all the stages
was higher where moisture conservation practices were
followed which has helped in better utilization of applied
fertilizers ultimately resulted with higher yield (Fig.1). This
in agreement with the findings of Reddy et.al(2005). The
higher soil moisture content was comparatively higher at
ridges and furrows with tied ridging method of moisture
conservation (M2) followed by (M3). The inter row and
intra row water harvesting systems maintained slightly
higher moisture at all the growth stages of pearl millet
compared to the farmers practice.
Effect of Nutrient Management System

In the nutrient management system, application
of 50 per cent recommended dose of fertilizers along
with 2.5 t ha-1 of farm yard manure and bio fertilizer
( Azospirillum @ 2 kg ha-1)as seed and soil application
registered significant increase in the grain yield (1954
kg ha-1) with net return and B:C ratio (1.98). Adequate
availability of nutrients with conserved moisture through
various measures helps in improving the crop growth and
productivity. The integrated nutrient management system
not only helps for the better growth and development
under rain fed lands but also improves the soil health,
especially water holding capacity and organic carbon
content and ultimately resulted with higher productivity
of crops. These results are in agreement with the finding
of Wani et al (1997) and CRIDA (2002).
Among the inter row and inter plant water

harvesting systems, the ridges and furrows with tied
ridging(M2) recorded significantly higher grain yield of
pearl millet (1982 kg ha-1) as well as gross monetary
returns (Rs.11892) over rest of the insitu moisture
harvesting and conserving techniques. The net returns
(Rs. 6523) and B: C ratio (2.21) was also higher with
this treatment. The ridges and furrows with tied ridging
method of moisture conservation prevent runoff of water
and enhance entry of rain water in to the soil profile. Thus
ensuring higher soil profile moisture content favourable
References
CRIDA, 2002. Annual Progress Report. Central Research Institute for Dry land
Agriculture,Hyderabad.Reddy, B.N., C.V. Raghavaiah, M. Padmaiah and P.Murali Arthanari.2005. Performance
of Castor (Ricinus communis L.) cultivars under moisture and nutrient constraints in alfisols of semi- arid
tropics.
Thumbare,A.D and S.U.Bhoite,2003. Effect of moisture conservation techniques on
growth and yield of pearl millet -chick pea cropping sequence in a water shed,
Indian J.Dry land Agric. Res. And Dev., 18(2):149-151.
Wani, A.G.,A.D.Tumbare. T.M.Bhale and S.H.Shinde. 1997. Response of pearl millet to N and moisture conservation
practices under rain fed conditions. Indian J. Dry land Agric. Res. And Dev., 12(2):130-132.
80
Table 1. Effect of different inter row and interplot water harvesting and nutrient
Management systems on the grain yield and economics of pearl millet.
Treatments
M1
M2
M3
M4
SEd
CD (0.05)
N1
N2
N3
N4
SEd
CD (0.05)
Grain yield (kg ha-1)

1492
1982
1825
1628
43.5
92.7
1562
1730
1681
1954
43.8
87.6
Gross income
8952
11892
10950
11580
9372
10380
10086
11724
-
Net income
4089
6523
5587
6000
4399
4807
4468
5831
-
B:C ratio
1.84
2.21
2.04
1.97
1.88
1.86
1.80
1.98
-
Fig. 1. Soil moisture content (%) under different inter row and inter plant water harvesting systems.
81
19
Effect of Rainfall on Changes
in Soil Organic Carbon in
Continuous Manorial Fields of
Rainfed Black Cotton Soils of
Sourth Tamil Nadu
V. Subramanian,1 K. Baskar2, and G. Maruthi Sankar3
Introduction
10 kg N (urea) + 10 kg N/ha (FYM), 20 kg N (urea) + 20

kg N/ha (FYM), 10 kg N (urea) + 10 kg N/ha (FYM) +
10 kg P/ha (SSP) and 20 kg N (urea) + 20 kg N (FYM)
+ 20 kg P/ha (SSP).
In general, the increasing plant biomass is the only

option to increase carbon in soils. Aggarwal et al.(1997)
have reported that incorporation of crop residue and
fertilizer N increased soil organic carbon (SOC) content
as well as crop yield. The present investigation is to
know the modeling of changes in soil organic carbon
through soil temperature, rainfall and evaporation under
Long Term Manurial Experiment in Dry land Vertisols
of Tamil Nadu.

The soil organic carbon (%) was observed in
each plot of the 13 fertilizer treatments during the 11
year study under LTM experiments. The organic carbon
ranged from a minimum of 0.20% under control to
a maximum of 0.65% under 40 kg N/ha (FYM) over
years. The control had a minimum mean organic carbon
of 0.32% with a coefficient of variation of 28.2%, while
40 kg N/ha (FYM) and 20 kg N (urea) + 20 kg N (FYM)
+ 20 kg P/ha had a maximum mean of 0.44% with a
variation of 22.9% and 19.0% variation respectively over
years. However, the treatment of 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg
P/ha had a minimum variation of 15.8%, while 10 kg N
(urea) + 10 kg N/ha (FYM) + 10 kg P/ha had a maximum
variation of 30.6% over years in the study. It is observed
that the soil had a maximum organic carbon of 0.55%

Long Term Manurial (LTM) experiments on
cotton + black gram and sorghum + cowpea were
conducted at Kovilpatti under semi-arid vertisols during
1995 to 2005. The LTM experiments were conducted
with a set of 13 fertilizer treatments viz., Control, 20 kg
N/ha (urea), 40 kg N/ha (urea), 20 kg N/ha (urea) + SSP
at 10 kg P/ha, 40 kg N (urea) + 20 kg P/ha (SSP), 20
kg N/ha (FYM), 40 kg N/ha (FYM), 20 kg N (FYM) +
10 kg P/ha (SSP), 40 kg N (FYM) + 20 kg P/ha (SSP),
82
in 1995 with a variation of 12.0, while it depleted to a

minimum of 0.29% in 1999 with a variation of 17.3%
over 9 treatments of fertilizer examined in the study.
The soil carbon improved to a mean of 0.35% with a
variation of 10.5% over treatments during 2005 in the
study. The changes in soil organic carbon in different
treatments during 1995 to 2005 under LTM are also
depicted in Fig. 1.
The Regression model of changes in organic

carbon through climatic variables under LTM was worked
out (table 1). The model of T9 was having a maximum
and significant organic carbon predictability of 0.53,
while T5 had minimum predictability of 0.42. However,
T5 gave a minimum prediction error of 0.049%, while
T12 had a maximum prediction error of 0.089% based
on the models. The sustainable index of organic carbon
was found to be maximum of 57.8% for T13, followed
by T9 with 57.1%, T7 with 56.5% and T11 with 54.0%,
while control had a minimum sustainability of 38.6%
based on the trials conducted under LTM.
Based on the regression models, the soil
temperature observed under 57.5, 1015 and 2030
cm depth at 7.28 AM was having a significant influence
on soil organic carbon compared to the soil temperature
observed at 2.20 PM under all the 13 fertilizer treatments.
The soil temperature in 57.5 and 2030 cm depth was
found to have a significant negative influence, while the
soil temperature in 1015 cm depth had a significant
positive influence on the soil organic carbon based on
the models of all the treatments examined in the study.
Fig. 1. Performance of treatments for soil organic carbon

under LTM during 1995 to 2005 at Kovilpatti
Table 1. Regression models of organic carbon through soil temperature,

rainfall and evaporation under LTM at Kovilpatti
Treatment
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
T13
Regression model
OC = 0.22 0.054 ** (ST1) + 0.089 ** (ST2) 0.038 ** (ST3)
0.003 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.008 (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.25 0.048 * (ST1) + 0.096 ** (ST2) 0.05 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.007 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.28 * 0.04 ** (ST1) + 0.073 ** (ST2) 0.036 ** (ST3)
0.001 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.006 (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.29 * 0.041 ** (ST1) + 0.072 ** (ST2) 0.035 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.007 (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.24 * 0.036 ** (ST1) + 0.054 ** (ST2) 0.021 ** (ST3)
0.001 (ST4) + 0.004 (ST5) + 0.007 * (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.29 0.049 ** (ST1) + 0.097 ** (ST2) 0.053 ** (ST3)
0.003 (ST4) + 0.002 (ST5) + 0.009 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.34 0.036 ** (ST1) + 0.082 ** (ST2) 0.05 ** (ST3)
0.004 (ST4) + 0.004 (ST5) + 0.008 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.25* 0.039 ** (ST1) + 0.08 ** (ST2) 0.045 ** (ST3)
0.003 (ST4) + 0.003 * (ST5) + 0.01 * (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.31 * 0.035 ** (ST1) + 0.075 ** (ST2) 0.042 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.002 (ST5) + 0.007 (ST6) + 0.001 (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.26 0.056 ** (ST1) + 0.099 ** (ST2) 0.047 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.010 * (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.30 0.036 ** (ST1) + 0.078 ** (ST2) 0.046 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.002 (ST5) + 0.010 * (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.28 0.053 ** (ST1) + 0.101 ** (ST2) 0.054 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.011 * (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
OC = 0.32 * 0.046 ** (ST1) + 0.068 ** (ST2) 0.030 ** (ST3)
0.002 (ST4) + 0.001 (ST5) + 0.013 ** (ST6) + 0.001 * (RF) + 0.001 (EV)
* & ** indicate significance at 5 & 1% level
R2
0.44**
(11)
0.46**
(9)
0.47**
(6)
0.50**
(5)
0.42**
(13)
0.46**
(8)
0.52**
(2)
0.51**
(3)
0.53**
(1)
0.47**
(7)
0.50**
(4)
0.44**
(10)
0.43**
(12)
0.069
(8)
0.077
(11)
0.056
(3)
0.054
(2)
0.049
(1)
0.082
(12)
0.073
(9)
0.069
(7)
0.059
(4)
0.077
(10)
0.069
(6)
0.089
(13)
0.064
(5)
38.6
(13)
40.5
(12)
46.8
(9)
48.6
(7)
52.5
(5)
47.4
(8)
56.5
(3)
50.9
(6)
57.1
(2)
46.6
(10)
54.0
(4)
44.8
(11)
57.8
(1)
Values in parentheses are ranks assigned to treatments
83
has clearly indicated T7 was superior under LTM with

30 and 16 for soil organic carbon observed in individual
years (l1) during 1995 to 2005, and mean, coefficient
of determination, prediction error and sustainable index
(l2) over years at Kovilpatti under semi-arid vertisols
(Solanki et al.1999).
The soil temperature observed in 2030 cm at 2.20 PM

had a significant positive influence on soil organic carbon
under T5, T8, T10, T11, T12 and T13 treatments,
while it was not significant in other treatments. The soil
temperature observed in 57.5 cm at 2.20 PM had a
negative influence, while the temperature in 1015 cm
had a positive influence on soil organic carbon, but was
not significant based on the model of any treatment. A
positive effect of rainfall and evaporation on soil carbon
were observed under all fertilizer treatments, however,
rainfall had a significant effect on soil organic carbon
under control, T3, T4, T5, T10, T11, T12 and T13
based on the regression models calibrated for the
treatments under LTM study.
Ranking and Selection of Superior

Fertilizer Treatments for Sustainable
Organic Carbon
Fig. 2. Rank sum of treatments for soil organic carbon

in individual years (Rank sum 1) and mean, coefficient of
determination, prediction error and sustainable index over
years (Rank sum 2) under LTM during 1995 to 2005 at
Kovilpatti.
Ranks were assigned to treatments for the

performance based on soil organic carbon build-up or
depletion in different years under LTM experiments during
1995 to 2005 (table 2) and rank sum l1 was derived.
Ranks were also assigned to treatments for the mean
organic carbon, coefficient of determination, prediction
error and sustainable index based on regression models
calibrated for the pooled data over years and rank sum (l2)
was derived. Based on the pooled rank sum of l1 and l2,
a superior fertilizer treatment was selected. A graphical
plot of rank sums l1 and l2 derived for fertilizer
treatments tested under LTM is given in Fig.2. The study
Based on field experiments conducted under

LTM during 1995 to 2005 at Kovilpatti under semi-arid
vetisols, the soil temperature observed under different
soil depths at 7.28 AM was found to have a significant
influence on the changes in soil organic carbon, apart
from rainfall under LTM experiment. Based on a
regression and rank analysis of fertilizer treatments, the
study has clearly indicated that T7 was superior under
LTM with 30 and 16 for soil organic carbon observed in
individual years (rank sum 1) during 1995 to 2005, and
mean, coefficient of determination, prediction error and
sustainable index (rank sum 2) over years in the study.
Table 2. Ranking of treatments for organic carbon status

in individual years, mean, coefficient of determination,
prediction error and sustainable index over years at
Kovilpatti
Treatment
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
T13
LTM
l1
l2
Rank sum
Rank
136
125
105
95
70
85
30
65
37
81
49
88
35
45
44
28
24
25
35
16
21
10
35
18
43
19
181
169
133
119
95
120
46
86
47
116
67
131
54
13
12
11
8
6
9
1
5
2
7
4
10
3
84
References
Aggarwal,R.K., Praveen-Kumar & Power, J.F. (1997). Soil Tillage Res.41, 43.
Solanki,K.R., Bisaria, A.K. & Handa, A.K. (1999). In Sustainable Rehabilitation of Degraded Lands through
Agroforestry. National Research Centre for Agroforestry, Jhansi.
85
Theme 4
Policies, Institutions, and
Socio-economic Aspects
20
Choice of Genotypes in
Fingermillet to Enhance Water
Productivity in Rainfed Areas
Dr. A. Nirmala Kumari,
Karnataka (1436 Kg/ha). Productivity of this crop has

been gradually increasing inspite of its cultivation under
diverse agro-climatic and ecological conditions. This has
been mainly possible through development of improved
cultivars through breeding (Seetharam, 1989).
Introduction
Ragi or fingermillet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn)
occupies a primer position in area and productivity
among various small millets. Ragi is estimated to
comprise 8 per cent of the area and 11 per cent of the
production of all millets in the world. Perhaps 4.5 million
tonnes of grain are produced annually on as much as 5.0
million hectares throughout the world; almost the entire
production is confined to Africa and Asia. India alone
produces 45 per cent of the total world production..
Fingermillet ranks third in importance among millets in
India after sorghum and pearlmillet. The area under this
crop is around 2 million hectares which 7.5 per cent of
the total millets area, but its contribution (2.5 million
tonnes) to total millet production is around 13 per cent.
In India, Karnataka ranks first with more than 40 per
cent area, accounting a little over 50 per cent production
in the country. The other important Ragi-growing states
are Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra,
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. The productivity is
the highest in Tamil Nadu (1900 Kg/ha) followed by
Effective Soil and Moisture

Conservation for Sustained Production
Fingermillet is predominantly a rainfed crop. The
minimal moisture for successful growing of the crop is
around 35-40 cm per season, up to about 75 or 80 cm.
One of the striking features of fingermillet is its resilience
and ability to adjust to different agro- climates in terms
of soil, rainfall and weather parameters. Conservation
of moisture is critical for realising predicted higher
harvests. Soil and moisture conservation measures
including bunding across the slope, land smoothening,
early tillage, sowing and intercultivation on contour and
opening furrows at suitable interval help in mitigating
drought effects. It is noteworthy that fingermillet has
vast untapped yield potential in areas where other crops
have less chance of adaptation.
87
with the process of atmospheric drying, for the rapidly

diminishing moisture of the surface layers. Often, these
layers dry out too rapidly for the seed to germinate or
for the germinated seedling to extend its roots down into
the deeper layers where available moisture can be found.
As a result, the seedling may fail to survive even though
the overall ecological conditions may be favourable for a
mature plant. This problem is further compounded by
the formation of crust, the extent and severity of which
predominantly depends on soil characteristics. Significant
species variation and also variation amongst genotypes
within a species do exist in relative germination rates
under these situations (Udaya Kumar et al., 1989).
Physiological Basis of Productivity

Under Dryland Farming
In any crop, increase in the productivity
under dryland condition requires understanding of the
physiological constraints and also the ways and means
of overcoming them have to be designed. Fingermillet,
a C4 plant, has a production potential of 4000-5000
Kg/ha under optimum conditions. However, the yield
levels achieved are far below its actual potential because
fingermillet is predominately grown under rainfed
conditions (Udaya Kumar et al., 1989). Drought stress
severely limits the yield of fingermillet although it is
reputedly one of the most resistant crops to drought.
Apart from the pre-sowing moisture conservation

measures generally adopted and the intrinsic water
holding capacities of soils, seed characteristics associated
with seedling vigour may determine the final crop stand.
One of them is the intrinsic ability of the seedling itself to
maintain higher growth rates which is a good reflection
of its vigour. This would directly encourage survival by
faster emergence before severe defection of soil moisture
occurred or indirectly by better osmotic adjustment by
accumulation of osmotically active solutes. High seedling
growth rates under stress are also favoured by higher
rate of imbibition and the metabolic activity of the seeds.
The latter facilitates uptake of water especially under
low soil water potentials. The survival of the germinated
seed during the stress period and its regrowth on stress
alleviation is another important factor which determines
seedling establishment. Hydration and dehydration
tolerance of the germinated seeds by osmotic adjustment,
better endogenous hormonal regulation and utilization
of seed reserves is important.
However, recently significant progress has been

made in understanding the nature of stress injury and
the adaptive mechanisms associated with growth and
survival. Field evaluation programmes have been refined
and several quick screening techniques developed
for rapid screening of a large number of germplasm
materials to identify specific characters associated with
higher productivity under moisture stress.
At first, it is necessary to assess (i) the time,
magnitude and duration of stress effect in a particular
season, (ii) the effect of drought stress on growth of the
plant as a constraint for productivity, (iii) identifying the
adaptive strategies of the plant for higher productivity
under drought conditions and (iv) the optimum
growth period of the crop for maximum utilization of
precipitation. Analysis of the constraints in growth and
productivity suggests that the following are the major
factors.
(i)
Stress after sowing Effect on seedling
emergence and crop establishment.
(ii)
growth rate.
Differences in solute potential of the seeds had

been observed depending on the prevailing conditions
during earhead development. Seeds developed from
a dryland crop which had experienced stress, showed
higher germinability and seedling vigour when osmotic
stress was imposed during germination. This may
possibly related to the higher solute content in the seeds
particularly sucrose. Such induced variability could
be exploited. Though significant genotypic variations
had been reported (Udaya Kumar et al., 1989) in
several of these characteristics associated with seedling
establishment, a breeding programme to incorporate
these parameters is difficult and time consuming. It is
worth while to develop agronomical techniques which
can induce tolerance or facilitate stress avoidance thereby
enhancing seedling vigour.
Early season stress Effect on early crop
(iii)
Mid season stress Effect on sink
number and sink development.
Germination and Seedling Survival

Stress during germination and seedling
establishment drastically affects crop stand and is often
a major constraint especially in small seeded fingermillet
with limited seed reserves. Germination and establishment
are often affected under semi-arid conditions, where the
soil moisture is inadequate and the rate of evaporation is
high. In such circumstances, the seedling must compete
88
Moisture Stress as The Limiting Factor

for Growth and Productivity
(ii)
Chloroplast integrity
(iii)
Hormonal factors
Based on stress situation, the mechanisms

adapted by plants to drought stress are different. There
are specific escape, avoidance and tolerance mechanisms
(Levitt, 1980). These mechanisms either favour survival
under stress situation or help in maintaining good
productivity under stress situations.
(iv)
Membrane integrity
Strategies Resulting in Possible Reduction

in Productivity with Drought Avoidance
Characters
(i)
resistance
Adaptive Mechanisms and Their

Relationship with Productivity Under
Drought Stress
Strategies for Higher Productivity with
Drought Avoidance Mechanism
(a)
Maintenance of water uptake

(i) Root characters
(b)
Water utilization efficiency
Reduction in radiation load
(iii)
Reduction in evaporative surface
Higher Water Harvesting and

Utilization Efficiency
(a)
Water conservation mechanism (Agronomical)
Higher partitioning efficiency
(b)
Water harvesting by roots.
(i) Higher harvest index
(c)
Efficient water utilization (TQ)
(ii) Remobilization of reserve carbohydrates
Developmental Plasticity Under Stress
Strategies for Less Reduction in Productivity

with Drought Escape Mechanism
(a)
(ii)
It is more important for a drought resistant crop

to have the following adaptive characteristics associated
with maximizing productivity under stress conditions
rather than to ensure mere survival.
(i) Characters associated with low transpiration

quotient
(c)
Increase in stomatal and cuticular
Survival and growth under stress

Higher crop growth rate after alleviation from stress.
Developmental plasticity
Partitioning and effective remobilization of reserves.
(i) Postponement of flowering
The best strategy for drought management

is increasing the water harvesting and its utilization
efficiency. The total productivity of any crop depends
on the evapotranspiration, water use efficiency and the
harvest index. Agronomical approaches to enhance
moisture conservation and a few strategies to minimize
water loss like mulching and practising optimum date of
sowing will definitely give nice dividends for enhancing
productivity of dryland fingermillet. Apart from these
practices two other physiological processes associated
with water harvesting and conservation are (1) root
factors and (2) transpiration quotient.
(ii) Plasticity of tillering

Strategies for Less Reduction in Productivity
with Drought Tolerance Mechanism
(a)
High crop growth rates under stress and on
alleviation of stress
Characters at the organ level:
(i)
Higher growth rate with low tissue water
potential
(ii)
Higher leaf expansion on alleviation of
stress
(iii)
Root factors: An important feature of a

drought resistant plant could be its deep root system.
The relevance of root volume, spread and depth, relative
energy allocation to roots and the vertical conductances
of the root system had been reviewed by Passioura
(1981). As soil water potential in the surface layers
Higher partitioning on stress alleviation
Characters at the cellular level:

(i)
Osmoregulation
89
decreases, water retained in the deeper layers makes a

larger contribution to ET.Often in many shallow rooted
crops like finger millet, when most of the moisture from
the upper layers is exhausted, the plant is unable to
extract water to satisfy the ET demand even though the
soil water available in the deeper layer is still high. Under
these conditions a deeper root system will definitely have
an advantage. Genotypic differences in root density
especially in deeper soil layers are well documented
in rice (Yoshigwa and Hasegawa, 1982). To develop a
suitable programme to identify fingermillet genotypes
with high water extraction capabilities will investigate
the following aspects further.
grown under dryland conditions, genotypes with low

canopy transpiration rates are desirable (Jones, 1977).
This can be achieved by identifying genotypes with low
conductances or alternatively with genetically low leaf
area and low number of stomata per plant but without
sacrificing the ability to produce higher drymatter, since
drymatter production is highly correlated with grain yield
in fingermillet (Sastry et al., 1982).
Plant processes associated with high

water use efficiency: The physiological and
biochemical factors associated with a low transpiration
quotient and high water use efficiency are other
important adaptive strategies of the plants for higher
productivity under stress conditions. Though the total
evapotranspiration always shows a relationship with
biomass production and productivity, Yield =Total ET
x WUE x HI, the differences in productivity amongst
the genotypes at a given level of evapotranspiration are
mainly attributed to variations in TQ or WUE. The high
WUE achieved by some genotypes is often attributed
to increased assimilation rate per unit water transpired
(Bierhuzien, 1976).
Field experiments were conducted with

seventy medium duration genotypes during monsoon
and summer seasons to investigate the possibility of
identifying genotypes with genetically low leaf area,
leaf area index, leaf area duration, stomatal number per
plant, yet harvesting good grain yield and biomass. In
these genotypes the canopy water loss is likely to be
relatively lower than in genotypes with larger leaf area
(Fig 1, 2). The biological yield was used as the primary
selection criteria to screen genotypes. Among these
genotypes there were some distinct genotypes with high
leaf area, high dry matter and high harvest index and
some others with low leaf area, high dry matter and
high harvest index (Table1). Successive field experiments
conducted in selected high and low leaf area types with
high biomass and high harvest index had shown the
possibility of identifying genotypes with low and high
stomatal number (Table 2, 3). It is logical to assume that
total canopy water loss would be low in genotypes with
low leaf area or low stomatal number. Since fingermillet
is predominantly a dryland crop, low canopy water loss
assumes greater importance. If the total biological yield
is still high in these genotypes despite a reduction in
assimilation leaf area, then the carbon exchange ratio
(CER) should be high leading to high grain productivity.
High CER could be mainly due to high mesophyll
conductances and also the significance of these factors
in maintaining low TQ had been emphasized earlier
(Bierhuzien, 1976).
Stomatal and mesophyll characteristics are

basically responsible for the variation in TQ. However,
under field conditions canopy characteristic have to be
considered in terms of the relative rates of water loss
and assimilation. The canopy conductance, a product
of the stomatal conductance and Leaf Area Index, is
an important determinant of productivity under field
conditions. In this context, the total number of stomata
is a more useful parameter as it takes into account the
variability in both stomatal frequency and leaf area. A
higher number of stomata per plant would increase the
total transpirational water loss concurrently. For crops
The genotypes identified with low stomatal

number and high drymatter were tested for the relative
drought tolerance by subjecting them to different moisture
stress conditions. Genotypes with low stomatal number
and biomass (Table 4) showed less reduction of biomass
and yield when subjected to intermittent moisture stress
compared to genotypes with high stomatal number
and high biomass. Similar results were obtained for
land races of pearlmillet adapted to different ecological
conditions showing smaller leaf area associated with
high carbon exchange rates (Blum and Sullivan, 1986).
Precise gravimetric techniques were used to assess the
(i)
Rapid and accurate measurement of root
depth, spread, volume and activity.
(ii)
Duration of the functional root system
during the crop growth period.
(iii)
The characteristics associated
hydraulic conductivity of root system.
with
(iv)
The relative allocation of carbohydrates
to root systems and its significance.
90
differences in TQ amongst the genotypes (Malathi et al.,

1986; Udaya kumar et al., 1989).
The genotypic differences in photosynthetic

efficiency (PE) are often arrived at by measuring PE in
a single leaf. The mean photosynthetic rate over crop
growth period can be calculated by leaf area duration / dry
matter ratio. Higher the value, lesser the photosynthetic
rate and vice versa. This concept of LAD / DM can be
extended and widely adopted as a preliminary screening
technique for determining the canopy photosynthetic
rate in different genotypes. Differences in PE of different
leaves of canopy, diurnal fluctuations in PE and problems
associated with plant architecture like mutual shading
are taken care of by determining LAD / DM ratios. The
genotypes selected for high biomass and low leaf area
were shown to have high PE in fingermillet (Sashidhar
et al., 1984). Significant genotypic variation exists in the
photosynthetic rate in fingermillet genotypes. Several
plant characteristics were shown to be associated
with high PE and high in translocation efficiency of
photosynthates.The leaf vein frequency, the ratio of
veinal width to leaf width, the mean veinal width and
mean inter veinal width showed significant relationship
with PE and also translocation of photosynthates. Some
of these characteristics had been shown to have high
heritability value and genetic advance (Perumal, 1982)
and could be used in the breeding programme to improve
photosynthetic traits.
By determining the cumulative water transpired

and the dry matter accumulated during the crop
growth period, genotypes differing distinctly in TQ
were identified. The major factors contributing for low
TQ were high NAR and low transpiration rate per unit
leaf area. Genotypes belonging to high CWU and low
TQ and low CWU and low TQ are better for dryland
conditions. Genotypes with high CWU and low TQ
types have an advantage when moisture available in the
deeper layers can be harvested. In this type high CWU is
possibly associated with greater stomatal conductances
resulting in high water demand. However, if moisture
is severely limited it is imperative to select types with
a low CWU associated with a low TQ. Again in these
types the low CWU may presumably be a consequence
of lower canopy conductances. In general, the small
leaf area types showed low TQ associated with low
CWU and genotypes with moderate or larger leaf area
associated with high NAR and high transpiration showed
high CWU with low TQ. The following are the desirable
morphological and physiological characters associated
with low TQ with moderate or high CWU and high dry
matter production.
(i)
Low leaf area (small leaf size or less
number of leaves)
(ii)
Developmental Plasticity
In spite of inbuilt mechanism for low transpiration
quotient in finger millet, the crop experiences severe
moisture stress during early stages of growth even with
a good degree of soil moisture conservation practices.
Stress induced plasticity in postponing the flowering
and development of new tillers on stress alleviation are
often suggested as adaptive mechanisms under dryland
conditions. Medium duration cultivars have better
plasticity both in terms of postponement of flowering
during stress and production of new tillers on stress
alleviation as compared to early cultivars.
High dry matter production
(iii)
High NAR/ Photosynthetic rate (High
mesophyll conductances)
(iv)
Low canopy transpiration and
(v)
High partitioning efficiency.
Biomass production is predominantly dependent

on canopy photosynthesis. Though, both leaf area
and photosynthesis contribute to biomass production,
increasing the photosynthetic efficiency is advantageous
especially for dry land crops. Genotypes with high
photosynthetic rate may still produce high biomass with
small leaf area. Such type will have a low transpiration leaf
area, and could be expected to have a low transpiration
quotient and high water use efficiency. The concept of
low leaf area, high photosynthetic efficiency and high
biomass types of fingermillet having an advantage
under dry land farming had been already established
(Gurumurthy, 1982; Sastry et al., 1982).
Plasticity in Tillering
Mid-season drought stress effect on overall
productivity is less in tillering genotypes with ability for
tiller development on alleviation of stress (Alagarswamy,
1981). In many genotypes of fingermillet, the
productivity of successive tillers reduces drastically and
the late formed tillers and nodal tillers formed after
stress alleviation contribute very little to grain weight. In
fingermillet, a relationship exists between productivity
and mean ear weight, but not ear number per plant.
91
thermoperiodic response and to much lesser degree to

the stress induced postponement or hastening of growth
periods. In this regard, the response of fingermillet to
thermo-periodism seems to be very high, as seen from
the distinct variation recorded when a single genotype
was grown at different locations (Anonymous, 1986).
Although the mean growth duration of a particular
group of genotypes may remain constant over locations
is markedly different. In Fingermillet, there is always a
direct relationship between growth duration and biomass
productivity.
Thus, in recently developed genotypes, the higher yield

potential is the result of enhanced mean ear weight.
High crop growth rate on alleviation of stress:
The differences in productivity under dryland situations
are often attributed to differences in crop growth rates
on alleviation of stress. The functional leaf at the end
of stress period and resumption of leaf growth and its
activity on alleviation of stress determines the CGR.
The leaf expansion even at low tissue water potential
under stress is generally marginal and very little genetic
variation exists in this character. In fingermillet as leaf
water potential decreased, there was a rapid cessation
of leaf elongation indicating that it is a very sensitive
character to moisture stress. However, in fingermillet,
there is resumption in leaf elongation on stress alleviation
and in some genotypes the leaf elongation rates exceed
that of the control (Vishwanatha, 1977). The resumption
of leaf expansion and the NAR depends on the intrinsic
dehydration tolerance mechanisms like osmo-regulation,
maintenance of membrane integrity, reduced photoinhibition and photo-oxidation properties and hormonal
aspects.
One of the approaches to exploit the entire

crop growth period is to identify suitable quantitative
photosensitive types. Under dryland condition,
the rainfall in the beginning of the season may be
erratic, unpredictable and often gets delayed. With a
photoinsensitive type flexibility is not possible because
the early sown crop matures early without exploiting the
complete growth period and the late sown crop would
fill the grains under moisture stress. Also many high
yielding genotypes evolved are photoinsensitive and
maturity period depends on the sowing dates. Therefore,
it is necessary to use different genotypes which suit the
different sowing date. Photosensitive genotypes are
best suited and adjust to the flexibility in sowing dates.
However, photosensitive genotypes possess limited
range of adaptations and low partitioning factors.
Remobilization of Reserve
Carbohydrates and Contribution to
Grain Yield
One major adaptive mechanism for enhancing
productivity when stress occurs during later stages of
crop growth is relative utilization efficiency of stem
reserves for the grain development, as well as higher ear
photosynthesis. Significant variation exists in partitioning
of photosynthesis under stress to the developing ear.
In fingermillet, ear photosynthesis constitutes nearly
5 to 30 per cent to the grain dry weight (Perumal,
1982). Under stress condition, the reduction in photosynthetic rate of the ear is relatively very less compared
to leaves. The advantage of high glume size for higher
ear photosynthesis and grain development by virtue of
greater translocation had been shown in some collections
of fingermillet from Malawi (Sashidhar et al., 1984).
The quantitative short day plants have on

advantage particularly when precipitation in an
agroclimatic zone is bimodal. Such a situation occurs in
some regions where premonsoon showers are adequate
enough to support plant establishment and growth.
However, premonsoon showers are followed by a rainfree
period of 4 to 6 weeks before the monsoon sets in. An
already established crop, if it survives the stress period,
in this situation would have higher crop growth rate on
stress alleviation during monsoon period and therefore
these genotypes would be more productive. Under such
situations, the desirable characteristics of the genotype
would be:
(i)
Establishment
premonsoon period.
Crop Duration and Productivity

The productivity of a genotype is often dependent
on full exploitation of favourable growth period in an
agroclimatic region. This led to the identification of
location specific duration groups with desirable adaptive
mechanisms suitable for each region. Duration of a
genotype in different environments is controlled by its
relative photoperiodic response, to a certain extent to
of
the
crop
during
(ii)
Tolerance to moisture stress for a period
of 4 to 6 weeks.
(iii)
alleviation
(iv)
92
Higher crop growth rate on stress

Photosensitive nature of the genotype.
The genotypes which had deeper root system

were able to withstand the water limiting conditions and
they were also found to perform well in the transport of
assimilates to the developing grains as compared to the

genotypes which have shallow root system. Genotypes
TNAU 1005 and Karipoottai conform to this pattern.
Fig. 1. Low canopy transpiration and high productivity

genotypes identification (High biomass always associated
with high yield)
Fig. 2. Screening of fingermillet genotypes for low canopy

transpiration and high biomass.
Table 1. Mean values for major physiological characters in 70 fingermillet genotypes (kharif, 2004)
S.No.
Characters
1.
Total dry matter accumulation at harvest (g/ m row length)*
2.
Leaf area on 85th DAS (cm2/ m row length)
3.
Straw weight (g/m row length)
4.
Grain yield (g/m row length)
5.
Harvest index
6.
Net assimilation rate (g/dm2 LA during 65 85 DAS)
* Ten plants per m row length.
Mean
Range
148
4230
303
267
0.37
0.15
97 - 195
2134 -6208
201- 914
161-396
0.22- 0.53
0.06- 0.27
Significance
CD(P=0.01)
10.2
93.7
36.2
31.0
0.09
0.01
CV (%)
9.3
11.4
6.2
7.8
10.0
5.2
Table 2. Genotypes variation in growth characters and stomatal number in low and high leaf area types
Genotypes
Stomatal
Total
frequency Stomatal
(No. mm2) number/
Plant
(x105)*
Category I : High LA, high DM and high HI
TNAU 946
258
24.3
TNAU 995
263
27.2
TNAU 1003
248
23.7
TNAU 1018
272
26.9
CO 10
280
27.4
Mean
264.2
21.1
Category II : Low LA, high DM and high HI
TNAU 1005
190
10.0
CO 8
198
12.4
CO 7
210
13.1
Karipoottai
207
11.3
IE 349
205
11.9
Mean
202.0
11.7
CD (P= 0.05)
28.2
4.7
LA **
(cm2/
Plant)
LAI
LAD
(days)
NAR
(g/dm2
LA/
days)
DM at
harvest
(g/m
row
length)***
Grain
yield
(g/m
Row
length)
HI
484.2
513.4
492.0
507.3
550.1
509.4
3.88
4.23
3.67
4.44
4.52
4.15
201
207
216
213
210
209.4
0.15
0.17
0.12
0.09
0.13
0.13
403.5
490.3
398.4
365.2
418.6
415.2
149.3
171.6
135.5
131.5
163.3
150.2
0.37
0.35
0.34
0.36
0.39
0.36
198.9
210.4
231.8
220.2
218.7
216.0
30.5
1.88
2.03
2.41
2.78
2.65
2.35
0.97
109
110
116
121
133
117.8
59.7
0.25
0.24
0.23
0.19
0.20
0.22
0.06
455.2
438.3
424.4
419.7
400.5
427.6
40.2
218.5
206.0
191.0
209.9
172.2
199.5
23.5
0.48
0.47
0.45
0.50
0.43
0.47
0.01
93
* Mean stomatal frequency x 2 x LA per plant for upper and lower surfaces of leaf.
** LA on 85th DAS
*** Ten plants / m row length
Table.3. Variations in stomatal frequency in leaves at different canopy positions and

the total number of stomata per plant in high and low leaf area finger millet genotypes
Details
Range and mean stomatal frequency

in relation to leaf position
(number / mm2)
Top (flag
leaf)
Middle
(L4)
Mean
frequency
Abaxial surface
Mean
Low LA genotypes
Adaxial surface
123 167
( 32)
86 148
(109)
120.5
135 241
(163)
104 197
(121)
142.0
Abaxial surface
Mean
91 166
(129)
96 153
(106)
117.5
110 184
(135)
98 145
(112)
123.5
Mean
stomatal No.
(85 DAS)
per plant (x 105)
3680 5960
(4555)
96.4
2119 3819
(2343)
65.0
Bottom
(L8)
High LA genotypes
Adaxial surface
Range and
mean
103 173
(124)
100 166
(110)
117.0
128
107
117.8
117-191
(138)
100 152
(115)
126.5
141
118
129.5
Table.4. Growth and yield parameters in low and high stomatal number genotypes under two moisture regimes.
Details
Genotypes
LA (cm2/ plant )
(85 DAS)
LAD (days)
Grain yield
(g/pl)
Total DM at
harvest (g/pl)
Control
Stress
Control
Stress
Control
Stress
Control
Stress
TNAU 995
50.4
35.9
208
153
13.6
11.3
12.1
9.5
CO 10
54.2
40.3
212.
163
12.4
10.70
11.3
8.7
Mean
Reduction due to stress
52.3
(27.2)
38.1
210
(24.8)
158.0
13.0
(15.4)
11.0
11.7
(22.2)
Low stomatal
number and
high DM
genotypes
TNAU 1005
20.4
18.5
107
98.4
13.0
12.9
44.2
48.7
Karipoottai
22.0
19.7
118
100.5
11.8
10.6
39.8
33.9
21.2
19.1
(9.9)
112.5
99.5
(11.6)
12.4
11.8
(4.8)
42.0
36.3
(13.6)
High stomatal
number and
high DM
genotypes
Mean
Reduction due to stress
Control: Non stressed block which was given with two protective irrigations to alleviate moisture stress at critical
stages
Stress: Rainfed stress block
94
age, its proximity to the sink and its vantage position to

intercept the considerable proportion of solar radiation.
The total leaf surface contributes nearly 60 percent of
the photosynthates to the ear head. The grain yield was
also correlated to the leaf area per shoot at the time
of anthesis. Stem and sheath also photosynthesise and
contribute nearly 30 percent towards the grain yield.
The participation of photosynthates from the ear head
towards grain yield is 8.5 per cent. The photosynthetic
rate and its translocation find a positive correlation to
the major veins of the leaves (Natarajaratnam, 1984).
Conclusion
The production potential of any genotype depends
on the total biomass produced and its partitioning to the
reproductive organs. A high total biomass production
is therefore the most important prerequisite for higher
productivity. Under field conditions total biomass is
dependent on the crop growth rate and this in turn
is dependent predominantly on functional area of the
photosynthetic apparatus and the carbon exchange rate.
The CER is influenced by the stomatal conductances.
However, the total number of stomata per plant is more
important than stomatal frequency. A higher stomatal
number per plant would also increase the CER and
hence the total biomass but would also increase the total
transpirational water loss concurrently. For crops grown
under dryland conditions, genotypes with low canopy
transpiration rates are desirable. This is possible by
identifying genotypes with low plant conductances but
not by sacrificing the ability to produce higher dry matter.
The transpiration quotient in such genotypes will be low
and hence, the water use efficiency would be high. In
this experiment also, a positive significant relationship
between the total biological yield and the grain yield was
recorded. Further, in this set of 70 genotypes, there was
a relationship between leaf area during dough stage (85
DAS) and biological yield at harvest. So, leaf area as
an important component of total biomass production is
proved. Mutual shading and low leaf area index below
the critical level normally reduce the yield. Actually, the
flag leaf contributes13.5 per cent to grain yield. The
high efficiency of the flag leaf is partly due to is younger
The differences in stomatal number per plant

were also highly significant but the differences were
more because of differences in leaf area. However, based
on leaf area, stomatal number per plant, total biomass
and harvest index, it was possible to identify genotypes
which differed only in total stomatal number per plant,
but having high drymatter and high harvest index.
Genotypes TNAU 1005, CO 8, CO 7, Karipoottai
and IE 349 had a low leaf area, low stomatal number
per plant with drymatter production and productivity
equivalent to that of the high leaf area types TNAU 946,
TNAU 995, TNAU 1003, TNAU 1018 and CO 10.This
is due to high CER in these genotypes which could be
mainly due to high mesophyll conductances. Genotypes
with high mesophyll conductances, but having low
stomatal frequencies will still have higher CER with
low transpiration rate. Such genotypes will have a low
transpiration co-efficient and high water use efficiency
and would be more productive under stress conditions.
95
References
1.Amonymous, 1986. Annual Report of the All India Millet Improvement Project, Fingeermillet, ICAR.
2.Bierhuzien, J.F.1976.Irrigation and water use efficiency. In: Water and plant life, Eds.O.L.Lange, L.Kappen and
E.D.Schulze. Springer, Berline pp.421-431.
3.Blum, A. and C.Y.Sullivan.1986. Comparative drought resistance of land races of sorghum and millet from dry
and humid regions. Annals of Botany, 57:835-846.
4.Gurumurthy, B.R.1982.Desirable plant characteristics in relation to productivity in fingermillet (Eleusine coracana
Gaertn): A physiological analysis.M.Sc. (Agri.) dissertation.Univ. of Agri.Sci., Bangalore.
5.Jones, H.G. 1977. Transpiration in barely leaves with differing stomatal frequencies. J.of Expt. Bot., 28: 162168
6.Levitt, J.1980. Water, radiation, salt and other stress. In: Responses of plants to environment stress, Vol.II.Academic
Press, Newyork.
7.Malathi, C., K.S. Arun, T.G.Prasad and M.UdayaKumar.1986. Genotypic differences in water use efficiency amongst
soybean genotypes. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 14.
8.Natarajaratnam, N. 1984. Physiological basis of productivity in cumbu and ragi. In: Proceedings of state level
Training Programme on Ragi production held at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore from 2528th July, 1984.
9.Passioura, J.B.1981. Water collection by roots. In: The physiology and biochemistry of drought resistance in plants.
Eds.L.Paleg and D.Aspinall. Academic Press, Sydney.pp 39-53.
10.Perumal, K.R.1982. Genotypic variation in photosynthetic efficiency and translocation and its relation to leaf
character, growth and productivity in fingermillet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn). Ph.D. thesis.
11.Sashidhar,V.R., T.G.Prasad, A. Seetharam, M. UdayaKumar and K.S. Krishna Sastry.1984. The balance between
leaf area and photosynthetic activity in determining productivity of foxtailmillet (Setaria italica) under rainfed
conditions. Experimental Agriculture (Great Britain) 21: 241-247.
12.Sastry, K.S.K., M.Udaya Kumar and H.R.Viswanath.1982, Desirable plant characteristics in genotype of
fingermillet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn) for rainfed conditions.Proc. Indian Nat, Sci.Acad. 48: 264-270.
13.Seetharam, A.1989.Genetic Resources of smallmillets in India. In: Smallmillets in Global Agriculture.Eds.
A.Seetharam, K.W.Riley and G.Harinarayana. Oxford and IBH publishing Co.Put. New Delhi.pp. 45-58.
14.UdayaKumar, M., V.K.Sashidhar and T.G.Prasad. 1989. Physiological Approaches for Improving Productivity
of Fingermillet under Rainfed Conditions. Smallmillets in Global Agriculture. Eds. A.Seetharam, K.W.Riley
and G.Harinarayana. Oxford and IBH publishing Co. Put. New Delhi.pp.179-208.
15.Visvanatha, H.R.1977.Evalution of fingermillet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn) genotypes for relative drought tolerance
based on physiological parameters and field performance. M.Sc. (Agri.) thesis submitted to Univ. of Agri.Sci.,
Bangalore, India.
16.Yoshida, S. and S.Hasegawa. 1982. The rice root systems: Its development and function. In: Drought resistance
in crops with emphasis on rice. International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines.pp.97-114.
96
21
Community Resource
Management: Much Needed
Strategy in Tank Irrigation
System in India
M. Jegadeesan and K. Fujita
also it provide biomass, fuel wood, fodder for livestock

and other forms of economic livelihood sustenance of
villagers (Chopra and Dasgupta, 2008). Tank irrigation
get special significance as it provides livelihood support
to large number of marginal, small farmers and landless
agricultural labours (Palanisami, 2000). This system then
once well maintained by villagers, slowly disintegrated
over the period of time due to various reasons like
changes in land holding pattern, development of large
scale irrigation project and ground water development
and change in preference of livelihood strategies among
villagers and so on (Sakthivadivel et al, 2004).
Introduction
Tank irrigation is passing through defining
moment in India today. Tank irrigation contributes
significantly to agricultural production in India in general
and particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka. Tank irrigation system is one of a vast
network of thousands of water bodies that constituted
a distinctive landscape which was medieval in origin but
still was the basis of livelihood in the dry southern plains
(Mosse, 2003). Tank is a small reservoir constructed
across the slope of the valley to catch and store water
during rainy season. Water is controlled by sluices
attached to the tank bank and it is delivered to paddy
field by distributing channels. Tank is considered as a
common property resource. The National Sample Survey
Organization defines common property resources as the
resources that are accessible to and collectively owned,
managed by identifiable community and on which no
individual has exclusive property rights (NSSO, 1999).
The role of tank is not only providing irrigation water but
However, based on the presupposition that local

population has a greater interest in the sustainable use
of resources than does the state or distant corporate
manager; that local communities are more cognizant
of the intricacies of local socio-ecological process
and practices and they are more able to effectively
manage those resources through local or traditional
forms of access (Brosius, Tsing and Zerner, 1998; Li
97
were collected through personal interview; focus group

interaction and discussing with opinion leaders. The
study has been conducted during the year 2007.
2002). In recognition of this fact, government and Non

Governmental Organizations (NGO) put their effort to
motivate farmers to rebuild the institution which was
destabilized. Even then things would not happen in the
way one would have expected. In this connection, the
main focus of this paper is to i) compare effectiveness
of traditional irrigational institution with government
sponsored and NGOs sponsored one. ii) Analyze its
functioning style and its efficiency of these institutions
at tank system level. iii) Find out possible reason for
disintegrating.
General Characteristic of The Study

Villages
The table 1 presented general characteristics of
the selected study villages. The study villages Kadaneri,
Kovalapuram and Menachipuram are located in Peraiyur
taluk of Madurai districts. All the selected villages
almost depend on agriculture and allied activities for
their livelihood. The fate of agriculture is determined
or influenced through rain fed tank irrigation system
in the villages. The major crops cultivated are paddy,
cotton and pulses. Mostly single season crop and rarely,
farmers are going for second crop. In the last 10 years
there was no intervention on these tanks to improve
its performance. As a result, employment generated
through tank irrigated agriculture is in terminal decline.
In recognition of this, the government of Tamil Nadu,
brought this villages under the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) to provide supplementary
non-farm employment to assist them (BDO, 2007). Out
of three tanks, two tanks are managed by Public Works
Department, and one is coming under Panchayat Union
management regime.
Methodology
The study has been conducted in three tank
villages in Madurai district of Tamil Nadu, India.
These study villages has been selected purposefully as
they represent different kind of irrigation institution.
Considering availability of water is the main motivational
factor to organize farmers themselves, care must be
taken to identify study villages, which are receiving
more or less same amount of rainfall. From the vicinity
area, totally three villages were selected, tank village 1
represent traditional institution, tank village 2 represent
institution promoted by government, and tank village 3,
represent the institution promoted by NGO.
The data has been collected through pre-tested,
semi-structured interview schedule paying personal visit
to the villages. Simple random sampling was employed
to identify sample respondents (farmers). The data
Characteristics
Total population
Command area (Ha)
Management authority
Type of Institution
Basin Location
Tank capacity (mcft)
Source of water supply
No. of sluices
No. of supply channels
Extent of encroachment (Ha)
No. of wells in command area
No. of castes in village
Total No. of households
Farming households
Landless Agricultural labors
Non farming households
Major cropping pattern
Tank intervention in last 10 years
Tank performance (farmers perception)
Table 1: General characteristics of study tank villages
Tank village 1
2234
41.60
Public Works Dept.
Traditional
Vaipar
14.0
Rain fed
1
2
0.21
12
9
387
214
148
25
Paddy, pulses
No
Moderate
Source: Water resource atlas of Madurai district, and Field survey in 2007
98
Tank Village 2
520
62.26
Public Works Dept.
Govt. sponsored
Vaipar
17.66
Rain fed
2
2
Not available
18
5
133
67
43
23
Paddy, cotton, pulses
No
Poor
Tank village 3
440
7.94
Panchayat Union
NGO Sponsored
Vaipar
9.20
Rain fed
1
2
Not available
1
2
110
53
42
15
Paddy
Yes. By NGO (2006)
Moderate
by changing social structures, land holding pattern and

demographic population pressure on the lands. After
the 1980s when international donor agencies funded
for tank modernization, they asked to form water user
association at tank level. As a result, the government has
shown interest to form institution at tank level as it was
stipulated by donor agencies.
Tank Water Institutions

The villagers generally have traditional, informal
association other than village panchayat. These
associations have a leader who is respected by villagers,
some of them by virtue of their age and service rendered
in the past and social status, wield considerable influence
in village.
NGO Sponsored Institution
Traditional Irrigation Institution
Many NGOs in India are working with rural

people in tank command area, promoting participatory
management. They follow different methods to organize
farmers and develop institution in the community level
in order to provide collective action to tank system
management. They employed locally known persons
as negotiator to inspire people to participate in the
institutions.
Traditional irrigation institution may be referred

to the evolution of principles for collective action of
users, for broad spectrum of social responsibilities
such as system maintenance, water sharing and conflict
resolution (Coward, 1980; Vaidyanathan, 1985 and
Janakarajan, 1993). Even today villagers have traditional
institution in many villages to manage the tanks
effectively as common property resources. Traditional
system of water distribution was based on their beliefs,
customs and the concept of equality. The water allocation
ensured smooth sharing to all its members without
any default. The performance of these tank irrigation
systems depends on collective decision they made and
keep. These institutions characterized by socio-cultural
and contextual arrangement in order to provide services
to village community. These institutions have rules
and regulation in the form of ethics and norms as it is
resultant of complex pattern of behavior of large no of
people over protracted period of time (Basu, 2000).
Field Observations
The research demonstrates some specific
observation about the difference in strategy, notion,
structure and functioning style among all three institutions
in the study villages. Overall aim of all the stakeholders
involved in this campaign was creating successful
local, independent and self-organizing institution at
community or village level. But notably, these groups
varied tremendously in their values, attitudes and
beliefs towards the cooperation and the best means to
achieve their desired ends. All initiatives look for the
active participation of rural people in working out a
better livelihood access for themselves. New policies
and schemes have been set in the place both by the
government and NGOs to facilitate this process of
involvement.
Government Sponsored Institutions

Effective functioning of tank system is simply based
on how its different components like physical, technical
and institutional parameters are managed. In the earlier
days, villagers considered tank as system. Over the period
of time, when government took over these structures, it
is failed to considered as system, consequently it is said to
be managed by five different departments and acting as
separate entity in different directions. After some period,
government concentrates only on physical improvements
of the tanks. But still they did not yield fruitful result
as there are no institutional structures to maintenance.
Thus institutional problems crop up and it was hasten
Criteria
Responsibility of organizing villagers
Selection of leaders
Functioning style
Financial support
Work execution
Activeness
Traditional
Villagers themselves
Villagers
Informal
Collective contribution
Regular
Relatively Active
Table 2 shows the nature and way of existence

of institution in the villages. Institutional arrangement of
management of tank resources is carefully constructed
and designed to serve specific purpose are at the cross
roads now. In all three types of institutions, irrespective
of its functioning style, its efficiency and activeness are
dramatically low. The most important ingredient for the
Table 2: Functioning structure of tank institutions
Govt. Sponsored
Govt. official in charge of village
By election
Formal
Villagers & Govt.
Demand based
Inactive
99
NGOs sponsored
Facilitator appointed by NGO
By group opinion & rotational
Semi formal
Villager, NGO and Govt.
Regular
Relatively Active
institutional building is a sense of belonging, mutual

trust and empathic cooperation. But unfortunately these
ingredients are missing or not given due importance to
create it.
Trust building, sense of belonging and social
affiliation towards institutions will come when the
villagers perceived that their participation yield good
livelihood base for them. Looking at closer view of
these institutions, it is important to distinguish between
different kind of faith or involvement that people pay
within their socio-economic and -cultural context such
as bonding, bridging and linking with these institutions.
Generally bonding relationship is viewed as
strong or thick, while bridging relation is weak or thin
(Narayanan, 1999; Onyx and Bullen, 2000; Putnam,
2001; Woolcock, 2001). Thus, bonding relationship
is existed in traditional institution, which refers that
villagers have close relationship with this institution.
These people tend to make close relationship as they
have similar interest and common affiliation. Ann Dale
and Jennie Sparkes (2007) argued that adhesiveness
within this network is a sense of deep trust held among
members, which is often highly relational, personalized
and thus, has potential for conflict when their trust and
commonalities break down. Once, the tank irrigation
system has been considered as a sole livelihood provider.
Almost entire village population depends on it. During
the 1980-81, population depended on agriculture in
the study villages was 92 percent. But in 2007, it is
67 percent. (Block statistics, 2007). Over the period
of time, due to changes in government policy and
education opens various avenues for villagers. This is
aggravated still by frequently failed rainfall. Match box,
fire work and cotton industries are coming to exist in
nearby towns and they opened opportunity especially
for youngsters. They also offered relatively high salary
than agriculture. Slowly, youngsters move out from
the village to search better opportunity. Consequently,
farmers faced with labour shortage as they could not
able to attract labourers through competitive wages.
Most farmers leased out their land or left fallow. They
are also looking for non-agricultural employment in
the vicinity of the villages and meantime they receive
remittance from their son or daughters who are moved
out from villages. The government also announced
programs like Sampoorna Grama Rozgar Yojana (SGRY),
National Rural Employment Guaranty Scheme (NREGS),
Swarna Jayanthi Grama Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
and Ananithu Grama Anna Marumalarchi Thittam
(AGAMT). Basic objectives of all these programs are to

give supplementary wage employment to rural labourers.
Moreover, upper caste farmers who are enjoyed control
over lower caste people, lost their control due to changes
in social structure and land holding pattern. Hence, once
reason for coming united, common goal is broken, the
traditional institutions disintegration gets started. As
our research shows, the role of peoples participation
in institution is much diminished now but not entirely
forgotten.
In the case of Government sponsored institution,
the cohesive force could be termed as Bridging.
This relationship characterized by more impersonal
and villagers participation is merely perfunctory not
intuitive. It is often viewed as weak and opportunistic
tie that facilitate access to resources. Bridging occurs
when someone from the government try to connect with
local people through some agenda (Granovetter, 1973).
Here, the trust among members are often thin and tend
broke when the bridger from the government side left
the village or once his agenda or program completes.
This type of institutions tends to provide comprehensive
solutions that have tried to exorcize the factors which
hinder the progress and simply do not work as expected.
It is often conceived as designed to provide comic relief
but not constant relief. This system failed to understand
the fact that villagers are divided into many groups, based
on their caste, income status and land holding etc. To
connect or bring them into one group as tank command
areas farmers, connecting thread is diluted by communal
force and widespread social disparity. Government
sponsored institution is not concentrated on this aspect.
They try to identify all the farmers as tank farmers.
They have time limit to implement program and within
these time limit, they could not able or not interested to
address this problem.
Regarding NGOs sponsored institutions, the core
principle employed is Linking. They try to mobilize
the farmers themselves and made link with government
agencies and other financial institutions. The prime
objective of this Linking is to get accustomed to use
government program for the benefit of common. It is
also considered as opportunistic ties and viewed as the
capacity provider for institution to lever resources, ideas
and information from the formal institution (Woolcock,
2001). NGOs showed interest to operate in village only
when favorable condition exist or assure to provide.
When they find difficulty to operate, they withdraw from
these villages and automatically from institution building
100
process. In our experience, in the study village, from

1992-2002, the NGO called ASSEFA (Association of
Sarva Seva Farm) came to create sound institutional and
regulatory framework as well as enabling environment
for peoples participation by providing loans. But after
the initial involvement they exhibit, they failed to imbibe
a sense of self-help and a sense of sustainable progress.
In the long run, villagers attained the mindset that
they will do mentality. Once conducive environment
disappearing, the NGO also slowly came out from the
village. There is an argument that NGOs looking for
conducive climate to operate on in order to impress their
funding agencies. It is easy for the NGOs to operate in new
villages rather than operate one village for longer time.
After ASSEFA withdraw, another NGO called DHAN
foundation came to operate in this village. Considering
that relatively small village with single community,
the basic platform to launch its program was already
initiated by earlier one. This NGO also did its level best
to organize the farmers to form tank institution called
Vayalagam. They showed substantial and positive
improvement in tank performance surpassing initial
hurdles. Even then priority between farmers and NGO is
differing. This system also will not yield good result if they
fail to understand in changes happened in the external
environment. Bolding (1994) argued that any external
involvement, no matter how well intentioned, can be
perceived as meddling and even be feared. Hence, what
they need to do is not bringing expert from outside, but
an awakening of the expertise within the villagers.
Functioning Style of Institutions

Traditional irrigational institution is functioning
as a two tier system. In the top level, there will be
commanding position called Nattamai (informal
village leader) usually occupied by upper caste people.
In the lower level, there will be an executing position
as irrigation worker called Neerkatti (water manager)
Neerpachi (water distributor) and Thotti (field
assistant) are employed. These all post usually hired
from scheduled caste household on rotation basis. In
government sponsored institution, they will organize
water user association with membership of all the ayacut

(tank command) farmers. They are expected to elect
three positions like president, secretary and treasurer.
Based on the number of villages included in association,
they will select members also. Apart from this elected
body, this system also employs irrigation workers from
scheduled caste households. In case of NGO sponsored
institution, the NGO appoint one person as negotiator
to motivate farmer to join in irrigational institution. The
member farmers elect or select their president, secretary
and treasurer. The NGO provide accountant staff to help
the farmer to maintain their accounts.
Role Execution
Traditional tank water institution is existing here
from the time immemorial. Then, these institutions have
complete control over the common resources. The way
they approach to the problems are perhaps most incisive
and provide constructive contribution to its better
performance. Rules and roles that operate, maintain
and manage these systems are strongly shaped by caste
hierarchy. These institutions took the responsibility
of supply channel maintenance, de-silting tank bed
(farmers are allowed to remove top fertile layer of silt
for their manure need), strengthening of tank bund,
maintaining of tank physical structure (sluice and surplus
weir), water distribution, resolving dispute and conflict
resolution. However, the present situation is that most of
the functions are not executed as external environment
explicitly changed. Farmers are not allowed to take silt
from the tank as social forestry program implemented by
the government. Due to this misplaced priority, regular
de-siltation did by farmers are stopped. As a result, every
year about 2 percent of tank capacity is lost due to silt
accumulation. Supply channels and catchment area are
also encroached and but these institution have no power
to deal with them. Thus, at present in majority of the
tank water institution have only limited responsibility that
too not regularly (Janakarajan, 1993 and Palanisami,
2006).
Roles assumed
Supply channel cleaning
De-silting tank bed
Strengthening tank bund
Sluice and weir maintenance
Outlet channel maintenance
Water distribution
Conflict resolution
Table 3: Role execution of Institutions

Traditional
Occasionally
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
101
Govt. Sponsored
Occasionally
No
Yes
Occasionally
No
No
No
NGO Sponsored
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Table 2 delineated that the gap between perceived

roles and performed roles is large and illuminating. In
government sponsored institution, water user association
was active only during tank rehabilitation program
implemented in 1996-1998. After completion of this
European Economic Community assisted program,
officials responsible for water users association, failed to
maintain its tempo of their members (Palanisami et al,
2007). Farmers also complained that they spent much
money on tank structures. The main problem is that its
catchment and supply channel has been encroached upon,
and nothing has been done about it. Farmers are also
opined that they are motivated to participate in ongoing
process but hardly vested with any power. These kinds
of participation are often criticized as tokenist, giving
participant with no power (Smith, 1998). It is assumed
that people provided with option of passive participation.
Certainly, farmers who are expected to participate in
institutional building should provide with power to make
decision and their priority and choices of investment.
If it is not ensured, it is mere sophistry to say that it is
participation and institutional success. Pearce and Stiefel
(1980) concluded that the promotion of participatory
institutional building may be regarded as no more than
rhetoric unless communities have some degree of power
over the services. Smith (1998) also argued that passive
participation in the name of consultation is the weakest
form of participation in decision making, is often said to
be a mean of indoctrinating the public in the values and
priorities of the planner to ensure that they obtain public
endorsement of their decision, rather than understanding
of local needs and priorities.
As we discussed earlier, due to the government
policy transfer of land holding is happened from upper
caste to lower caste people. It is not simply considered
as land transfer but also power transfer. Power sharing
is not viewed in right way by upper caste people. They
physically accept but are mentally and emotionally
much reluctant and not ready to accept that lower caste
farmers empowered through land. Upper caster people
also leased or sold their lands to landless labourers and
lower caste farmers. Villagers those who entirely depend
on mercy or goodwill of large or upper caste farmers
to get employment, became self-employed. In the mean
time, the entry of more and more caste based political
party into the village system damaged the village
cohesiveness and consequently wipes off cooperative
attitude within and between farmers and villages. This
could be a possible reason for dismantling traditional
institutions. Disintegration of joint family, promotion of

education, development of cottage industry are hastened
the process. As Agarwal (2001) rightly put if farmers
have earning activities that are not reliant on common
resources, their incentives to the collective management
will be reduced. The degree of dependency on small
scale irrigation will depend both on farmers capacity
to exploit it and on what alternative livelihood options
are available to them. Our observation confirmed that
farmers are slowly losing their ability to exploit potential
benefit from tank irrigation system because of their weak
institutional power. When compare to Government
sponsored institution, traditional and NGO sponsored
institution showed incremental increase in the delivery
system. In these two organizations farmers strives
continuously to subjugate impossibility and then try to
succeed.
Role Execution of Irrigation

Functionaries
An institution, irrespective of its nature or
governance, is assisted by a group of irrigation workers
called Neerkatties (water man) who are generally hired
from scheduled caste house hold in rotation in the tank
village. If a particular tank village does not have that
particular schedule caste community, they employed
Neerkatties from nearby villages. The discussion
about Neerkattis becomes important, considering
the service they render to tank institution. They are the
specialist in water management, having rules to allocate
water in the time of scarcity, on the basis of detailed
knowledge of the needs of individual wetland fields, thus
mitigating usual tension between head and tail-enders
(Mosse, 2006) The Neerkatties are omnipresent
who are work almost all the tank villages making their
livelihood based on their services like sluice operation,
irrigation to the field, protecting tank resources and so
on. In the mean time, like any other institution, tank
as an institution, has also changed a lot and profiles of
these functionaries also changed. In many cases, our
field experience showed that, such changes have played
havoc with their lives, but still many are thriving by
adopting themselves to the changes (Vasimalai, 2003).
Among the study villages, two villages have Neerkatti
community and one village did not have Neerkatti
community. By custom, the Neerkatties are expected
to execute some responsibilities (Table 3). It is clear from
the table 3 that mere existence of Neerkatti family
in the village is no guaranty for execution of expected
work. During our interview with Neerkatties in the
102
Table 4: Role execution of Neerkatti

Assumed Roles
Mobilize village farmer
Watch and ward of tank asset
Water management
Farm management
Arranging religious ceremony
Sluice operation
Moderator of dispute between farmers
Common fund collector
Announcer
Directing Neerpatchi and Thotti
Traditional
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
village, they accepted that they are not doing jobs what
their father or grandfather as a Neerkatti did. They
spelled out some the reasons for their hesitance.
Dependency: In the past 10 years, because of
the uncertainty and insufficient rainfall tank not received
water enough to cater farmers need. Studies showed that
only 2 years in the last 10 year tank received water its
full capacity. As a result, most of the farmers ended with
crop failure or left fallow. One Neerkatti needs to work
for at least 30 acres of farmers field as water man to get
justifiable income. When this falls down, he encountered
with insufficient income and struggle to maintain family.
Thus, he preferred to go out for other agricultural or
non-agricultural jobs.
Payment: Usually after the crop harvest, the
Neerkatties are entitled to have 12 kg of grain per acre.
This type of payment is applicable only during normal
tank season. When tank fails or partially performed they
are not sure about their payment. Again some farmers,
even if they are reaped good harvest are reluctant to
come forward to pay their due to Neerkatties. This
type of problems cropped up day by day. They have often
involved in quarrel with Neerkatties about their work
execution. These all dissipate the custom of payment to
Neerkatti. Hence, they are reluctant to perform their
duties as they perceived. Another reason would be as
we discussed earlier that disintegration of caste based
hierarchy and dismantling of institution. The majority of
them were not able to produce enough income through
agriculture and start doing or searching on wide array of
off-farm activities to supplement the income gap. When
they opted out non-agricultural opportunities, they could
not fully concentrate on Neerkatti work as they did
earlier.
Govt. Sponsored
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
NGO Sponsored
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Conclusion
The thinking of community was of lowest level
of aggregation at which people organize for common
efforts; i.e. a small, homogenous, harmonious and
territorially bound unit (Kumar, 2005). Many researches
showed that the rural or traditional communities are
in harmony with local customs and demonstrate long
established patterns of sustainable and equitable resource
use (Li, 1996). Traditional or institutional approach to
common property received wide spread acceptance and
resulted successful for quite a long period. It is proved
that community can own, manage, sustain and enhance
resources such as tank irrigation system (Berkes, 1989
and Ostrom, 1990). But present situation, tank irrigation
system as an institution fail to deliver what it is capable of.
Reasons are multifold and deep rooted as we discussed.
The main flaw in todays approach to tank
institution is its fragmented approach and the need is
holistic approach. Tank irrigation system is involved
physical structures, technical aspects and institutional
factors. All the attempts made so far to modernize or
rehabilitate the tank system fully concentrates only on
physical improvements. That too was not as good as
farmers expected. The institutional aspects completely
ignored until international donor agencies is asked to do
so. Even then reports showed that government spent
71 percent of money in physical improvement and 27
percent spent towards administrative purpose. Meager
2 percent was spent on institutional aspects and after
maintenance (ADB, 2006). Importantly, the institutional
factors and physical factors do not act in isolation; they
are so complex and often interact with each other.
Hence, it is recommended that due importance will be
given to address institutional aspects. About 10 percent
of the cost could be spent towards institutional and
system maintenance.
103
The farmers asserted that government induced

participation is often purely exploitative. They administer
some temporary palliatives to address much deep rooted
problems. As a result things would not happen in the
way one would have expected. The minor irrigation
system is to be treated as one integral holistic unit
comprising catchment, water spread, tank structures
and tank command. As experience showed that most
of the encroachment occurred in catchment and supply
channel which is fall in some other village panchayat. So
the institution could not exhibit its power on this chronic
problem. These institutions are provided with power to
evict encroachment and safeguard its resources. In over
view, true attempt could be made for revival of traditional
irrigation institution with its original vibrant. The policy
should underpinned by principles of sustainability and
equity. Women are widely encouraged to participate in
the institution. Like in the Pudhucherry, women and
men from every agricultural household could become
member in the institution. It is undeniably true that if
we reestablish relationship between farmers and tank
institution and reinvent its role as independent arbiter

through radically different and inspiring, innovative
approach will strengthen the hopes of farmer who
still evidently banking on the tank irrigation as their
savior. A sustainable tank irrigated agriculture with all
its uncertainties and complexities cannot be envisaged
without all the actors being involved with real enthusiasm
in all aspects of planning, execution and management
process.
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our
interviewees for their cooperation and also we sincerely
thank JSPS, Japan and the Suntory Foundation for their
financial assistance.
M.Jegadeesan is JSPS Post-Doctoral Fellow,
Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University,
Japan.
K. Fujita is Professor, Center for Southeast Asian
Studies, Kyoto University, Japan
References
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N.Sundar,eds A New moral economy for Indias forests? Discourse of community and participation, Sage
Pulication, New Delhi.
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based natural resource management, Society and Natural Resources, 11 (2), 157-168.
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study, Economic and Political Weekly, Feb 23, pp 58-66.
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104
Granovetter, M. (1973) The strength of weak ties, The American Journal of Sociology, 78 (6), 1360-1380.
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(3), 501-528.
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agendas in upland Southeast Asia, World Development,30 (2), 265-283.
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press, Delhi.
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commentary, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 54, Issue 3, pp 695-724, April.
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105
22
Rethinking The Strategic
Approach including Adaptation
of Rainwater Harvesting for
Landscape Irrigation and
Agricultural Use-A Review
S. K. Samanta & D. B. Saha
Introduction
Rainwater is valued for its purity and it is free
after all. Despite having bestowed with the plenty
of rainfall, India is under pressure in water sector in
some states due to fast growing population, industries,
agriculture etc as well as the potential changes in climatic
condition. One way of reducing demand-supply gap is
to use suitable rainwater harvesting technique. Since,
irrigation consumes over 80% of the available water
and conventional irrigation of all rain fed lands is not
feasible, there is a tremendous scope for improving the
productivity through rain water harvesting. It provides a
water source where no source of water exists or ground
water is unacceptable or unavailable. The state of the
art technology may be utilized in various sectors namely
domestic water supply, industry, mining, agriculture,
landscape irrigation, livestock and business to augment
freshwater through the techniques of water conservation,
water quality improvement, and reuse for augmentation
of fresh water.
India is characterized by wide variations of

physiographic, climatic, soil, environmental and socioeconomic conditions. Therefore, water harvesting
techniques are highly location specific. In the sector
of landscape irrigation and agricultural use, rainwater
may be harvested for irrigation of arable land through
following techniques, i.e.
(1)
Rainwater
Catchments,
(2)
Harvesting
from
Rooftop
Rainwater Harvesting in situ,
(3)
Runoff Collection from Paved and Unpaved
Roads,
(4)
Runoff Collection using Surface and Underground
Structures,
(5)
Raised Planting Beds,
(6)
Small-Scale Clay Pot and Porous Capsule
Irrigation,
(7)
Automatic Surge Flow and Gravitational Tank
Irrigation.
106
Desert adapted plants are to be grown in

cultivable high land due to its low irrigation wateruse. Depending on the local agro-climatic condition,
evapotranspiration, nature of soil, soil moisture, etc,
the cash crops like maize, wheat/buckwheat, barley,
ginger, millet, mustard, sorghum, groundnut, arecanut,
vegetables, fruit trees, pastures are given the preference
to be grown considering the inter-crop concept with
high plant density. The distribution infrastructure,
centralized treatment facility etc. are excluded in this
system. Rainwater harvesting can reduce the volume
of storm water and ultimately lessen the impact of
erosion. Sometimes, community participation is needed
to get sustainable, good quality water. The volume of
rainwater captured from a large catchment surface of a
building should be cost-effective for several uses, such as
landscape irrigation, toilet flushing etc. A pilot project
may be undertaken to evaluate the feasibility of suitable
rainwater harvesting technique in an area.
Rainfall Distribution
In India, on an average, about 30% area of the
country receives less than 750 mm rainfall, 42% receives
between 750 and 1250 mm and 20% experiences
rainfall between 1250 and 2000 mm. Temporally, the
total rainfall occurs in less than 150 hours and half of
it descends in not more than 20 to 30 hours of heavy
spells. Hence, runoff is a prominent feature of the
hydrologic cycle.
Basic Components of Rainwater

Harvesting System
In the history of irrigation in South India, natural
and manmade tanks which helped store and conserve
the rain runoff played a prominent role. At the end of
the First Five Year Plan, Andhra Pradesh had 58,527
tanks with an irrigated area of over 26 lakh acres. The
water overflowing from the tank heads was collected in
the lower ends so that no wastage of water took place.
The process augmented groundwater reservoir. In the
decades following the 1950s, tank irrigation system
suffered a steady decline due to unavoidable reasons.
In general, rainwater harvesting is the combined
process of the capture, diversion, and storage of
rainwater for a number of different purposes including
landscape irrigation. It may be as simple as channeling
rain runoff in un-guttered roof to a planted landscape in
a residential or small-scale scheme. The water can be
stored down slope in bermed landscape holding area for
direct use of lawn grass or plants to prevent erosion on

sloped surfaces.
The basic components regardless of the
complexity of the system are :
Catchment surface: the collection surface
from which rainwater runs off.
The roof of a building or house is the first choice
for catchment. For additional capacity, an open-sided
rain barn or pole barn may be built. Water quality from
different roof catchments is the function of the type of
roof material, climatic conditions etc. A commonly used
roofing material such as corrugated galvanized metallic
sheet is suitable for rainwater harvesting. Clay and
concrete tiles are both porous, but it still serves as a good
roofing material for rainwater harvesting for irrigation.
Roofing with wood shingle, composite shingle, tar,
and gravel materials are rare, and the water harvested
is usually suitable only for irrigation due to leaching of
toxins.
Gutters and downspouts: channel water
from the roof to the tank.
Gutters are fitted to capture rainwater running
off the eaves of a building. The most common
materials for gutters and downspouts are half-round
PVC, seamless aluminum and galvanized steel. Other
necessary components are the drop outlet, 45-degree
elbows etc. Sometimes, controlling factors for spillage
or overrunning of gutters including rain fall intensity,
an inadequate number of downspouts, excessively long
roof distances from ridge to eave, steep roof slopes, and
inadequate gutter maintenance should be taken into
consideration. The strategies may be suitably applied
to minimize possible overrunning to improve catchment
efficiency etc. Gutters should be installed with the slope
towards the downspout.
Leaf Screens, First-flush Diverters, and

Roof Washers
These are the components which remove debris,
birds dropping, dust etc from the captured rainwater
before it gets accumulated in the storage tank. Mesh
screens are used to remove debris both before and after
the storage tank without clogging irrigation emitters. It
is to find out the suitable method that works better. Leaf
screens must be regularly cleaned to be effective. The
first-flush diverter routes the first flow of rainwater from
the catchment surface away from the storage tank. The
107
flushed water can be routed to a planted area at ease for

landscape irrigation. The simplest first-flush diverter is a
PVC standpipe. Roof washers must be cleaned. Without
proper maintenance, it becomes clogged and restricts
the flow of rainwater.
One or More Storage Tanks, Also

Called Cisterns
The storage tank or cistern is the most expensive
component of the rainwater harvesting system. The size
of storage tank is dictated by several variables like the
precipitation, the demand, the projected length of dry
spells without rain, the catchment surface area, aesthetics,
personal preference, and overall budget. Tanks are
located as close as possible to supply and demand points
to reduce the distance to that water is conveyed. To evade
the utility of the pump, tanks should be placed as high as
practicable. Of course, the tank inlet must be lower than
the lowest downspout from the catchment area. Tanks
should be placed on a stable, level pad. Otherwise, a
concrete pad may be constructed. The runoff from other
parts of the property or from the tank overflow will not
undermine the pad. The pad or bed should be checked
after intense rainfall events. PVC tanks are cost effective
and commonly used for storage uses. Concrete tanks
can be constructed above ground or below ground. A
type of concrete tank is constructed of stacked rings
with sealant around the joints. Ferrocement is a lowcost steel and mortar composite material. Ferrocement
structures have commonly been used for water storage
due to low cost and availability of materials. One of the
simplest and practical choices for urban dwellers is 50 75 gallon drum to be used as a rain barrel for landscape
irrigation.
Delivery System: Gravity-fed

Harvested rainwater may be delivered to
landscape through PVC pipes under gravity as it is most
cost effective.
Hydrometeorological Studies
Crop Water Requirements

The water consumed by a crop is described
interchangeably by the terms like crop water use,
consumptive use and evapo-transpiration (ET) etc.
Different crops have different water-use requirements
under the same weather condition. Water requirement
depends mainly on the nature, stage of growth of the crop
and the environmental conditions. The consumptive use
of the crop at different growth stages is computed by the
water-balance methodology (wherein inflow and outflow
of the water is calculated through suitable measurements)
using the crop-coefficients appropriate to the specific
crop along with the reference evapo-transpiration. Crops
transpire water at the maximum rate when soil water is
at field capacity. Usually, the transpiration rate does not
decrease significantly until the soil moisture falls below
50% of field capacity. Crop coefficient is dynamic in
nature and varies according to crop characteristics (crop
height, crop roughness), dates of (trans) planting, stage
of growth, soil cover and climatic conditions. Computer
model CROPWAT (FAO Manual, Irrigation and Drainage
Paper- 24 on Crop Water Requirements) may be used
to calculate the crop ET and irrigation requirements of
different crops from crop coefficients data generated
at local research institutes. The cash crops like maize,
wheat/buckwheat, barley, ginger, arecanut, soybean,
millet, mustard, sorghum, groundnut, vegetables and
fruit trees are generally preferred.
The irrigation schedule is to supply the right
quantity of water at right time through an appropriate
application method to satisfy the crop water requirements.
It serves applying water at a reasonable cost along with the
fulfillment of the objectives of high yield of good quality,
attaining high water use efficiency without causing any
damage to soil productivity. In case of limited amount
of water, the aim is to maximize production per unit of
water by rationalizing its distribution over the available
land and also applying it at more sensitive stages of crop
growth.
Water Balance and System Sizing
These are undertaken to decipher the rainfall,

rainy days intensity, evaporation, availability of surplus
water, evapotranspiration losses etc which are helpful in
designing the storage capacity. In semi arid regions of
India, evaporation losses are significant after the month
of January. As an example, Chennai City receives
annual rainfall ranging from 1100 to 1200 mm. As per
statistics, a house (223 sq. m.) may get about 700 litres
of water a day from that amount of rainfall.
The basic rule for sizing any rainwater harvesting

system is that the volume of water that can be captured
and stored (the supply) must equal or exceed the volume
of water used (the demand). If rainwater is to be used
only for irrigation, a rough estimate of demand, supply,
and storage capacity may be sufficient. To ensure a yearround water supply, the catchment area and storage
capacity must be sized to meet water demand through
108
the longest expected interval without rain. Many urban

dwellers capture rainwater for irrigation of vegetables and
horticulture gardens. For its superior nature, rainwater
promotes healthy plant growth. Historical evapotranspiration data may be used to project potential water
demands for crop.
The following principles are generally followed
for water-wise landscaping practice.
(a) Plan and design for water conservation.
(b) Create practical turf areas.
(c) Group plants of similar water needs together.
(d) Use soil amendments like compost to allow the soil to
retain more water.
(e) Use mulches, especially in high and moderate
watering zones, to lessen soil evaporation.
(f) Irrigate efficiently by applying the right amount of
water at the right time.
(g) Maintain the landscape appropriately by fertilizing,
mowing, and pruning.
The basic monthly water balance calculation is
Water available = Initial volume in storage +
Water captured Water used
Sizing of the storage tank is calculated from the
following equation,
Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting = Catchment
Area x Average Annual Rainfall x Runoff Co-efficient
Considering rainfall data, climate data, soil
data, cropping pattern in the area, irrigation wateruse is calculated with the help of Computer model
CROPWAT.
Gray Water, The Appalling Result of

Urbanization
In the larger metropolitan cities like Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata etc., there is tremendous
waste of water, in our anxiety to promote particularly

urban sanitation. The bulk of the purified and filtered
water contributed by surface and ground water is being
used for flushing toilets. A few treatment plants of limited
capacity are stated to be functioning but the gray water
in the tune of 1,000 mld (million litres a day) produced
as in the fate of a city like Bangalore may be utilized in
landscape irrigation other than releasing to storm drainage
channels, ultimately to pollute rivers downstream without
any restriction. The slums are sprouting and occupying
the only available low lying area which is best suited
for channeling the polluted water discharged from the
multistoried luxurious modern complexes in the name of
so called urban sanitation. Rainwater harvesting may be
encouraged in large commercial and industrial buildings
augmenting fresh water coupled with condensate from
air conditioning systems. An advantage of capturing
condensate is that its production is more during the hot
and humid month of the year, when landscape irrigation
is badly needed.
Conclusion
Free and non-committed rainfall can be harvested
at homes, schools, parks, parking lots, apartment
complexes, commercial facilities, residential complexes
and cultivable high land devoid of any water source. Many
methods are available to harvest rain water for landscape
and agricultural uses. Some of them are inexpensive
and easy to construct. Storing water in a barrel for later
use or constructing small berms and drainages to direct
water to a row of trees may be achieved with some
attention and initiatives. All is needed to get started
with some precipitation and desired plants that require
irrigation. Even the simplest methods provide benefits.
The community achieves long-term benefits which
reduce groundwater use and promote soil conservation.
On the other hand, gray water discharged from the
small huts/multistoried modern complexes may also be
economically used in landscape irrigation. Capturing
condensate in large commercial and industrial buildings
for landscape irrigation has also to be considered.
109
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Rajput, Diksha, Conserving the Heritage of Water Harvesting, PIB, Govt. of India, http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/
fmay2000/f250520001.html
Radhakrishna, B.P., Water Supply and Sanitation in the Indian Context, Jour.Geol.Soc.India, Vol.71, May2008
Sharma, Bharat R., Sr. Researcher, Crop Water Requirements and Water Productivity: Concepts and Practices,
International Water Management Institute, Asia Regional Office, New Delhi, India
Sharda,1 V.N., & Juyal2,G.P., Water Harvesting Techniques, Design of Small Dams and Hydraulic Complements,
1
Director and 2Head (Div. of H&E), Central Soil & Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun248 195 (Uttaranchal), India.
The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting, Texas Water Development Board in cooperation with Chris Brown
Consulting, Jan Gerston Consulting, Stephen Colley/Architecture, Dr. Hari J. Krishna, P.E., Contract Manager,
Third Edition, 2005 Austin, Texas
Waterfall, Patricia H., Extension Agent, Harvesting Rainwater for Landscape Use, University of Arizona Cooperative
Extension, Low 4 Program, http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/water/az1052/harvest.html
110
Theme 5
Role of Research,
Extension and Education
23
Participatory Irrigation
Management Need of an Hour
M. Shantha Sheela* and K.Palanisami**
Introduction
Since inception of community development
programme and also various agricultural development
programmes from 1952 onwards, there has been an
emphasis on transferring the technology to the farming
community through the government agencies. But
involvement of local people i.e is farmers, farmwomen,
farm youth, local legitimizers and village -level peer groups
was not much. That is why the tempo of agricultural
and rural development could not catch up to the tune
expected despite heavy resources and energy spent on
achieving the objectives. The desire for the change did
not come from within the heart of the rural people. They
adopted the improved technology just because some
amount o help/ subsidy/ credits/ inputs were supplied
to them either on subsidized basis or free of cost. Further,
the responsibility for mobilizing people at the gross-root
level also rested with government machinery rather
than the local people. Thus, the local people were not
bound to fully implement the programmes and to see
that these programmes are sustained and they result

into tangible gains. Now, it has been widely realized that
organizations engaged in research and extension must
have an effective feedback system from the users of the
technology in order to make the research and extension
system demand-driven and market-driven. Thus, the
crucial factor in improving the feedback system is to
organize farmers into functional groups. These groups
are virtually acting as secondary disseminators of the
improved water management technologies among the
rest of the farmers. So the results are fruitful, only if
the transfer of technology that involves farmers from
assessing the project to implementation stage.
Irrigation sector will continue to play an
important role in the socio-economic development of
any country in 21st century. But at the same time it is
observed that the profitability and productive capacity of
the land is declining and other socio-economic problems
of irrigation sector are emerging. This gives a signal
that appropriate policies are necessary to maintain
113
the profitability of irrigated agriculture in a sustainable

manner in the new century. Among the states in India,
Tamil Nadu is one of the water-starved states whose per
capita availability is less than the national average. Tamil
Nadu with seven per cent of the population and four
per cent of land area has only about three per cent of
Countrys water resources. Therefore, any improvement
in on-farm water management will conserve water
that can be used to expand more intensive agriculture
that will increase farm income. The performance of
monsoon rain will decide the water resources of Tamil
Nadu. Among the area irrigated under different sources,
significant reduction observed under tank irrigation over
years. The share has declined from 28 to 24 per cent
during this 20 year period. Introduction of proper water
management strategies on the farm greatly enhance the
percentage of land cultivation. Improving the on-farm
water application efficiencies can increase the command
area supported by a single tank. In the case of well
irrigation, the major issue is the over-exploitation of the
aquifers. Number of wells in the state has increased from
60,000 in 1960s to 1.8 million in 1990s and about 1.4
million wells are energized. The average area irrigated
per well has declined from 1.5 ha from 1960s to 0.6 ha
in 1960s. The cost of well investment has also increased
from Rs. 30,000 to Rs. 1.5 lakh during the above period.
The average failure rate of tube-well is about 67 per
cent. The externalities to the small and marginal farmers
are so high that the well abandonment is also increasing
over years. Improved water management strategies
in this area not only save the losses occurring due to
surface irrigation, it also reduce the over exploitation
of wells and borewells. Among the districts Coimbatore
district the water scarcity is high and the area irrigated
by wells, canals and tank was 134223 ha (72.32 %),
48675 ha (26.23 %) and 2696 ha (1.45 %) respectively.
Eventhough, there are three sources of irrigation which
are not able to meet the irrigation demand of farmers in
Coimbatore district. Water Technology centre at TNAU
involves few technology transfer projects. All these
projects it involves people from the identification of the
location, technology suited to the crop and field to field
trails. Thats why the transferred technology is viable
and sustainable.
Objectives
(a)
Farmers discussion and Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM)
(b)
(c)
Implementation of improved irrigation practices
(d)
Impact of the improved irrigation practices
(e)
Facilitate the transfer of technology by conducting
field day
Methodology
Selection of Study Area
Agragarasamakulam village in Coimbatore
district of Tamil Nadu State was selected for the present
study. Achieving this task was found to be easier in this
district in the early stage of the study itself, because of
their familiarity with Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
and the farmers progressiveness towards the use of new
concepts and methods in farming.
Selection of Respondents
The introductory meeting of the project
Implementation of System Improvement and Water
Management Strategies in Agragarasamakulam
Tank in Coimbatore District was conducted at
Agragarasamakulam village. All farmers in the villages
were invited with the help of village panchayat presidents
to attend the meeting. The interested farmers were
attended the meeting. Discussion with scientists and
farmers were arranged.
After that, the senior research fellows who are
involved in the project visited the farmers field and
conducted a preference survey to identify which type
of irrigation technology they prefer to adopt in their
field. Based on water availability, crops grown and
present water management practices, the fields were
selected. Those farmers who were accepted to give their
co-operation for making demonstration plots in their
farm and to take care of the demonstration plots were
selected.
The selected farmers were taken to TNAU- WTCirrigation cafeteria to know about the various irrigation
technologies demonstrated to different crops and also
to farmers fields where these technologies were actually
implemented by the farmers and finally nine farmers
were selected.
Technology
Farmers preferred
Farmers selected
Drip irrigation
25
Drip fertigation
10
Water and soil resources

114
Table 1. Water resources of selected farmers

S.No.
Area
(ha)
Crop
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1.6
3.2
2.0
4.0
1.6
2.3
1.6
8.0
5.0
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Coconut
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Coconut
Mulbery
Total water
available /
year (m3)
Rainfall
(m3 / year)
21388
44640
43466
29478
30672
22355
24892
35916
22210
12426
24852
15532
31065
12426
17940
12426
62130
34320
Actual req.
of the crop (m3)
26880
53440
34320
28800
26880
38577
26880
57600
57360
Total water availability

/ year
Excess months
9
9
10
12
11
5
8
8
9
Deficit months
3
3
2
0
1
7
4
4
3
115
Table 2. Present status of water use and water budgeting to sugarcane for 4 acres (m3)
Sl.
No.
Particulars
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Total
1.
2601
1762
1951
1888
1625
1573
1300
1300
1888
2601
3147
3251
24892
78
85
135
871
498
359
943
590
867
2352
2420
500
9698
2.
Actual
requirement
of sugarcane
Irrigation requirement
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
1600
1600
1600
2880
2400
2400
26880
2322
2315
2265
1529
1902
2041
657
1010
733
528
-20
1900
17182
Excess / deficit
279
-553
-314
359
-277
-468
643
290
1155
2073
3167
1351
7705
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1600
1120
1120
1120
1760
1600
1600
17920
1079
247
486
1159
523
332
1123
770
1635
3193
3967
2151
16670
Water
currently
available to
the crop
Effective rainfall
3.
Irrigation
requirement
if drip is
used to
sugarcane
Excess / deficit
Identification of Irrigation Management

Strategies Based on Farmers Need
To identify the cost effective irrigation method
the details of crop and interest of farmers were collected
and field visits were made. Most of the farmers prefer drip
and drip fertigation systems. Drip system is economical,
if the design provides optimum size of main, sub-main
and laterals. Discharge and spacing is important to
give the required quantum of water and wetted area for
the crop. Besides proper design, economical layout is
important in deciding the cost of the systems for annual
and close spaced crops such as banana, turmeric, curry
leaf and vegetables etc., since the cost of laterals and
emitters decide the cost of the system. So it is important
to reduce the length of laterals and number of drippers
required per unit area by properly adjusting the crop
geometry, without sacrificing the population of the
crop. Based on the crop spacing the layout such as
single line drip, alternate row (in line) drip and paired
row drip is decided. Fertigation is advantageous along
with drip irrigation to save fertilizer and labour and also
yield and quality improvement. Venturi assembly is used
for fertigation in the drip system.
1. Annualised drip system cost (Rs ha-1)
2. Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1)
Total
3. Gross income (Rs ha-1)
4. Profit (Rs ha-1)
5. Benefit Cost ratio
6. Water used (mm)
7. Water saving (mm)
8. Yield (t ha-1)
9. Water use efficiency (kg ha-1mm-1)
of the poor rainfall and deficit water supply. Water

budgeting was worked out for the selected farmers
and alternative strategies were suggested for successful
farming with the available water.
The working out of water budgeting is given in
Table 2. as an example for one farmer. Similarly the
water resources of the selected farmers were worked out
and presented in Table 1.
Impact of the improved irrigation

practices
Drip Irrigation in Sugarcane
The farmer was happy and equated the water
requirement of 1.25 acre of sugarcane in surface irrigation
to three acre under drip irrigation. The results of the study
indicated about 40 % water saving with 25 % increase
in production. A comparison of the drip irrigation with
surface irrigation in sugarcane is presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Comparison of drip with surface irrigation in

sugarcane
60,250
60,250
1,02,500
42,250
1.70
1900
117
61
10,000
54,125
64,125
1,33,250
69,125
2.46
1140
760 (40 %)
147
128
Water and Soil Resources
Drip Fertigation in Banana
Soil and water samples from the selected farmers

fields were collected and analysed for their nutritional
status and quality.
The farm has water saving of 40 % in drip

irrigation. Since the water is delivered exactly at the root
zone of the crop there is no possibility of weeds grown
in other areas which considerably reduces the labour
on weed management. The fertilizers are also mixed
with water and readily available to the crop and also
matching the requirement of the crop. The farmer was
happy with a yield of 28.75 t ha-1 as against 20 t ha-1
through conventional irrigation practices, which is 44 %
higher yield. Now the farmer is convinced and wanted
to lay drip irrigation system to vegetable crops also. The
benefits realized because of the irrigation system are
presented in Table 4.
The selected farmers were supplied with a

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University - Soil Health card
for maintaining and updating their soil health status
periodically.
In this village the farmers are using only the
ground water for cultivation of the crops. The existing
crops are irrigated with well water with a depth of more
than 100 feet in open wells and 650 - 750 feet in bore
wells in all farms. The crops are under irrigated because
116
Table 4. Comparison of drip fertigation with surface

irrigation in banana
tems
Total
4. Profit (Rs ha-1)
6. Water used (mm)
8. Yield (t ha-1)
10. Fertilizer use efficiency
Surface irrigation
53,080
53,080
1,40,000
86,920
2.63
1900
20
10
14.82
Drip fertigation
10,000
52,230
62,230
1,75,000
1,12,770
2.81
1140
760 (40 %)
28.75
25
21.92
Drip Irrigation in Mulberry
Drip Irrigation for Coconut
Mr. Uthayakumar a farmer with a well water of

high EC, Ca, Mg and Na salts and not amenable for
surface irrigation because of the fear that it will pollute
the entire soil column approached for improved water
management strategies in mulberry. Drip irrigation in
mulberry was suggested to the farmer. The farmer is
now happy with a strong feed back that he reduced the
water application to 1/10th of the water he applied earlier
by surface irrigation. The other interesting features were
control of weeds, restricted fertilizer application zone,
alleviation of micro nutrient deficiency and improvement
in the quality of the leaf. A comparison of the drip
irrigation with the surface irrigation is given in Table 5.
The farmer expressed the water saving of 52

% i.e., 96 liters of water is applied daily through four
drippers of 8 LPH for three hours than 200 liters tree-1
day-1 in the conventional surface irrigation. The yield of
nuts were around 80 tree-1 year-1. Now he is expanding
the drip system for the entire 8 acre of coconut. The
comparison is given in Table 6.
Table 5. Comparison of drip with surface irrigation in

mulberry
Items
Total
4. Profit (Rs ha-1)
6. Water used (mm)
8. Leaf yield (t ha-1)
The selected beneficiaries had an overall impact

of water saving and increased yield obtained as a result
of improved method of irrigation. The water saving could
be attributed because of no water loss in the field and
conveyance. The farmers had a very positive ranking
that the scientists are with them for any technical know
how for their implementation and maintenance which
Surface irrigation
49,325
49,325
72,000
22,675
1.45
1800
15
8.33
Drip irrigation
10,000
45,075
55,075
86,400
26,325
1.56
1080
720 (40 %)
18.25
16.89
created a lot of confidence. It is expected that other

farmers within the village as well as in the neighboring
villages will be able to adopt these technologies on their
own investment.
117
Table 6. Comparison of drip with surface irrigation in coconut

Items
Total
4. Profit (Rs ha-1)
5. Water used (lit tree-1)
7.Yield (Nuts ha-1)
Surface irrigation
7,520
7,520
42,336
34,816
200
10,080
Drip irrigation
2,900
6,270
9,170
55,776
46,606
75
125
13,440
118
Table 7. Garret ranking in the over all impact, increased yield, water saving and
perceptions on the implementation of improved irrigation practices.
Sl.No.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Overall impact
Increased water saving
Increased yield
Labour saving
Increased awareness
Increased adoption
No water loss in the field
No conveyance loss
Water applied in root zone
Timely irrigation
No weeds
Garret
score
Rank
100
88
66
55
44
100
88
77
66
55
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Increased
yield
Improved method of irrigation
Fertigation
Stress alleviation
Weed control
Easy operation
Scientific personnel at their reach
Technology in user friendly
Problems alleviated with technical know how
Easy maintenance
Suitable for high value crops
Garret
score
Rank
99
77
55
44
33
100
77
66
55
44
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Conclusion
Field day
Finally field day was conducted to disseminate
the results of the demonstration. All the beneficiaries
of the project expressed their happiness and the results
achieved in their field. Those who attended the meeting
are willing to implement the drip system, drip fertigation
in their field of their own cost.
Any research is fruitful if it is transferred effectively

to the needed people. For transferring the technology
different extension strategies is needed. From this
research still personal contact is the most effective tool
in the Transfer of Technology. Combined with this the
meetings, discussions, small tours, result demonstration
and fieldday gave a great success in the transfer of
micro- irrigation technologies in the Agragarasamakulam
village.
Reference
Palanisami, K., Balasubramanian, R. and Mohamed Ali, A. (1997) Present status and future strategies of tank irrigation
in Tamil Nadu, Publication of Water Technology Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.
119
24
Augmentation of Ground Water
Resources by Rain Water
Harvesting Case study from
Chennai City, Tamil Nadu, India
D. Dhayamalar* & G.Y.Setty*
Introduction
Chennai, erstwhile Madras, is the capital of
the state of Tamil Nadu and is one of the oldest of the
presidential cities of India. Chennai Metropolitan city is
located in the northeastern corner of Tamil Nadu and
is bounded by Latitudes 130230N and 131400N
and Longitudes 801200E and 181830E. The
corporation of Madras, which was established in 1688,
had a population of 40,000 and has steadily grown with
high population density. Ground water utilisation in
Chennai Metropolitan City has been increasing rapidly in
the wake of increasing urbanisation/population density
coupled with industrial development. This has resulted
in greater demand far exceeding the available ground
water resources. Statistical analysis reveals the entire
city experiences a declining trend in water level in the
post-monsoon period during 1994-2008, which implies
manifold development of groundwater resources leading
to a worsening groundwater scenario. Govt. of Tamil
Nadu has made rooftop rainwater harvesting mandatory
for all residential, private and government establishments
in the city by the end of 2004 for augmentation of

ground water resources and to overcome the worsening
groundwater scenario.
The present paper deals with a case study of
artificial recharge structures constructed at CLRI,
Chennai, and impact assessment after implementation
of rainwater harvesting in the city area. Encouraging
results, both in quality and quantity of ground water,
have been observed after the implementation of
rainwater harvesting. Occurrence of Fluoride in the
range of 2.55.00 mg/l has been identified in ground
water of semi-confined crystalline aquifers along the
Tiruvanmiyur coast in Chennai city in 2001. Fluoride
levels are being monitored regularly from surveillance
observation wells at three months interval. It is inferred
that the Fluoride concentration in deeper aquifers of
Tiruvanmiyur has come down to 0.99 mg/l as a result
of rainwater harvesting.
Two percolation ponds, with combined storage
capacity of 3850 Cu.m., were constructed in June 2002
under Central Sector Scheme by CGWB, in the premises
120
of CLRI, Chennai City for artificially recharging the

aquifer to augment ground water regime. The existing
storm-water drains in the campus are modified to ensure
that all the water available in the catchment is diverted
into the percolation ponds. There is a sustainable rise
in the water level in the order of 2-3 m during NE
monsoon of 2002 after construction of percolation
ponds.
Background Information
Chennai city is located in the northeastern
corner of the state. It is bounded by the Bay of Bengal
in the east, Tiruvallur District in the north and West
and Kancheepuram District in the south. The district
is bounded by Latitudes 130230N and 131400N
and Longitudes 801200E and 181830E. The
geographical area of Chennai city is 162.29 sq. km

while Chennai Metropolitan Area is 993.38 sq. km. The
location map is shown in the Figure-1.
Marine transgression and regressions have
resulted in the present day landforms. Sand bars are
scattered along the course of the Adyar River and
Cooum River drain the city. The river Cooum is highly
polluted due to discharge of sewerage after the entry into
the city, Buckingham canal is a manmade navigation
canal, not in use for last four decades and presently act
as sewerage carrier within the city. The Chennai city
receives annual normal rainfall of 1445.8 mm of which
484.6 mm is received during SW monsoon, 856.3 mm
during NE monsoon with the rest received during winter
and summer.
121
Table -1
water supply Chennai city
Details
Operational Area
1978
City 170 sq.km.
Population
Water Produced (Normal Years)
Area covered with piped supply
Treatment capacity
Length of water mains
No. of consumers
Distribution stations
30 lakh
240 mld
80%
182 mld
1250 km.
1,16,000
3 Nos.
Projected Demand and Supply by Year

2011
The present water supply and the projected
scenario by the year 2011 is presented in Tables1 & 2
respectively. The analysis of the water supply position
gives the real magnitude of the problem even after all
the possible measures taken by the government so far.
March 2007
City + Surrounding areas
(175.18+7.88 sq.km.)
About 53.75 lakh
645 mld
99%
750 mld + (530 mld)*
2,887 km.
4,35,755
16 Nos.
A perusal of the table-2 shows that the demand would

be around 1283.2 MLD (@ 135 lpcd) & 1744 MLD (@
200 lpcd), while the supply is expected to be around
1396.75 MLD, if full capacity of surface reservoirs and
the groundwater supply projected were to be considered.
However, the declining water level and erratic rainfall
are making the projection unrealistic.
Table-2: Demand, Water supply & Deficit For Chennai City and Urban Agglomeration
Sl. No.
A.
1
B.
3
Parameter
2011 Situation
135 lpcd
200 lpcd
DEMAND
Chennai City
Population (MLD)
Industrial (MLD)
Total (MLD)
Chennai Urban Agglomeration
Population (MLD)
Industrial (MLD)
Total (MLD)
SUPPLY
Existing Planned Sources (On full capacity MLD)
(a) Surface Water
(i) Poondi (77.20 MCM)
(ii)Cholavaram (22.97 MCM)
(iii)Red Hills (80.65 MCM)
Total of (a)
(b) North Chennai Well Fields (MLD)
(i) Minjur
(ii)Panjetty
(iii)Tamaraipakkam
(iv)Kannigaiper
(v) Poondi
(vi) Flood plains
Total of (b)
(c) South Chennai well Fields (MLD)
(i) Palavakkam
(ii)Porur well field
(iii)Belur near Kilpakkam
(iv)Palavakkam
Total of
(d) Telugu Ganga Scheme
Total of a,b,c &d
Actual anticipated Supply Position (MLD)
631.2
174.0
805.2
935.1
174.0
1109.1
957.2
326.0
1283.2
1418.0
326.0
1744.0
254.5
27.3
31.8
36.4
13.6
27.3
13.6
150.0
6.8
4.5
45.5
4.5
61.3
1396.75
1024.31*
122
Actual anticipated Supply Position (MLD)

1024.31*
*The figure excludes a quantum of 372.38 MLD,
which represents the evaporation, and transmission
losses in respect of planned Telugu Ganga Water Supply
to Tamil Nadu as indicated by the UNDP Studies in the
existing reservoirs subject to good reservoir storage
conditions.
Source: CGWB, 1993)
Hydrogeology
Chennai city is underlain by geological
formations ranging in age from Archaean to Recent.
The geological formations can be grouped into
three units viz., (1) Archaean Crystalline comprising
Charnockites, gneisses and associated basic intrusives.
(2) Consolidated Gondwana and Tertiary Sediments
comprising sandstones, shales and clays and (3) Recent
sediments consisting sand, silt, clay and their admixtures.
Charnockites represent the major rock type and extend
from Saidapet to Raja Annamalaipuram. The fractures
are encountered down to a depth of 60 m at Saidapet
and Adyar . Recent alluvium covers a major part of the
city. The thickness of alluvium varies from 24 to 28 m.
Ground water occurs in all geological formations in the
city and is developed by means of dug wells, filter points,
tube wells and bore wells. Hydrogeological details of
different geological formation in Chennai Metropolitan
area have been furnished in the Table-3.
Data Source, Material and Methodology

The database for the analysis has been derived
from the periodic and routine monitoring of depth to
water levels of observation wells being monitored by
Central Ground Water Board, Chennai. The database
and pre and post-monsoon water levels for the last 14
years have been considered for the study. The Statistical
technique of Simple Linear Regression (SLR) was used
for regression lines to determine the long-term trend of
water table for the period of study.
decades has forced the populace to relentlessly tap

groundwater for its needs. This over-exploitation has
resulted in the sharp depletion of the groundwater table
and to deterioration of its quality as well. Central Ground
water board is monitoring the ground water regime since
1992 to study the long-term trends of ground water levels
and its chemical quality.
Depth to Water Level

In order to study the history of ground water
regime in Chennai City frequency distribution of wells
showing different depth to water level ranges has been
worked out for pre-monsoon (May) and Post monsoon
periods have been furnished in the Table-4.
Long-Term Water Level Trends

The water levels of 18 observation wells for
the period 1994 to 2008 have been analysed for the
computation of the long-term trend. The hydrographs
of observation wells indicate the trend of ground water
levels before the year 2004 are declining in nature.
Pre-monsoon Water level Trend (May

1996-May 2007)
Declining water level trend, ranging from
-0.0212 (Velachery) to 0.3464 m/year(Chetpet) has
been recorded in 64 percent of the wells analysed and
noticed in a major part of the city during the pre-monsoon
period. Rising trend in water levels ranging from 0.0032
(Graems Road) to 0.1776 m/year (Villivakkam) was
observed in 36 percent of the wells analysed. A map
depicting pre-monsoon trend is shown in Figure-3.
Ground Water Scenario

Municipal authorities are finding more and more
difficult to meet the water needs of this bourgeoning
urban population. A classic example is the coastal city
of Chennai (Madras), one of the four major metropolises
of India and the capital of the state of Tamil Nadu.
Inadequate supply of municipal water over the last two
123
Pre monsoon
Table 3: Hydrogeological details of different geological formation In Chennai Metropolitan area.

Geological Formation
Occurrence of Ground Water
Depth of wells
Crystalline Formations
Gondwana formations
Tertiary Sediments
Recent sediments
unconfined condition to Semi-confined

unconfined
unconfined
Unconfined, Semi confined and confined conditions
Yield of wells (lps)

13
13
23
5 100(m3/d)
20 - 60
10 - 30
Table-4:Frequency distribution of wells - Depth to water level ranges Pre-monsoon (May) and Post monsoon (Jan)
Year and
number of wells falling in the particular depth range
Depth
ranges
(mbgl)
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
0-2
2 to 5
5 to 10
> 10
10
43
43
4
1995
18
64
18
0
1996
0
50
50
0
1997
8
84
8
0
1998
8
76
16
0
1999
12
64
24
0
2000
4
56
40
0
2001
0
48
48
4
2002
8
42
50
0
2003
4
35
61
0
2004
0
18
55
27
2005
0
25
66
9
2006
12
60
28
0
2007
20
64
16
0
2008
0-2
2 to 5
5 to 10
> 10
48
38
14
0
56
40
4
0
79
21
0
0
80
20
0
0
52
44
4
0
28
52
20
0
13
48
39
0
52
26
22
0
33
45
22
0
0
26
65
9
4
56
32
8
64
28
8
0
44
48
8
0
68
20
12
0
*Distribution in Percentage
124
Post Monsoon
of Tamil Nadu by October 11, 2003. Rooftop rainwater

harvesting through existing and abandoned dug wells
and bore wells has been implemented in the city in
the premises of all residential, government and private
establishments by 2003. Awareness programmes and
regulatory options are conducted by State and Central
agencies to check the large-scale unscientific extraction
of ground water resources in the city.
Artificial Recharge Schemes

Implemented by CGWB at CLRI,
Adyar, Chennai
Post-monsoon Water Level Trend (Jan

1997-Jan 2008)
The post-monsoon water level trend map reveals
a declining trend in water levels ranging from 0.0166
(Tondiarpet) to 0.3804m/year (Vepery). A negligible
rising trend in water levels has been noticed at two
isolated wells in Saidapet (0.0064m/year) and Graems
Road (0.01m/year) respectively. A declining trend
has been observed in a major part of the City. A map
depicting the post-monsoon trend is shown in Figure-4.
Two percolation ponds (Figure-5) with combined

storage capacity of 3850 Cu. m were constructed in
June 2002 under Central Sector Scheme by CGWB,
in the premises of CLRI, Chennai City for artificially
recharging the aquifer to augment ground water regime.
Each pond has 3 percolation pits of 3.0 m. diameter and
3.0 m. depth, filled with pebbles for facilitating recharge
the percolation ponds are provided with filtration units
at the inlet points to ensure supply of silt-free water. The
existing storm-water drains in the campus are modified
to ensure that all the water available in the catchment
is diverted into the percolation ponds. Total water
harvested is 10612 Cu. M.
Rainwater Harvesting in Chennai

Metropolitan City
The ever-increasing population of Chennai,
rapid urbanisation and accelerated ground water
resource development without a systematic and scientific
approach has resulted in the depletion of ground water
levels creating a negative impact on the ground water
resources. Hence, a scientific approach to develop,
conserve and protect the resource is stressed upon
to regulate the use of this precious natural resource.
Rooftop rainwater harvesting in urban areas offers one
of the methods/options for conserving the precious
ground water supplementing the drinking water needs
in particular.
Since May 2001, the government of Tamil
Nadu has promoted awareness about RWH throughout
the state by different means. In view of the deficit in
DemandSupply, the Tamil Nadu government enacted
a law in October 2002, followed with an ordinance in
June 2003, enforcing the compulsory implementation of
RWH systems in all existing buildings in the entire state
Figure 5. Percolation pond at CLRI, Guindy after the

Monsoon.
Impact of Rainwater harvesting on ground water

regime.
Changes in Water Levels in Parts of

Metropolitan City
Impact assessment of rainwater harvesting on
the ground water regime has been carried out in Chennai
metropolitan city. The study revealed that the water
level, which ranged from 2.25 to 11.62 mbgl during
May 1994, has risen to 1.5 to 7.5 mbgl during May
2007 (Table-5). The percentage of wells showing depth
125
to water level less than 5 mbgl is in increasing order after

rainwater harvesting. The wells, which were dry during
summer months (e.g. Aminjikarai, Velachery, Gandhi
Nagar, Thiyagaraya Nagar and Besant Nagar) prior to
the year 2004, are now recording rise in water levels.
Vepery well has recorded a fall in water levels during the
post-monsoon period, which may be due the impervious
clay in the area.
It is clearly observed that the percentage of wells
showing depth to water level of more than 5 mbgl was
high between the years 2000 and 2005. It started
slowly decreasing after the implementation of rainwater
harvesting policy. The study points out that deficit rainfall
occurred only during 2000 and 2003 during
Table 5: Changes in ground water levels after
implementation of rainwater harvesting policy
Period
Before Implementation of Rain Water harvesting

After Implementation of Rain Water harvesting
the past decade. Despite normal/excess rain

during the rest of the years, ground water depletion has
taken place, which indicates the enormity of extraction.
The trend scenario of ground water levels during
pre- and post-implementation of rooftop rainwater
harvesting policy has been illustrated by hydrographs
at three important locations in the city (Figures: 6-8).
The hydrographs indicate that the water levels are in an
increasing trend after the implementation of the rooftop
rainwater harvesting policy.
Impact of Artificial Recharge at CLRI,

Guindy, Chennai
CGWG has constructed a purpose-built
piezometer in the premises of Central Leather Research
Institute, Guindy in 1999 under World Bank-assisted
Range of Water
levels (mbgl)
Year
1.4 11.62
0.33 6.9
May 1994
May 2007
126
% of wells in the range of

water levels
<5m
Less
Increasing
after 2004
>5m
High
Decreasing
after 2004
Hydrology Project. The hydrographs of the piezometer

(Figures 9- & 10) show a appreciable rise in the water
level in the order of 2-3 m after the construction of the
percolation ponds.
graphically in Figure11. This is one of the methods for

improving the quality of ground water.
Changes in Fluoride Concentration - Deeper
aquifer Well No: S03 - Thiruvanmiyur
Hydrographs of CLRI, Guindy
Conclusions
Thiruvanmiyur Coastal Aquifer in

Chennai City
Changers in Quality of Ground Water
Two types of aquifers exist in Thiruvanmiyur
coastal area: (a) Shallow Alluvial aquifer and (b) Deeper
Crystalline aquifer. The thickness of the alluvium in the
shallow aquifer ranges from 10 to 30 m. Productive
aquifers occur as thin granular zones. Chemical quality
of Ground water of Thiruvanmiyur aquifer is being
monitored four times in a year. It has been observed
that the Fluoride content in the ground water of deeper
aquifer was 4-5 mg/l. The Fluoride concentration
has been diluted from 5.00 to 0.99 mg/l as a result
of implementation of rooftop rainwater harvesting
in the area. The changes took place in the Fluoride
concentration in ground water of deeper aquifers at a
surveillance observation station has been presented
The impact assessment studies show that all the

wells have recorded rising trend in water level after the
year 2004, thereby indicating the efficacy and efficiency
of the rainwater harvesting policy. Optimum number of
artificial recharge structures should be constructed in the
catchment areas of existing reservoirs in the peri-urban
areas of Chennai metropolis, so that the run off during
the rainy season will be avoided and this can recharge
the ground water system. Awareness of the public must
be kindled and enhanced on use of recycled domestic
water. Separate water supply can be made for the dual
purposes of drinking water and others. Awareness
campaign on rainwater harvesting through media should
be continued regularly for the public to realise their social
responsibility on water conservation. This will maintain
the ground water scenario at a desirable and sustainable
level.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Sri B. M. Jha,
Chairman, CGWB, Faridabad and Dr. N. Varadaraj,
Regional Director, CGWB, SECR, Chennai, for their
constant encouragement and support in the completion
of the paper and according permission to present it in
the Symposium on Water harvesting. The authors are
also thankful to Sri E. Sampath Kumar Superintending
Hydrogeologist, Shri B. Shyam Sundar, Scientist-D (HM)
and Dr. S. Suresh, Scientist-D of CGWB, Chennai for
their valuable suggestions.
127
References
1.Ground Water Exploration in Tamil Nadu and U.T of Pondicherry (as on 1996), CGWB, SECR, Chennai
2.Chakkarapani.R, 1991;ground Water Resources and Development Potential of Chengai-MGR District, Unpublished
Report of CGWB
3.Foster.S.S, Morris, B.L and Lawrence, A.R,1994.effects of Urbanisation on Ground Water Recharge, In:Wilkinson
W.B.(ed).Ground Water Problems in Urban Areas, Thomastelford, 43-63
4.Varadaraj, N.1993.Ground Water Resources and Development Prospects in Madras District, Tamil Nadu, Unpublished
Report on CGWB.
5.N.Kittu, N.Varadaraj and R.Chakkarapani, impact of Urbanisation on ground water in the Madras coastal area,
tamil Nadu, India, Ground water in the urban environment:Selected City profiles, Chiton (ED).1999Balkema,
Rotterdam, ISBN9054108371(39-50)
6.S.Suresh, Report on Urban Hydrogeology of Chennai City. Technical Report issued by Central Ground Water
Board, South Eastern Coastal Region, Chennai, 49 p , 2004 (Unpublished)
7.S.Suresh, Report on Hydrodynamics of Coastal Aquifers in southern part of Chennai Metropoliton Area, Tamil
Nadu.Technical Report issued by Central Ground Water Board, South Eastern Coastal Region, Chennai, 63
p, 2008 (Unpublished).
128
25
Plan for Augmentation of
Ground Water Resources in
Critical Cumbum Block, Theni
District, Tamil Nadu
A.Ravi* & GY Setty*
Introduction
Cumbum block falling in Theni District is divided
into 4 Panchayats and 8 villages. The location map is
shown in Figure-1. The block is falling East flowing in
Vaigai river basin of Tamlinadu. Suruliar and Vairavanar
are the important minor basins. The Vairavanar river
flows in northeasterly direction until it joins the Suruliar
river. Suruliar originates in high wavy mountains or
popularly known as Megamalai ranges at an altitude of
1000 to 1200 m a msl.
Pediments, 4) Deep Pediments and 5) Floodplains. The

soils of Cumbum block can be broadly classified into 5
major soils types viz., Red Soil, Black Soil, Brown soil,
Alluvial and Colluvial Soil and Forest Soil.
The rainfall station located at Uthamapalayam,

the taluk headquarters of Cumbum block recorded the
normal annual rainfall of 773.89 mm (Period 1901 1992). The block enjoys a tropical climate. Cumbum
block forms part of the upland plateau region of Tamil
Nadu with many hill ranges. The prominent geomorphic
units identified in the block through interpretation of
Satellite imagery are 1) Ridges, 2) Valley fill 3) Shallow
129
Ground Water Scenario

Hydrogeology
The block is underlain by both porous and fissured
formations. The important aquifer systems in the block
are constituted by i) unconsolidated formations and ii)
weathered fissured and fractured crystalline rocks. The

thickness porous formations ranging from 5 to 20 m.
Gneisses, Charnockites, granites and other associated
rocks, represent the hard consolidated crystalline rocks.
Ground water occurs under phreatic conditions in the
weathered mantle and under semi-confined conditions
in the fractured zones. The shallow aquifers in the major
part of the block occur within the depth of 10 m while
Sl.No. Block
Cumbum
Net
Ground
Water
Availability
5262.80
Irrigation
on
Draft
4772.34
Existing
Gross
ground
water
draft for
Domestic
& Industrial
Water
Supply
181.57
in the northern part of Cumbum block, they are around

25 m. The yield of large diameter wells in the block,
tapping the weathered mantle of crystalline rocks ranges
from 50 to 300 lpm and are able to sustain pumping
for 2 to 4 hours per day. The specific capacity in the
fissured formation ranges from 118 to 201.72 lpm/m/
dd. The yield of bore wells of 50 to 100 m deep ranged

from 1.00 to 5.00 Lps and it is 1.89 to 18.97 lps for the
boreholes of 200 m deep. The depth to water level in
the block varied between 5.26 to 20.36 m bgl during
pre-monsoon 4.12 to 18.42 m bgl during post monsoon
(Figure-2).
The salient features of the ground water resources

computations as on 31st March 200 4are furnished the
Table 1.
Table 1. Computation of Ground Water Resources of
Cumbum Block, Tamil Nadu ( 2004)
( As per GEC 1997 Methodology)(in ha.m)
Allocation
for
Domestic
and
Industrial
Requirement
for next
25 Years
Existing
Ground
Water
Draft
Balance
Ground
Water
Available
for
189.13
4953.91 301.33
Sstage
of
Ground
water
Development
Category
(As in
Jan
2004)
94%
Critical
Future
Development
The estimation of groundwater resources for the

block has shown that the block is falling under critical
category. Dug wells and bore wells are the most common
ground water abstraction structures used for irrigation in
the block.
130
Groundwater Management Strategy

Groundwater development
In view of high level of ground water development
of the block and the quality problems due to geogenic
and anthropogenic factors, it is necessary to exercise
caution while planning further development of available
ground water resources in the block. The development
of ground water for irrigation in the block is mainly

through dug wells tapping the weathered residuum. The
yields of dug wells are improved at favorable locations by
construction of extension bores, which are 40 to 100m.
deep. In recent years, a large number of bore wells have
also been drilled by farmers for irrigation purposes. The
map showing the development prospects for the block is
shown in the Figure - 3
131
trend in the major part of the block. Two hydrographs

are given in Figure 5 & 6.
Plan for Conservation and

Augmentation of Ground Water
Resources
About 35 percent of the total geographical area of
Cumbum block is covered by hills and forests. Another
3 percent of the area has been put to non-agricultural
uses. Hence, about 62 per cent of the total geographical
area is available for planning of development of ground
water resources in the block.
The level of ground water development, balance
irrigation potential to be harnessed and behavior
of ground water levels are the principal factors to be
considered while planning for future development of
ground water resources. The present level of ground
water development in Cumbum block (2004) is about
94 percent, which is likely to go up by 3 percent in
the next 5 years. The balance irrigation potential to
be harnessed has been computed as 301.33 ha. Trend
analysis of long-term water level data indicates a falling
As the level of ground water development in

the block is comparatively high,existing ground water
development has to be carried out judiciously. With this
in view, construction of artificial recharge structures at
suitable locations has been recommended in the block.
Conjunctive use of surface and ground water can also
be considered in the command areas of major tanks and
surface water bodies after detailed study.
Flood plains buried pediments and valley fills
are the most favourable locales for augment of ground
water. Fractures and lineaments hold prospects may
also be used for artificial recharge in deeper aquifers.
The bazada zones along the fringes of hills are also
promising zones. Shallow pediments possess thin soil
cover and the ground water potential is limited to the
weathered and fractured zones. The number and type of
artificial recharge structures recommended for the over
132
Table 2.
Area Suitable for GW development

Harnessable surface water
Committed supply
Existing Tanks
Possible percolation pond
Possible Check Dam
Unit cost of a P.P
Unit cost of a C.D
Total cost of P.P
Total cost of C.D
401.1 Sq.km
35.40 MCM
Nil
Nil
27 numbers @ 1 in 15 sq. km with a capacity of 0.1 MCM
80 numbers @ 1 in 5 sq. km with a capacity of 0.01 MCM
20 lakhs
2 lakhs
27*20 = 540 lakhs
80*2 = 160 lakhs
exploited, Cumbum block is shown in Table -2 . Some

of the suitable sites for artificial recharge are demarcated
in the drainage of Cumbum block in the Figure-4. On
going Artificial Recharge through irrigation dug wells
scheme has to be implemented to the maximum extend
and the impact assessment will reveal the gaps to be
attented. The further Artificial Recharge structers may
be considered as envisaged.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Sri B.M.Jha,
Chairman, CGWB, Faridabad and Sri N.Varadaraj,

Regional Director, CGWB, SECR, Chennai for constant
encouragement and support in completion of the paper
and
permitting to present/publish in the seminar.
The authors are also thankful to Sri E.Sampathkumar
Superintending Hydrogeologist and Dr.S.Suresh
Scientist-D of CGWB,
Chennai for their valuable
suggestions and also to Dr.S.K.Jain Scientist D and TS
to the Member (SAM), CGWB, Faridabad for his kind
co-operation in getting approval from the competent
authority
References
1.District Ground water Brochure, Cumbam block. Tamil Nadu, CGWB, SECR. Chennai April 2008.
2.Ground Water Exploration in Tamil Nadu and U.T of Pondicherry (as on 1996), CGWB, SECR, Chennai.
3.Ground Water Resources and Development Potential of Theni District, Unpublished Report of CGWB.

133
26
Development of Natural springs
for Sustainable Drinking Water
Supply in Himalayan Region of
India
S. S. Rawat1, H. C. Sharma2, B. R. Nikam1, S. K. Mishra1, U. C. Chaube1 M. K. Jain1
Introduction
Surface water, flowing in the form of rivers, and
subsurface water, occurring in the form of springs, is
two main sources of water supply in Himalayan region.
In the high altitude areas, the river flow in deep valley
at the toe of slopes rarely serve any purpose as far
as domestic water supply and irrigation are concerned.
Thus, in Himalayan region of India natural springs are
the available major source of water. About 90 per cent
of the rural population of this region depends on natural
springs for their water demands. Thats why the villages
in hills are clustered around the springs. There is hardly
any settlement where there is no spring. It has been
estimated that only less than 15 per cent of the rainwater
is able to percolate down through deforested slopes to
recharge the catchment area of springs. The remaining
flows down as runoff and cause floods in plains. In most
of the springs in Himalayan area the spring flow has
decreased by 50 per cent within last 30 years and the
piped drinking water in hilly areas is failing due to drying-
up of springs and has adversely affected the water supply

in the irrigation channels. Bahuguna (1990) and Chopra
(1997) expressed that under these circumstances people
will move wherever water moves. Studies (Valdiya and
Bartarya, 1989 and 1991 ) indicates that deforestation,
grazing and trampling by livestock, erosion of top fertile
soil, forest fires and developmental activities (e.g. road
cutting, mining, building construction etc.) are the
causes of the spring flow reduction. Almost, negligible
numbers of springs are being monitored presently for
their flow and other hydrological parameters and there
is no systematic study of the spring flow for developing
these springs as dependable and sustainable sources of
water for rural population in remote Himalayan region.
Keeping the above in view, the present study
was conducted to understand the year wise hydrological
trend of two natural springs in the mid Himalayans
region of Uttarakhand and to suggest a strategy for the
development of theses spring to maintain the regular
supply of drinking water in this region.
134
Study Area
The study was conducted at Hill Campus of
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Ranichauri located at latitude of 300 15 N, longitude
of 780 2 E and an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea
level, in Tehri Garwhal district of Uttarakhand state of
India. This area falls under the middle Himalayas and
sometimes called the outer or lesser Himalayas and
area is strongly undulating and hilly. Mean annual
rainfall is about 1176 mm and ranges between 4 mm
(November) and 246 mm (August). The catchment of
Hill Campus spring having dense forest mainly oak
(Quercus leucotricophora), deodar (Cedrus deodara),
burans (Rhododendron arborium), morpankhi (Thuja
orientalius), etc. While maximum part of Fakua spring
catchment is covered by shrubs like wild rose (Rosa
burunii), kirmora (Barbaris asiatica) and rest part by
some trees of Chirpine (Pinus ronburghii), surai etc.
In this study four years (2002 to 2005) daily
rainfall and spring discharge data were collected from
the observatory of Hill Campus, Ranichauri of G.B. Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar,
Uttarakhand and analyzed.
Methodology
Estimation of Discharge Variability
The variability of monthly average discharge of
these springs was calculated as:
Where,
water from groundwater storage is a phenomenon which

can be described by an exponential law which is same as
that used for baseflow (Chow, 1964 and Singh, 1989).
One of the convenient ways to express the exponential
law is:
Q(t+t) = Q(t) exp (-t/t0)
(2)
where Q(t) = spring flow at time t during recession,

t is the time increment and t0 = a parameter of the
spring and is designated as depletion time and has
dimension of time.
According to Eq.2, the variation of logarithm
of spring flow with time is linear. The reciprocal of
the product of negative of the slope of the straight line
(log10Q vs t) and 2.3, is designated as the depletion
time in time unit. A small depletion time indicates
a small recharge area or high permeability and low
porosity aquifer or there is a substantial groundwater
abstraction or a combination of all or some of these
factors (steep slope). Whereas a high depletion time
indicates a large dynamic storage or slow drainage or
groundwater replenishment (flat slope). Depletion time is
a characteristic parameter for a groundwater flow domain.
It represents recession characteristic and depends on
geology and geomorphology of a basin. It can be treated
as a model parameter for mathematical models for spring
flow. Any change in the slope of the line is indicative of
interference in the groundwater system. A progressive
flattening of the slope indicates replenishment of the
aquifer in the dry season and steepening of the slope
indicates groundwater abstraction from the aquifer and
reduction in natural recharge. Dynamic groundwater
reserve in the spring flow domain at any time t during
recession that maintains spring flow is Q(t). t0 .
Computation of Minimum Required

Storage
Qmax = maximum monthly spring discharge (lpm),

Qmin = minimum monthly spring discharge (lpm), and
Qave = average monthly spring discharge (lpm).
Determination of Depletion Time

The analysis of recession curve defines the regime
of flow of a spring. The recession curve characterizes the
storage depletion or a base flow from an aquifer during
the period of zero or negligible precipitation (Karanjac
and Altug, 1980). The physical process of release of
The computation of minimum storage required

to fulfill the variable demands of the user have been done
by doing simple arithmetic calculations for hill Campus
spring only. Assuming that the storage reservoir is full at
the beginning of the dry periods (when inflow rate is less
than the demand rate), the maximum amount of water
drawn from storage is the cumulative difference between
the supply and demand volumes from the beginning of
the dry season.
135

Spring discharge variation
Monthly variation in Hill Campus and Fakua
spring discharge from year 2002 to year 2005 has been
calculated by Equation 1. The minimum and maximum
values of variability of daily spring discharge for Hill
Campus spring were found to be 0 percent ( January )
and 139 percent ( September ) in 2002; 2.42 percent
(february) and 86.98 percent (august) in 2003; 2.47
percent (february) and 115.61 percent (august) in 2004
and 9.09 (june) and 165.12 (july) in 2005. For Fakua
spring 0 per cent (June) and 201.79 percent (september)
in 2002; 8.93 percent (May) and 175 percent (July) in
2003. 12.73 percent (April) and 278.57 percent (July)
in 2004; 23.81 percent (June) and 252.89 percent
(February) in 2005.
From above it is clear that the Fakua Springflow
is more variable in comparison to Hill Campus spring.
Average monthly variation in the flow of Hill Campus
spring varied from 9% to 70% and for Fakua it varied
from 21% to 167%.These springs can be put in the
category of variable discharge springs.
Depletion Time
The depletion time were estimated for different
years for Hill Campus and Fakua springs.
Hill Campus spring

The depletion time value was found to be 58 days
in the year 2002; 86 days in the year 2003; 89 days in
year 2004 and 59 days in the year 2005.The average
value of depletion time was found to be 73 days. Spring
flow curves for the year wise determination of depletion
time for Hill Campus are shown in Fig 1. Any change in
the slope of depletion line is indicative of interference in
the ground water system. Fig 1 shows that the depletion
line for the year 2003 was more flatter than for the year
2002, even the catchment received good rainfall(1255
mm) in the year 2002 in compare to the rainfall of year
2003 (1173 mm). As per the information provided by
Forest Department of Uttarakhand, more than 65 per
cent of forest area of Hill campus spring catchment
was affected by severe forest fire during the year 2002
and damaging most of the vegetation. Since vegetation
plays a big role in recharging the catchment of spring.
Therefore, maximum part of rainfall was contributed as
surface runoff and depletion line is steeper in the year
2002 in compare to 2003, even catchment received
high rainfall. For year 2004, depletion line was slightly

flatter than the line of previous year even annual rainfall
was almost similar i.e. 1173.8 mm and 1174.9 mm.
From the rainfall data of Ranichauri, it is clear that the
distribution of rainfall in the year 2004 is more uniform
than the rainfall of the year 2003. It indicates that the
Hill campus spring was also recharged in dry season and
depletion line become slightly flatter than the previous
year. The depletion line of year 2005 become steeper
than the year 2004 even the catchment received high
rainfall (1386 mm) in year 2005. Since more than 70
percent rainfall in year 2005 occurred in only three
monsoonal month of the year and rest period is dried.
Therefore, spring was recharged only a small part of the
year and depletion line becomes steeper.
Fakua Spring
The depletion time value was found to be 30
days in the year 2002; 31 days in the year 2003; 20
days in the year 2004 and 15 days in the year 2005.
The average value of depletion time was found to be
24 days. Spring flow curves for year wise determination
of depletion time for Fakua spring are shown in Fig
2. Years 2002 and 2003 were having similar rainfall
pattern but during the year 2002 the vegetation was
damaged due to forest fire. Therefore, the depletion line
for the year 2003 is flatter than the year 2002. For the
year 2004 the depletion line was relatively steeper than
the depletion line for the year 2003. In dry period of
year 2003, Fakua catchment received 332 mm rainfall
in comparison to 121 mm of the year 2004. In this way
Fakua catchment was recharged in dry period also. Fakua
soils have low values of clay and moisture content. The
catchment area is covered with shrubs and Pine trees.
All these factors reduce the water holding capacity of
Fakua catchment. Therefore, most of the rainfall goes
as runoff instead of recharging the aquifer. It makes the
depletion line for the year 2005 steeper than for the
year 2004, even though Fakua catchment received good
rainfall (1386 mm) in year 2005.
From Depletion time and spring flow variation,
it is clear that Hill Campus spring is more stable and
reliable source of water than the Fakua spring even both
spring situated in same meteorological region. Both
springs have a low value of t0 which shows that these
springs are emerging from high permeability and low
porosity aquifer. According to Karanjac and Altug (1980)
these springs can be put in the category of 2nd group of
opening i.e., flow is primarily in large fractures.
136
Planning for Sustained Development

The Hill Campus spring is located in the locality
of university people so, it will be very useful to estimate
the adequate capacity of storage tank for this spring
which will match the water demand of the livelihood
people. Keeping it in view, the flow volume of Hill
Campus spring and water demand of Hill Campus
Ranichauri in each month was estimated. From month
of feburary to the month of july the excess of demand
over the inflow and thus this excess demand of water
from time to time has to met by storage. The maximum
value of cumulative excess volume represents the
minimum storage, necessary to fulfill the demand. The
water demand for different month was estimated on the
basis of daily requirement of drinking water per capita,
which would vary with time due to climatic variation in
different months of the year. The storage requirement in
the present case has been estimated to be 544.73 m3.
Accordingly the storage tank of the same capacity will
be desirable so that it may get filled as per the demand.
The storage tank will start refilling again in the august
and will complete fill in the mid of October. From the
month of October to January the availability of the water
will be more than the demand i. e. the surplus water
which can be utilize for irrigation and other purpose.
Sometime it is not feasible to construct a large capacity
cement concrete tank in hilly areas. In that situation the
only solution of the problem may be the increase of
the depletion time to make these springs as sustainable
source of water by interlinking the natural resources viz,
water-land-vegetation in the springs recharge area.
Land-vegetation combination may be taken care
by phase wise implementing various developmental plans
requiring either afforestation or replacement of undesired
vegetation. The examination of slope of the plot of
spring flow and estimation of dynamic reserve time to
time or year-wise will be good monitoring tool to review
the result of the developmental programme regularly.
The estimated recharge and discharge from spring
should not fall beyond some pre-determined threshold
values due to development of any combination of natural
resources. Determination of the threshold values will
be a management decision requiring information about
supply and demand of these resources for a healthy and

viable growth.
A successful social forestry programme may lead
to increase in recharge allowing the planner to go in
for little more urbanization and quarrying elsewhere in
the recharge area affecting spring flow in a negligible
way. The idea of complementary forestry could take
shape for action in this approach of natural resources
development.
Conclusion
Spring water, prime natural resources in
mountainous region is fastly detoriating due to its
improper utilization, assessment and management.
The protection and proper management of this natural
resource is essential to maintain its quality and quantity
especially for the period when its availability is less.
However, there is no appropriate inventory of the springs
in the country. Further spring flow time series have not
been systematically recorded and recharge area of these
springs are not demarcated. These difficulties to study/
monitor the spring flow based on hydrological principles
focused herein should be urgently addressed. The study
of two springs located in the hill campus of G.B.Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology at Ranichauri
in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttarakhand using a simple,
convenient, and implementable methodology based on
hydrologic principles, not only demonstrates efficacy
of the methodology, but essentially focuses the need
to use the methodology to interlink the development
of main natural resources of a hilly area compatible
and supplemental amongst one another instead of
development of each of the natural resources at isolation
at cross purposes. The methodology besides other
merits discussed above, will check the soil erosion and
will contribute immensely in decreasing sedimentation
in our costly reservoirs in the plains, thereby increasing
their lifespan.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thanks Dr. A. K. Bhar,
former Scientist F, National Institute of Hydrology,
Roorkee for their support and encouragement during
the course of this study.
137
References
Bahuguna, S., 1990. Himalayan Tragedy, 1st ed., Chapter 48 of Himalaya: environment, resources and development,
ed. by Sah et al., Shree Almora Book Depot, Almora,.
Chopra, R., 1997. Mitti aur pani mein sona hai, Nayan Singh Rawat memorial lecture, U.P. Academy of
Administration, Nainital, pp. 18.
Chow, V.T., 1964. Chapter 14-8 on Run-off in Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw Hill, Newyork.
Karanjac, J. and A. Altug., 1980. Karastic spring recession hydrograph and temperature analysis : Oymapinar dam
project, Turkey, Journal of Hydrology, 45 : 203-217.
Singh,V.P., 1989.Chapter 9 on Baseflow Recession in Hydrologic Systems-watershed Modeling, Vol.II, Prentice
Hall, New Jersy
Valdiya, K.S. and Bartarya, S.K., 1989. Diminishing discharges of mountain springs in a part of Kumaun Himalaya.
Current Science, 58(8): 417-426.
Valdiya, K.S. and Bartarya, S.K., 1991. Hydrological studies of springs in the catchment of Gaula river, Kumaun
lesser Himalaya, J. of Resource and Development, 11(3): 239-248.

138
27
Validation of Length of
Growing Period Developed
Through Models for Minimising
the Climatic Risk under Dryland
S. Anitta Fanish., V. Geethalakshmi and K. Ponnuswamy
Introduction
India with advancement in science and technology
is in a position to launch an Ever Green Revolution
(EGR) that can help to increase the yield and income
per unit of land and rainfall. Dryland farming has a
distinct place in Indian agriculture occupying about 68
per cent of cultivable area and it contributes 44 per cent
to the total national food basket. In Indian agriculture,
extending further additional areas under irrigation
becomes limited because of obvious reasons and hence
the existing drylands would persist as drylands forever.
In Tamil Nadu, 54 per cent of total cultivable area (4 m
ha) is critically under drylands. Considering the future
food demand, research and development activities for
dry land must be given top most priority.
In tropical regions, for drylands, there is no
limitation for solar radiation during most part of the year,
but precipitation fall short of potential evapotranspiration
and thus crop production becomes a risky enterprise.
Time of sowing is the most important factor, so
as to tap higher input efficiency from all the resource
applied so as to minimize cost of production without
sacrificing the productivity anticipated. Time of
sowing is a dependable variable especially for dryland

on independent variables viz., rainfall and potential
evapotranspiration and this is scientifically called as
Length of Growing Period (LGP). Identification of suitable
growing period is very much important to choose a
suitable crop, its variety, management technology and
this LGP forms as a decision tool for farmers living in
fragile environment viz., dryland.
Among many annual crops, sorghum was
cultivated under dryland situation because of their
adaptability and capacity to withstand intraseasonal
agricultural drought. In India, sorghum crop occupies
12.23 million ha with an annual production of 8.36
million tonnes. In Tamil Nadu, sorghum crop is cultivated
in 0.58 million ha with an annual production of 0.71
million tonnes. Since the possibility of increasing land
area under individual crop is quite limited with the
shrinking resources over years, intensive research on
timely sowing and suitable cropping system must be
evaluated for sustainable production from drylands.
Pre-monsoon sowing (10-15 days earlier to
monsoon onset through first rain) becomes an alternate
technology to sustain the crop production in dryland
139
condition, since the sown seeds utilize the first monsoon

rain for establishment.
Many scientific models are available to identify
LGP and prcised time of sowing, but these were not
evaluated fully for the benefit of dryland agriculture.
Considering this, a study was attempted to compute the
Length of Growing Period (LGP) by three models and
to evaluate the potential rainfed cropping system under
computed LGP.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field experiment was conducted at farmers
field at Chinnamathapalayam, which is 15 km from
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during
the year 2003-2004. The weather data on maximum
temperature, minimum temperature, mean bright
sunshine hours that prevailed during the cropping
period were collected from agromet observatory of
Department of Agricultural Meteorology, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Daily rainfall data
were collected from the rain gauge that is installed in the
farmers holding. The soil in the study area was sandy
loam with a pH of 7.2 and EC of 0.19 d s m-1. The soil
was low in available nitrogen (158 kg ha-1), medium in
available phosphorus (14.2 kg ha-1) and high in available
potassium (390 kg ha-1).
In the present investigation, LGP for study village
was fixed through three methods viz., weekly moisture
availability index (Sarker and Biswas, 1988), Weekly R/
PE ratio (Jeevananda Reddy, 1983) and weekly moisture
availability period more than 50 per cent PET based on
FAO model (Higgins and Kassam, 1981). Weekly rainfall
and weekly potential evapotranspiration were used as
inputs for these models. For computing mean weekly
rainfall of Coimbatore, daily rainfall data for forty years
from 1961 2000 were collected from Department
of Agricultural Meteorology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore. Daily rainfall data were aggregated
to weekly rainfall data as per 52 meteorological standard
weeks. From the forty years weekly rainfall, mean weekly
rainfall data were computed. Weekly Potential Evapo-
Transpiration (PET) was computed as per Penman

(1948) method by multiplying open pan evaporation
data with pan coefficient value.
According to Sarker and Biswas model if the
ratio between the weekly precipitation (dependable) and
weekly PET is > 0.3 that particular week was suitable for
growing crops. Dependable rainfall varied from place to
place. In a particular place, if the annual rainfall is <400
mm, 30 per cent of dependable precipitation is to be
considered. If the annual rainfall is >400 mm, 50 per
cent dependable rainfall is to be taken for computing
MAI. Dependable rainfall was computed through initial
probability method. As the mean annual rainfall of the
study location is > 400 mm, 50 per cent dependable
rainfall was taken to compute the MAI.
50 % Weekly Dependable rainfall
MAI =
Weekly PET
In Jeevananda Reddy method, a mathematical

tool called moving average was used. Rainfall / Potential
Evapotranspiration (R/PE) ratio was computed for each
week and fourteen week moving average of R/PE was
also calculated. According to FAO model the period in
which the rainfall exceeds 0.5 PET, is considered as
starting of length of growing period. This model also
takes into account of the stored moisture in soil after
the termination of rainfall. As per this model, growing
period starts when precipitation exceeds 0.5 PET and
ends with the utilization of assumed quantum of stored
soil moisture after precipitation falls below 0.5 PET.
Based on these three models, sowing dates
and pre-monsoon sowing dates were identified and the
results are presented in Table 1. Mid day of the first
week / starting week of LGP as per the model results
was taken as normal date of sowing and 10 days prior to
the normal dates of sowing were fixed as pre-monsoon
sowing dates. The experiment was laid in Complete
Randomized Block Design (CRBD) and the treatments
were replicated thrice with gross plot size of 24.3 m2 and
the net plot size was 15.08 m2.
Table 1. Computed sowing dates as per model output

Model
Sarker and Biswas

Jeevananda Reedy
FAO
Length of
growing
period
36th - 49th MSW
37th- 50th MSW
38th 51st MSW
No. of
week
14
14
14
140
Sowing Date
Pre monsoon sowing
Normal sowing
27.08.03 (35th MSW)

03.09.03 (36th MSW)
10.09.03 (37th MSW)
06.09.03 (36th MSW)

13.09.03 (37th MSW)
20.09.03 (38th MSW)
MSW (Meteorological Standard Week)

The treatments followed in the experiment were
as follows:
Factor 1 : Dates of sowing
M1 : 10 days prior to Sarker and Biswas model
(27.08.2003) LGP
M2 : 10 days prior to Jeevananda Reddy model
(03.09.2003) LGP
M3 : 10 days prior to FAO model (10.09.2003) LGP
M4 : Starting week of LGP from Sarker and Biswas
model (06.09.2003)
M5 : Starting week of LGP from Jeevananda Reddy
model (13.09.2003)
M6 : Starting week of LGP from FAO model
(20.09.2003)
Factor 2 : Crops
S1 : Sole Sorghum
S2 : Sorghum + green gram at 2:1 ratio (additive series)

Fixing Length of Growing Period for
sowing
Length of Growing Period (LGP) is a part of
a year in which the soil moisture is adequate for crop
evapotranspiration either fully or atleast at threshold
level. The importance of length of growing period is
witnessed particularly in dryland agriculture. The results
from three models are presented in Table 2 to 4.According
to Sarker and Biswas model, continuous period in which
the MAI of >0.33 was observed from 36th to 49th MSW
(14 weeks). From 36th MSW, MAI values gradually
increased, reached its peak during 45th MSW (2.75) and
got declined. Based on this model, the safe length of
growing period was 14 weeks starting from 36th MSW
and got terminated by 49th MSW. Eventhough risk factor
was introduced under Sarker and Biswas (1988) weekly
moisture availability index model, this model assumes
that if 33 per cent of the PET is met by rainfall, the crop
will escape from moisture stress. Moreover, this method
does not give any information regarding the wet and dry
spells that may occur within the crop growing period.
These few lacunae were taken care of by weekly R / PE
ratio method suggested by (1983).
According to Jeevananda Reddy model, the

growing period (G) starts when the 14 weeks R/PE
moving average value is > 0.75 and at the same time,
the value of the simple R/PE must be > 0.5. In the
present analysis, though, the moving average values of
R/PE crossed 0.75 at 36th MSW, the simple R/PE value
was equal to 0.5 only during 37th MSW and hence the
available effective rainy period (G period) of 14 weeks
started only from 37th MSW and ended with 50th MSW
(September 10 16 to December 3 9). It indicated
that Coimbatore had a potential crop growing period of
14 weeks (91 days) under dryland. Within the growing
period, wet spell occurred from 42nd 45th MSW
(October 15 21 to November 5 11) as simple R/
PE ratio was > 1.5 and no dry spell could be observed
within the growing period. In the present investigation,
it is noted that as per Jeevananda Reddy model output
the wet spell occurred in the same MSW (42nd to 45th
MSW) in reality. However, this model failed to predict
the wet spell week of 41st MSW which occurred in reality
during the course of investigation.
Length of growing period computed through FAO
model indicated that the growing period fell between 38th
MSW (September 17 23) and 51st MSW (December
17-23) including the utilization of stored soil moisture
(14 weeks). The computed growing period started from
the 38th MSW (Rainfall > 0.5PET) and ended with 50th
MSW (Rainfall< 0.5 PET). This period was added to the
stored soil moisture and that came to 51st MSW.
Influence of sowing dates and cropping
system on yield of sorghum
The data on mean grain yield of sorghum are
presented in Table 5. Time of sowing and cropping
systems evaluated significantly influenced the grain yield of
sorghum. The results revealed that pre-monsoon sowing
treatments (M1 M2 and M3) recorded higher yield than the
normal sowings (M4 M5 and M6). Pre-monsoon sowing
treatments of Sarker and Biswas (1988), Jeevananda
Reddy Model (1983) and FAO model (1981) produced
12.7, 51.8 and 24.3 per cent increase in grain yield over
their normal sown crops.
Under pre-monsoon sowing treatments, among
the three models tried, Jeevananda Reddy model (M2)
produced significantly higher sorghum grain yield of
2764 kg ha-1 followed by M1 (Sarker and Biswas model)
and M3. Between the two cropping systems evaluated,
S1 (Sole cropping) registered significantly higher grain
yield of 2178 kg ha-1. Sorghum when sown with inter
141
crop, green gram (S2) recorded only 1788 kg ha-1. The

per cent increase of sorghum yield in S1 over S2 was
22 per cent. The straw yield was altered significantly by
different times of sowing.
Among the different sowing dates M2 registered
higher straw yield of 6578 kg ha-1 followed by M1 sowing.
Lowest straw yield was recorded in M6 sowing. The straw
yield increase in M2 over M6 was 26 per cent. Cropping
systems had a significant influence on the straw yield
of sorghum. Sole sorghum recorded significantly higher
straw yield (6016 kg ha-1) over S2 treatment (intercropped
with green gram).
Different times of sowing had a significant
influence on harvest index of sorghum crop. M2 sown
crop registered significantly higher harvest index and it
was at par with M1 sown crop and superior to other four
sowing treatments. Non significant difference between
S1 and S2 cropping systems was noticed.
Dates of sowing Vs cropping system

The interaction was significant between sowing
dates and cropping system in respect of sorghum (Table
5a). The results indicated that sole sorghum or sorghum
with intercrop had given higher grain yield when the
seeds were sown under M2 date of sowing. This might
be due to the favourable environment in to M2 date of
sowing for better establishment, crop growth and finally
on grain yield.
Conclusion
Based on the study, it is concluded that premonsoon sowing of sorghum during 36th MSW (based on
Jeevananda Reddy model) with green gram as an intercrop
is ideal for maximum productivity. This technology
would be more economical under the risky dryland
environment of the study village Chinnamathapalayam
at Coimbatore district.
Table 2. Weekly dependable rainfall, mean weekly PET and

MAI for Coimbatore (Sarker and Biswas, 1988)
Standard
week
Dependable
rainfall (mm)
at 50%
probability
Mean
weekly
PET
(mm)
MAI
Standard
week
Dependable
rainfall (mm)
at 50 %
probability
Mean
weekly
PET
(mm)
MAI
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.5
8.0
3.0
11.4
7.6
11.4
3.3
3.5
2.4
4.1
2.0
4.6
23.4
22.7
24.3
26.7
28.7
29.6
29.8
33.0
34.1
33.8
34.5
34.9
36.0
35.8
35.2
36.6
35.7
34.3
34.0
33.7
34.4
29.6
27.9
25.9
28.2
27.6
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.01
0.22
0.08
0.33
0.22
0.34
0.10
0.12
0.09
0.16
0.07
0.17
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
5.5
6.2
3.0
3.8
3.5
3.4
4.7
8.2
8.7
10.3
13.7
25.5
28.0
39.4
46.2
58.3
60.1
51.6
53.3
26.5
31.0
15.2
15.3
5.0
4.3
0.0
29.6
26.6
25.6
25.3
26.5
25.0
28.3
28.0
30.0
28.2
25.9
26.7
26.6
25.6
26.3
26.3
22.2
20.9
19.4
24.3
24.0
22.5
19.8
21.6
21.9
22.0
0.19
0.23
0.12
0.15
0.13
0.14
0.17
0.29
0.29
0.37
0.53
0.96
1.05
1.54
1.76
2.22
2.71
2.47
2.75
1.09
1.29
0.68
0.77
0.23
0.20
0.00
142
Table 3. Weekly simple R/PE ratio and 14 weeks R/PE moving average for
Coimbatore (Jeevananda Reddy Model, 1983)
MSW
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Mean
weekly
rainfall
(mm)
3.7
1.3
3.4
0.1
0.5
1.0
2.7
3.7
2.5
7.2
2.9
1.5
2.8
6.5
9.8
17.7
11.7
18.5
15.9
16.0
11.9
7.8
6.6
6.5
8.4
12.0
Mean
weekly
PET
(mm)
23.4
22.7
24.3
26.7
28.7
29.6
29.8
33.0
34.1
33.8
34.5
34.9
36.0
35.8
35.2
36.6
35.7
34.3
34.0
33.7
34.4
29.6
27.9
25.9
28.2
27.6
Simple
R/PE
ratio
0.16
0.06
0.14
0.00
0.02
0.03
0.09
0.11
0.07
0.21
0.08
0.04
0.08
0.18
0.28
0.48
0.33
0.54
0.47
0.47
0.35
0.26
0.24
0.25
0.30
0.44
R/PE 14
weeks
moving
average
0.366
0.283
0.235
0.187
0.128
0.103
0.096
0.116
0.138
0.163
0.198
0.230
0.255
0.270
0.281
0.288
0.297
0.319
0.347
0.373
0.386
0.389
0.388
0.377
0.365
0.356
MSW
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
143
Mean
weekly
rainfall
(mm)
13.7
14.0
8.0
13.6
6.4
7.9
9.7
9.5
7.2
6.1
13.8
19.2
23.8
26.1
31.6
40.1
43.5
41.6
39.5
33.4
26.8
11.8
22.2
13.9
4.0
6.2
Mean
weekly
PET
(mm)
29.6
26.6
25.6
25.3
26.5
25.0
28.3
28.0
30.0
28.2
25.9
26.7
26.6
25.6
26.3
26.3
22.2
20.9
19.4
24.3
24.0
22.5
19.8
21.6
21.9
22.0
Simple
R/PE
ratio
0.46
0.53
0.31
0.54
0.24
0.32
0.34
0.34
0.24
0.22
0.53
0.72
0.90
1.02
1.20
1.52
1.96
1.99
2.04
1.38
1.12
0.52
1.12
0.64
0.18
0.28
R/PE 14
weeks
moving
average
0.347
0.342
0.350
0.378
0.416
0.458
0.505
0.567
0.661
0.772
0.888
0.990
1.055
1.090
1.128
1.174
1.177
1.149
1.108
1.047
0.975
0.882
0.759
0.620
0.480
0.374
Table 4. Average weekly rainfall and Weekly Moisture Availability

Period for Coimbatore (FAO Model, 1981)
MSW
Mean
Weekly
rainfall
(mm)
100 %
PET
(mm)
50 %
PET
(mm)
MSW
Mean
Weekly
rainfall
(mm)
100 %
PET
(mm)
50 %
PET
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
3.7
1.3
3.4
0.1
0.5
1.0
2.7
3.7
2.5
7.2
2.9
1.5
2.8
6.5
9.8
17.7
11.7
18.5
15.9
16.0
11.9
7.8
6.6
6.5
8.4
12.0
23.4
22.7
24.3
26.7
28.7
29.6
29.8
33.0
34.1
33.8
34.5
34.9
36.0
35.8
35.2
36.6
35.7
34.3
34.0
33.7
34.4
29.6
27.9
25.9
28.2
27.6
11.7
11.4
12.2
13.4
14.4
14.8
14.9
16.5
17.1
16.9
17.3
17.5
18.0
17.9
17.6
18.3
17.9
17.2
17.0
16.9
17.2
14.8
14.0
13.0
14.1
13.8
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
13.7
14.0
8.0
13.6
6.4
7.9
9.7
9.5
7.2
6.1
13.8
19.2
23.8
26.1
31.6
40.1
43.5
41.6
39.5
33.4
26.8
11.8
22.2
13.9
4.0
6.2
29.6
26.6
25.6
25.3
26.5
25.0
28.3
28.0
30.0
28.2
25.9
26.7
26.6
25.6
26.3
26.3
22.2
20.9
19.4
24.3
24.0
22.5
19.8
21.6
21.9
22.0
14.8
13.3
12.8
12.7
13.3
12.5
14.2
14.0
15.0
14.1
13.0
13.4
13.3
12.8
13.2
13.2
11.1
10.5
9.7
12.2
12.0
11.3
9.9
10.8
11.0
11.0
144
Table 5. Effect of times of sowing and cropping systems on grain yield,

straw yield and harvest index of sorghum
Treatments
Grain Yield
(kg ha-1)
Straw yield
(kg ha-1)
Harvest Index
2637
2730
1630
2300
1331
1233
65.72
135.31
6278
6578
5478
5618
5183
4840
110.41
228.56
29.35
29.67
24.32
27.86
20.52
20.28
0.71
1.48 Cropping
2177
1788
52.41
108.80
6016
5751
78.95
183.45
26.57
25.68
0.42
0.87
92.95
192.77
154.58
NS
1.00
NS
Sowing Dates
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
SEd
CD(P=0.05)
systems
S1
S2
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
Interaction
M XS
SEd
CD (P=0.05)
NS Not Significant
Table 5a. Interaction effect of times of sowing and cropping systems on grain yield of sorghum
S
M
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
Mean
M
S
MxS
S1
S2
Mean
3033
3026
1862
2691
1534
1438
2178
SEd
65.73
52.41
92.95
2240
2502
1398
1910
1128
1028
1788
CD
136.31
108.8
192.77
2637
2764
1630
2300
1331
1233
145
28
Identification of Promising Rice
Hybrids for Aerobic Condition
Based on Physiological Traits
K. Amudha, K. Thiyagarajan
Introduction
Food security in Asia depends on irrigated rice
ecosystem, which contributes about 75 per cent of the
global rice production . However, the water use efficiency
of rice is low and hence requires large amount of
water. Savings in irrigation water and increase in water
productivity is possible if rice is grown under aerobic
conditions like an irrigated upland crop. For rice to succeed
as an aerobic crop, it should tolerate intermittent water
deficits and high soil impedance created due to aerobic
conditions (Lafitte and Bennett 2002). Therefore, any
breeding programme towards the development of rice
genotypes for aerobic environment must emphasize on
the physiological and root traits associated with the water
uptake, maintenance of plant water status and plant
growth under water stress. Hybrid rice with its vigorous
and more active root system tolerates moderate stresses
caused due to limited irrigation water and therefore can
be exploited under aerobic conditions .So far, there
has been no major efforts on this front. Keeping this

in view, the present investigation was carried out to
identify suitable rice hybrids for aerobic condition based
on characters associated with water stress tolerance.

An experiment was carried out with thirty
rice hybrids under aerobic condition Tamil Nadu
Agricultural University, Coimbatore during Rabi, 2005.
The experimental material comprising of thirty rice
hybrids were obtained by crossing six drought tolerant
CGMS lines with five male parents (testers) in Line x
Tester design. Well-preserved seeds from the thirty
cross combinations were sown in raised nursery beds.
Twenty-five days old seedlings were transplanted in the
main field in a randomized block design (RBD) replicated
twice adopting a spacing of 20 cm between rows and
10 cm between plants. Single seedling was transplanted
per hill in single row of two-metre length (20 plants
per row) in each replication. The transplanted crop
146
was maintained under flooded condition (2-3 cm water

layer) for 15 days to ease the establishment of the crop.
Thereafter, aerobic condition was imposed by irrigating
the crop up to field capacity after it has reached a certain
lower threshold (e.g., half way between field capacity and
wilting point) as suggested by Bouman (2001). A total of
12 irrigations were given during the crop growth period.
Every day soil samples were drawn and the soil moisture
content was estimated using gravimetric method. Data
were recorded in ten plants per replication. Physiological
traits were recorded at flowering stage and plants were
uprooted at maturity and root traits were recorded. For
recording physiological traits like relative water content
(Weatherly 1950), membrane integrity (per cent leakage)
(Deshmukh et. al. 1991) and catalase activity (Deshmukh
et. al. 1991) standard procedures were followed.
Transpiration rate and stomatal conductance were
measured in the fully expanded flag leaf using Steady
State Porometer PMR 5. For recording leaf rolling, the
leaf was cut near the base without ligules at the noon
time (2-3 pm) and the time taken for the cut leaf to roll
was noted with the help of stopwatch and expressed in
seconds (Misra et. al. 2004).

The mean for various traits studied are given
in (Table 1). Under aerobic condition, early maturing
hybrids are desirable as they are more efficient in
partitioning carbohydrate to the panicle and producing
more yields per day (Lafitte and Bennett 2002). Russo
(2004) also found that early maturing cultivars were
more adapted to aerobic conditions than late maturing
ones and suggested earliness as a suitable criterion for
selection of improved varieties. In the present study,
five hybrids viz., IR 68885A / CT-6510-24-1-2, IR
68885A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, IR 68887A / PSBRC 80,
IR 68887A / PSBRC 82 and IR 70369A / IR 73718-31-3-3 exhibited early flowering and were found suitable
for aerobic conditions.
Maintenance of higher plant water status under
drought plays a central role in stabilizing the various plant
processes and yield (Kumar and Kajur 2003). Relative
water content is one of the important measures which
gives an idea of plant water status and therefore used as
a most meaningful index for identifying genotypes with
dehydration tolerance. In the present investigation,
water stress significantly lowered the relative water
content in the hybrids at flowering stage. However, the
reduction was low in four hybrids namely IR 67684A /
CT-6510-24-1-2, IR 70372A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, IR

68281A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, and IR 70372A / PSBRC
80 indicating their tolerance to water stress. Tyagi et
al. (1999) also observed higher relative water content in
drought tolerant genotypes under water stress compared
to susceptible genotypes.
With reference to catalase (an active oxygen
species (AOS) scavenging enzyme under water stress)
sixteen hybrids were identified to be superior. Higher
catalase activity in these genotypes are suggestive of
increase in the activity of free radical scavenging system
leading to lower lipid peroxidation and maintenance of
membrane structure contributing to drought tolerance
(Chandrashekara Reddy et al. 1998).
Maintenance of membrane integrity and function
under water stress was used as a measure of drought
tolerance by Deshmukh et. al.( 1991). A total of twelve
hybrids exhibiting significant mean values for catalase
activity showed lesser percentage of leakage and were
found to possess higher membrane integrity. Among
them, the hybrid IR 68885A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3
exhibited highest membrane integrity and were found
to be highly suited for aerobic conditions. On the other
hand, the hybrid IR 67684A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3 showed
minimum membrane integrity under water stress. Lower
membrane integrity or higher injury reflects the extent
of lipid peroxidation which in turn is a consequence of
higher oxidative stress due to water deficit (Leibler et al.
1986).
The leaves of rice plant roll readily under water
deficit and it has been used as an indicator of plant water
status under stress (Courtois 2000). Ten hybrids involving
aerobic rice cultures CT-6510-24-1-2 and PSBRC 80 as
one of the parents exhibited small degree of leaf rolling
under aerobic conditions. Fukai and Cooper (1990)
reported that the cultivars with small degree of leaf
rolling maintain high leaf water potential under stress.
Therefore, these hybrids with minimum leaf rolling can
be well exploited for the maintenance of high leaf water
potential under water deficit conditions.
Low rate of transpiration and reduced stomatal
conductance
are considered advantageous under
drought as they are associated with conservation of leaf
moisture and maintenance of higher leaf water potential
under water stress (Selvi et al. 2001). In the present
study, six hybrids viz., IR 67684A / CT-6510-24-1-2,
IR 67684A / IR 73005-23-1-3-3, IR 68885A / IR
73718-3-1-3-3, IR 68887A / PSBRC 80, IR 68887A /
147
IR 73718-3-1-3-3 and IR 70369A / IR 73005-23-1-3-3

exhibited low transpiration rate and reduced stomatal
conductance. Jalaluddin and Prize (1994) observed low
stomatal conductance due to drought and suggested it as
a result of partial closure of stomata and / or osmotic
adjustment.
Deep rooting has been emphasized as an
important adaptation to stress in rice (Nguyen et al.
1997). Among the thirty hybrids, twelve hybrids had
significant mean values for root length under aerobic
conditions. Among them, the best five hybrids were IR
70372A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, IR 67684A / CT-651024-1-2, IR 68885A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, IR 68887A
/ PSBRC 82, and IR 70369A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3. In
aerobic systems, generally deep roots are required to
penetrate through hard pan and fully explore the soil
profile for effective absorption of water at deeper layers
(Lafitte and Bennett 2002). With respect to root dry
weight, eleven hybrids exhibited significantly higher
mean values. Among them, the best five hybrids were
IR 70369A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, IR 70372A / PSBRC
80, IR 70369A / CT-6510-24-1-2, IR 68887A / IR
73005-23-1-3-3 and IR 70372A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3.
Sorte et al. (1992) reported that generally drought

tolerant cultivar partitions its dry weight more in root for
extracting more water from soil and had higher root dry
weight under water stress than susceptible one.
Grain yield, an economic output of the plant was
found to be significantly higher in nine hybrids under
aerobic conditions. The hybrid IR 67684A / CT-651024-1-2 out yielded the other hybrid combinations by
recording 19.78 g/plant, followed by the hybrids IR
70372A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, IR 68885A / IR 73718-31-3-3, IR 70369A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3 and IR 70372A
/ PSBRC 80.
In the present study none of the hybrids showed
desirable performance for all the traits studied. However,
five hybrids viz., IR 68885A / IR 73718-3-1-3-3, IR
67684A / CT-6510-24-1- 2, IR 70369A / IR 737183-1-3-3, IR 70372A / PSBRC 80 and IR 70372A /
IR 73718-3-1-3-3 recorded desirable mean values for
maximum number of characters and exhibited better
adaptability to aerobic conditions. The hybrid rice seed
production techniques of these hybrids have to be
standardised for commercial exploitation .
148
References
Bouman, B.A.M. (2001). Water efficient management strategies in rice production. Int. Rice Res. Notes., 26(2):
17-22.
Chandrashekara Reddy, P., S.N. Vajranabhaian and M. Udayakumar. (1998). Lipid peroxidation as a mechanism
of stress tolerance in upland rice (Oryza sativa L.). Calli. Indian. J. Plant Physiol., 3(1): 68-70.
Courtois, B., G. McLaren, P.K. Sinha, E. Prasad, R. Yadav and L. Shen. (2000). Mapping QTLs associated with
drought avoidance in upland rice. Mol. Breed., 6: 55-66.
Deshmukh, P.S., R.F. Sairam and D.S. Shukla. (1991). Measurement of ion leakage as a screening technique for
drought resistance in wheat genotypes. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 34: 89-91.
Jalaluddin, M.D. and M.Price. (1994). Photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in rice as affected by drought
stress. Int. Rice Res. Notes, 19: 52-53.
Kumar, R. and R. Kajur. (2003). Role of secondary traits in improving the drought tolerance during flowering stage
in rice. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 8: 236-240.
Lafitte, H.R. and J. Bennett. (2002). Requirements for aerobic rice : physiological and molecular considerations. In:
Water Wise Rice Production. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Water-wise Rice Production, 8-11 April
(Eds. Bouman, B.A.M., H. Hengsdijk, B. Hardy, P.S. Bindraban, J.P. Twong and J.K. Ladha), IRRI, Los
Banos, Philippines, pp.259-271.
Leibler, D.C., K.P.S. Kling and D.J. Reed. (1986). Antioxidant protection of phospholipid bilayers by tocopherol.
Control of tocopherol status and lipid peroxidation by ascorbic acid and glutathione. J. Biol. Chem., 261:
12114-12119.
Misra, B., C.H.M. Vijayakumar and S.R. Voleti. (2004). Breeding for aerobic rice adapted to non-flooded irrigated
conditions. In: Proc. Workshop on Resilient Crops for Water Limited Environments. Cuernavata, Mexico,
pp.175-178.
Nguyen, H.T., R.C. Babu and A. Blum.(1997). Breeding for drought resistance in rice: physiological and molecular
considerations. Crop Sci., 37: 1426-1434.
Russo, S. (2004). Preliminary studies on rice varieties adaptability to aerobic irrigation, Cahiers options.
Mediterraneinnes. 15: 35-39.
Selvi, B., P. Rangasamy and N. Nadarajan. (2001). Combining ability analysis for physiological traits in rice. Oryza,
38(1&2): 13-16.
Sorte, N.V., R.D. Deotale, M.N. Patankar, A.H. Narkhede, V.J. Golliwar and B.D. Katole. (1992). Root and shoot
physiology as influenced by short term water stress in upland paddy. J. Soils and Crops, 2(1): 86-91.
Tyagi, A., N. Kumar and S. Sairam.(1999). Efficacy of RWC, membrane stability, osmotic potential, endogenous
ABA and root biomass as indices for selection against water stress in rice. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 4: 302306.
Weatherly, P.E. (1950). Studies in the water relations of the cotton plant. I. The field measurement of water deficits
in leaves. New Phytol., 49: 81-97.
149
29
Aerobic Rice - A New Tool for
Water Scarcity Management
M. Govindaraj1, K. Ashokkumar2 and P. Anbu2
Introduction
Rice deserves a special status among cereals as
worlds most important wetland crop. Rice grain provides
35-80 per cent of total calorie uptake to more than
2.7 billion people in the world (Gorantla et al., 2005).
Globally, about 79 million ha of irrigated lowlands provide
75 per cent of the total rice production. It is estimated
that irrigated lowland rice receives some 34-43 per cent
of the total worlds irrigation water, or 24-30 per cent of
the total worlds freshwater withdrawals. Rice consumes
more than 50 per cent of the water used for irrigation
in Asia (Barker et al., 1999). Rice is mostly grown under
submerged soil conditions and requires much more water
compared with other crops. The declining availability and
increasing costs of water threaten the traditional way of
growing rice under irrigated conditions. Moreover, the
lack of rainfall is a major production constraint in rainfed
areas where many poor farmers live. Efficiency in the use
of water is critical to help reduce poverty and safeguard
food security in water-scarce areas in Asia.
Rice is grown in widely under rainfed conditions

in Asia; about 45 per cent of the total rice area is
estimated to have no irrigation input. In rice ecosystems,
the rainfed lowland ecosystem occupies a larger area
than the upland and flood-prone ecosystems. The
increase in yield in the rainfed rice ecosystem has been
much less than in the irrigated rice for the last 30 years.
In Tamil Nadu from 1.4 million ha, 3.2 million tonnes
rice was produced with the productivity of 2308kg ha-1.
In India during 2007-2008, 93 million tonnes of rice
was produced from an area of 43 million ha, with the
productivity of 2051kg ha-1 (Economic survey 200708). It is estimated that demand for rice in 2010 will be
100 million tonnes and in 2025, it will be 140 million
tonnes (Singh, 2004).
The looming global water crisis threatens the
sustainability of irrigated rice, which is the Asias biggest
water user. Aerobic rice is a new concept of growing
rice in non-puddled and non flooded aerobic soil.
Water requirements can be lowered by reducing water
losses due to seepage, percolation, and evaporation.
150
Promising technologies include saturated soil culture

and intermittent irrigation during the growing period.
However, these technologies still use prolonged periods
of flooding, so, water losses remain high. A fundamentally
different approach is to grow rice like an upland crop,
such as wheat, on non-flooded aerobic soils, thereby
eliminating continuous seepage and percolation and
greatly reducing evaporation. Traditional upland rice has
been bred for the unfavourable uplands to give a stable,
though low, yield with minimal external inputs. Growing
high-yielding lowland rice under aerobic conditions has
shown great potential to save water but it has severe
yield penalty. Hence, a new type of rice is needed to
achieve high yields under high-input aerobic conditions.
Why Aerobic Rice?

The reason for going to aerobic rice stands valid
because,
In wetland preparation a soaked and saturated
soil is essentially required. The water requirement for
this in wetland is about 434mm where as it is only 2mm
in dry or upland conditions.
Field submergence after crop establishment is a
must in wetland, which consumes on an average 1325mm
of water where as in aerobic or upland condition it is
only 830mm.
Nearly 1325mm water was lost by seepage,
percolation and evaporation in wetland, whereas its
nearly half the quantity in aerobic situation.
In total 1000-2000mm of water is required in
lowland as against only 375-500mm of water in aerobic
condition.
Rice Ecosystems
Rice is produced in a wide range of locations and
under a variety of climatic conditions. Rice production
is classified into four ecosystems based on water supply
during cultivation (Khush, 1997) they are, Irrigated
rice, Rainfed lowland rice, Upland rice and Flood-prone
rice. Water consumption for per kg of rice ranges from
1000 5000 litters depending on rice ecosystem, soil
conditions and crop management, which is about two to
three times more than is needed to produce other cereals
such as wheat or maize (Cantrell and Hettel, 2005).
There is a growing scarcity of water worldwide,
which has already started to influence conventional
irrigated rice production (Bouman et al., 2005). By
2025, a physical water scarcity is projected for more

than 2 million ha of irrigated dry-season rice and 13
million ha of irrigated wet-season rice in Asia, and an
economic water scarcity is expected to hamper most of
Asias 22 million ha of irrigated dry-season rice (Bouman
et al., 2005). Obviously, the most important irrigated
rice ecosystem for human beings is being increasingly
threatened by water scarcity (Fig.1).
The increasing water scarcity for agriculture, and
competition for water from non-agricultural sectors, point
to an urgent need to improve crop water productivity
to ensure adequate food for future generations with
the same or less water than is presently available to
agriculture. Two types of water-saving systems may be
used to replace the traditional irrigated rice production
schemes that are now under threat (Cantrell and Hettel,
2005), Alternate wetting and drying and Aerobic rice.
In the later system, rice is sown directly into dry soil,
like wheat or maize, and irrigation is applied to keep
the soil sufficiently moist for good plant growth, but the
soil is never saturated. Aerobic rice systems can reduce
water requirements for rice production by over 44 per
cent relative to conventionally transplanted systems, by
reducing percolation, seepage, and evaporation losses,
while maintaining yield at an acceptable level (Bouman
et al., 2005).
Physiological features
Root development
A month after transplanting in flooded condition,
about 75 per cent of the rice roots growing in saturated
soil are concentrated in upper 6cm of soil. As it remains
nearer to the surface of soil, it obtains oxygen only from
the irrigated water. Such truncated root systems can
access nutrients from only a limited volume of soil, having
to rely mostly on nutrients provided through fertilizers.
Conversely; when rice is grown with intermittent
flooding, roots extend downward 30-50cm and can
access nutrients from deeper layer of soil.
Aerenchyma Formation
When rice plants are grown under continuously
flooded conditions, much of the root cortex disintegrates
to for aerenchyma (air pockets). This process occur both
in varieties bred for irrigated cultivation and upland
cultivation. However, neither irrigated nor upland
varieties form aerenchyma when they are grown in
well drained soil. The difference between these two
151
categories of rice is that the former are able to create a

larger and more regular aerenchyma that enable roots to
continue functioning and to survive longer in flooded soil.
Formation of aerenchyma appears to the sub optimizing
rather than an ideal adaptation to hypoxic conditions.
Prolonged Root Activities

By the time of flowering when grain production
begins, about 75 per cent of roots of rice plants that are
growing in continuously saturated soil are degenerated,
whereas there is little or no degeneration of roots in well
drained condition.
Then Why Flooded Conditions?

Because rice can survive inundation and favour
effective weed control when it is grown in stagnating
water, if water resources are plenty. Rice grows well in
aerobic condition. Further aerobic conditions promote
a developed root system there by saving water, efficient
use of land, labour and capital and higher uptake of
nutrients.
Rice as a Focus of Water-Saving

Initiatives
Among the agricultural crop rice is the major user
of available fresh water in Asia. It is one of the major crops
in India, and in some areas it is grown subsequently with
wheat. The usual way of growing rice is by transplanting
in flooded and puddled soil. Rice is grown with standing
water throughout the growing season. This practice of
growing rice needs a relatively large amount of water
compared with other cereals. However, most of the
supplied water in the field evaporates in the atmosphere
or drains deep down and across the soil layer. With the
looming problem of water scarcity, International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI) rice scientists and hydrologists,
and partners from the national agricultural research and
extension systems, have begun conducting research
activities with farmers to control this problem. One of
the potential water-saving technologies being studied
is the aerobic rice system. The Irrigated Rice Research
Consortium and the Challenge Program on Water
and Food are two programs that support the ongoing
research activities on aerobic rice in India through the
Water Technology Centre (WTC) of the Indian Agricultural
Research Institute (IARI).
Aerobic rice requires almost half the water needed
to grow conventional varieties. As against 5,000 litres of
water required to produce one kg of conventional rice,
the aerobic rice requires between 2,000-2,500 litres,

adding the crop could also be grown in low rainfall
areas. As part of a participatory plant breeding exercise
along with farmers, many crop research institutes such
as University of Agricultural Science (UAS) Bangalore,
currently, is undertaking trials of different varieties of
aerobic rice at different locations across the country
(Bangalore, Chhattisgarh, Cuttack, Faizabad, Coimbatore
and Hazaribagh).
Lowland rice is traditionally grown in bunded
fields (paddies) that are continuously flooded from crop
establishment to close to harvest. It is estimated that
irrigated lowland rice receives some 34-43 per cent of
the total worlds irrigation water, or 24-30 per cent of the
total worlds freshwater withdrawals. The yield is about
55 quintals per hectares, on par with the traditional
varieties, but saves labour costs as this variety does not
need transplanting like conventional variety and could
be sown directly, UAS has developed different types of
aerobic rice, which taste like the conventional types. They
are also looking at developing aromatic rice on these
lines, and the aerobic rice does not require pesticides.
A collaborative project on new water-saving rice
technologies, specifically aerobic rice, is being developed
for Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. In South
Asia, it has been estimated that, by 2012, 12 million
hectares of irrigated rice may suffer from severe water
shortage, seriously affecting the regions food security
and social stability. With increasing water scarcity, the
sustainability, food production, and ecosystem services
of rice fields are threatened. Therefore, there is need
to develop a cultivars which is suitable for aerobic
ecosystem, that can help farmers during the water
scarcity situations.
Research on Aerobic Rice

Rice scientists have been urged to take up
research of aerobic rice, while going in for a reduction
in the area under the crop by 10 - 15 per cent due to
widespread water-stressed situation. Research on aerobic
rice assumes significance since; it does not require
standing water and has greater water use efficiency.
Large declines are expected in India, too, in the coming
years, but this should be considered an opportunity for
furthering the Indian rice varieties on the export front.
The major yield reduction would appear to be
due to incomplete grain filling and high florets sterility.
However, good performing rice may be among earlier
maturing cultivars. The varied cultivar responses to
152
stresses from non flooded conditions show, a potential

for genetic improvement. Aerobic rice production may
be adapted to non traditional rice areas where soil
flooding is problematic or water cost prohibitive. The
advantages of dry rice methods are: i) reducing water
consumption; ii) economizing the costs of machinery
usage; iii) reducing the constraints at planting time; iv)
improving the rice stand establishment (Russo, 1994).
Many countries are involved in the development of
aerobic rice such as China, Philippines, Brazil and India.
However, Special aerobic rice cultivars, called Han Dao,
have been developed by the China Agricultural University
(CAU), Beijing.
In Philippines, participatory testing
of aerobic rice by farmers is being done in the provinces
of Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, and Bohol. The earlier
studies show that yield of rice up to 6.4 tonnes per
hectare. Farmers in India are also trying out aerobic rice
in their fields, and they have identified well-performing
varieties. Water savings were also achieved at 30-40 per
cent for production levels of 4 tons per hectare. Varieties
are being tested in Lao Peoples Democratic Republic,
while activities in northeast Thailand are set to evaluate
genotypes and start on-farm tests to overcome problems
of labour shortage and weeds.
Special Features
Aerobic Practices
Dry sowing of rice with minimum land
preparation i.e., in non-puddled and non-flooded soil.
Efficient seed coating technology either with suitable
phosphobacterium or rhizobial culture.Square sowing
with wider spacing to avoid root competitions for crop
growth.Maintenance of moist soil but aerated soil during
vegetative growth period.Efficient weed management
either by use of herbicides or by the use of frequent hand
weeding especially in the early stage of crop.Allowing a
thin film of water (1-2cm) to be maintained after panicle
initiation.
Hence, large savings in water used for rice
production are possible in tropical Asia through a use
of aerobic production systems. Optimization of aerobic
systems will likely require the development of new cultivar
type combing moderate drought tolerant, high rates
of tillering, high harvest index and lodging resistant.
Some cultivars of this type have already been developed
in china and now underway by the asian upland rice
breeding programme in IRRI as well as in India and its
expected that new generation of improved cultivars for
aerobic systems will be available for tropical Asian rice
producer in the near future years.
Conclusion
Unlike the conventional varieties that have

shorter roots, the long roots of aerobic rice, almost
thrice the length of conventional types at about
30cm, help better absorption of water, nutrients and
facilitate better air circulation. As a result, the process
of methanogenesis (emission of methane through
decomposition of organic compounds) is prevented.
This is because of soil bacteria decompose organic
matter under aerobic conditions. Normally, methane is
produced during flooded rice cultivation by the anaerobic
(without oxygen) decomposition of organic matter in the
soil. It is estimated that paddy cultivation accounts for
20-25 per cent of the methane gases emitted in the
atmosphere. Developed over a period of six years using
the hybridisation process, the aerobic rice is a result of
cross-breeding of local variety and IR64 procured from
IRRI, Philippines. The advantages of aerobic rice are:
i) reducing water consumption; ii) economizing the
costs of machinery usage; iii) reducing the constraints at
planting time; iv) improving the rice stand establishment
(Russo, 1994).
The days are gone when rice grown in unflooded

soils was considered a low productivity, poor quality, high
risk, low technology crop. Matching grain quality with
shifting consumer preferences had a great impact on
profitability of aerobic rice, making it more competitive.
Inserted into novel cropping systems, either in rotation
with soybeans or a tool for pasture renewal, aerobic
rice can contribute to environmental sustainability. The
production of rice in aerobic systems also allows national
demand to be met without the large investments in
infrastructure and associated heavy use of fresh water for
irrigated lowland rice. Use of dedicated aerobic screening
facilities for screening in the wet-season as a routine
part of the plant breeding program would enhance the
identification of drought resistance in advanced lines
that may be eventually released as new cultivars. Further
research will be needed to identify particular traits that
are associated with aerobic responsive traits in different
aerobic conditions. Similarly the importance of aerobic
responsive traits, relative to other putative traits for
aerobic ecosystem, needs to be tested in various lowland
environments; particularly rice growing countries such
as China, India and Thailand.
153
References
Barker, R., D. Dawe, T.P. Tuong, S.I. Bhuiyan and L.C. Guerra. 1999. The outlook of water resources in the year
2020 : Challenges for research on water management in rice production. In : Assessment and Orientation
towards the 21st century. Proceedings of 19th session of the International Rice Commission, Cario, Egypt.
7-9 September, 1998. pp. 96-109. FAO, Rome (Italy).
Bouman, B.A.M., Peng, S., Castaeda, A.R., Visperas, R.M., 2005. Yield and water use of tropical aerobic rice
systems. Agric. Water Manag. 74:87-105.
Cantrell, R.P., Hettel, G.P., 2005. Research strategy for rice in the 21st century. In:Toriyama, K., Heong, K.L., Hardy,
B. (Eds.), Rice is life: Scientific perspectives for the 21st century. Proceedings of the World Rice Research
Conference held in Tokyo and Tsukuba, Japan, 4-7 November 2004. Los Baos (Philippines): International
Rice Research Institute, and Tsukuba (Japan): Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences.
CD-ROM, pp. 26-37.
Economic survey 2007-08. (Government of India). pp. 156-168.
Gorantla, M., P.R. Babu, V.B. Reddy Lachagiri, E. Alex Feltus, Andrew H. Paterson and Arjula Reddy. 2005. Functional
genomics of drought stress responses in rice: transcript mapping of annotated unigenes of an indica rice
(Oryza sativa L. ev. Naginazz). Current Sci. 89(39): 496-514.
Khush, G.A., 1997. Origin, dispersal, cultivation and variation of rice. Plant Molecular Biology 35:25-34.
Salvatore Russo.1994. Preliminary studies on rice varieties adaptability to aerobic irrigation. Cahiers Options
Mditerranennes, vol. 15,p: 36-39.
Singh, A. K. 2004. Enhancing water use efficiency in rice. In: International Symposium on Rice: From green Revolution
to Gene Revolution. Extended summaries, Vol. I. pp. 13. October 4-6. DRR, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad,
India.
154
30
Standardization of Fertigation
for Cucumber under Polyhouse
using Soilless Media
S. Janapriya1, Dr. D.Palanisamy2 and Dr. M. V. Rangaswamy3
Introduction
Fertigation is a new concept recently practiced
in several parts of the world in horticultural crops.
Inorganic fertilizers were probably the first chemicals
to be injected into the trickle irrigation system. It
was reported that 40% saving in fertilizer use could
obtained by drip fertigation with substantial increase in
yield (Magar, 1988). Fertigation improves nutrient use
efficiency besides water and fertilizer use efficiency, it
is one of the most effective and convenient method of
supplying nutrients and water according to the specific
requirements of the crop to maintain optimum soil
fertility and better quality produce.
two fertigation levels thus there were 18 treatment

combination replicated twice (Fig 1). The treatment
details are given below:
Treatment
Growing media (v/v)
T1
Peat: sand (5:1)
T2
Peat: vermicompost: sand (2.5:2.5:1)
T3
Vermiculite: sand (5:1)
T4
Vermiculite:Vermicompost: sand (2.5:2.5:1)
T5
Coir pith: sand (5:1)
T6
Coir pith: vermicompost: sand (2.5:2.5:1)
T7
Sawdust: sand (5:1)
The experiment was conducted in TNAU,

Coimbatore, to study the effect of growing media and
fertigation under polyhouse as a package in cucumber
variety Greenlong with a spacing of 60 30 cm. The
experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block
design. There were nine different media levels and
T8
Sawdust: vermicompost: sand (2.5:2.5:1)
T9
Soil + FYM
F1
100% of recommended dose of N, P and K
F2
80% of recommended dose of N, P and K
155
Results and discussion

Plant Height
The data on plant height (cm) in the polyhouse
and open field recorded at 15,30,45,60,75 and 90
DAS (Days after sowing) are presented in the Fig.2
and 3.In both greenhouse and open field conditions,
T2F1 recorded higher plant height compared to other
treatments. This might be due to high organic matter,
macro and micronutrients that might have contributed to
better growth. Fertigation of greenhouse tomatoes with
nitrogen fertilizers and potassium fertilizers especially
K2SO4 produced excellent results in improvement of
plant quantitative characters (Sharma et al., 1994).
Fig. 1. A view of experimental layout under the polyhouse

and open field.
Fertigation through fertigation tank Urea and

muriate of potash were dissolved in water in the ratio of
1:5 and the solution was diluted in fertigation tank and
it was allowed for fertigation
Fertilizer Scheduling
During vegetative stage the fertilizer was applied
at weekly intervals. During flowering the fertilizer was
applied at three days intervals and during fruiting stage
it was applied again at weekly intervals. The fertilizer
schedule adopted is given in Table 1.
Table 1. The fertilizer schedule adopted at different growth
stages
Stage
Vegetative (1-30 days after sowing)
Flowering (30-45 days after sowing)
Fruiting (30-90 days after sowing)
P2O5 %
K2O %
30
50
10
30
50
10
30
40
20
The quantity of fertilizer applied during the various stage

is given in Table 2
Recommended fertilizer level is 150:75:100 kg/ha
Urea
73.23 g/plant
Super phosphate
105.46 g/plant
MoP
37.57 g/plant
Table 2. Details of fertilizer applied during different growth

stages
Vegetative (1-30 days after sowing)
Flowering (30-45 days after sowing)
Fruiting (30-90 days after sowing)
The data on fruit yield per plant and yield per

hectare was the highest in T2F1 (2.05 kg and 113.89
t/ha), followed by T4F1 (1.96 kg and 108.89 t/ha) and
the lowest yield was recorded in T9F2 (0.58 kg and
32.32 t/ha) respectively under polyhouse condition (Fig
3). The result revealed that the polyhouse condition had
higher plant growth Getting higher yield of cucumber
in off-season fetches the farmer a remunerative price.
All the plants under open field condition under different
treatments was infected disease buying reduce fruit
quality and average weight of the fruit. Plant growth
N %
Basal application = 10 %
Stage
Fruit Yield
Frequency of fertigation
Once in a week
Once in three days
Once in a week
is enhanced only when the supply of assimilates is

greater than the requirement of respiration. Good yield
increase not only depends on the media but also on the
nutrient content. In case of different fertilizer dose on
fruit growth, application of 100% fertigation resulted in
higher yields than 80% fertigation. This is particularly
true where a small volume of growing medium is used
per plant, resulting in marked fluctuations in nutrient
levels, Combined application of N, P and K produced
the highest fruit yield per plant and fruit yield per hectare
(Sharma, 1995).
Urea (g/plant)
Super phosphate (g/plant)
21.97
36.615
7.323
31.64
52.73
10.55
156
MoP (g/plant)
11.27
15.03
7.51
Water Utilized by The Plant

The effect of differential amount of fertilizer
added through drip irrigation system showed significant
improvement on irrigation water use efficiency and
fertilizer use efficiency. The total water utilized for
polyhouse and open field are given in Tables 4.23
and 4.24. The total water utilized for tomato crop was
lesser in polyhouse in all the treatments during the crop
duration (93.75mm) compared to that of control plot
(230.07 mm). The control plot received more quantity
of water for the first crop and less water received. The
reason for less quantity of water utilized may be due to
less evaporation losses and more crop foliage.
Water Use Efficiency

It has been observed from the Fig. 4, that the
highest water use efficiency (1215 kg/ha.mm) was
obtained in T2F1 and the lowest was obtained in T9F2
(344 kg/ha.mm) under polyhouse. The open field
recorded a high water use efficiency of 418 kg/ha.mm
in T2F1 and the least value (87 kg/ha.mm) was obtained
in T9F2.
level of fertilizer dose through drip was observed. The

highest N fertilizer use efficiency of 880 kg/ ha.kg of N
was recorded in T2F2 at 80 % of fertigation followed by
T4F2 (838 kg /ha.kg of N) and the least efficiency was
noted in T9F1 (222 kg/ ha. kg of N) under polyhouse
condition. In open field, the highest was N fertilizer use
efficiency of 773 kg/ ha.kg of N was recorded in T2F2
at 80 % of fertigation and the least efficiency was noted
in T9F1 (148 kg/ ha.kg of N).The influences of irrigation
and fertilizer levels on K fertilizer use efficiency are
furnished in Fig5. The highest K fertilizer use efficiency
of 1319 kg/ ha kg of K was recorded in T2F2 at 80 % of
fertigation and the least efficiency (333 kg /ha.kg of K)
was noted in T9F2 in polyhouse condition. In open field
the highest K fertilizer use efficiency of 1160 kg/ ha.kg
of K was recorded in T2F2 at 80% of fertigation and the
least efficiency (222 kg /ha. kg of K) was noted in T9F1.
The nutrient use efficiency was more under polyhouse,
which might be due to more development of more root
length, that inturn might have increased the availability of
nutrients to the plants. It was reported that 40% saving
in fertilizer use could obtained by drip fertigation with
substantial increase in yield (Magar, 1988).Fertigation
improves nutrient use efficiency besides water use
efficiency (Cook and Sanders, 1991).
Fertilizer Use Efficiency

The influences of irrigation and fertilizer levels
on N fertilizer use efficiency are furnished in Fig. 5.
Increased fertilizer use efficiency with the decreased
157
Economics of Cucumber Cultivation

Under Polyhouse
The highest cost benefit ratio (3.43) recorded in
T2F1, and the lowest cost benefit ratio (1.56) was recorded
in T3F2 under polyhouse. In open field condition the
highest cost benefit ratio (2.36) was recorded in T2F1
and the lowest (0.80) was recorded T3F2.
The results have indicated that the polyhouse
cultivation of cucumber using soilless media has most
benefit than open field condition, in terms of yield, quality,

water use efficiency, fertilizer use efficiency and benefit
cost ratio. The supreme performance of cultivation of
cucumber under polyhouse in soilless media can be
attributed to the prevalence of optimum microclimatic
conditions created by the protected structure as well as
the ideal growing medium. ence, it is concluded that
growing cucumber under naturally ventilated polyhouse
in a growing medium consisting of peat: vermicompost:
sand (T2F1) can be highly profitable.
References
Cook, V.P., and Sanders,D.C. 1991. Nitrogen application frequency for drip irrigated tomatoes. Hort.Sci., 26:
250-252.
Magar,S.S. 1988. Progress and prospective of drip irrigation in Maharashtra state. A joint
argesco report submitted to M.P.K.V., Rahuri, Maharashtra.
Sharma , K.C., Singh, A.K. and Sharma, S.K. 1994. Studies on nitrogen requirement and pre- requirement of tomato
hybrids. Acta Hort., 366: 133-137.
Savvas,D., 2002. General introduction .In: Savvas, D., Passam,H.C. (Eds.), Hydroponic Production of Vegetables
and Ornamentals. Embryo Publications. Athens, Greece, pp.15-23.
Sharma, S.K. 1995. Response of nitrogen and phosphorous on plant growth and fruit yield in hybrid sweet pepper
cultivar Pusa Deepti. Veg.Sci., 22(1): 19-21.

158
31
A Review of the Water
Harvesting Programmesin
Dryland Watersheds
B. Maheshwara Babu, D. C. Sahoo, J. K. Neelakanth and Prasad S. Kulkanri
Introduction
The vital role of water in the socio-economic
success or failure of human communities in arid and
semi-arid is becoming very clear. In such areas, annual
rainfalls are low and precipitation usually falls in few
showers. In many rainfall events, most of the water is
lost by runoff. In other words, out of the limited rainfall
that precipitates in such areas, only a fraction infiltrates
into the soil and may be stored for future use by the
natural vegetation. This amount is usually far less than
the requirements of commercial crops for full seasonal
growth. Therefore, extensive agricultural crop production
in these regions has been mostly achieved through
supplemental irrigation. However, age-old practices as
well as new advances in science and technology have
made it possible to grow agricultural crops in such areas
without constructing extensive irrigation networks. The
key to this achievement is to harvest rainwater where
it falls and use it efficiently for growing trees, grasslands
and suitable crops.
One application of supplemental irrigation

during the growing season could be life saving for rainfed
crops in dry arid lands. Moreover, the extended water
availability during the dry season widens the farmers
choices among different cropping patterns and farming
systems that can be used. Therefore, water harvesting
can be considered as a key water resources management
tool in any agro biodiversity conservation scheme in dry
areas. To feed the growing population in the dry areas
of the world, more irrigation is needed but the quantity
of irrigation water is extremely limited.
Promotion of Water Harvesting

Programmes on Watershed Basis
The Watershed approach has conventionally
aimed at treating degraded lands with the help of low
cost and locally accessed technologies such as in-situ
soil and moisture conservation measures, afforestation
etc. and through a participatory approach that seeks to
secure close involvement of the user-communities.
159
The broad objective was the promotion of the

overall economic development and improvement of the
socio-economic conditions of the resource poor sections
of people inhabiting the programme areas. Many
projects designed within this approach were, at different
points of time, taken up by the Government of India.
The Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and the
Desert Development Programme (DDP) were brought
into the watershed mode in 1987. The Integrated
Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) launched
in 1989 under the aegis of the National Wasteland
Development Board also aimed at the development of
wastelands on watershed basis.
projects. However, the actual area of a project may vary

keeping in view the geographical location, the size of
village etc. The thematic maps generated from satellite
data for different themes such as land use/land cover,
hydro geo -morphology, soils etc. may be used for
selection of a watershed area. The project will primarily
aim at treatment of non-forest wastelands and identified
drought prone and desert areas. However, if any
watershed area consists of some forestlands, it should
also be treated simultaneously under the project.
All these three programmes were brought under

the Guidelines for Watershed Development with effect
from 1.4.1995. Other major programmes now being
implemented through this approach are the National
Watershed Development Project in Rainfed Areas
(NWDPRA) and the Watershed Development in Shifting
Cultivation Areas (WDSCA) of the Ministry of Agriculture
(MoA).
Developing wastelands/degraded lands, droughtprone and desert areas on watershed basis, keeping in
view the capability of land, site-conditions and local
needs. Promoting the overall economic development
and improving the socio-economic condition of the
resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting
the programme areas. Mitigating the adverse effects
of extreme climatic conditions such as drought and
desertification on crops, human and livestock population
for their overall improvement. Restoring ecological
balance by harnessing, conserving and developing
natural resources i.e. land, water, vegetative cover.
The focus of these programmes has, with

the advent of the Department of Land Resources
(DoLR), Ministry of Rural Development, GoI shifted to
the enhancement of the viability and quality of rural
livelihood support systems. While the programmes
of DoLR are designed to address areas characterized
by a relatively difficult terrain and preponderance of
community resources, those of Ministry of Agriculture are
expected to aim at increasing production and enhancing
productivity in cultivated areas largely privately owned.
While the focus of these programmes may have
differed, the common theme that underpinned their
structure has been the basic objective of land and water
resource management for sustainable development of
natural resources and community empowerment. The
Watershed Development Projects under DPAP/DDP
will be taken up in the Blocks notified under respective
Programmes. Such Projects, under IWDP will generally
be implemented in the Blocks other than those notified
under DPAP/DDP as well as the Blocks having similar
projects under International Cooperation Schemes such
as Sustainability of Livelihood/Watershed Development
projects funded by international donor agencies.
The watershed approach is a project based, ridge
to valley approach for in situ soil and water conservation,
afforestration etc. Unit of development will be a watershed
area of about 500 ha each in watershed development
The objectives of Watershed

Development Projects will be
These programmes will be implemented,

mainly, through the Zilla Parishads (ZPs)/District Rural
Development Agencies (DRDA). However, wherever it
is expedient in the interest of Watershed Development
Programmes, the projects can be implemented through
any Department of the State Government or autonomous
agencies of Central Government or State Governments.
The items, inter alia that can be included in the Watershed
Development Plan are:
v Land Development including in-situ soil and moisture
conservation measures like contour and graded bunds
fortified by plantation, bench terracing in hilly terrain,
nursery raising for fodder, timber, fuel wood, horticulture
& Non Timber Forest Product Species.
v
A forestation including block plantations, agroforestry and horticultural development. Shelterbelt
plantations, sand dune stabilization, etc.
v
Drainage line treatment with a combination of
vegetative and engineering structures.
v Development of small water harvesting structures
such as low-cost farm ponds, nalla bunds, checkdams and percolation tanks & ground water recharge
measures.
160
v Renovation and augmentation of water resources,

desiltation of tanks for drinking water/irrigation.
v Pasture development either by itself or in conjunction
with plantations.
v Repair, restoration and up-gradation of existing
common properly assets and structures in the watershed
to obtain optimum & sustained benefits from previous
public investments.
v Crop demonstrations for popularizing new crops/
varieties or innovative management practices
v Promotion and propagation of non-conventional
energy saving devices and energy conservation
measures.
District Rural Development Agency

(DRDA)
The District Rural Development Agency
(DRDA) has traditionally been the principal organ at
the District level to oversee the implementation of
different anti-poverty programmes. Since its inception,
the administrative costs of the DRDAs were met by
way of setting apart a share of the allocations for each
programme.
However, of late, the number of the programmes
had increased and while some of the programmes
provided for administrative costs of the DRDAs, others
did not. There was no uniformity among the different
programmes with reference to administrative costs.
Keeping in view the need for an effective agency at
the district level to coordinate the anti-poverty effort, a
new Centrally Sponsored Scheme for strengthening the
DRDAs has been introduced with effect from 1st April,
1999. Accordingly, the administrative costs are met by
providing a separate budget provisions. This scheme
which is funded on a 75:25 basis between Centre and
States, aims at strengthening and professionalsing the
DRDAs.
Watershed Wing
A Watershed Wing responsible in the DRDA
in all such districts where IWDP / DPAP /DDP is in
operation. This wing is consisting of a Project Officer,
assisted by a small complement of staff. This staff would
be independent of the programme support in the form
of PIAs or Watershed committees.
Drought Prone Areas Programme

The basic objective of the programme is to
minimize the adverse effects of drought on production of
crops and livestock and productivity of land, water and
human resources ultimately leading to drought proofing
of the affected areas. The programme also aims to
promote overall economic development and improving
the socio-economic conditions of the resource poor
and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the programme
areas.
Upto 1994-95, DPAP was in operation in 627
blocks of 96 districts in 13 States. From 1995-96 total
blocks covered under DPAP became 947. These 947
blocks were in 164 districts in 13 States. Subsequently,
with the re-organization of States, Districts and Blocks,
the programme is now covered in 972 blocks of 183
districts in 16 States. These States are Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu
& Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttaranchal and West Bengal (Table 1). The
identified dry sub humid area under the programme is
about 7.46 lakh sq. km (74.6 m ha).
The prevailing cost for a prescribed watershed
project of 500 ha is Rs. 30.00 lakh i.e. Rs. 6,000 per
ha Central and State Government in the ratio of 75:
25 share the cost. 80% (85% under Hariyali) of the cost
is devoted towards watershed development activities
and rest 20% (15% under Hariyali) for community
organization, training and administrative jobs. The
central share is released in 7 installments (5 insts. under
Hariyali). The project is to be completed over a period
of five years.
The role of the DRDA is in terms of planning for

effective implementation of anti-poverty programmes;
coordinating with other agencies-Governmental, nonGovernmental, technical and financial for successful
programme implementation; enabling the community
Since the adoption of watershed approach in the
and the rural poor to participate in the decision year 1995-96 till 2005-2006, 24363 projects have been
making process, overseeing the implementation to sanctioned to treat 121.82 lakh ha of drought prone
ensure adherence to guidelines, quality, equity and area. The project period of 6089 projects sanctioned
efficiency; reporting to the prescribed authorities on the from 1995-96 to 1998-99 has however been over; of
implementation; and promoting transparency in decision these 4325 projects are deemed complete and funding
making and implementation.Each DRDA will have the stopped to 1764 projects. Among 18274 projects
watershed wings:
161
sanctioned from 1999-2000 to 2005-06, 1392 projects

are deemed complete and 16882 projects are ongoing
as on 31.3.2006. Thus, a total of 5717 projects are
deemed complete, funding has been stopped to 1764
projects and 16882 projects are ongoing.
The Union Government sanction block wise new
projects every year to programme districts taking in to
consideration primarily the DPAP coverage, performance
of the on-going projects, capacity to absorb new projects
and annual budget outlay etc. During the year 200506, 3000 new watershed projects have been sanctioned
under DPAP to treat an area of 15 lakh ha at a total cost
of Rs. 900 crore over a period of five years.
The estimated area treated under DPAP from
inception till 31.3.1995 - 57.14 lakh ha under watershed
approach:
Table 1. States, districts and blocks covered under drought
prone areas programme (DPAP)
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Name of the State

Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Chattisgarh
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Rajasthan
Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
Total
resource poor and disadvantaged sections inhabiting the

programme areas.
From 1995-96 total blocks covered under DDP
became 227 in 40 districts of 7 States. Subsequently,
with the re-organization of Districts and Blocks, the
programme is now covered in 235 blocks of 40 districts
in 7 States of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu
& Kashmir Karnataka and Rajasthan. The corresponding
physical area under the programme is about 4.57 lakh
sq. km (Table 2).
Since the adoption of watershed approach in
the year 1995-96 till 2005-2006, 13476 projects have
been sanctioned to treat 67.38 lakh ha of arid area. The
project period of 2194 projects sanctioned from 199596 to 1998-99 has however been over; of these 1894
projects are deemed complete and funding stopped to
300 projects. Among 11282 projects sanctioned from
1999-2000 to 2005-06, 689 projects are deemed
complete and 10593 projects are ongoing as on
No. of Districts
11
6
8
14
3
2
14
15
23
25
8
11
17
15
7
4
183
No. of Blocks
94
30
29
67
10
22
100
81
105
149
47
32
80
60
30
36
972
Area in Sq. Kms.

99218
9533
21801
43938
3319
14705
34843
84332
89101
194473
26178
31969
29416
35698
15796
11594
745914
(Source: www.rural.nic.in/drda.htm)
Desert Development Programme (DDP)

The basic object of the programme is to minimise
the adverse effect of drought and control desertification
through rejuvenation of natural resource base of the
identified desert areas. The programme strives to achieve
ecological balance in the long run. The programme
also aims at promoting overall economic development
and improving the socio-economic conditions of the
31.3.2006. Thus, a total of 2583 projects are deemed

complete, funding stopped to 300 projects and 10593
projects are ongoing.
The Union Government sanctions new projects
every year taking in to consideration primarily the DDP
coverage in the States, performance of the on-going
projects, capacity to absorb new projects and annual
budget outlay etc. During the year 2005-06, 2000 new
watershed projects have been sanctioned under DDP to
162
treat an area of 10 lakh ha at a total cost of Rs. 600

crore over a period of five years.
The area treated under DDP so far from inception
till 31.3.1995 - 5.15 lakh ha. From 1.4.1995 till 200506 is 35.31 lakh ha.
Objectives

Conservation, development and sustainable
management of natural resources including their use.

Enhancement of Agricultural productivity and
production in a sustainable manner.
Table 2. States, districts and blocks covered under desert

development programme (DDP)
Sl.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The minimum area for a watershed is 500 Ha.
Name of the State

Andhra Pradesh
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Karnataka
Rajasthan
Total
No. of Districts
1
6
7
2
2
6
16
40
No. of Blocks
16
52
44
3
12
22
85
234
Area in Sq. Kms.

19136
55424
20542
35107
96701
32295
198744
457949
(Source: www.rural.nic.in/drda.htm)

Restoration of ecological balance in the degraded
and fragile rain fed eco-systems by greening these areas
through appropriate mix of trees and shrubs.
Watershed Programmes in Tamilnadu

by Tamil Nadu Watershed Development
Agency

Reduction in regional disparity between irrigated
and rainfed areas.
Distribution of Government Wasteland to

Landless Agricultural Labourer Families
The Government has announced this massive
scheme during 2006-07and is being implemented
till date. After the land identified by the Revenue
Department, wherever the land development is required
it is undertaken by Agricultural Engineering Department.
Out of 41,506 acre requiring land development, so far
39,673 acre have been developed. For irrigation and
ground water recharge, the farm ponds are created of
the size of 15 X 3X 1.5 cu,m, or 15X6X1.5 cu,m, at the
rate of Rs.2,750/-, Rs.4,650/- per pond respectively.
In total, 10,470 farm ponds have been completed by
dovetailing various departments ongoing programmes
(www.tn.gov.in/policynotes).
Restructured National Watershed Development
Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA)
Under Restructured NWDPRA for XI Five Year
Plan period (2007-2012), it is proposed to take up 500
watersheds in 22 districts, where the area has less than
30% assured means of irrigation in arable lands and
having slopes less than 8%. The pattern of assistance is
in the ratio of 90:10 for the Centre and State respectively.

Creation of sustained employment opportunities
for the rural community including the landless.
During the X Five Year Plan project, the scheme
was implemented in Tamil Nadu with community
approach in 755 watersheds in 155 blocks in 23 districts.
During the XI Five Year Plan project, the scheme will
be implemented in 22 districts excluding Coimbatore
district which has been saturated and as there is no
new watershed available for treatment. The scheme is
implemented under the Chairmanship of the Collectors
through District Watershed Development Agency at
District level and through Watershed committees/
Associations at Village level.
Watershed Development Fund assisted

by NABARD
Watershed Development Fund in Tamil Nadu has
been created to treat 100 watershed projects at a cost
of Rs. 60 Crores with the assistance of National Bank
for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). The
scheme has been in operation since 2004-05 and the
duration of the scheme is six years.
163
Objective of The Scheme

1.
To spread the message of participatory Watershed
Development.
2.
Involvement of Government, NGOs/Voluntary
organization in implementation.
3.
Constitution of Watershed Association &
watershed committee to develop the watershed based
on the local needs.
Total Period - 6 Years

At present the programme is being implemented
in the following 20 Districts in the State. Cuddalore,
Dharmapuri, Dindigul, Kancheepuram, Karur, Krishnagiri,
Madurai, Namakkal, Perambalur, Pudukottai, Ramnad,
Sivaganga, Theni, Thoothukudi, Tirunelveli, Tiruvallur,
Tiruvannamalai, Vellore, Villupuram, Virudhunagar.
Apart form the regular watersheds that are being
approved by the State Steering Committee there are 5
PPID projects (Pilot Project for Integrated Development
of Backward Blocks) in 5 Districts namely Ramnad,
Dindigul, Thoothukudi, Trichy and Nagapattinam which
is being completely funded by NABARD.
National Agricultural Development

Programme Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
The National Agricultural Development
Programme has been launched to achieve 4% annual
growth rate in agricultural sector. The objective of
the scheme is to more participation of farmers in
agriculture, reducing yield gap in key crops through
focused interventions, maximize returns to the farmers
and bringing quantifiable changes in the production
and productivity of agriculture and allied sectors. The
pattern of funding is 100% grant by the Government
of India. Under the programme Agriculture, Animal
Husbandry, Milk Production, Fisheries Development and
Irrigation Development schemes are being implemented.
During 2007-08, nine districts namely Coimbatore,
Dharmapuri,
Dindigul,
Krishnagiri,
Namakkal,
Perambalur, Ramanathapuram, Salem and Villupuram
have been identified as focused districts. The Tamil Nadu
Watershed Development Agency is the Nodal Agency for
the scheme being implemented by the departments of
Agriculture, Horticulture, Agriculture Engineering, Public
Works Department, Fisheries, Animal Husbandry, Dairy
Development, Pubic Works Department, Tamil Nadu
Veterinary and Animal Sciences University and Tamil

Nadu Agricultural University.
As a part of National Agricultural

Development Programme
Drought Prone Areas Programme
This programme has been in implementation in
parts of Tamil Nadu from 1972-73. Presently 80 notified
blocks of 17 districts viz., Coimbatore, Dharmapuri,
Dindigul, Karur, Krishnagiri, Namakkal, Perambalur,
Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Salem, Sivagangai,
Tiruvannamalai,
Thoothukudi,
Tiruchirappalli,
Tirunelveli, Vellore and Virudhunagar have been
identified by the Government of India as drought prone
areas and efforts are on to mitigate the adverse effects
of drought conditions. A watershed project covers an
area of 500 ha. The unit cost per hectare is Rs.6000/-.
The Government of India and State Government share
the expenditure for a watershed project in the ratio of
75:25. The duration of the project is five years.
Over the years, the objectives of the programme
and the mode of implementation have undergone
modifications from infrastructure creation and
employment generation to rainwater harvesting and
overall economic development through water-based
activities. On the operational side, implementation has
shifted from line departments to Village Panchayats
wherein the user groups have identified the works
and execute the works through Village Panchayats.
Watershed approach with peoples participation is given
importance to tackle the problems of desertification.
The works being taken up under this Drought
Prone Areas Programme are of a special nature and
involve a variety of activities such as:Plantation Activities: Horticulture Plantation,
Fodder Development, Crop Demonstration, Community
Nursery, Homestead Garden, Agro Forestry and Social
Forestry.
Land Development: Land Leveling, Summer
Ploughing, Vegetative Bunding, Contour Bunding, Stone
Bunding, Retaining Wall, Continuous trenching and Silt
Application.
Water Resources Development: Formation
of Supply Channel and desilting, Check Dams, Cattle
Pond, Farm Pond, Percolation Pond,Formation of Oorani,
Desilting of Tanks, and Development of Drinking Water
Resources.
164
Integrated Waste Land Development

Programme
Integrated Wasteland Development Programme
aims at tackling the non-forest wasteland in nonDPAP blocks. The basic theme of the programme
is to harvest the rainwater and to bring the degraded
lands into productive use. At present, this programme
is being implemented in 99 blocks of 24 districts viz.,
Coimbatore, Cuddalore, Dharmapuri, Dindigul, Erode,
Kancheepuram, Karur, Krishnagiri, Madurai, Namakkal,
Perambalur, Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Salem,
Sivagangai, Theni, Thoothukudi, Tiruchirappalli,
Tirunelveli, Tiruvallur, Tiruvannamalai, Vellore,
Villupuram and Virudhunagar. This programme has
been under implementation since 1993-94. From 1st
April 1995, the programme has also been brought under
the purview of the Common Guidelines like Drought
Prone Areas Programme. The unit cost per hectare is
Rs.6000/-.The works taken up under this Integrated
Waste Land Development Programme are of a special
nature and involve a variety of activities such as:
Plantation
Activities: Agro Forestry,
Horticulture Plantation, Fodder Development, Crop
Demonstration, Community Nursery, Social Forestry
and Homestead Garden.
Land Development: Land Leveling, Contour

Bunding, Silt Application, Stone Bunding, Retaining
Wall, Summer Ploughing, Vegetative Bunding and
Continuous trenching.
Water Resources Development: Cattle
Pond, Farm Pond, Formation of Oorani, Desilting of
Tanks, Formation of Supply Channel and Desilting,
Check Dams, Percolation Pond and Development
of Drinking Water Resources in the State. The total
expenditure incurred under these projects stood at
Rs.14,446.24 lakhs (89%). The total area that has been
treated under these projects up to the end of February
2008 was 2,31,227 ha and the remaining 2,26,369 ha
is under treatment.
Conclusion
Number of water harvesting measures/
structures are implemented on watershed basis through
the different schemes sponsored by different government
agencies to boost the water resources in dryland areas
their by promoting overall economic development and
improving the socio-economic conditions of the resource
poor farmers in the areas.
References
www.tn.gov.in/policynotes/pdf/agriculture/watershed_development.pdf
www.rural.nic.in/drda.htm
165
32
Impact of Rainwater Harvesting
On Water Budgeting and
Irrigation Potential at Orchard
and Eastern Farm in Tnau
Campus
M. Manikandan1 and Dr. M. V. Ranghaswami2
Introduction
Water is a natures gift that is available through
rain, snowmelt and as groundwater. The quantity and
quality of water available for human use is linked to
the ecosystem, sustainable management of natural
resources and giving priority of water uses between
different sectors. Factors like deforestation, disruption
of hydrological cycle, surface runoff, over extraction
of groundwater, pollution of water sources, silting of
lakes and tanks etc., contribute mainly to the scarcity
of water. India is a monsoonic country. Rainfall is highly
undependable and highly variable. Though our country
is blessed with abundant land and water resources,
acute water shortages are not uncommon due to failure
in monsoons. Usually there is a surplus of water during
the period of monsoon and deficit during the rest of the
year. Thus, the need for the harvest of surplus water is
evident.
Excessive deforestation has resulted in
poor receipt of rainfall and unscrupulous pumping
of groundwater has caused drastic depletion in
underground aquifer reserves. Extensive urbanization
and industrialization have also contributed to increasing

demand for non-agricultural usage of water. Agriculture
has always remained a gamble with monsoon and the
situation is further assuming precarious levels due to nonadherence of implementing water-harvesting strategies.
Rainwater harvesting methods formerly developed for
mere existence are now a days receiving recent renewed
attention because they can contribute to increased water
supplies for agriculture and domestic uses.
Irrigation in TNAU campus is mainly dependent
on groundwater and rainfall. As it is feared that over
exploitation of groundwater is being done, a water
budgeting study is necessary to know the present
situation of the study area. Indiscriminate use of
groundwater may lead to serious situations and may
cause excessive drawdown or mining of aquifers. When
progress magnifies and adds new problems, efforts are
put forth to solve these problems. This is especially true
in respect of groundwater, where in studies have been
undertaken in various parts of the world to know as to
how much water is available and how much economically
the same can be utilized. The present study aims to
evaluate the water balance (water availability and usage)
166
and to assess the rainwater harvesting potential and the

impact of rainwater harvesting on water budgeting and
Irrigation requirements.
crops are cultivated in three seasons viz. I season (JuneSeptember), II season (October-January) and III Season
(Feb-May).
Water Supply for Orchard and Eastern

Farm
Location of Tnau Campus

The TNAU campus is located at latitude of 110
N and longitude of 770 E with an elevation of 426.72
m above mean sea level. It is situated 3 km away from
Coimbatore city in the west direction. Coimbatore has
a subtropical, semi-arid climate with hot summer. The
mean annual rainfall is 696.21 mm distributed in 50
rainy days. The important soil series in the campus are
Peelamedu, Palathurai and Periyanaickenpalayam series.
The texture of the soil is found to be clay, clay loam and
loam. Orchard and Eastern farm consists of clay soil.
Area of TNAU Campus

The campus has an area of 323.88 ha used for
agricultural and non-agricultural purposes. The area of
174.61 ha under agricultural use is divided into seven
zones such as Paddy Breeding Station, Wetland, Orchard,
Eastern farm, Cotton Breeding Station, Millet Breeding
Station and Botanical garden and 13 ha under nonagricultural areas that are used for office\departments,
residential areas and hostels. For study purpose Orchard
and Eastern Farm were taken and water budgeting was
done for each zone. The cropping programme (20002001) for Orchard and Eastern Farm was obtained from
respective farm manager and is given in Table 2.1. The
Table 2.1 Cropping Programme of TNAU Campus (20002001)
Sl. No.
Station
The rainfall is considered as the only source of

water supply for water budgeting. Effective rainfall is
used to calculate the total water supply. The volume of
rainwater collected from agricultural area was found by
multiplying the cultivable area by the effective rainfall.
Rainfall Data
Weekly rainfall data was obtained from the
meteorological station of the university. Rainfall for
standard week was worked out by weekly rainfall data
for the recent 25 years (1978-2002). During I, II and
III season total number of rainy days are 9, 20 and 21
respectively.
Effective Rainfall
Effective rainfall means useful or utilizable
rainfall. Not all the rainfall is effective and a part of it
may be lost by surface runoff and deep percolation or
evaporation. Effective rainfall can be determined by
the evapotranspiration and precipitation ratio method
given by USDA SCS (Dastane, 1977). The relationship
between average weekly effective rainfall and mean
weekly rainfall is shown for different values of average
weekly crop evapotranspiration, which is given in
Table 2.2. Using Thornthwaite formula, the weekly
potential evapotranspiration (PET) was calculated. Then
consumptive use (ET crop) was calculated by multiplying
Area (ha)
Total (ha)
Orchard
Banana
Vegetables
Coconut
Fruit Trees
Total (ha)
Eastern Farm
Oil Seeds
Maize
Vegetables
Millets, Cotton, Mulbery
Sugarcane, Coconut
Trees
Fodder, Pulses
Total (ha)
20.85
46.29
167
Cultiable Area
I Season II Season III Season
19.17
4.66
6.44
2.03
6.04
19.17
4.66
6.44
2.03
6.04
19.17
4.66
6.44
2.03
6.04
19.17
42.6
4.42
1.02
1.69
10.39
2.83
6.66
5.86
32.87
4.76
0.91
1.06
17.91
2.83
6.66
6.22
40.35
0
0
0.77
7.72
2.83
6.66
3.79
21.77
PET by the average crop coefficient (Kc) of different crops.

The standard weekly rainfall collected from meteorology
department of TNAU was used to estimate the weekly
effective rainfall using Table 2.2.
evapotranspiration of crop for each crop. Weekly total

water demand for each crop (ha cm) is got by multiplying
the water requirement (mm) for each crop by cropping
area (ha).
Utilization of Groundwater
Crop Evapotranspiration (ETC)
The present utilization of groundwater was

observed. Out of 51 wells in the campus, 38 wells are
functioning including one open well in Wetland, 30
bore wells in agricultural areas and 7 bore wells in non
agricultural area. Details regarding number of bore and
open wells present in each area including its HP, depth
(m) and pumping head (m) were collected and is given
in Table 2.3. Based on the information obtained, total
discharge of the pump and total water pumped from each
area for each season were calculated. The discharge of the
pump was calculated by using the following formula.
The water requirement of each crop is calculated

to meet the crop evapotranspiration rate. There exists a
close relationship between the rate of consumptive use
by crops and the rate of evaporation (EP) from properly
located pan evaporation meter. The equations given
below are used to find out the crop evapotranspiration
(Doorenbos et al, 1977)
Q = 75
Reference Evapotranspiration ETO = KP . EP

Where EP = Pan evaporation, KP = Pan coefficient
Crop Evapotranspiration ETc = KC . ETO
Where KC=Crop coefficient
HP/ W H
Weekly pan evaporation was collected from

the meteorological department of TNAU campus.
Reference evapotranspiration (ETO) was worked
out by multiplying the pan evaporation (EP) by pan
coefficient (KP), which is taken as 0.85. The crop
evapotranspiration (ETC) was calculated by multiplying
reference evapotranspiration (ETO) by crop coefficient
(KC). The different crop coefficient values are given in the
Table 2.4.
Where, Q = Discharge lit per sec, HP = Horse

power, W = Unit weight of water, H = Total pumping head
= Overall efficiency of the pump (0.6 assumed).
(m),
The seasonal discharge was calculated considering
pumping hours/day and number of pumping days.
Number of pumping days per season was obtained by
deducting the number of rainy days in a season from total
number of days in a season. For five days of pumping
per week and 17 weeks for I and III seasons and 18
weeks for II season were assumed.
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Crops
Maize
Sugarcane
Millets
Banana
Fodder
Pulses
Vegetables
Water Demand for Orchard and Eastern

Farm
To workout the weekly irrigation water
requirement of each agricultural crop, effective rainfall
and crop evapotranspiration are the major parameters
required. Irrigation water requirement (mm) was calculated
by deducting the weekly effective rainfall from weekly
Table 2.4. Crop Coefficient (KC) of different crops (Michael,

1999, Allen G.Richard et al,, Doorenbos et al, 1977).
Kc
S.No
0.86
0.90
0.70
0.98
0.75
0.75
0.50
8
9
10
11
12
13
Crops
Coconut
Fruit Trees
Oil Seeds
Cotton
Mulberry
Trees
Kc
0.90
0.52
0.63
0.70
0.85
0.60
Water Budgeting Studies

To prepare the water budget of Orchard and
Eastern Farm of TNAU campus, the weekly demands
and supplies are worked out. Water demand for Orchard
and Eastern Farm involve irrigation requirement of
168
33
Roof Top Rain Water
Harvesting and its Potential in
TNAU Campus
M. Manikandan1 and Dr. M. V. Ranghaswami2
Introduction
Life on earth cannot be sustained without water,
whether of human beings, animals flora or fauna. Water
is a natures gift that is available through rain, snowmelt
and as groundwater. The quantity and quality of water
available for human use is linked to the ecosystem,
sustainable management of natural resources and
giving priority of water uses between different sectors.
Factors like deforestation, disruption of hydrological
cycle, surface runoff, over extraction of groundwater,
pollution of water sources, silting of lakes and tanks
etc., contribute mainly to the scarcity of water. Demand
for fresh water is constantly increasing with the rapid
increase in population and the development of industry
and agriculture in the country.
Excessive deforestation has resulted in poor receipt
of rainfall and unscrupulous pumping of groundwater
has caused drastic depletion in underground aquifer
reserves. Extensive urbanization and industrialization
have also contributed to increasing demand for non-
agricultural usage of water. Agriculture has always

remained a gamble with monsoon and the situation is
further assuming precarious levels due to non-adherence
of implementing water-harvesting strategies.
In semi-arid and arid region the surface water
and ground water are scarce. Therefore, attempts are
made in these regions to collect and preserve rainwater
to the maximum possible extent. The concept of water
harvesting is very much the need of the hour in order
to narrow down the supply-demand gaps of water. The
central idea behind any water harvesting strategy should
be such that the excess water available during rainy
period should be collected and stored for a compensate
usage during non-rainy periods. That is the supplydemand gap during non-rainy season can be brought
down by supplemental usage of harvested water.
Rainwater harvesting can be done both on a
large scale such as watershed planning as well as on a
smaller scale like roof top water harvesting from individual
houses. While the large scale water harvesting helps
169
damming of water to sustain agriculture, roof top water

harvesting helps to meet the local needs of community.
It is often observed that rainwater draining down from
rooftop surface is simply disposed off, through sewage
network or stream network wastefully. This often leads
to poor ground water recharge due to runoff(Myers,
L. E. 1975). Rooftop surfaces offer greater scope for
domestic storage of relatively pure water and in addition
augmentation of groundwater tables in-situ. Urban
Sl. No.
1.
2.
Areas
Office/Departments
Residential Areas
Non Agricultural Areas

Water budgeting study was conducted to know
rainwater harvesting potential for Office / Departments
buildings and Residential areas in TNAU campus. The
data regarding roof area, lawn area, number of persons
working, number of labs in departments were collected
under these groups and given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Abstract of Non Agricultural Areas
Roof Area
(m2)
Lawn Area
(m2)
No of
Persons
No of Labs
52442.75
34695
30529
1078
2207
1258
87
-
areas where a lot of housing colonies and commercial

complexes are coming up, rainwater harvesting from
roof top is the only feasible solution to develop water
resources in order to meet the local needs of water with
self sustainability(Fink, D.H., Ehrler W.L. 1978).
As it is feared that over exploitation of
groundwater is being done, a water budgeting study is
necessary to know the present situation of the study
area. Indiscriminate use of groundwater may lead to
serious situations and may cause excessive drawdowns
or mining of aquifers. When progress magnifies and
adds new problems, efforts are put forth to solve
these problems. This is especially true in respect of
groundwater, where in studies have been undertaken
in various parts of the world to know as to how much
water is available and how much economically the same
can be utilized. With the above background the following
objectives are undertaken. The present study aims to
assess the rainwater harvesting potential through water
budgeting (water availability and usage) method.

Area of TNAU Campus
The campus has an area of 323.88 ha used for
agricultural and non-agricultural purposes. The area of
174.61 ha under agricultural use is divided into seven
zones such as Paddy Breeding Station, Wetland, Orchard,
Eastern farm, Cotton Breeding Station, Millet Breeding
Station and Botanical garden and 13 ha under nonagricultural areas that are used for office\departments,
residential areas and hostels. The remaining area covers
roads, playground, parking places and fallow lands etc
for which water budgeting was not estimated.
Office/ Departmental Areas

This includes various buildings like RI building,
Ramasamy Sivam building, Ramasamy Sivam PG block,
Golden Jubilee building, Freeman building, Library, AEC
& RI, Horticultural College and Basic Science building
which have various departments and laboratories.
Residential Areas
It includes various quarters meant for teaching,
non-teaching staff, married scholars, south house and
north house used for VIPs.
Water Supply for Office/Departmental

and Residential Areas
Weekly rainfall data and evaporation was obtained
from the meteorological station of the university. Rainfall
for standard week was worked out by weekly rainfall data
for the recent 25 years (1978-2002). During I, II and
III season total number of rainy days are 9, 20 and 21
respectively. Effective rainfall can be determined by the
evapotranspiration and precipitation ratio method given
by USDA SCS (Dastane, 1977). At present for office/
departments and residential areas water is supplied by
groundwater pumping and municipal (Siruvani) water
supply through estate office. The volume of rainwater
that can be collected from the rooftops can be calculated
by the following formula
Vr = Dr A C
Where,
Vr =
Rainwater harvested from roof per week, lit
Dr = Depth of rainfall received during the standard

week, mm
170
A=
Area of the roof surface, m2
C=
Runoff coefficient.
The runoff coefficient ranges from 0.7 to 0.9

as given below for different roof surfaces. For example
0.7-Concrete, 0.75-Tiled, 0.8-Asbestos and 0.9-GI
Sheet. However in this study, most of roof surfaces are
RCC roofs. So the value 0.7 was taken for C (Michael,
1999).
Water Demand for Office/

Departmental and Residential Areas
The water demand for each buildings (office/
department buildings and residential areas) was assessed
by assuming the appropriate quantity of water for
laboratory/lavatory needs in each department/office
and for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing and sanitary
purposes in residential places. During the observations,
the average number of persons working in each office,
number of persons in each house was obtained. The
weekly drinking water demand was estimated by
multiplying the water requirement for drinking per
person per week and the number of persons present
in the building. Similarly weekly water requirements
for cooking, bathing, washing, sanitary and for other
demands were also obtained. The assumed value of
per capita water demand is 135 lit/day for residential
areas and for drinking 5 lit/day, toilet 10 lit/day, lab
use 300 lit/day for office/ department buildings. Water
requirement for lawn was computed by multiplying the
lawn area by the ET crop. By adding all the different
demands, the total water demand has been worked out
for individual buildings.
Water Budgeting of Office/

Departmental and Residential Areas
To find the water budgeting of Office/
Departmental and Residential Areas, the weekly
demands and supplies of water were obtained for office/
departments buildings and residential areas. The various
components of water demands are drinking, cooking,
bathing, washing, sanitary purpose and lawn irrigation.
The supply consists of the runoff collected from rooftop
of individual buildings.
Surplus/Deficit Water
The period of surplus or deficit of water can be
worked out for Office/ Departmental and Residential
areas by comparing the total supply and the total demands
i.e. total water requirement for any week. Surplus water

if any, can be effectively stored by rainwater harvesting
which includes roof water harvesting and used during
the period of deficit.
Rain Water Harvesting Potential

To calculate the rainwater harvesting potential
of the TNAU campus, the rainwater harvestable from
Office/ Departmental and Residential areas was
estimated. The amount of water harvested has to be
effectively stored in the rainwater harvesting structures
(RWHS). The capacity of rainwater harvesting systems
was calculated from surplus water.

Preparing the water budget is similar to operating
the bank account with debits and credits. Here the
credit part involves the total amount of water applied
out of storage by way of irrigation and net contribution
of rainfall. The debit side involves expending water
by ET from crop canopy, runoff and deep percolation
losses, and soil moisture storage changes. This water
balance is an integral part of water budgeting over a
specified period of time, which may be over a week/
month, season or a full year. Supply demand analysis is
the essence of water budgeting.
The water budgeting study was conducted to
know the rainwater harvesting potential and water
demand Office/ Departmental and Residential areas in
TNAU campus by considering rainfall as the only source
of supply of water. Observations have been made to
assess the present utilization of ground water. The results
pertaining to the above are presented in this chapter.
Pumping Water Supply for Office/

Departmental Areas and Residential
Areas
There are 5 wells located in the office/
departmental areas and residential areas in TNAU
campus (Table 3.1). Each well supplies water to office/
departmental areas and residential areas. Well Number
WL K, 72 supply water to the residential areas situated
in the southern side of the campus. Wells located in the
south house and near examination hall supply water
to the office/departments. Well located near professor
quarters supplies water to all the quarters in the northern
side of the campus. Apart from this, corporation water
(Siruvani Water) is also supplied for all the areas.
171
Table 3.1. Well Details in office/departmental areas and

residential areas
S. No.
1.
2.
Area
Field No
Depth
(m)
HP
Head
(m)
Discharge
(l/hr)
Working
hr/day
I
season
(ha cm)
II
season
(ha cm)
III
season
(ha cm)
Residential Areas
WL K
45.05
20
25
129600
21
2993.76
2857.68
3129.84
72
45.05
15
23
105652
21
2440.57
2329.63
2551.50
Office Areas
Prof.Quarters
South House
30.03
66.07
7.5
5
22
32
55227
25313
8
12
486.00
334.13
463.91
318.94
508.09
349.31
Near exam hall
30.03
7.5
23
52826
464.87
443.74
486.00
Since rainwater harvesting can be implemented, the total

volume of water that can be stored during rainy season
was worked out to be 146.29 ha cm.
Water Budgeting for Office/

Departmental Areas and Residential
Areas
Weekly rainwater supply (ha cm) was calculated
by multiplying the roof area with weekly rainfall and
runoff coefficient (which is taken as 0.7). The weekly
water demand for drinking, toilet, laboratory, lawn was
calculated for each zone. Finally surplus and deficit was
calculated by detecting the water demand from rainwater
supply.
Fig 3.1 shows the water budgeting of office/

departmental buildings. Form the Figure, it can be
noted that the water demand curve showed a trend well
above the water supply curve up to 37th week and then
declined until 47th week and gradually raised towards
the last. The potential period for rainwater harvesting
was found to exist from 37th week to 47th week.
Water Budgeting and Rainwater

Harvesting Potential of Residential
Buildings
Water Budgeting and Rainwater

Harvesting Potential of Office/
Department Buildings
Table 3.2. gives the details of water budgeting
calculation for office/department buildings in TNAU
campus. The total rainwater supply was calculated by
multiplying the total roof area 52442.75 m2 by rainfall
and runoff coefficient (0.70). The water requirement for
lawn was computed by multiplying the area 30529 m2
by the ET crop (ETC) (KC =0.65) (Doorenbos,J. and
W.C.Pruitt.1975).
The departmental areas have 87 laboratories
for which water demand was calculated by multiplying
the number of labs with the daily demand (300 lit/day).
The water demand for human beings was worked out
by multiplying the total number of persons (2207 Nos.)
working in office with their daily demand of 5 lit/day/
person for drinking and 10 lit/day/person for toilet. The
total water demand (ha cm) was calculated by adding the
water requirement for lawn areas, water requirement for
laboratory and human beings.
From the Table 3.2. The total annual water
requirement was found to be 306.16 ha cm, while we
can harvest 255.58 ha cm of rainwater. Hence the
annual deficit was estimated to be 50.58 ha cm of water.
Table 3.3 presents the weekly water budgeting

calculation of residential areas. Total rainwater supply
(ha cm) was calculated by multiplying the total roof area
34695 m2 by depth of rainfall and runoff coefficient
(0.70). The total water demand (ha cm) was calculated
by adding water requirement for lawn areas and water
demand for human beings. The water requirement for
lawn was computed by multiplying the area 1078 m2 by
the ET crop (ETC). The water demand for human beings
was worked out by multiplying number of persons (1258
Nos.) working in office with daily demand.
From the Table 3.3. The total annual water
requirement was found to be 623.56 ha cm, while
169.08 ha cm of rainwater can be harvested. The water
harvesting potential was less than water demand. The
annual water deficit was found to be 454.56 ha cm of
water. From the above table it can be seen that there was
no surplus water for the entire year.
Fig 3.2 shows the water budgeting of residential
areas. Form the Figure, it can be noted that the water
demand curve showed a trend well above the water
supply curve up to 52 week.
172
Table 3.2.Water Budgeting of Office/Department Buildings

Std
Rainfall
Water Supply
ET
173
Week
RF
(mm)
EF
(mm)
RTWH
(lit)
Supply
(ha cm)
E P
(mm)
ETO
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
4.77
0.57
4.87
0.00
0.00
1.25
3.72
4.82
3.84
7.97
4.40
1.30
3.97
7.00
16.46
14.31
10.99
19.19
11.33
12.49
7.67
8.05
7.04
8.84
7.74
9.67
3.68
0.44
3.76
0.00
0.00
1.14
3.41
4.45
3.57
7.97
4.40
1.30
3.97
7.00
16.46
14.31
10.99
19.19
11.33
12.49
7.67
8.05
6.94
8.67
7.61
9.44
175033
20925
178777
0
0
45887
136561
176942
140966
292578
161524
47723
145738
256969
604245
525319
403442
704463
415923
458507
281565
295515
258438
324516
284135
354985
1.75
0.21
1.79
0.00
0.00
0.46
1.37
1.77
1.41
2.93
1.62
0.48
1.46
2.57
6.04
5.25
4.03
7.04
4.16
4.59
2.82
2.96
2.58
3.25
2.84
3.55
26.60
27.30
29.40
32.20
35.70
32.90
37.80
33.60
39.90
42.00
42.70
47.60
47.60
43.40
44.80
44.10
46.20
42.00
40.60
53.20
47.60
44.10
49.00
49.00
48.30
49.00
22.61
23.21
24.99
27.37
30.35
27.97
32.13
28.56
33.92
35.70
36.30
40.46
40.46
36.89
38.08
37.49
39.27
35.70
34.51
45.22
40.46
37.49
41.65
41.65
41.06
41.65
Water Demand
ET
lawn
(mm)
14.70
15.08
16.24
17.79
19.72
18.18
20.88
18.56
22.04
23.21
23.59
26.30
26.30
23.98
24.75
24.37
25.53
23.21
22.43
29.39
26.30
24.37
27.07
27.07
26.69
27.07
IR of
Lawn
Drinking
Toilet
Lab
Total
(ha cm)
Deficit
Surplus
336323
447044
381109
543126
602162
520130
533479
430886
564016
465109
585905
763194
681682
518337
253146
306977
443754
122574
338918
516032
568725
498088
614625
561810
582364
538303
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
55175
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
110350
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
6.32
7.43
6.77
8.39
8.98
8.16
8.30
7.27
8.60
7.61
8.82
10.59
9.78
8.14
5.49
6.03
7.40
4.19
6.35
8.12
8.65
7.94
9.11
8.58
8.78
8.34
-4.57
-7.22
-4.98
-8.39
-8.98
-7.70
-6.93
-5.50
-7.19
-4.69
-7.20
-10.11
-8.32
-5.57
0.00
-0.78
-3.36
0.00
-2.19
-3.54
-5.83
-4.99
-6.52
-5.33
-5.94
-4.79
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.55
0.00
0.00
2.86
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
174
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
8.66
7.48
317908
16.35
13.82
600207
7.44
6.43
273122
9.34
8.07
342871
6.90
5.97
253298
7.00
6.20
256969
8.59
7.59
315338
10.19
8.19
374074
9.39
8.29
344706
6.02
5.92
220994
14.84
13.93
544775
20.16
18.35
740072
27.24
24.12
999978
29.84
23.31 1095424
34.44
26.46 1264290
37.06
28.19 1360470
45.73
33.32 1678745
50.18
35.56 1842104
54.68
33.57 2007299
40.06
27.00 1470600
28.86
21.34 1059448
10.27
7.70
377011
7.86
5.81
288540
12.59
9.14
462178
3.08
2.21
113067
7.18
5.29
263577
Total Supply (ha cm)
Roof Area (m2) = 52442.75
Lawn Area (m2) = 30529
No of Persons = 2207
No of Labs = 87
3.18
6.00
2.73
3.43
2.53
2.57
3.15
3.74
3.45
2.21
5.45
7.40
10.00
10.95
12.64
13.60
16.79
18.42
20.07
14.71
10.59
3.77
2.89
4.62
1.13
2.64
255.58
42.70
42.00
46.90
39.90
48.30
40.60
39.90
44.10
35.70
39.20
37.10
38.50
40.60
32.90
30.10
25.90
24.50
21.70
19.60
21.70
18.20
23.80
24.50
27.30
25.20
29.40
36.30
35.70
39.87
33.92
41.06
34.51
33.92
37.49
30.35
33.32
31.54
32.73
34.51
27.97
25.59
22.02
20.83
18.45
16.66
18.45
15.47
20.23
20.83
23.21
21.42
24.99
23.59
23.21
25.91
22.04
26.69
22.43
22.04
24.37
19.72
21.66
20.50
21.27
22.43
18.18
16.63
14.31
13.54
11.99
10.83
11.99
10.06
13.15
13.54
15.08
13.92
16.24
491876
55175
110350
286515
55175
110350
594774
55175
110350
426635
55175
110350
632431
55175
110350
495531
55175
110350
441289
55175
110350
493814
55175
110350
349076
55175
110350
480465
55175
110350
200507
55175
110350
89183
55175
110350
-51548
55175
110350
-156698
55175
110350
-300092
55175
110350
-423750
55175
110350
-603978
55175
110350
-719591
55175
110350
-694260
55175
110350
-458263
55175
110350
-344505
55175
110350
166368
55175
110350
235875
55175
110350
181441
55175
110350
357586
55175
110350
334399
55175
110350
Total Demand (ha cm)
Annual Deficit (ha cm)
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
130500
7.88
5.83
8.91
7.23
9.28
7.92
7.37
7.90
6.45
7.76
4.97
3.85
2.44
1.39
-0.04
-1.28
-3.08
-4.24
-3.98
-1.62
-0.48
4.62
5.32
4.77
6.54
6.30
306.16
50.58
Annual Surplus (ha cm) Surplus which can be stored (ha cm)
146.29
-4.70
0.00
-6.18
-3.80
-6.75
-5.35
-4.22
-4.16
-3.00
-5.55
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
-0.85
-2.43
-0.15
-5.41
-3.67
0.00
0.18
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.48
3.55
7.56
9.56
12.68
14.88
19.87
22.66
24.06
16.33
11.08
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Table 3.3. Water Budgeting of Residential Areas

Std
Rainfall
Water Supply
ET
175
Week
RF
(mm)
EF
(mm)
RTWH
(lit)
Supply
(ha cm)
E P
(mm)
ETO
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
4.77
0.57
4.87
0.00
0.00
1.25
3.72
4.82
3.84
7.97
4.40
1.30
3.97
7.00
16.46
14.31
10.99
19.19
11.33
12.49
7.67
8.05
7.04
8.84
7.74
3.68
0.44
3.76
0.00
0.00
1.14
3.41
4.45
3.57
7.97
4.40
1.30
3.97
7.00
16.46
14.31
10.99
19.19
11.33
12.49
7.67
8.05
6.94
8.67
7.61
115798
13843
118275
0
0
30358
90346
117061
93260
193563
106861
31572
96417
170006
399756
347540
266909
466058
275166
303338
186277
195506
170977
214693
187978
1.16
0.14
1.18
0.00
0.00
0.30
0.90
1.17
0.93
1.94
1.07
0.32
0.96
1.70
4.00
3.48
2.67
4.66
2.75
3.03
1.86
1.96
1.71
2.15
1.88
26.60
27.30
29.40
32.20
35.70
32.90
37.80
33.60
39.90
42.00
42.70
47.60
47.60
43.40
44.80
44.10
46.20
42.00
40.60
53.20
47.60
44.10
49.00
49.00
48.30
22.61
23.21
24.99
27.37
30.35
27.97
32.13
28.56
33.92
35.70
36.30
40.46
40.46
36.89
38.08
37.49
39.27
35.70
34.51
45.22
40.46
37.49
41.65
41.65
41.06
Water Demand (Lit)

ET
lawn
(mm)
14.70
15.08
16.24
17.79
19.72
18.18
20.88
18.56
22.04
23.21
23.59
26.30
26.30
23.98
24.75
24.37
25.53
23.21
22.43
29.39
26.30
24.37
27.07
27.07
26.69
IR of
Lawn
Total Reqt
Total
(ha cm)
Deficit/Surplus
11876
15785
13457
19178
21263
18366
18838
15215
19916
16423
20689
26949
24071
18303
8939
10840
15669
4328
11967
18221
20082
17588
21703
19838
20564
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
1188810
12.01
12.05
12.02
12.08
12.10
12.07
12.08
12.04
12.09
12.05
12.09
12.16
12.13
12.07
11.98
12.00
12.04
11.93
12.01
12.07
12.09
12.06
12.11
12.09
12.09
-10.85
-11.91
-10.84
-12.08
-12.10
-11.77
-11.17
-10.87
-11.15
-10.12
-11.03
-11.84
-11.16
-10.37
-7.98
-8.52
-9.38
-7.27
-9.26
-9.04
-10.23
-10.11
-10.40
-9.94
-10.21
176
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
9.67
8.66
16.35
7.44
9.34
6.90
7.00
8.59
10.19
9.39
6.02
14.84
20.16
27.24
29.84
34.44
37.06
45.73
50.18
54.68
40.06
28.86
10.27
7.86
12.59
3.08
7.18
Total Supply (ha cm)
Roof Area (m2) = 34695
27.07
23.59
23.21
25.91
22.04
26.69
22.43
22.04
24.37
19.72
21.66
20.50
21.27
22.43
18.18
16.63
14.31
13.54
11.99
10.83
11.99
10.06
13.15
13.54
15.08
13.92
16.24
12.08
12.06
11.99
12.10
12.04
12.11
12.06
12.04
12.06
12.01
12.06
11.96
11.92
11.87
11.83
11.78
11.74
11.67
11.63
11.64
11.73
11.77
11.95
11.97
11.95
12.01
12.01
623.56
454.47
Lawn Area (m2) = 1078
Annual Surplus (ha cm)
No of Persons
Surplus which can be stored (ha cm)
= 1258
9.44
7.48
13.82
6.43
8.07
5.97
6.20
7.59
8.19
8.29
5.92
13.93
18.35
24.12
23.31
26.46
28.19
33.32
35.56
33.57
27.00
21.34
7.70
5.81
9.14
2.21
5.29
234850
210321
397084
180692
226836
167577
170006
208621
247479
228050
146205
360412
489616
661564
724709
836427
900058
1110622
1218697
1327986
972917
700908
249422
190892
305767
74802
174377
2.35
2.10
3.97
1.81
2.27
1.68
1.70
2.09
2.47
2.28
1.46
3.60
4.90
6.62
7.25
8.36
9.00
11.11
12.19
13.28
9.73
7.01
2.49
1.91
3.06
0.75
1.74
169.08
49.00
42.70
42.00
46.90
39.90
48.30
40.60
39.90
44.10
35.70
39.20
37.10
38.50
40.60
32.90
30.10
25.90
24.50
21.70
19.60
21.70
18.20
23.80
24.50
27.30
25.20
29.40
41.65
36.30
35.70
39.87
33.92
41.06
34.51
33.92
37.49
30.35
33.32
31.54
32.73
34.51
27.97
25.59
22.02
20.83
18.45
16.66
18.45
15.47
20.23
20.83
23.21
21.42
24.99
19008
1188810
17368
1188810
10117
1188810
21002
1188810
15065
1188810
22332
1188810
17498
1188810
15582
1188810
17437
1188810
12326
1188810
16966
1188810
7080
1188810
3149
1188810
-1820
1188810
-5533
1188810
-10596
1188810
-14963
1188810
-21327
1188810
-25409
1188810
-24515
1188810
-16182
1188810
-12165
1188810
5875
1188810
8329
1188810
6407
1188810
12627
1188810
11808
1188810
Total Demand (ha cm)
Annual Deficit (ha cm)
-9.73
-9.96
-8.02
-10.29
-9.77
-10.44
-10.36
-9.96
-9.59
-9.73
-10.60
-8.35
-7.02
-5.25
-4.59
-3.42
-2.74
-0.57
0.55
1.64
-2.00
-4.76
-9.45
-10.06
-8.89
-11.27
-10.26
Table 3.4. Seasonal RWHP and water demand

Sl.No
Zones
Office/Departmental Areas
Residential Areas
Season
RWHP
(ha cm)
Demand
(ha cm)
I Season
II Season
III Season
Total
I Season
II Season
III Season
Total
68.06
136.57
50.94
255.58
45.03
90.36
33.70
169.08
122.60
52.13
131.43
306.16
204.65
213.94
204.96
623.56
Table 3.4 gives the details of seasonal water

demand and rainwater harvesting potential in office/
department buildings and residential areas. From the
table, it was found the seasonal water demand was more
than seasonal rainwater supply in the first and third
season whereas in second season the demand was very
less compared to rainwater supply in office/departmental
areas. In residential areas all the three seasons water
demand was more than the rain water supply (Fig 3.3.).
The annual water demand was more than the annual
water supply
Conclusion
Water budgeting study for office/departmental
areas and residential areas was conducted to know the
water harvesting potential. The water demand in each
zones for meeting the various needs were calculated. The
rainwater harvesting potential was got by multiplying the
roof area by rainfall and runoff coefficient. By subtracting
water demand from the rainwater harvesting potential,
water surplus or deficit was found out. The
surplus
water during rainy season, which is estimated in water
budgeting works, can be effectively stored in the RWHS.
Status
Deficit
Deficit
The water stored in RWHS can be used to irrigate lawn

area and recharging the groundwater.
The water harvesting potential in non-agricultural
areas which includes office/department and residential
areas were estimated to be 255.58 and 169.08 ha cm
respectively. However, the water demand in these areas
were found to be 306.16 and 623.56 ha cm respectively
in order to meet the supplemental irrigation for lawns,
the domestic needs in residential areas and laboratory
needs in the departments. The water demand in all
these areas is more than rainwater supply. Hence, these
areas are described as water deficit areas. The additional
water needs to overcome these deficit has to be managed
by external water supply and groundwater pumping.
Temporary Surplus water from office/departmental
areas which can be stored in rainwater harvesting
structure during rainy season was estimated as 146.29
ha cm. The calculated quantity of water stored in
RWHS can be used to irrigate lawn area and recharging
the groundwater during next season. This study was an
attempt to look into the potential of rainwater harvesting
in TNAU campus and see how far it can be a solace to
the over exploitation of ground water.
References
1.Allen G.Richard,Luis S.Pereira,. Crop Evapotranspitration (guidelines for computing crop water requirements), FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper-56. pp: 109-114 Dastane.N.G. 1977. Effective rainfall in irrigated agriculture.
FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper-25. pp.16-18.
2.Doorenbos,J. and W.C.Pruitt.1975.Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. Irrigation and Drainage
paper- 24, FAO, Rome.
3.Fink, D.H., Ehrler W.L. 1978. Salvaging wasted waters for desert household gardening. Hydrology and water
resources in Arizon and Southwest.
4.Micheal. A.M. 1999.Irrigation Theory and Practice.
5.Myers, L. E. 1975. Recent advances in water harvesting. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 5, pp. 95-97.

177
178
34
Traditional Water Harvesting
Systems in India
Neelakanth J.K.1, B. Maheswara Babu1, D. C. Sahoo1 and Tamilmani D2.
Tankas
Khadin
Tankas (small tank) are underground tanks,

found traditionally in most Bikaner houses. They are
built in the main house or in the courtyard. They were
circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished
lime, in which raiwater was collected. Tankas were often
beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep
the water cool. The water was used only for drinking. If
in any year there was less than normal rainfall and the
tankas did not get filled, water from nearby wells and
tanks would be obtained to fill the household tankas.
In this way, the people of Bikaner were able to meet
their water requirements. The tanka system is also to
be found in the pilgrim town of Dwarka where it has
been in existence for centuries. It continues to be used
in residential areas, temples, dharamshalas and hotels.
A khadin, also called a dhora, is an ingenious

construction designed to harvest surface runoff water for
agriculture. Its main feature is a very long (100-300 m)
earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes
lying below gravelly uplands. Sluices and spillways allow
excess water to drain off. The khadin system is based
on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland
and subsequent use of this water-saturated land for crop
production.
First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of
Jaisalmer, western Rajasthan in the 15th century, this
system has great similarity with the irrigation methods of
the people of Ur (present Iraq) around 4500 BC and later
of the Nabateans in the Middle East. A similar system is
179
also reported to have been practised 4,000 years ago in

the Negev desert, and in southwestern Colorado 500
years ago.
Vav / Vavdi / Baoli / Bavadi

Traditional stepwells are called vav or vavadi in
Gujarat, or baolis or bavadis in Rajasthan and northern
India. Built by the nobility usually for strategic and/or
philanthropical reasons, they were secular structures
from which everyone could draw water. Most of them
are defunct today. The construction of stepwells date
from four periods: Pre-Solanki period (8th to 11th
century CE); Solanki period (11th to 12th century CE);
Vaghela period (mid-13th to end-14th century CE); and
the Sultanate period (mid-13th to end-15th century CE).
Sculptures and inscriptions in stepwells demonstrate
their importance to the traditional social and cultural
lives of people.
Stepwell locations often suggested the way in
which they would be used. When a stepwell was located
within or at the edge of a village, it was mainly used
for utilitarian purposes and as a cool place for social
gatherings. When stepwells were located outside the
village, on trade routes, they were often frequented as
resting places. Many important stepwells are located on
the major military and trade routes from Patan in the
north to the sea coast of Saurashtra. When stepwells were
used exclusively for irrigation, a sluice was constructed at
the rim to receive the lifted water and lead it to a trough
or pond, from where it ran through a drainage system
and was channelled into the fields. A major reason for
the breakdown of this traditional system is the pressure
of centralization and agricultural intensification.
Ahar Pynes
This traditional floodwater harvesting system is
indigenous to south Bihar. In south Bihar, the terrain
has a marked slope 1 m per km from south to
north. The soil here is sandy and does not retain water.
Groundwater levels are low. Rivers in this region swell
only during the monsoon, but the water is swiftly carried
away or percolates down into the sand. All these factors
make floodwater harvesting the best option here, to
which this system is admirably suited.
An ahar is a catchment basin embanked on
three sides, the fourth side being the natural gradient
of the land itself. Ahar beds were also used to grow a
rabi (winter) crop after draining out the excess water
that remained after kharif (summer) cultivation.
Pynes are articifial channels constructed to

utilise river water in agricultural fields. Starting out from
the river, pynes meander through fields to end up in an
ahar. Most pynes flow within 10 km of a river and their
length is not more than 20 km.
The ahar-pyne system received a death-blow
under the nineteenth-century British colonial regime.
The post-independent state was hardly better. In 1949,
a Flood Advisory Committee investigating continuous
floods in Bihars Gaya district came to the conclusion
that the fundamental reason for recurrence of floods
was the destruction of the old irrigational system in the
district.
Paar system
Paar is a common water harvesting practice in
the western Rajasthan region. It is a common place where
the rainwater flows from the agar (catchment) and in the
process percolates into the sandy soil. In order to access
the rajani pani (percolated water) kuis or beris are dug
in the agor (storage area). Kuis or beris are normally 5
metres (m) to 12 m deep. The structure was constructed
through traditional masonary technology. Normally
six to ten of them are constructed in a paar. However
depending on the size of the paar the numbers of kuis or
beris are decided. Bhatti mentions that there are paars
in Jaisalmer district where there are more than 20 kuis
are in operation. This is the most predominant form of
rainwater harvesting in the region. Rainwater harvested
through PAAR technique is known as Patali paani.
Talab / Bandhis
Talabs are reservoirs. They may be natural,
such as the ponds (pokhariyan) at Tikamgarh in the
Bundelkhand region. They can be human-made, such
the lakes in Udaipur. A reservoir area of less than five
bighas is called a talai; a medium sized lake is called
a bandhi or talab; bigger lakes are called sagar or
samand. The pokhariyan serve irrigation and drinking
purposes. When the water in these reserviors dries up
just a few days after the monsoon, the pond beds are
cultivated with rice.
180
Johad
Johads are small earthen check dams that
capture and conserve rainwater, improving percolation
and groundwater recharge. Starting 1984, the last
sixteen years have seen the revival of some 3000 johads
spread across more than 650 villages in Alwar district,
Rajasthan. This has resulted in a general rise of the
groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent
increase in the forest cover in the area. Five rivers that
used to go dry immediately following the monsoon have
now become perennial, such as the River Arvari, has
come alive.
Pat
Saza Kuva
An open well with multiple owners (saza =
partner), saza kuva is the most important source of
irrigation in the Aravalli hills in Mewar, eastern Rajasthan.
The soil dug out to make the well pit is used to construct a
huge circular foundation or an elevated platform sloping
away from the well. The first is built to accomodate
the rehat, a traditional water lifting device; the sloping
platform is for the chada, in which buffaloes are used
to lift water. Saza kuva construction is generally taken
up by a group of farmers with adjacent landholdings; a
harva, a man with special skills in groundwater detection,
helps fix the site.
Bhitada village , Jhabua district of Madhya

pradesh developed the unique pat system. This system
was devised according to the peculiarities of the terrain
to divert water from swift-flowing hill streams into
irrigation channels called pats.
The diversion bunds across the stream are made

by piling up stones and then lining them with teak leaves
and mud to make them leak proof. The pat channel
has to negotiate small nullahs that join the stream off
and on and also sheer cliffs before reaching the fields.
These sections invariably get washed away during the
monsoons. Stone aqueducts have to be built to span the
intervening nullahs.
The villagers irrigate their fields by turns. The
channel requires constant maintenance and it is the duty
of the family irrigating the fields on a particular day to
take care of the pat on that particular day. It takes about
two weeks to get the pat flowing and the winter crop is
sown in early November.
FIG : JOHAD
Rapat: A rapat is a percolation tank, with a bund

to impound rainwater flowing through a watershed and a
waste weir to dispose of the surplus flow. If the height of
the structure is small, the bund may be built of masonry,
otherwise earth is used. Rajasthan rapats, being small,
are all masonry structures. Rapats and percolation tanks
do not directly irrigate land, but recharges well within
a distance of 3-5 km downstream. Silting is a serious
problem with small rapats and the estimated life of a
rapat varies from 5 to 20 years.
FIG: SAZA KUVA
181
Naada / Bandha
Naada / bandha are found in the Mewar region
of the Thar desert. It is a stone check dam, constructed
across a stream or gully, to capture monsoon runoff on
a stretch of land. Submerged in water, the land becomes
fertile as silt deposits on it and the soil retains substantial
amounts of water.
Chandela Tank
These tanks were constructed by stopping the
flow of water in rivulets flowing between hills by erecting
massive earthen embankments, having width of 60m
or more. These hills with long stretches of quartz reefs
running underneath them, acted as natural ground water
barrier helping to trap water between the ridges. The
earthen embankments were supported on both sides
with walls of coarse stones, forming a series of stone
steps. These tanks are made up of lime and mortar
and this is the reason why these tanks survived even
after thousand years but the only problem, which these
tanks are facing, is siltation of tank beds. Chandela tanks
usually had a convex curvature somewhere in the middle
of the embankment; many older and smaller tanks were
constructed near the human settlement or near the

slopes of a cluster of hills. These tanks served to satisfy
the drinking water needs of villagers and cattle.
Kunds / Kundis
A kund or kundi looks like an upturned cup
nestling in a saucer. These structures harvest rainwater
for drinking, and dot the sandier tracts of the Thar
Desert in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat.
Essentially a circular underground well, kunds have a
saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards
the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh across
water-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit.
The sides of the well-pit are covered with (disinfectant)
lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or
at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can
be drawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of
kunds depend on their use (drinking, or domestic water
requirements). They can be owned by only those with
money to invest and land to construct it. Thus for the
poor, large public kunds have to be built.
182
Kuis / Beris
Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m
deep pits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis
can also be used to harvest rainwater in areas with
meager rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usually made
very narrow. This prevents the collected water from
evaporating. The pit gets wider as it burrows under the
ground, so that water can seep in into a large surface
area. The openings of these entirely kuchcha (earthen)
structures are generally covered with planks of wood,
or put under lock and key. The water is used sparingly,
as a last resource in crisis Magga Ram Suthar, of village
Pithla in Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan, is an engineer
skilled in making kuis/beris.
Baoris/Bers
Baoris or bers are community wells, found in
Rajasthan, that are used mainly for drinking. Most of
them are very old and were built by banjaras (mobile
trading communities) for their drinking water needs.
They can hold water for a long time because of almost
negligible water evaporation.
Jhalaras
Jhalaras were human-made tanks, found in
Rajasthan and Gujarat, essentially meant for community
use and for religious rites. Often rectangular in design,
jhalaras have steps on three or four sides. Jhalars are
ground water bodies which are built to ensure easy &
regular supply of water to the surrounding areas. The
jhalars are rectangular in shape with steps on three or
even on all the four sides of the tank the steps are built
on a series of levels .The jhalaras collect subterranean
seepage of a talab or a lake located upstream .
The water from these jhalaras was not used for drinking
but for only community bathing and religious rites.
Jhodhpur city has eight jhalaras two of which are inside
the town & six are found outside the city .The oldest
jhalara is the mahamandir jhalara which dates back to
1660 AD.
Nadis
Nadis are village ponds, found near Jodhpur
in Rajasthan. They are used for storing water from an
adjoining natural catchment during the rainy season. The
site was selected by the villagers based on an available
natural catchments and its water yield potential. Water
availability from nadi would range from two months to a
year after the rains. They are dune areas range from 1.5
to 4.0 meters and those in sandy plains varied from 3 to

12 meters. The location of the nadi had a strong bearing
on its storage capacity due to the related catchment and
runoff characteristics.
Tankas
Tankas (small tank) are underground tanks, found
traditionally in most Bikaner houses. They are built in
the main house or in the courtyard. They were circular
holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime,
in which rainwater was collected. Tankas were often
beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep
the water cool. The water was used only for drinking. If
in any year there was less than normal rainfall and the
tankas did not get filled, water from nearby wells and
tanks would be obtained to fill the household tankas.
In this way, the people of Bikaner were able to meet
their water requirements. The tanka system is also to
be found in the pilgrim town of Dwarka where it has
been in existence for centuries. It continues to be used
in residential areas, temples, dharamshalas and hotels.
Cheruvu
Cheruvu are found in Chitoor and Cuddapah
districts in Andhra Pradesh. They are reservoirs to store
runoff. Cheruvu embankments are fitted with thoomu
(sluices), alugu or marva or kalju (flood weir) and kalava
(canal).
Bhandaras
These are check dams or diversion weirs built
across rivers. A traditional system found in Maharashtra,
their presence raises the water level of the rivers so
that it begins to flow into channels. They are also used
to impound water and form a large reservoir. Where a
bandhara was built across a small stream, the water
supply would usually last for a few months after the rains.
They are built either by villagers or by private persons
who received rent-free land in return for their public act
Most Bandharas are defunct today.
183
interconnecting channels. This sequential arrangement

generally ended in a small waterhole to store whatever
water remained unstored. The presence of the Ramtek
ridge in the middle, having a steep slope on both sides,
results in quick runoffs and little percolation. This might
have led the residents of the southern plains of the Ramtek
hills to construct different types of water conservation
structures where they could trap the maximum.
Zabo
Kere
Tanks, called kere in Kannada, were the
predominant traditional method of irrigation in the
Central Karnataka Plateau, and were fed either by
channels branching off from anicuts (check dams) built
across streams, or by streams in valleys. The outflow of
one tank supplied the next all the way down the course
of the stream; the tanks were built in a series, usually
situated a few kilometers apart. This ensured a) no
wastage through overflow, and b) the seepage of a tank
higher up in the series would be collected in the next
lower one.
The Ramtek model has been named
after water harvesting structures in the town of
Ramtek, Maharashtra. A scientific analysis revealed
an intricate network of groundwater and surface
waterbodies, intrinsically connected through surface
and underground canals. A fully evolved system, this
model harvested runoff through tanks, supported
by high yielding wells and structures like baories,
kundis, and waterholes. This system, intelligently
designed to utlise every raindrop falling in the watershed
area is disintegrating due to neglect and ignorance.
Constructed and maintained mostly by malguzars
(landowners), these tanks form a chain, extending from
the foothills to the plains, conserving about 60-70 per
cent of the total runoff. Once tanks located in the upper
reaches close to the hills were filled to capacity, the water
flowed down to fill successive tanks, generally through
The zabo (the word means impounding run-off)

system is practiced in Nagaland in north-eastern India.
Also known as the ruza system, it combines water
conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal care.
Villages such as Kikruma, where zabos are found
even today, are located on a high ridge. Though drinking
water is a major problem, the area receives high rainfall.
The rain falls on a patch of protected forest on the
hilltop; as the water runs off along the slope, it passes
through various terraces. The water is collected in pondlike structures in the middle terraces; below are cattle
yards, and towards the foot of the hill are paddy fields,
where the run-off ultimately meanders into.
Eri
Approximately one-third of the irrigated area

of Tamil Nadu is watered by eris (tanks). Eris have
played several important roles in maintaining ecological
harmony as flood-control systems, preventing soil erosion
and wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall,
and recharging the groundwater in the surrounding
areas. The presence of eris provided an appropriate
micro-climate for the local areas. Without eris, paddy
cultivation would have been impossible. Till the British
arrived, local communities maintained eris. Historical
data from Chengalpattu district, for instance, indicates
that in the 18th century about 4-5 per cent of the gross
produce of each village was allocated to maintain eris
and other irrigation structures. Assignments of revenue-
184
free lands, called manyams, were made to support

village functionaries who undertook to maintain and
manage eris. These allocations ensured eri upkeep
through regular desilting and maintenance of sluices,
inlets and irrigation channels.
The early British rule saw disastrous experiments
with the land tenure system in quest for larger land
revenues. The enormous expropriation of village
resources by the state led to the disintegration of the
traditional society, its economy and polity. Allocations
for maintenance of eris could no longer be supported by
the village communities, and these extraordinary water
harvesting systems began to decline.
Virdas
Virdas are shallow wells dug in low depressions
called jheels (tanks). They are found all over the Banni
grasslands, a part of the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.
They are systems built by the nomadic Maldharis, who
used to roam these grasslands. Now settled, they persist
in using virdas. These structures harvest rainwater. The
topography of the area is undulating, with depressions
on the ground. By studying the flow of water during the
monsoon, the Maldharis identify these depressions and
make their virdas there. Essentially, the structures use
a technology that helps the Maldharis separate potable
freshwater from unpotable salt water. After rainwater
infiltrates the soil, it gets stored at a level above the salty
groundwater because of the difference in their density.
A structure is built to reach down (about 1 m) to this
upper layer of accumulated rainwater. Between these
two layers of sweet and saline water, there exists a zone
of brackish water. As freshwater is removed, the brackish
water moves upwards, and accumulates towards the
bottom of the virda.
Katas / Mundas / Bandhas

The katas, mundas and bandhas were the
main irrigation sources in the ancient tribal kingdom of
the Gonds (now in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh). Most
of these katas were built by the village headmen known
as gountias, who in turn, received the land from the
Gond kings. Land here is classified into four groups on
the basis of its topography: aat, (highland); mal (sloped
land); berna (medium land); and bahal (low land). This
classification helps to select A kata is constructed north
to south, or east to west, of a village. A strong earthen
embankment, curved at either end, is built across a
drainage line to hold up an irregularly-shaped sheet of
water. The undulations of the country usually determine
its shape as that of a long isosceles triangle, of which the
dam forms the base. It commands a valley, the bottom
of which is the bahal land and the sides are the mal
terrace. As a rule, there is a cut high up on the slope
near one end of the embankment from where water is
led either by a small channel or tal, or from field to field
along terraces, going lower down to the fields. In years
of normal rainfall, irrigation was not needed because of
moisture from percolation and, in that case, the surplus
flow was passed into a nullah. In years of scanty rainfall,
the centre of the tank was sometimes cut so that the
lowest land could be irrigated.714 BC, this technology
had spread to Egypt, Persia (now Iran) and India. The
initial cost of digging a surangam (Rs 100-150 per
0.72 m dug) is the only expenditure needed, as it hardly
requires any maintenance. Traditionally, a surangam
was excavated at a very slow pace and was completed
over generations. Today, engineers such as Kunnikannan
Nair are faster and keep the tradition alive.
Conclusion
Traditional water harvesting systems in India
followed by our forefathers was Scientific and technically
feasible and used for drinking, irrigation, culture and
temples so that the holy water worshipped as Gaga as
still now in Gangetic plains of Northern parts of India.
A material, used for construction of traditional water
harvesting systems was lime mortar, stones and other
indigenous materials and technology applied was also
indigenous. Traditional water harvesting systems was
the importance in basic several needs as of the essential
commodities such as Irrigations, Drinking purposes,
worshiping of Gods etc
185
References
1.http.//www.cse.rainwaterharvesting.com/crisis
2.http.//www.cse.rainwaterharvesting.com/conflicts
3.http.//www.cse.rainwaterharvesting.com/solutions
4.1.http.//www.cse.rainwaterharvesting.com/people/policy
5.1.http.//www.cse.rainwaterharvesting.com/urban
186
35
Effect of Fertigation on
Biochemical, Yield and
Economics of Paprika (Capsicum
annuum var.longum)
T. Prabhu, G. Balakrishnamoorthi and S. Santhana Bosu
Introduction
Paprika is the Hungarian word for plants in
the genus Capsicum, belongs to family solanaceae
has its origin from Western Hemisphere of the world.
International spice traders use the term paprika for
non pungent, red capsicum powder. The word paprika
derived from the Greek or Latin Peperi-piper meaning
pepper. Capsicum in a fresh state is very rich in vitamin
C (ascorbic acid), as was shown by Szent Gyorgyi, the
Hungarian scientist, who was awarded the Noble prize
in 1937 for isolating Vitamin C from paprika fruits (Anu
and Peter, 2000). Paprika is the ground product from
the mild or sweet varieties of capsicum, where as red
chilli peppers are blends of different varieties of more
pungent pepper. Though the fertigation techniques were
standardized for major vegetable crops during the last
two decades, no report of research work is available on
fertigation of paprika as pure crop under open condition
and as inter crop under thirty years old coconut tree
shade. Therefore keeping this in view the immediate
need for standardization of fertigation techniques, trials
were taken up under open and coconut shade conditions
with the following objectives: To optimize the fertilizer
requirement through fertigation and to study the effect

of fertigation on biochemical, yield and economic of
paprika.

The present investigation on Standardization
of fertigation techniques in paprika under open and
coconut shade conditions was carried out at the
University Orchard and Coconut Farm, Horticultural
College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore during the period from 2004 to
2006. The experiment was laid out in FRBD design with
11 treatments replicated thrice. A plot size of 7 x 4.5 m
was followed for each treatment. The two separate field
experiments were conducted under open and coconut
shade conditions.
Treatment details
T1 -
Drip fertigation with water soluble fertilizer at

120 % RDF
T2 -

100 % RDF
187
T3 -

80 % RDF
T4 -

60 % RDF
T5 -

120 % RDF + micronutrients as foliar spray
T6 -

T7 -

T8 -

T9 -
*Drip fertigation with normal fertilizer (N, K) at

100% RDF
T10 -
Drip irrigation plus soil application of normal

fertilizer at 100% RDF
T11 -
Recommended normal fertilizer applied to soil

with furrow irrigation
Nitrate Reductase Activity
* Ortho phosphoric acid was given for P nutrition source

in T9

Iaa Oxidase
The data on IAA oxidase activity are presented
in Table 1.
The treatment T11 (NPK applied to soil with
furrow irrigation) registered the highest activity of 21.06
and 20.08 mg g-1hr-1 at harvesting stage during season I
and II respectively. Considering the treatments and stage
of growth, the treatment showed T11 (NPK applied to
soil with furrow irrigation) registered highest activity of
19.69 and 18.79
mg g-1 hr-1 under open condition
at harvesting stage during season I and II respectively.
Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), a primer bioregulator regulates
the apical dominance and initiation of vegetative and
flower buds. The aminoacid tryptophan and zinc levels
in the leaves influence the IAA. Fertigation treatment of
100 per cent water soluble fertilizer plus micronutrients
showed its profound effect on suppressing the oxidation
of auxin as observed in the present study. It was also
revealed that high yielding plants have favourable auxin
balance through IAA oxidative degradation. In plants
with lesser levels of available nutrients, IAA synthesis
would have been insufficient for suppressing IAA
oxidative metabolism (Janwal et al., 1996).
The nitrate reductase activity, showed an

increasing trend during growth period and the data
(Table 2) recorded at vegetative, flowering and harvesting
stages revealed significant differences than control. Open
condition (7.17 and 7.38 mg NO2 g-1 h-1) showed higher
nitrate reductase activity at harvesting stage during
seasons I and II respectively. Among the fertigation
treatments, 100 per cent water soluble fertilizer plus
micronutrients (T6) showed the highest (8.62 and 8.91
mg NO2 g-1 h-1) nitrate activity during seasons I and
season II respectively. Considering the treatments and
stage of growth, the treatment effects showed that T6
(100 per cent water soluble fertilizer with micronutrients)
under open condition performed the best with 8.71 and
8.92 mg NO2/g/h at harvesting stage during seasons
I and II respectively. Nitrate Reductase activity occurs
in cytoplasm and catalyses the conversion of nitrate to
ammonia in a two-step manner viz., nitrate to nitrite
and then to ammonia, involving enzyme and further
utilization of nitrogen for metabolism and physiology of
plants. The nitrate redutase activity as a control point
in nitrogen metabolism has been considered due to its
importance in yielding ability. In the present investigation
application of 100 per cent water soluble fertilizer plus
micronutrients has improved the enzyme activity at all
stages of crop growth under open. The nitrate reductase
would have favourably influenced the protein synthesis
leading to improved productivity. Similar trend of results
have been documented by Sachdev et al. (1987).
Utilization of N depends upon this enzyme and high
activity was related to yield and protein content of many
crops (Mishra et al., 1980).
Yield per hectare

The effect of fertigation on yield per hectare of
paprika under open and coconut shade condition are
presented in the Table 3 and Fig. 1. Application of 100
per cent water soluble fertilizer in combination with
micronutrients (T6) recorded the highest yield per hectare
of 16.77 and 17.44 t ha-1 at harvesting stage during
summer and kharif season respectively. The lowest yield
per hectare was registered in the treatment applied with
recommended NPK applied to soil with furrow irrigation
(T11) with values of 10.89 and 11.64 t ha-1 during summer
and kharif season respectively at harvesting stage. Drip
fertigation with 100 per cent water soluble fertilizer plus
micronutrients had produced higher fruit yield in both the
seasons which might be due to application of optimum
188
level of fertigation which could increase the drymatter at

harvest, ultimately contributing to the higher number of
fruits per plant and single fruit weight. Another possible
reason was the timely availability of nutrients during
the flowering which favourably increases the number of

flowers per plant. Felipe and Casanova (2000) in tomato
and Walid et al. (1999) in bell pepper also noted the
similar response for fertigation in the crops indicated
References
1.Anu, A. and K.V. Peter. 2000. The chemistry of paprika. Capsicum and Egg Plant Newsl., 19: 19-22.
2.Felipe, E.F. and O.E. Casanova. 2000. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization in tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill.) in the alluvial bank soils of the Guarico river. Revista Unillez de Ciencia y Technologia,
17: 21-44.
3.Janwal, R.S., Parveen Kumar and Jagmohan Kumar. 1996. Correlation and path coefficient studies in cabbage
(Brassica oleracea var. Capitata L.). South Ind. Hort., 44: 19-22.
4.Mishra, S.P., S.K. Sinha and N.G.P. Rao. 1980. Genetic analysis of nitrate reductase in relation to yield in heterosis
sorghum. Z. Pflanzenzenbta, 85: 16-18.
5.Sachdev, P., D.L. Debe and D.K. Rastogi. 1987. Effect of varying levels of zinc and molybdenum on plant constituents
and enzyme activity at different growth stages of wheat. J. Nuclear Agric. and Bio., 16(4): 187-196.
6.Syherri, C.L.M., C. Pinzino and Izzo. 1993. Chemical changes and superoxide production in thylakoid membrane
under water stress. Physiol. Plant., 87: 211-216.
7.Walid, Q., M.J. Mohammad, Husam Najim and R. Qubursi. 1999. Response of bell pepper grown inside plastic
houses to nitrogen fertigation. Commn. Soil Sci. and Plant Anal., 30(17/18): 2499-2509.

189
Table 1. Effect of fertigation on IAA oxidase activity (g g-1 h-1) at different growth stages in paprika
under open and coconut shade conditions
IAA oxidase activity (mg g-1 h-1)
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
Mean
190
SEd
CD
0.05)
Season I
Season II
Vegetative
Flowering
Harvesting
Vegetative
Flowering
Harvesting
Stage
Stage
Stage
Stage
Stage
Stage
Open Shade Mean Open Shade Mean Open Shade Mean Open Shade Mean
Open Shade Mean Open Shade Mean
14.58 10.79 12.68 17.58 13.79 15.69 20.78 18.21 19.50 13.77 10.37 12.07
16.75 12.79 14.77 19.25 16.79 18.02
15.03 11.23 13.13 17.80 14.30 16.05 21.00 18.49 19.75 14.17 10.45 12.31 16.72 13.21 14.96 19.77 17.12 18.44
15.32 11.45 13.39 18.16 14.56 16.36 21.21 18.75 19.98 14.32 10.66 12.49 17.26 13.46 15.36 20.31 17.48 18.90
15.75 11.78 13.76 18.48 14.75 16.61 21.44 18.94 20.19 14.63 10.89 12.76 18.38 13.76 16.07 20.62 17.75 19.18
13.12 10.17 11.65 16.37 12.98 14.68 19.46 17.16 18.31 12.13
9.22
10.67 15.43 12.12 13.78 18.16 16.21 17.19
13.50 10.10 11.80 16.80 12.59 14.69 19.92 16.65 18.29 12.43
9.01
10.72 15.25 12.02 13.64 18.17 16.09 17.13
13.86 10.39 12.12 17.04 13.22 15.13 20.14 17.45 18.80 12.76
9.42
11.09 16.03 12.32 14.18 19.13 16.32 17.73
14.21 10.55 12.38 17.27 13.45 15.36 20.46 17.79 19.12 13.17
9.70
11.44 16.24 12.45 14.35 19.38 16.61 18.00
16.33 12.19 14.26 18.80 15.18 16.99 21.79 19.25 20.52 15.15 11.12 13.13 17.69 14.17 15.93 20.69 18.32 19.51
16.64 12.43 14.54 19.13 15.46 17.30 22.14 19.45 20.80 15.43 11.39 13.41 18.12 14.45 16.29 21.13 18.45 19.79
16.87 12.79 14.83 19.55 15.89 17.72 22.43 19.69 21.06 15.77 11.69 13.73 18.49 14.69 16.59 21.37 18.79 20.08
15.02 11.26 13.14 17.91 14.20 13.14 20.98 18.39 19.69 13.98 10.36 19.68 16.94 13.22 15.08 19.84 17.27 18.55
C
T
CT
C
T
CT
C
T
CT
C
T
CT
C
T
CT
C
T
CT
0.0171 0.0400 0.0566 0.0167 0.0391 0.0553 0.0124 0.0292 0.0413 0.0165 0.0386 0.0547 0.0166 0.0389 0.0550 0.0127 0.0297 0.0421
0.0344 0.0807 0.1142 0.0337 0.0790 0.1117 0.0251 0.0589 0.0833 0.0333 0.0780 0.1103 0.0335 0.0785 0.1110 0.0256 0.0600 0.0849
Table 2. Effect of fertigation on nitrate reductase activity (NO2 g-1 h-1) at different growth stages in
paprika under open and coconut shade conditions
Nitrate reductase activity (NO2 g-1 h-1)
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
Mean
191
SEd
CD
(0.05)
Season I
Vegetative
Stage
Open Shade Mean
6.15
6.13
6.14
6.21
6.18
6.20
5.67
5.61
5.64
4.82
4.79
4.81
6.18
6.16
6.17
6.87
6.73
6.80
5.89
5.81
5.85
5.21
5.13
5.17
4.37
4.30
4.34
3.97
3.89
3.93
3.75
3.69
3.72
5.37
5.31
5.34
C
T
CT
Flowering
Stage
Open Shade Mean
9.39
9.37
9.38
9.47
9.42
9.45
8.78
8.69
8.73
8.12
8.09
8.11
9.43
9.40
9.42
9.89
9.81
9.85
9.01
8.98
9.00
8.43
8.39
8.41
7.76
7.68
7.72
7.47
7.41
7.44
7.24
7.19
7.22
8.64
8.58
8.61
C
T
CT
Season II
Harvesting
Stage
Open Shade Mean
8.19
8.13
8.16
8.25
8.17
8.21
7.34
7.28
7.31
6.28
6.21
6.25
8.23
8.15
8.19
8.71
8.53
8.62
7.83
7.79
7.81
6.72
6.69
6.70
5.97
5.92
5.95
5.75
5.69
5.72
5.59
5.49
5.54
7.17
7.10
7.13
C
T
CT
Vegetative
Stage
Open Shade Mean
6.69
6.65
6.67
6.76
6.71
6.73
6.21
6.19
6.20
5.73
5.68
5.71
6.74
6.69
6.71
6.95
6.89
6.92
6.54
6.51
6.53
5.97
5.93
5.95
5.29
5.18
5.24
4.92
4.87
4.90
4.63
4.51
4.57
6.04
5.98
6.01
C
T
CT
Flowering
Stage
Open Shade Mean
9.56
9.51
9.53
9.61
9.59
9.60
8.92
8.90
8.91
8.37
8.34
8.36
9.58
9.56
9.57
9.97
9.92
9.95
9.21
9.19
9.20
8.67
8.62
8.64
8.02
7.92
7.97
7.89
7.81
7.85
7.38
7.27
7.33
8.83
8.78
8.81
C
T
CT
Harvesting
Stage
Open Shade Mean
8.28
8.21
8.25
8.37
8.26
8.32
7.52
7.49
7.50
6.76
6.71
6.73
8.34
8.24
8.29
8.92
8.89
8.91
7.98
7.96
7.97
7.16
7.14
7.15
6.12
6.10
6.11
5.92
5.89
5.91
5.78
5.76
5.77
7.38
7.33
7.35
C
T
CT
0.0078 0.0182 0.0258 0.0069 0.0163 0.0230 0.0084 0.0198 0.0280 0.0061 0.0144 0.0203 0.0066 0.0154 0.0218 0.0083 0.0195 0.0276
0.0157 0.0368 0.0520 0.0140 0.0328 0.0464 0.0170 0.0400 0.0565 0.0124 0.0290 0.0410 0.0133 0.0311 0.0440 0.0168 0.0393 0.0556
Table 3. Effect of fertigation on yield per hectare (t/ha) in paprika

under open and coconut shade conditions
Yield per hectare (t/ha)
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
Mean
SEd
CD (0.05)
Season I
Open
17.56
20.12
16.84
15.86
18.96
21.54
17.11
16.15
15.25
15.00
13.82
17.11
C
0.0324
0.0654
Shade
10.11
11.65
9.14
8.92
10.75
12.00
9.92
9.00
8.43
8.28
7.95
9.65
T
0.0760
0.1535
Season II
Mean
13.84
15.89
12.99
12.39
14.86
16.77
13.52
12.58
11.84
11.64
10.89
13.38
CxT
0.1075
0.2171
192
Open
19.96
21.08
18.64
17.55
20.34
22.31
19.25
18.11
17.00
16.58
15.16
18.73
C
0.0371
0.0750
Shade
10.62
11.91
9.35
8.98
11.05
12.58
9.99
9.10
8.78
8.68
8.12
9.92
T
0.0872
0.1760
Mean
15.29
16.50
13.40
13.27
15.69
17.44
14.62
13.61
12.89
12.63
11.64
14.33
CxT
0.1233
0.2490
36
Water Harvesting for
Agriculture in Drylands of India
Prasad S. Kulkarni, D. C. Sahoo.
Introduction
The former President of India, Dr A. P. J. Abdul
Kalam has recently called for a second green revolution,
while inaugurating the triennial conference on Global
Forum on Agricultural Research at New Delhi. This is not
the first time that somebody has spoken about this issue.
By 2020, India has got to increase productivity above
340 million tonnes of food-grains in view of population
growth, so Dr Kalam appealed agricultural scientists and
technologists to work hard to double the productivity
of available land in view of less area being available for
cultivation, with limited water supply and diminishing
number of available farmers. The drylands have to be
targeted to increase productivity of food-grains through
sustainable agriculture if India has to succeed in a second
green revolution, without creating serious negative
consequences to natural environment.
Dryland, the area receiving 375-1125 mm of
rainfall (FAO,1993) covers about 41% of Earths land
surface and are inhabited by more than 2 billion people
(about one third of world population). Four dryland
subtypes are recognized viz dry subhumid, semiarid,
arid, and hyper-arid; based on an increasing level of
aridity or moisture deficit (UNCCD,1999). Drylands are

mainly characterized by scarcity of water which affects
both natural and managed ecosystems. This constrains
the production of crops, forage and other plants and has
great impacts on livestock and humans. Vorosmarty
et al (2005) reported that, total renewable water supply
from drylands is estimated to constitute only around
8% of the global renewable water supply (about 3.2
trillion cubic meters per year). Thus, almost one third
of the people in the world depend on only 8% of the
global renewable water resources, which makes per
capita availability in drylands just 1,300 cubic meters
per year which is already below the threshold of 2,000
cubic meters required for minimum human well-being
and sustainable development. This is the main cause for
the current socioeconomic condition of dryland people,
about 90% of whom are in developing countries, lags
significantly behind that of people in other areas.
If we focus on dryland agriculture ie rain-fed
agriculture, that has a distinct place in Indian agriculture
(occupying 67 per cent of the cultivated areas and
contributing 44 per cent of the population) the resource
poor infrastructure and low investment in technology
193
Figure 1. Drylands in India (CSE, 2007)
194
and inputs characterize it. Such dryland agriculture

contributes about 45% of food grain production. An
assessment on agriculture done by S M Jharwal, principal
advisor to the government of India, shows that out of a
net sown area of 141 million ha, 86 million ha is rainfed.
State-wise assessment shows that 13 states account for
about 92 per cent of the total rainfed area.
The main states are Maharashtra (14.49 million
ha), Madhya Pradesh (9.31 million ha), Rajasthan (12.15
million ha), Karnataka (7.46 million ha), Uttar Pradesh
(4.42 million ha), Andhra Pradesh (6.48 million ha),
Gujarat (6.58 million ha) and West Bengal (2.54 million
ha). Crop-wise analysis shows that major coarse cereals
which are main source of food for Indias poor are grown
in rainfed areas. For instance, 92 per cent, 94 per cent
and 80 per cent of the total area under Jowar, Bajra,
and Maize respectively is rainfed. Similarly, 86 per cent
of the area under pulses is rainfed. Eighty three per cent
groundnut and 99 per cent soybean are grown under
rainfed conditions. About 73 per cent of area under
cotton is rainfed. Though rainfed areas contribute in a
major way to Indias agriculture, the difference between
the output of rainfed and irrigated areas is remarkable
(CSE, 2004). The production gap between irrigated
agriculture and rain-fed agriculture is possible to reduce
with the help of certain water harvesting and efficient
water management techniques. Improvement of dry land
farming is a key to the development of agriculture and
removal of poverty in rain-fed areas. Also in order to
increase production for feeding present as well as future
population, emphasis must be placed on strengthening
rain-fed farming through soil and water conservation,
rain water as well as flood water harvesting, water
management techniques and enhanced soil fertility.
Sivanappan (1997) reported from a study
conducted in Punjab (India) that 54% of the catchment
area can be irrigated once with 5 cm depth of water
harvested. Further, it was observed that the average
response of one such supplementary irrigation to maize
and wheat at its most critical stage increased the grain
yield by 0.4 t/ha in the case of maize and 0.77 t/ha
in the case of wheat. This focuses on the importance
of supplementary irrigation given to the crops at their
critical growing stages.
In FAOs report on Water Harvesting (2001)
some examples of successful water harvesting in India
were discussed. Ranges of water harvesting techniques
have been developed for both drinking water supply and
irrigation. Number of success stories of greening

of villages has been developed in response to the
severe droughts of the last three decades. In Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, communities that have
undertaken water harvesting have a completely different
livelihood situation compared to those without water
harvesting. The projects have often been initiated by
individual persons (especially famous are Anna Hazare
and V Salunke) or by NGOs. A problem is that local
institutions needed often are inconsistent with the
predominant governmental structures and institutional
set-up prevailing in the country.
Situation Analysis and Key Constraints

Why farmers yield in drylands (rainfed
areas) is low?
Rainfall is highly erratic, and most rain falls as
intensive, with very high rainfall intensity and extreme
spatial and temporal rainfall variability. The result is a
very high risk for annual droughts and intra-seasonal dry
spells. Such short dry spells of water stress can have a
serious effect on crop yields if occurring during water
sensitive development stages like, e.g. during flowering.
The annual (seasonal) variation of rainfall can typically
range from a low of 1/3 of the long term average to a
high of approximately double the average; meaning that
a high rainfall year can have some 6 times higher rainfall
than a dry year (Stewart, 1988). Statistically in a semiarid region, severe crop reductions caused by a dry spell
occurs 1-2 out of 5 years, and total crop failure caused
by annual droughts once every 10 years. Thus the poor
distribution of rainfall over time often constitutes a more
common cause for crop failure than absolute water
scarcity due to low cumulative annual rainfall.
Rainfall has an approximate range of 200 1000 mm from the dry semi-arid to the dry sub-humid
zone. The length of growing period ranges from 75-120
days in the semi-arid zone, and 121 179 days in the
dry sub-humid zone, which is determined by the relation
between rainfall and the potential evapotranspiration
(PET). PET varies between 1500 - 2300 mm per year.
Rainfall in the drylands exceeds PET only during 2 4.5 months (Kanemasu et al., 1990). On an annual
basis semi-arid areas are characterized by PET > annual
rainfall (P) with the ration P/PET < 0.65 in the wettest
dry sub-humid zone (UNESCO, 1977). Daily PET levels
are high, ranging from 5 - 8 mm day-1 (FAO, 1986).
This gives a cumulative PET for the growing season of
195
600 - 900 mm, which explains the limited water surplus

recharging the aquifers and rivers.
Also the agro-hydrological challenge in drylands
is not necessarily related to inadequate cumulative rainfall
- at present basically only 1/8 - 1/3 of the rain is used in
crop production on average. Instead the challenge is to
manage the unreliable distribution of rainfall over time,
and minimize non-productive water flow in the water
balance. Research has shown often only a small fraction
of rainwater reaches and remains in the root zone, long
enough to be useful to the crops. It is estimated that
in many farming systems, more than 70 percent of the
direct rain falling on a crop-field is lost as nonproductive
evaporation or flows into sinks before it is used by
plants. It is only in extreme cases that only 4 -9 percent
of rainwater is used for crop transpiration. Therefore,
in rain-fed agriculture wastage of rainwater is a more
common cause of low yields or complete crop failure
than absolute shortage of cumulative seasonal rainfall.
High Yielding Hybrid Crop Varieties

During recent years, the dryland regions of the
country have increasingly come under the hybrid crop
varieties. While the crop yields from the hybrid varieties
was surely high, the flip side of these varieties these
varieties are water guzzlers was very conveniently
ignored. For the sake of comparison, let us take the
example of rice: The high-yielding varieties of rice
normally require about 5000 litres of water under
drylands to produce one kg of rice. Common sense tells
us that the rice varieties cultivated in the dryland regions
of the country should be those that require less amount
of water. What is in reality happening is just the opposite.
In the rainfed parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka,
hybrid rice varieties, which require roughly twice the
quantity of irrigation water (than Punjab), are grown
abundantly. Not only rice hybrids, all kind of hybrid
varieties of sorghum, maize, cotton, bajra, and vegetables
that require higher doses of water, are promoted in the
dryland regions. (Kisan niti news website)
Drought
Occurrences and the effects of drought require
special attention in planning and management of natural
and agricultural resources in dryland regions. A drought
is a departure from the average or normal conditions
in which shortage of water adversely impact ecosystem
functioning and the resident populations of people. It
is known that drought will likely occur in the future,
but it is not possible to reliably predict when they will

occur, their severity, or how long they will last. Because
of these uncertainties and the severity of the impacts,
there are many considerations about drought that must
be taken into account in harvesting and management
of water resources in dry lands. Drought is generally
characterized by shortages of water, food for people,
and forage for livestock that can lead to unplanned and
often unwise use of available agricultural and natural
resources. Serious degradation of land and resources
can result if contingency planning is not undertaken to
meet these shortages.
Water Resources
Much of the water that is available to people living
in drylands regions is found in large rivers that originate in
areas of higher elevation. These rivers include the Indus,
the Ganga, Krishna etc. Groundwater resources can also
be available to help support development. However, the
relatively limited recharge of groundwater resources is
dependent largely on the amount, intensity, and duration
of the rainfall, and soil properties, the latter including
infiltrations capacities and water-holding characteristics
of the soil, which also influence the amount of surface
runoff. Much of the rainfall is lost by evapotranspiration,
and, as a result, groundwater is recharged only locally
by seepage through the soil profile. Surface runoff
events, soil moisture storage, and groundwater recharge
in dryland regions are generally more variable and less
reliable than in more humid regions. Groundwater is
frequently used at rates that exceed recharge.
Solutions
Water Harvesting
Water Harvesting is the process of collecting,
concentrating and improving the productive use of
rainwater and reducing unproductive depletion. It is
believed that water harvesting techniques originated in
Iraq over 5000 years ago, where agriculture once started
some 8000 BC. Water Harvesting involves collecting
rainwater from a catchment area and channeling the runoff
and using it to increase the water available in a relatively
smaller growing area. In micro-catchment systems, water
is collected from land adjacent to the growing area, while
with macro-catchment systems large flows are diverted
and used directly or stored for supplementary irrigation.
The aim of water harvesting is to mitigate the effects
of temporal shortages (but not insufficient cumulative
amount) of rain, so-called dry spells; to cover both
196
household needs (for drinking, cooking, sanitation, etc.)

as well as for productive use (supplemental or protective
irrigation, life saving irrigation etc.).
Water Collection Systems
v Within field RWH refers to rain collected on the
place it falls. Through various formations such as pits,
the water will stagnate, infiltrate and thus made available
to the plant root zone.
v Flood or Gully WH involves the collecting of
storm surface floods from gullies. The harvested surface
water can be stored in a reservoir (for longer term storage)
or be diverted directly to a field for direct infiltration
by arresting the flow of water with the help of bunds,
ditches and terraces (for shorter term storage).
v Rill or Sheet flow WH is the collection of runoff
of a gentler form than gully flooding. Here the slope
does not exceed 1%, along a length shorter than 50-150
meters and that the surface runoff is mainly harvested
in form of sheet and rill flow. Beyond 150 meters water
will generally start to flow in minor gullies and eventually
gullies.
v Sub-surface or Ground WH is extraction of
sub-surface water flow, from either soil water trapped
in shallow sand layers or from the water table. Storing
water under ground is attractive as it reduces evaporation
losses and often contributes to high quality water thanks
to filtration through especially sand. Sand dams and subsurface dams, where water is trapped behind small damwalls in sandy riverbeds, is a very efficient and cheap
form of WH.
v Roof-top WH involves collection of rainwater
through a gutter or drain pipe from the roof. The system
requires a tank to be built, which if correctly constructed
can give water through piping straight into the house
and thereby limit various forms of contamination. Rooftop Water Harvesting is primarily used for household use
since the quantity obtained is seldom enough to cover
agricultural needs greater than small-scale gardening. A
combined area surface from several houses or school
buildings, garage buildings, hospitals etc. can though
produce considerable amounts of rainwater runoff,
enough to be used for irrigation (Zhu and Li, 2000).
Runoff Enhancing Methods

The methods include land alterations, soil
compaction, soil deflocculents and additives, spraying
asphalt membranes, liners, cement lining, natural clay
layers and pottery clay liners (burned) (Sivanappan,
1997). The percentage of runoff, combined with total

rainfall and the aim of the water use will decide the
size of the needed catchment area. In agriculture, the
crop will be the water user, and normally the catchment
requirement is described as the ratio of the runoff
producing catchment to the cultivated area (C:CA ratio).
A rule of thumb is a C: CA ratio of at least 3:1 (Anschutz
et al., 1997). However, depending on the hydro-climate,
runoff coefficients, and crop water requirements,
catchment to cultivated area ratios will vary from 1:1
to 10:1. Depending on utilization, the runoff coefficient
will vary greatly and the catchment area in relation to its
intended use needs to be designed accordingly so as to
correspond to the objective. The risk of contamination
has to be observed depending on the intended use of the
harvested water.
Storage
Whether for household or agriculture, water that
is harvested for a longer time of duration, and tapped
only when required, involves a storage component.
Various forms that exist include:
v Micro-dams, earth dams and farm ponds.
Runoff water is stored in open structures, which can
consist of small concrete dams, earth dams or simply
ponds.
v Sub-surface dams, sand dams. Water is stored
under ground - in an artificially raised water table or local
sub-surface reservoir (e.g. water stored in sand on top of
a sealing layer of clay).
v
Tanks of various forms (plastic, cement, clay,
soil etc.). These can be either under or above ground
depending on space, technology, investment capacity
and forms of extracting the water.
Storage Losses
Seepage and evaporation losses are the main
forms of losses from storage reservoirs. Evaporation
losses can be reduced through the minimization of open
water surfaces and the covering of the surfaces. Subsurface dams are one solution to prevent water surfaces
to be fully exposed to atmospheric demands for water.
Seepage losses can be considerable, especially in soils
that are permeable. Prevention is done by reducing the
wetted surface area, self sealing through siltation or
applying various types of lining. Because of the high
costs it is often cheaper to include the losses in the water
needs calculations and construct storage capacities that
include the losses as well (Critchley, 1991).
197
Figure 2. Principle of water harvesting for plant production (FAO, 2001).
Figure 3. Classification of Water Harvesting Systems on criteria of

source of water and duration of storage (Fox, 2001).
198
Choice of Water Harvesting

Technology
The choice of WH technique depends on
biophysical fit, socio-economic environment and
capacity to maintain the system. All systems require
various degrees of maintenance, mostly of erosive
damage caused by rainfall and runoff. Also the time
the structures lay idle through the dry seasons can give
rise to needs of maintenance. This must be included in
the operation procedures of the technique. The choice
of technique will also be affected by the type of crop
production (Table 3).
Table 3. Runoff farming techniques for various production
needs (Critchley, 1991)
v
Physical site conditions: Land availability
including catchment availability and the runoff coefficient
of the catchment surface are decisive factors in calculating
runoff potentials. It is not recommended to conduct WH
from slopes exceeding 5% due to uneven distribution of
runoff, soil erosion and the high costs of the structures
required.
v The characteristics of the catchment area: It
should preferably permit as much runoff as possible. The
more compact (rocky), sealed and barren as possible, the
better.
v The application area: It is also important to
realize that an investment in water harvesting may well
result in a shift in crop production system. Therefore,
in many cases the estimated costs and benefits from a
For rangeland and fodder
For trees
For crop
- Planting pits
- Contour bunds
- Semi-circular bunds
- Contour stone bunds
- Contour bunds
- Closed micro catchments
- Infiltration pits
- Contour stone bunds

- Earth bunds with stone spillways (Meskat)
- Contour earth and/or vegetation bunds
- Living barriers
- Planting pits (Zai)
The factors determining which system to use

depend on several factors:
v Potential source of water: WH is particularly
suited for semi-arid regions ie regions with 300-700
mm average annual rainfall (Anschutz et al., 1997) but
is also used in more arid regions such as some parts
of Rajasthan. In more arid regions the implementation
costs are higher due to the need of larger catchment
structures.
v Storage capacity (in time): In agriculture if
the purpose is supplemental irrigation, then irrigation
requirements and scheduling need to be assessed in
relation to (i) the depth of water required, (ii) most likely
timing of yield affecting crop water stress (iii) the possible
depth of water that can be harvested
v Purpose of use: single or multi purpose use (i.e. a
combination of objectives such as irrigation, household
water, livestock etc.)
v Volume of water required: It can be obtained
by analyzing rainfall data to assess probabilities of dry
spell or stress occurrence and the actual requirements of
water for the various intended uses (e.g. daily crop water
requirements).
v Investment capacity of the owner of the system
(individual farmers, farmer groups, communities etc.).
certain water harvesting system should be based on a

different crop production system than the original system
practiced prior to any WH introduction. For example,
water harvesting structures with storage components
are rarely seen as economically viable by farmers, if used
only for staple food crops. Instead, the construction of,
e.g., a farm pond, will most probably result in a shift
in production system, toward high value crops such as
tomatoes, garlic, onions, fruits, etc.
Small-Scale Irrigation Schemes

Less complex, small-scale irrigation schemes run
either by individual farmers or by communities appear
to be the most viable. This is especially the case when
irrigation can be based on gravity. However, the initial
investment cost is often too high for local communities
to raise sufficient funds to build needed dams. One
major problem, moreover, is that small-scale irrigation
dams often fill rapidly with sediments. To avoid such
problems it is important that soil and water conservation
measures are in place in the dam watershed prior to
its construction. Characteristics of successful small-scale
irrigation projects found the following characteristics
(Brown and Nooter, 1992):
v The technology is simple and low cost.
v
The institutional arrangements are private or
individual.
199
v
When institutional arrangements larger than
individual ownership are needed, the most effective
arrangements were found to be (in decreasing order
of success): extended family groups, private voluntary
groups, water users associations, and cooperatives.
v Supporting infrastructure is important in order to
have access to inputs and markets.
v There is a high cash return to farmers at the time
they need it.
v The farmer is an active and committed participant
in project design and implementation.
The benefits of investment have been difficult to quantify

in economic terms, though there are many direct and
indirect benefits. Gestation periods are long, and returns
to farmers are slow. Financing agencies are generally
hesitant to support large-scale soil and water conservation
works in developing countries. It is therefore necessary
to have proper incentives at the farm level, and sound
technical, institutional and legal frameworks are essential
to achieve good land use. In addition, land users among
the general public should be well informed of the need
for means of improving soil productivity.
Social Constraints
Irrigation Practices
The general approach of flood irrigation often
leads to high losses of water to evaporation from the soil
and water surface, leading to low productivity of water.
Water productivity can be improved by introducing
precision irrigation. This involves the application of
the required quantity of water, when it is required and
in the root zone where it is required. Technologies for
achieving the necessary high levels of control are already
available. The examples are micro-drip techniques for
high frequency, low volume, partial-areas application of
water and nutrients to crop fields. Precision irrigation
overcomes the problems of unproductive depletion of
water from the soil. By applying the water directly to
the root zone, transpiration by plants is increased due
to improved contact between water and roots while
soil evaporation and deep percolation are reduced.
This increases the productivity of water. Furthermore,
improved control of the timing of application of water
makes it easy to implement supplementary irrigation
strategically to overcome seasonal dry spells. The number
of supplemental or protective irrigations depends on
the frequency and severity of dry spells as well as the
amount of water available. The method of application of
irrigation depends upon the landscape, the crop grown
and investment capacity.
Incentives and Policies Needed

Soil erosion, conservation of moisture and
soil nutrients are still problems in drylands of India,
especially among small farmers. While the threat of
land degradation is generally recognized, soil and water
conservation is often denied the priority it deserves. The
fact is that many rainfed farmers have to struggle for
their daily subsistence. Few may have the resources, and
state governments are providing incentives by way of
subsidies covering as much as 30% of the cost of works.
None of the development activities described

above could have been undertaken without the active
support of the people in the area. There are nongovernment organizations or voluntary organizations in
many places, and their services can be utilized profitably.
The people should be educated through various means
to understand the seriousness of the problems and the
remedial measures. Pilot projects and demonstration
plots can be introduced to illustrate the need for and
advantages of these technologies for sustaining their
livelihood. There are many constraints upon achieving
these goals in the developing countries like India.
These can be classified as sociocultural and economic
constraints, and institutional cum political constraints.
Sociocultural and economic constraints include the
following (Sivanappan, 1997):
v Caste, community
v Religious institutions
v Illiteracy
v
Poor economic status of the majority of the
farmers
v Farm size and fragmentation
v Land ownership patterns and tenancy
v The institutional cum political constraints are:
v Policy instruments
v Credit instruments (banks)
v Marketing institutions (regulated market)
v Research institutions
v Appropriate technology for rainfed farming
v
Extension agencies for popularizing such
technology
v Role of NGOs and voluntary organizations
v Policy and decision-making level (government/donor
agencies)
200
There may be numerous obstructions and

constraints upon the dissemination and implementation
of technologies and practices which have been proved
successful. The factors promoting the spread of successful
technology should be identified and acted upon for the
future development of soil and moisture conservation
and related activities.
Summary
The drylands have to be targeted to increase
productivity of food-grains through sustainable agriculture
if India has to succeed in a second green revolution.
Sustainable agriculture will certainly play the major role
in this revolution. But there are some constraints for
lower yield from Indian drylands related to water. These
are,
v Rainfall is highly erratic. The result is a very high
risk of annual droughts and intra-seasonal dry spells.
Such short dry spells of water stress can have a serious
effect on crop yields if occurring during water sensitive
development stages.
v Much of the rainfall is lost by evapotranspiration, so
groundwater is recharged only locally by seepage through
the soil profile. Surface runoff events, soil moisture
storage, and groundwater recharge in dryland regions are
generally more variable and less reliable. Groundwater is
frequently used at rates that exceed recharge.
v The high yielding hybrid crop varieties recommended
in dryland region require high amount of water to
achieve the expected yield. But due to rainfed agricultural
practices being adopted frequent failure in rains causes
frequent crop failures.
v Drought, which is frequent in drylands is generally
characterized by shortages of water, food for people, and
forage for livestock that can lead to unplanned and often

unwise use of available agricultural and natural resources.
Serious degradation of land and other resources is result
of this.
v Other than above, there are institutional, Sociocultural and economic constraints which very well affect
the water management practices in drylands.
The solutions for above problems can be as
follows:
v Various water harvesting practices listed above must
be adopted in order to mitigate the effects of temporal
shortages of rain, so-called dry spells; to cover both
household needs (for drinking, cooking, sanitation, etc.)
as well as for productive use (supplemental or protective
irrigation).
v Less complex, small-scale irrigation schemes run
either by individual farmers or by communities need to
be designed and constructed. These schemes should
be linked to Precision Irrigation practices, instead of
traditional flooding practices.
v
Soil and water conservation practices must be
given sufficient importance in sustainable development
of drylands in India. The non-government organizations
or voluntary organizations of local people must come
forward for dryland developments.
v
None of the development activities described
above should undertake without the active support of
the people in the area. The people should be educated
through various means to understand the seriousness of
the problems and the remedial measures. Pilot projects
and demonstration plots can be introduced to illustrate
the need for and advantages of these technologies for
sustaining their livelihood.
201
References
Abdul Kalam, A.P.J., 2003,http://www.indianembassy.org/presidnt/jan25_03.html.

Vorosmarty, C.J., E.M. Douglas, P.A. Green, and C. Revenga, 2005. Geospatial indicators of emerging water
stress: An application to Africa. Ambio, 34, 230236.
Sivanappan R. K., 1995. Soil and water management in the dry lands of India. Land Use Policy, 12(2), 165-175
Stewart, J.I., 1988. Response farming in rainfed agriculture. The Wharf Foundation Press, Davis, California, USA.
p 103.
Unesco, 1977. World map of arid zones, Explanatory notes. MAB Technical notes No. 7, Unesco, Paris.
Kanemasu E.T. Stewart, J.I., Van-Donk, S.J. and Virmani, S.M., 1990. Agroclimatic approaches for improving
agricultural productivity in semiarid tropics. Advances in soil science. Vol. 13. Dryland agriculture strategies
for sustainability, pp 273 -309.
FAO, 1986. African agriculture: the next 25 years. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Zhu, Q. and Li, Y., 2000. A breakthrough of the dry farming - rainwater harvesting irrigation project in the Gansu,
China. Paper presented at the Stockholm Water Symposium, 2000. SIWI, Stockholm.
Anschtz, J., Kome, A., Nederlof, M., de Neef, R., van de Ven, T., 1997. Water harvesting and soil moisture retention.
Agrodok-series No. 13. Agromisa, Univ. of Wageningen. ISBN 90-72746-75-9.
Fox, P., 2001. Supplemental irrigation and soil fertility management for yield gap reduction: On-farm experimentation
in semi-arid Burkina Faso. Licentiate in Philosophy Thesis 2001:5 in Natural Resources Management.
Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Chritchley, W., and Siegert, K., 1991. Water Harvesting - A manual for the design and construction of water harvesting
schemes for plant production. FAO, Rome, Italy. p 127.
http://www.fao.org, http://www.cseindia.org
202
37
The Emerging Water Crisis in
India and Possible Solutions
to Address through Water
Harvesting
D.C. Sahoo, Prasad S. Kulkanri, B.Maheshwara Babu and J.K.Neelakanth
Introduction
Water is life, Water is death. Water is
one of the most precious elements of life on the planet.
It is critical for satisfying the basic human needs, health,
food production, energy and maintenance of regional
and global ecosystems. Over 70% of the human body is
made up of water. A human being may survive without
food for several days but water deprivation can kill a
person within a matter of hours. Life is, therefore, tied to
water, as it is tied to air and food. And food is indeed tied
to water. Water could well be the only natural resource to
touch all aspects of human civilization.
No single measure would do more to
reduce disease and save lives in the developing
world than bringing safe water and adequate
sanitation (Kofi Annan). Issues of food or health or
sanitation, environment or cities or energy production,
the 21st century has to deal with water quality and
management. Yet, while water sustains life, it can also
cause deaths if contaminated. Some of the deadliest
diseases, which kill millions around the world every year,

are carried in unclean water. In fact, unsafe water and
sanitation cause an estimated 80% of all diseases in the
developing world, where as much as 90% of waste water
is discharged without treatment. An estimated 50 to 100
lakhs people die every year-including one child every
15 second from diseases caused by poor water quality;
25,000 people are dying every day from malnutrition
(Bajpai, 2005).
Global Water Crisis

About 120 crores of people (20% of the global
population) spread across 40 countries do not have
access to safe water; 240 crores of people lack adequate
sanitation services (Ismail Serageldin, 1999). In the past
100 years, the world population was tripled but water
use by humans has multiplied six fold. Women in Africa
and Asia walk an average distance of 6 km a day to
collect water. Fresh water, a key livelihood around the
world, is under threat. The following statistics are indeed
real, and startling.
203
v Nearly 450 million people in 29 countries currently

face severe water shortages.
v 20 percent more water than is now available will be
needed to feed the additional three billion people who
will be alive by 2025 (Robert Svadlenka,2002).
v As much as two-thirds of the world population could
be water-stressed by 2025.
v Aquifers, which supply one-third of the worlds
population, are being pumped out faster than nature can
replenish them.
v
Half the worlds rivers and lakes are seriously
polluted.
v Major rivers, such as the Yangtze, Ganges, and
Colorado, do not flow to the sea for much of the year
because of upstream withdrawals.
If the current inefficient and destructive practices
of water utilization are allowed to continue in the face
of growing population, global water resource limits
will be reached in a few decades. The severity of this
crisis has prompted the United Nations to conclude that
water scarcity, not a lack of arable land, will be the chief
constraint to increased food production in the next few
decades. Thus, the threat to water resources stands as one
of the major crises facing the planet, akin in urgency to
climate change, rainforest destruction, and the depletion
of the ozone layer. The water issue is indeed pervasive,
tying together many other world problems, especially
poverty, hunger, ecosystem destruction, desertification,
climate change, and even world peace. A response that
is commensurate with the immediacy and severity of
the impending crisis is warranted from government and
private institutions.
Looming Water Crisis in India

Water has become the most commercial products
of the century. The stress on the multiple water resources
is a result of a multitude of factors. On the one hand,
the rapidly rising population and changing lifestyles have
increased the need for fresh water. On the other hand,
intense competitions among users in agriculture, industry
and domestic sector is pushing the ground water table
deeper. Water is the biggest crisis facing India in terms of
spread and severity, affecting one in every three persons.
Even in Chennai, Bangalore, Shimla and Delhi, water is
being rationed and Indias food security is under threat.
With the lives and livelihood of millions at risk, urban
India is screaming for water.
To get bucket of drinking water is the daily

struggle for most women in the country. The drought
conditions have pushed villagers to move to cities in
search of jobs, whereas women and girls have to trudge
further. If opportunity costs were taken into account, it
would be clear that in most rural areas, households are
paying far more for water supply than the often-normal
rates charged in urban areas. Also, if this cost of fetching
water which is almost equivalent to 150 million women
days each year, is covered into a loss for the national
exchequer, it translates into a whopping 10 billion
rupees per year. In India, there are many villages either
with scarce water supply or without any source of water.
In many rural areas, women still have to walk a distance
of about 2.5 kms to reach the source of water. Women
have to queue up in front of the public water taps, being
at the lag end of the pipeline system, they get water
only after the users ahead in the pipeline finish collecting
water. Thus a rural womans life is sheer drudgery.
Most women and girls in Rajasthan find themselves
searching water for much of the year. They trudge bare
foot in the hot sun for hours over wastelands, across
thorny fields, or rough terrain in search of water, often
life the colour of mud and brackish, but still welcome
for the parched throats back home. On an average, a
rural woman walks more than 14000 km a year just to
fetch water. Their urban sisters are only slightly better
off- they do not walk such distances, but stand in the
long winding queues for hours on end to collect water
from the roadside taps on the water lorries.
In brief:
v Water source being open dug well, the quality of
water is poor; dirty, saline and has turbidity.
v Women have to make at least three trips at 5 am, 11
am and 5 pm and sometimes more.
v Total distance traveled is 9-10 km, even higher
v Total Time spent is 6-9 hours.
v Total number of pots/buckets is about 3 pots, 3045 litres (one pot of 10-15 litres per trip)
v Due to long distance, they have to take rest in
the middle of the way. Dust storms aggravate their
problem.
In Sriganganagar, the Indira Gandhi canal is the
main source for drinking water. However, during the
crisis period (either because of no water in the main
canal/sub canal or due to the erratic power supply),
204
women from poorhouse hold draw water from the village

diggis, which is totally unfit for any kind of human
activity. In Orissa drinking water is being privatized.
The government first insists on the formation of water
associations and conveniently pass the responsibilities on
to these association. When this proves inefficient, water
distribution rights are given away to private contractors.
For example, the Orissa government initially stressed on
the formation of Paani Panchayats (water associations).
Later using police the government suppressed these
panchayats justifying this by claiming that the villages
were not being responsible enough. Titlagarh is the
hottest town of India with no water, causing great misery
to the women. In Titlagarh water problem is acute. People
are buying water throughout the year for drinking and
cooking purpose. In the month of May and June the rate
of water increase three times, from Rs 2 per Dabba to
Rs.8 per Dabba (container). This is the picture of urban
areas, but in rural areas the problem is worse, where
the tube wells all are becoming dry but people have no
money to buy water.
In Uttranchal women are suffering a lot in
every village where water problem is severe. Natural
sources are drying up which adds the kilometers for
women everyday to quench the thirst of their family as
well as animals. Women collect the water required for
cooking, cleaning, washing, bathing and drinking both
for human beings and animals.The water problem in Chi
tar and Gangoa is very severe, where men and women
carry water on mules from 8-10 Km to the village.
In Bundelkhand, women have no work but to collect
drinking water on their heads from long distance. The
grim situation of water may be best illustrated by one
Bundelkhandi saying which roughly translated as let the
husband die but the earthen pot of water should not
be broken. The scenario is worst in Patha in Chitrakut
district where women have to travel a long distance to
collect water for drinking.
Even in Delhi the water scenario is no better,
being worst in Delhi slums. The water that comes from
MCD pipe water has fixed time for water supply but it
only comes for 1-2 hr in the evening (around 4.30 p.m.).
At MCD pipe line people made bore and fetch water
from it. The Water crisis is same in West Bengal. In all
the districts, the water commons have ceased to exist,
and have become open-access resources, with hardly
anyone responsible to take care of the resources. Punjab;
the name stands for abundance of water, but the present
situation of water resources in the state is highly critical.
The ground water availability is drastically hampered.

The village ponds are drying day by day. Women in
the villages desperately need water. Near Talwandi
Sabo, for some villages, the source for drinking water is
about 8 km away. For Maharashtra, water is an abiding
concern. In many villages women have to walk more
than 3 kilometres everyday to fetch two huge vessels of
water illegally from a government reservoir. They have
to make at least three trips everyday. Images of women
carrying the pots of water, walking miles and miles for
one single pot are common in the state of Maharashtra.
Women in Maharashtra have carried the water burden
both as a result of scarcity and abundance. Women in
Nandurbar district of North Maharashtra share their woes
forget about getting safe drinking water from wells, we
spend most of our time locating streams and springs
that quench our thrust. Many Women came as brides,
their hair have gone dry, but the search for water has
not ended.Karnataka is facing the worst kind of water
crisis. In Bangalore, only 35% of the city gets water on
daily basis, the rest on alternative days. In addition to
the scarcity, erratic water supply is another problem.
In Samadhanagar area, water generally comes in the
morning at 11 A.M or in the middle of the night. Both
these timings make it very difficult for women to collect
water as they leave early in the morning to go to work.
Social conflict and tension is high due to water crisis.
In brief, at an estimate about 150 MillionWoman Days and Rs 10 Billion are lost in fetching water
(Radhakrishna, 2004).
Why the Crisis?

Water covers 70% of the planet but more than
97.5% of the surface water is ocean which, obviously, is
not usable in industry, agriculture or as drinking water.
(Desalination is far too expensive to be for widespread
adoption).The fresh water on which the world depends
represents a mere 2.5% of available water. But then,
three-quarters of this fresh water is trapped in the form
of snow and ice. That is, all that is available for human
use (and, of course, for animals as well) is 0.6% of the
surface water (Rakesh Kumar et.al., 2005). Population
growth, climate change, overuse/ misuse of water and
pollution of available water are the principal causes of
the crisis. Irrigation accounts for two-thirds of global
use of fresh water. Farmers use water less efficiently and
withdraw more water to compensate for water losses. In
developing countries 60% is wasted or used inefficiently.
Major sources of water pollution are human wastes,
205
industrial wastes and chemicals and pesticides and

fertilizers used for farming. We have been pumping
groundwater faster than aquifers can recharge. Most
of the water reservoirs are suffering reductions in
storage capacity as a result of sedimentation caused by
deforestation; on an average 1 % of the water storing
capacity of the storage reservoirs is being lost annually
(Gupta and Deshpande, 2004). Much of the municipal
water supply is lost before it reaches consumers, leaking
out of water mains, pipes or faucets or disappearing
through illegal taps. In plain terms, as far as fresh water
is concerned, the world has been living way beyond its
means.
Of all the planets renewable resources, fresh
water may well be the most unforgiving; difficult to purify,
expensive to transport and impossible to substitute.
Possible Ways to Address Water Crisis

v
Restore the conventional methods of water
conservation like Baolis, Jhods, Ponds, Tankas.
v Introduce rainwater harvesting.
v Change the cropping pattern of agriculture. Instead
of growing water intensive crop like paddy and sugarcane,
introduce crops like millet, ragi, which consume less
water.
v
In cities instead of Public Private Partnership
(Privatisation of water) Public-Public partnership (Public
and Government) is an alternative for water crisis.
v
Proper water conservation measures should be
used. People should be made aware and trained on the
techniques of water conservation.
v
Government schemes should be implemented
properly.
v Involve NGO in the management of rural water
supply.
v Women should be trained as water managers for the
better domestic utilization.
Conservation- A Micro Approach to

Water Harvesting
Water conservation is a loose and undefined
concept which brings out the need for judicious use of
water through engineering means to meet the human
needs by modifying the space and time availability and
the quality of water. It brings out the need to store water,

where such storage is necessary, due to a mismatch
in timing between supply and demand and to the
transportation of the water from the place of demand
without unavoidable wastage.
Conservation, when applied to the solution
of water crisis, it has two broad connotations viz.:
Economical and optimal use including prevention of
wastage/leakage, multiple use (reuse and recycling).
In the hydrological sense, water conservation means
improving the dependability of the water through
augmenting additional resources, storage of rainwater in
reservoirs, ponds, lakes, shallow and deep ground water
or in the soil moistures. A present day definition may
also include the conservation of water as defined above
in both qualitative and quantitative assessment. As of
now, the storage capacity created in the country is about
50% of the ultimate possibility.
Conservation through Optimal &

Economical use of Water
Various crops need a certain quantum of
water for maximum yields. It has been established that
with a slightly less supply, the yields are not affected
considerably. In fact, in scarcity conditions, there is a
much better and optimal use of water.
Conservation through Multiple use Reuse and Recycling

The third aspect of conservation would be
to minimize the wastage and misuse of water if not
prevent it altogether. This will again apply to all the
uses of water. For example, it is estimated that in
urban water supply almost 30 to 40% of the water is
wasted through the distribution system. In almost all
the major urban centres of the country there is already
an acute problem of adequate water supply while the
sources of augmentation are very few. It is, therefore,
most significant to prevent such wastage. In industries
also, there is a scope for economy in the use of water.
For example, in India water used for production per
ton of paper is 300 kiloliters while in USA it is only 20
kiloliters. It is estimated by the Bureau of Industrial Costs
and Prices that 10 - 30 % saving is possible by recycling,
modifications in processing, evaporation control etc.
206
References
B. P. Radhakrishna, Man-made drought and the looming water crisis, CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 87, NO.
1, 10 JULY 2004.
Gupta, S. K. and Deshpande, R. D., Water for India 2050: First order assessment of available options. Current
Science., 2004, 86(9), 12161224.
Ismail Serageldin, The World Water Gap - Worlds Ability to Feed Itself Threatened by Water
Shortage , Press Release, March 20, 1999, World Commission on Water for the 21st Century.
Lal, M., Climate change Implications for Indias water resources. J. India Water Res. Soc., 2001, 21,
101119.
Nirupam Bajpai, Senior Development Adviser and Director, South Asian Programmes, Centre on Globalization and
Sustainable Development, Columbia University, New York.)
Rakesh Kumar, R. D. Singh and K. D. Sharma.,Water resources of India, CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 89, NO.
5, 10 SEPTEMBER 2005.
Robert Svadlenka. International Water management Institute, World water demand and supply, 1990 to
2025: Scenarios and Issues. Research Report 19, based on map prepared for A Vision of Water
for Food and Development2002.
207
38
Rainfall Probability Analysis for
Efficient Water Harvesting and
Crop Planning in Nilgiris
D.C. Sahoo
Introduction
The scarcity of water is a well-known fact. In
spite of higher average annual rainfall in Nilgiris (1,210
mm) it does not have sufficient water at all times. Most
of the rain falling on the surface tends to flow away
rapidly, leaving very little for either for storage on
surface or for the recharge of groundwater. As a result,
most parts of time, the area experience lack of water
even for agriculture as well as domestic uses. Surface
water sources fail to meet the rising demands of water
supply. This precarious situation needs to be rectified
by construction of a series water harvesting structures.
Hence, there is a need for proper design and construction
of different water harvesting structures to ensure that
rain falling over the region is stored as much as possible
through water harvesting for direct use.
In Nilgiris commonly grown annual crops
are Potato, Cabbage, Carrot, Beans, Peas, Radish,
Cauliflower, Beetroot etc. The different crops are being
raised under rainfed condition during first (May to August)
and second (September to November) season depending
upon the availability of rainfall where as under irrigated

condition in the third season (December to April). As
the rainfall is unevenly distributed through out the year,
analysis of rainfall and its distribution is very much
important for crop planning and hydrological design of
water harvesting structures used for storage of excess
runoff and irrigation.
Weekly, monthly and seasonal rainfall data are
very much useful for design of water harvesting structure
as well as planning of agricultural operation. Probability
and frequency analysis of rainfall data enables us to
determine the expected rainfall at various percent
chances. Rainfall at 80 per cent probability can be safely
taken as assured rainfall while 50 per cent can be taken
as maximum limit for taking any risks (Gupta et. al.,
1975).
The knowledge of one day maximum rainfall is
of great importance for hydrologic design of structure
and planning of soil conservation measures for safe
disposal of excess runoff. Probability analysis of one day
maximum rainfall, weekly, monthly and seasonal rainfall
208
has been attempted by many scientist at different places

(Sharda and Bhushan,1985; Bhatt et.al.,1996; Mohanty
et.al.,2001). Since the rainfall amount and its distribution
are region specific, an attempt has been made in this
paper for probability analysis of monthly, seasonal and
annual total rainfall at different probability level, annual
maximum daily rainfall at different return period and to
develop depth-duration-frequency relationship.
For prediction of annual maximum daily rainfall

for higher return period the extreme values type-I
distribution function and Log-Pearson type III distribution
function has been used.
The probability density function of extreme value
type-I distribution (Chow et.el., 1988) is given as
y= ln (ln 1/F(x))

Nilgiris forms a part of the Nilgiris district of
Tamil Nadu which is located in the confluence of the
Western and Eastern Ghats at a latitude of 1111 N
to 1142N and longitude of 7614 E to 7701E. It
is predominantly a hilly area with elevation ranging up
to 2636m above MSL. The geographical area of the
Nilgiris district is 2529 sq. kilometer. The area receives
an annual rainfall of 1210 mm (average of 1960-2006)
spread all over the three seasons of the year viz., May
to August, September to November and December to
April. This rainfall is mainly received through the SouthWest monsoon which spans from May to August and
North- East Monsoon from September to November. In
the remaining part of the year i.e. December to April,
the rainfall is scanty and unevenly distributed.
Daily rainfall data of forty seven years (19602002) was collected from the meteorological observatory
of CSWCRTI, Research center, Nilgiris and used for
frequency analysis with the help of Weibulls formula as
given by
Where
y = (x u)/ a
u = x 0.5772 a
a = 6 s/p
x and s
respectively.
F(x) is the probability of an event to be less than

a given magnitude for a given return period and x is the
variate of a random hydrologic series.
In Log-Pearson type III probability distribution
function, the variates is first transformed into logarithmic
form (base 10) and transferred data is then analysed
(Subramanya, 1997).
The transferred logarithmic series z, for any
recurrence interval T is given by
ZT=Z+ Kz Sz
Where
Probability of rainfall magnitude being
equal to or exceeded to a given value.
m=
Rank of the rainfall magnitude when

arranged in descending order.
N=
Number of years of records.
are mean and standard deviation
...(2)
Where
P = m / (N+1).
P=
...(1)
Rainfall at various probability levels was worked

out for monthly, seasonal and annul time period. For
the seasonal analysis the entire year is divided into three
seasons based on the onset and end of the monsoons.
The period that receives South-West monsoon is
considered as first season (May to August), North-East
monsoon (September to November) as second season
and the remaining period (December to April) as third
season.
Kz =
a frequency factor which is a function of

recurrence interval T
Sz =
Standard deviation of the Z variate
Z=
log x and x is the variate of a random

hydrologic series.
A depth-duration-frequency relationship was

developed for different durations and return periods.
The duration was taken as all possible combination
of 1 to 6 days of cumulative rainfall. Thus the annual
maximum rainfall of 1 to 6 consecutive days in all
combinations corresponding to different return periods
were estimated.

The expected occurrence of monthly, seasonal
and annual rainfall at different probability levels is given
209
in table 1.The annual rainfall from 1960-2006 varies

between a maximum of 1720 mm to a minimum of 835
mm. The average monthly rainfall of 215.4 mm was
maximum in July. It is minimum (8.4 mm) in the month
of February. At 80 per cent probability the monthly
rainfall in the first season ranges between 65.2 and
112.7 mm. Similarly at 80 per cent level the rainfall in
the second season ranges between 42.5 and 89.5 mm.
In the third season the chance of occurrence of rainfall
is very less at 80 per cent probability.
The expected rainfall at 80 per cent probability
in the first, second and third season are 488.5, 289.0
and 82.3 mm respectively. At 90 per cent probability
the rainfall in first, second and third season are 393.6,
245.1, 74.6 mm respectively. The rainfall at 80 per cent
probability can be good enough in the first and second
season to take any annual crop without facing water
deficit where as in the third season it needs supplemental
irrigation. Therefore the excess water can be harvested
through suitable water harvesting structure during first
and second season for the use in third season.
The main crops in the first and second seasons
are potato, cabbage and radish with their water
requirements in the first season are 290, 301 and 206
mm and in the second season 220, 277 and 166 mm
respectively (Sikka et. el., 2001). So there is 90 per cent
and 80 per cent success of getting the required amount
of water without failure in the first and second season
respectively.
The probable annual maximum daily rainfalls
for the entire period of forty seven years were analyzed
using Weibulls formula. The maximum one day rainfall
expected to be equaled or exceeded to the given values at
different return period is given in table 2. The maximum
one day rainfall for 10, 20, 40 years return period were
estimated as 145.5, 175.3 and 287.7mm. In the Nilgiris,
the main crops are potato, cabbage and radish which
are very much susceptible to water logging. To prevent
from the crop damage, this can be used for designing
the excess water disposal system. For the design of
any soil conservation structure with respect to erosion
control and/or water harvesting structure these extreme
values at different return periods can also be used for any
assumed expected life of the structure. For predicting
annul maximum one day rainfall for higher return
period the extreme value type-I probability distribution

function and Log Pearson type III probability distribution
functions were used. These methods were used for lower
return periods and compared with the Weibulls formula
values. Chi-squire test showed lower discrepancy with
type III function than the extreme value type-I function
(table 2). The predicted values of one day maximum
rainfall for higher return period was estimated using Log
Pearson type III probability distribution function (table
3). The one day maximum rainfall for 50 and 100 years
return period was found to be 237.5 and 294.4 mm,
respectively.
The probable maximum rainfall for 1 to 6
consecutive days in all combination at different return
period is presented in graphical form as depth-durationfrequency relationship (fig.1). The one day maximum
rainfall for 5,10,20 years return period are 117.1,144.2
and 176.1 mm where as for two days maximum rainfall
for the same return period were found to be 162.3,244.5
and 284.1 mm respectively. In Nilgiris, mostly farmers
cultivate vegetable crops by converting the slope into
bench terraces where there is chance of water logging/
stagnation in case of level and inward type terraces.
The main crops are potato, cabbage and radish which
are very much susceptible to water logging and needs
to be prevented from the crop damage. Therefore, the
estimated one day maximum rainfall for different return
period can be used for designing the excess water
disposal system. For the hydrologic design of any soil
conservation structure and/or water harvesting structure,
these extreme values at different return periods can be
used for any assumed expected life of the structure.
Conclusion
Monthly, Seasonal and annual rainfall at different
probability levels were estimated to ensure about the
assured rainfall in different seasons for the crop growth.
There is 90 per cent and 80 per cent success of getting
the required amount of water without failure in the first
and second season respectively for the commonly grown
vegetable crops. Annual maximum one day rainfall for
different return period were estimated from observed
data and for higher return period using Log-Pearson
type III probability distribution which were obtained
as 237.5 and 294.4 mm for 50 and 100 years return
period respectively.
210
References
Bhatt, V. K., Tiwari, A. K. and Sharma A.K. 1996. Probability models for prediction of annual maximum daily rainfall
of Datia. Indian J. of Soil Conservation, 24(1):25-27.
Chow,V.T., Maidment, D.R. and Mays,L.W.1988.Applied Hydrology. Mc Graw Hill Book company.11,12:371415.
Gupta, S. K., Ram Babu and Tejwani, K. G.1975. Weekly rainfall of India for planning cropping programme. Soil
Conservation Digest,3(1):31-39.
Mohanty, S., Marathe, R. A. and Shayma Singh. 2001. Rainfall characteristics of Vidarbha region. Indian J. of Soil
Conservation,29(1):18-21.
Sharda, V. N. and Bhusan,L.S. 1985. Probability analysis of annual maximum daily rainfall of Agra. Indian J. of Soil
Conservation,13(1):16-20.
Sikka, A.K., Madhu, M. and Tripathi, K.P. 2001. Comparison of different methods of estimating evapotranspiration
in the Nilgiris, South India. Indian J. Soil Cons., 29(3): 213-219.
Subramanya, K. (1997). Engineering hydrology. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing company. pp 188-189.
August 204.3 177.6 152.1 127.8 124.3 104.3 90.1 75.6 67.4
Fig.1. Depth-duration-Frequency Curve.
211
Table 1. Expected rainfall (mm) at Nilgiris at different probability levels.

Period
Probability (per cent)
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Ist season
IInd season
IIIrd season
Annual
10
27.8
31.7
61. 8
144.08
216.5
232.0
310.1
204.3
278.7
270.6
236.8
125.1
930.5
615.8
278.7
1590.8
20
18.2
17.8
26.4
101. 2
198.1
203.8
291.7
177.6
211.6
242.0
194.3
95.6
765.4
544.8
216.7
1454.5
30
9.7
5.6
19.2
74.52
125.4
178.6
254.3
152.1
173.2
196.8
144.5
68.4
673.7
506.2
178.4
1340.4
40
7.1
2.1
15.4
62.1
118.7
170.4
241.8
127.8
144.8
176.5
105.6
55.8
626.5
465.4
165.2
1260.5
50
3.2
1.7
11.5
55.1
110.60
144.3
196.7
124.3
127.6
150.4
86.4
40.8
594.6
436.5
144.6
1179.4
60
0.97
0.00
4.7
48.4
98.5
124.3
156.5
104.3
114.6
135.3
83.5
19.3
560.2
379.7
125.1
1105.5
70
0.00
0.00
3.3
44.4
84.7
98.7
134.3
90.1
112.3
117.8
76.1
14.5
535.3
357.5
108.6
1038.2
80
0.00
0.00
0.70
26.8
65.2
64.4
112.7
75.6
76.6
89.5
42.5
6.5
488.5
289.2
82.3
989.1
90
0.00
0.00
0.00
15.4
44.3
54.3
86.8
67.4
62.1
72.1
24.8
3.2
393.6
245.1
74.6
957.4
Table 2. Expected one day maximum rainfall for lower return period
Return period (years)
2
5
10
20
30
40
One day maximum rainfall (mm)

Weibulls formula
Type-I p.d. function
71.0
115.9
145.5
175.3
228.3
287.7
97.73
150.2
184.95
218.27
237.45
250.96
Log Pearson type III p.d.

function
70.61
91.51
140.98
192.53
201.00
219.10
Table 3. Predicted one day maximum rainfall for higher return period
Return period (Years)
50
60
70
80
90
100
One day maximum rainfall (mm)

237.5
247.8
260.5
274.3
282.1
294.4
212
39
Time Series Modeling of
Groundwater Level of Western
Noyyal River Basin of Tamil
Nadu
S. S. Salunkhe; S. Santhana Bosu and C. Mayilswami
Introduction
In India, development of irrigation through
exploitation of groundwater resources has significantly
contributed in increasing the irrigated area for agricultural
production. At present the groundwater in India
contributes more than 58% for drinking water, 52% for
agriculture production and 50% for urban and industrial
sectors. As groundwater resources are more intensively
used, one needs knowledge of the essential variables
of groundwater system and of how they fluctuate over
time. One of the most important hydrological variable
is groundwater head, which is therefore monitored
frequently at many locations.
Water managers are interested in spatial and
temporal forecasting of the water table depth. The
forecasts are either physical understanding of the process
or on statistical analysis of the process popularly termed
as the stochastic approach. Recently a combination
of physical and stochastic approach is gaining more
popularity in the field of hydrologic forecasting. One
dimensional models that describes the water table

fluctuations include empirical models such as transfer
noise model which were used by Box and Jenkins
(1970), Hipel and McLeod (1994), Knotters and Van
Walsum (1997) and Van Geer and Zuur (1997). The
data requirements for physical based models to simulate
water table fluctuation are enormous and generally
difficult or costly to satisfy in many cases. Therefore
there is a need to devise time series model which is
capable of representing the water table fluctuation with
respect to time and space. Box and Jenkins (1970)
have systematically discussed the time series models. A
comprehensive discussion in the time series modeling of
hydrological variable is presented by Salas et al. (1980).
According to Yevjevich and Harmancioglu (1985) time
series analysis is a major statistical technique used in
the extraction of information on hydrologic and water
resources random variables from the observed data.
Forecasting from time series models are more accurate
than costly, complex conceptual models (Hipel and
McLeod, 1994).
213
The groundwater situation in Tamil Nadu is more

precarious. The major sources of irrigation in the state
are wells, canals and tanks. As per recent estimates, more
than 60 percent of available groundwater resources are
utilized, making it the major source for irrigation, domestic
and drinking water supplies. In districts like Coimbatore
and Salem the groundwater level has gone down to
unimaginable depths. (Source: Central Groundwater
Board, Chennai). This study was undertaken to develop
a stochastic model of groundwater level of western part
of Noyyal river basin in Tamil Nadu, India.

Study area Details
The Noyyal river basin of Tamil Nadu comprises
the entire drainage basin area of the Noyyal River (3510
km2) (Fig. 1) and a tributary of the Cauvery River. The
Noyyal River basin located between North latitude
10056 and 11019 / East longitude 76041 and 77056
and covered in the Survey of India topographic degree
sheets 58A, 58B, 58E and 58F on scale 1:50000. The
River Noyyal originates at the Vellingiri hills in Western
Ghats and passes through Coimbatore, Erode and Karur
districts in Tamil Nadu State and joins river Cauvery at
Kodumudy. It has a length of about 140 km from west
to east with an average width of 25 km.
Testing of Stationarity
The stationarity of developed monthly water
table depth series was tested by Augmented Dickey
Fuller (ADF) test (Gujarati, 2003). To run the ADF
test Excel Add-In software namely ADF (Annen, 2004)
was used. If the series was found non stationary, it was
transformed by first differencing (Chandrahas, 2003) and
the differenced series was used for further analysis.
Yt = Zt Zt-1
...(2)
Determination of Trend Component

The trend component describes the long
smooth movement of the variable lasting over the span
of observations, ignoring the short-term fluctuations.
To check the presence of trend, the turning point test
as suggested by Yevjevich (1972 a) was performed on
Yt series. The turning point test was used by several
authors for testing the presence of trend (Srikanthan et
al., 1983; Jat et al., 2003; Kahya and Kalayc, 2004;
Bhakar et al., 2006). Once it is established that the
trend is present in the series, it was estimated by least
square method (Yevjevich, 1972 a). Trend series (Tt)
was subtracted from differenced series (Yt) to obtain the
trend free water table depth series and used for further
analysis.
Determination of Periodic Component
Model Development
Monthly data of groundwater table depths (below
ground level) for the 10 years, starting from 1995 to
2004 of 12 observation wells of western Noyyal river
basin were collected from the Data Center, Public Works
Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai.
Monthly time series data of water table depth for ten
years (1995-2004) was developed by monthly averaging
the values of water table depths of 12 observation
wells located in the study area and analyzed for their
deterministic and stochastic components.
A decomposition model for the time series which
divides a time series into four additive components is
given as follows:
The periodic component concerns an oscillating

movement which is repetitive over a fixed interval
of time (Kottegoda, 1980). The existence of periodic
component could be identified by an autocorrelogram
which is a plot of autocorrelation function of the trend
free water table depth series (Xt) and time unit spacing
of the successive terms of the series. Computation and
removal of periodic component was done by parametric
approach as suggested by Yevjevich (1972 a). The
estimated values of periodic mean (?) and periodic
standard deviation (?) of trend free water table depth
series (Xt) were obtained as follows:
...(3)
...(4)
..(1)
A systematic identification and reduction of each
component of Zt of Equation (1) was accomplished from
the groundwater table data.
In general, it is found that the first six harmonics of

periodic parameters for a time series of any interval t
30 days are sufficient and should be tested for significance,
214
as several harmonics beyond the sixth harmonic add

relatively small additional explanation of the variance
of estimated value (Yevjevich, 1972 a). Hence Fourier
coefficients were calculated for first six harmonics for
the periodic series of mean (m) and periodic series of
standard deviation (s). Then the explained variance of
harmonics for periodic series of mean and standard
deviation were obtained from their Fourier coefficients
as suggested by Yevjevich (1972 a). Time series after
removal of trend and periodic component (stochastic
component) 1was expressed as:
...(5)
Since the series 1 given by Equation (5) is only

approximately a standardized variable, its mean y and
standard deviation sy were found out and standardized
stochastic component (St) was obtained by the
equation:
...(6)
Modeling of Stochastic Component

The stochastic component is constituted by
various random effects, which can not be estimated
exactly and was modeled by autoregressive moving
average (ARMA) family of models. ARMA models are
linear stochastic models and are expressed as follows
(Chatfield, 1984):
Autoregressive process of order p- AR (p)
model
AR (4), AR (5), AR (6), ARMA (1,1), ARMA (2,1), ARMA

(3,1), ARMA (1,2), ARMA (2,2). The best models was
selected using the following five criteria a) adjusted sum
of square b) residual variance c) log likelihood d) Akaike
information criterion (AIC) and e) Schwartz Bayesian
criterion (SBC) (Kumar et. al., 2006). The Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to work
out the values of above five criteria. The ARMA model
which gave lowest value of adjusted sum of squares,
residual variance, Akaike information criterion (AIC),
Schwartz bayesian criterion (SBC) and highest value of
log likelihood were initially selected.
The parameters u, , of ARMA (p,q) models
were estimated using least square method and SPSS
was used to work out the parameters of the different
orders of ARMA models. The residual series (Rt) was
obtained as the difference between observed and
tted values of stochastic component (St). Diagnostic
checking of models concerns the verication for the
adequacy of the tted model. Test for the signicance
of residual mean (Mujumdar & Kumar, 1990) and
Portmanteau test (Box & Jenkins, 1970) were used
for this purpose. The coefcient of efciency (C.E.)
introduced by Nash & Sutcliffe (1970) was used to
select the best t model i.e. to asses the goodness
of t between models response to that of observed
value.
...(9)

Testing of Stationarity
...(7)
Autoregressive Moving Average ARMA (p, q)

model
The estimated value of ADF test statistics

(-3.1940) was found less than the test critical value
(-3.4484) at 5% level. Hence water table depth series
was found to be nonstationary and was transformed by
first differencing as given by the Equation (2) and was
used for further analysis.
Determination of Trend Component

...(8)
Anderson (1976) recommended that order of
model should be tried for identification of an appropriate
model. Mujumdar & Kumar (1990) suggested that AR
parameters up to order 6 and MA parameters up to order
2 in general serve the purpose and hence in this study,
the following models were tried: AR (1), AR (2), AR (3),
The estimated value of test statistics obtained

from turning point test was found to be -2.63, which
was not within the critical range of 1.96 at 5 % level.
Hence the trend was present in the series and it was
estimated by using method of least squares by fitting a
linear trend:
215
Y = -0.0012 X + 0.097
...(10)
The obtained trend series (Tt) was separated

from original series and trend free series was used for
further analysis.
Determination of Periodic Component

It was seen from the autocorrelogram of the
trend free water table depth series (Xt) that the peaks
and troughs were narrow and broad respectively (Fig.
2). It indicates the presence of hidden periodicity in the
time series. For representing the periodic component,
the number of significant harmonics was determined by
using explained variance of harmonics. The percentage
of explained variance by fifth harmonic of mean was
found to be 0.08 % (Table 1). The first four harmonics
explain 91.36 % of the variance. Hence only first four
harmonics were considered as significant for the periodic
series of mean. Similarly it was seen that first five
harmonics were significant for periodic series of standard
deviation. The estimated values of periodic mean (?)
and periodic standard deviation (?) of trend free water
table depth series (Xt), Time series after removal of trend
and periodic component and standardized stochastic
component were obtained using Equations (3), (4), (5),
and (6) respectively.
Model Structure
The mathematical structure of additive model
combining both deterministic and stochastic components
of water table depth series whose stochastic component
was modeled by AR (1) model is represented as:
Z1 = T1 + u12 + 13 (St) + Zt 1
Where,
Tt = 0.0012 X + 0.097
Modeling of Stochastic Component

For identification of an appropriate order of
model the values of adjusted sum of square, residual
variance, log likelihood, Akaike information criterion
(AIC), Schwartz Bayesian criterion (SBC) of tried
models for stochastic component of water table depth
series are presented in Table 2. The minimum value
of adjusted sum of square, residual variance, AIC and
SBC and maximum value of log likelihood were found
to be 109.4340, 0.9457, 335.2568, 340.8151 and
-165.6945 respectively and indicated by * in the Table
2. On the basis of above five criteria AR (1), AR (2),
ARMA (2,2) were initially selected for water table depth
series.
Diagnostic checking of the initially selected
models is presented in Table 3. It can be seen from the
table that test statistics for both the tests were less than
the critical value for all three selected models. Hence
residual of all the three selected models passes both the
tests indicating that selected models AR (1), AR (2) and
ARMA (2,2) could be accepted for stochastic component
of water table depth series.
St = 0.0034 +0.2300 (St-1 + 0.0034) + Rt

In Equation (11) the term Zt-1 was added to the
model to convert the differenced series (Yt) to original
series (Zt), i.e. to undo the first deference which was
taken to convert original series (Zt) from non stationary
to stationary. Similarly model structure was developed
for water table depth series whose stochastic component
was modeled by AR (2) and ARMA (2,2) models. The
regeneration of water table depth series for the period of
1995 to 2004 was done using developed models.
216
The values of coefficient of efficiency (C.E.) for

selected models for water table depth series are presented
in Table 4. It can be seen that coefficient of efficiency
of all the three models was 0.9998. As AR (1) is most
simple model, it was selected as the best fit model for the
stochastic component of water table depth series and
was finally selected.
Validation of The Model

Validation of model was tested by comparing
the historical and regenerated water table depth series
for the period of 1995-2004 (Fig. 3.). A perusal of the
figure indicates the closeness between the two series.
It was seen from figure that historical and regenerated
series were exactly coinciding with each other so that we
cannot identify them separately. The closeness between
historical and regenerated series was further confirmed
from Table 5 as their mean and standard deviation were
almost same. Similarly regenerated mean monthly water
table depth series for the period of 1995 to 2004 was
compared with historical series and presented in Fig. 4.
It was seen from the figure that historical and regenerated
mean monthly water table depth series were exactly
coinciding with each other. The correlation coefficient
between the two series for ten year period (1995 to

2004) and for mean monthly series was found to be
same as 0.99. The correlation coefficient was tested
by ttest and was found to be highly significant at 1 %
level of significance for both ten year and mean monthly
water table depth series.
Conclusions
Finally it was concluded that AR (1) was found to
be the best fit model for stochastic component of water
table depth series and was finally selected. The coefficient
of efficiency of developed model was greater than 0.90,
which indicates that it would give perfectly acceptable
simulation. Validation of the model in the study showed
that it is possible to obtain good predictions for ground
water table depth using the developed model. The
developed model for water table depth series could be
used for further prediction of monthly water table depths.
The study also shows that time series analysis and ARMA
models are effective in predicting monthly ground water
table depth. The time series modeling approach as
presented in this study can provide scientists, engineers
and water managers a comprehensive tool for carrying
out systematic study of ground water fluctuations.
217
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streams. Journal of Hydrology, 66, 213-226.
Van Geer F C; Zuur A F (1997). An extension of Box-Jenkins transfer/noise models for spatial
interpolation of groundwater head series. Journal of Hydrology, 192, 65-80.
Yevjevich V (1972 a). Stochastic Processes in Hydrology. Water Resources Publications, Fort Collins,
U.S.A
Yevjevich V (1972 b). Probability and Statistics in Hydrology. Water Resources Publications, Fort Collins,
U.S.A
Yevjevich V; Harmancioglu N B (1985). Past and future of analysis of water resource time series. Water
Resource Bulletin, 21(4), 625-633.

218
Notation
=
Average observed water table depth.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Autoregressive model parameter, k=1, 2, 3,..p

The Fourier coefficients
Dependent stochastic component
Harmonics number
Number of significant harmonics
Average monthly mean
Monthly mean
Number of observations
Order of autoregressive process
Periodic component
Order of moving average process
Predicted water table depth at time t
Observed water table depth at time t
Independent stochastic component or Residual series
Stochastic component of the series
Average monthly standard deviation
Monthly standard deviation
Discrete values of time 1, 2, 3,..n
Trend component
ARMA Model constant.
Estimated values of periodic mean
Trend free series
First differenced series
Time series variable
Value of time series Zt at previous lag
Moving average model parameter, k=1, 2, 3,..q
Estimated values of periodic standard deviation
1, 2, 3,, with as n number of discrete values in year
Aj and Bj
Dt
J
m
mx
m?
N
P
Pt
q
Qc (t)
Qo (t)
Rt
St
sx
s?
T
Tt
u
?
Xt
Yt
Zt
Zt-1
k
?
?
Figure captions :
Fig. 1. Noyyal river basin with stream lines
Fig. 2. Autocorrelogram of trend free water table depth series
Fig. 3. Historical and regenerated monthly water table depth series
Fig. 4. Historical and regenerated mean monthly water table depth series
219
Table 1. Explained variance of different harmonics of mean

Harmonic
number
Value of A
Value of B
(A2+B2)/2
1
2
3
4
5
6
-0.1913
-0.1644
-0.0931
-0.0364
0.0108
-0.0276
0.2896
0.0838
0.1030
0.1053
-0.0068
0.0000
0.0602
0.0170
0.0096
0.0062
0.0001
0.0004
Explained
variance of
harmonic (%)
59.1084
16.7091
9.4618
6.0855
0.0802
0.3743
Cumulative
explained
variance (%)
59.1084
75.8175
85.2793
91.3649
91.4450
91.8193
Table 2. ARMA models for stochastic component of water table depth series
Order of
model
Adjusted sum
of square
Residual
variance
Log
likelihood
AR (1)
AR (2)
AR (3)
AR (4)
AR (5)
AR (6)
ARMA (1,1)
ARMA (2,1)
ARMA (3,1)
ARMA (1,2)
ARMA (2,2)
112.7059
112.6975
111.8190
111.1679
111.1579
110.2456
112.7029
112.4971
110.1054
112.7634
109.4340*
0.9629
0.9711
0.9717
0.9743
0.9829
0.9831
0.9711
0.9777
0.9645
0.9800
0.9457*
-165.6284
-165.6945*
-165.1834
-164.8548
-164.8732
-164.4098
-165.6373
-165.5433
-164.2820
-165.6840
-163.8905
Akaike
information
criterion
335.2568*
337.2689
338.3668
339.7095
341.7464
342.8197
337.2746
339.0866
338.5641
339.3680
337.7810
Schwartz
bayesian
criterion
340.8151*
345.6063
349.4832
353.6051
358.4211
362.2735
345.6120
350.2031
352.4597
350.4845
351.6766
* Indicates the selected model
Table 3. Diagnostic checking of ARMA models

Significance of residual mean
Order of
model
AR (1)
AR (2)
ARMA (2,2)
Test
statistics
0.0127
0.0134
-0.4480
Critical
value
1.9630
1.9630
1.9630
Portmanteau test
Test
result
Pass
Pass
Pass
Test
statistics
7.3157
7.2858
6.6135
Critical
value
42.5570
41.3370
38.8850
Test
result
Pass
Pass
Pass
Table 4. Coefficient of efficiency of the selected models

Order of model
AR (1)
AR (2)
ARMA (2,2)
Coefficient of efficiency (CE)

0.9998
0.9998
0.9998
Table 5. Statistical parameters of monthly water table depth series

Statistical parameters
Mean
Standard deviation
Variance
Skewness
Kurtosis
Historical series
16.9281
1.7733
3.1446
-0.0722
-0.3103
220
Regenerated series
16.9098
1.7670
3.1222
-0.0718
-0.2980
40
Geographical Information
System for Evaluation of
Groundwater Potential Zones in
Marudaiyar Basin of Tamilnadu
Senkuttuvan.P*. Sasikala.R** and S.Balaselvakumar***
Introduction
The groundwater occurrence in any terrain
is largely controlled by prevalence of primary and
secondary porosity and as such in conventional
exploration methods delineation and mapping of different
lithological, morphological units is difficult to its synoptic
view. In addition to quantitative surface phenomenon
like drainage network and geomorphology has a unique
capsule of integrating the study. To understand the
prevailing groundwater condition, nowadays satellite
based remote sensing techniques are being regularly
employed for the terrain resources mainly for delineating
hydrogeomorphological units (Anonymous, 1979,
1988; Aravindan et.al., 1996; Baldev Sahai et al 1991;
Jacob Novaine et al 1999; Obi Reddy et al 2000 and
Krishnamoorthy, 1996). But only, very few studies
have been attempted by integrating all the groundwater
controlling parameters like geology, geomorphology,
lineaments, quantitative morphometric characteristics,
etc., especially using Geographical Information System
(GIS) as a tool. In the present study, GIS based model

was developed, for delineating groundwater potential
zones by integrating different thematic layers which have
direct bearing on groundwater occurrence. The thematic
layers were prepared from remote sensing data and
from the data collected by conventional surveys. The
GIS based groundwater potential zone model developed
in the present study was built with the relevant logical
conditions and reasoning and hence can be adopted
elsewhere with suitable modifications.
Methodology
Study Area
Marudaiyar basin, the study area is located in
the central part of Tamil Nadu State concerning an area
extent of 623 sq.km. It is geographically located between
the latitudes 1102 to 1115 N and the longitudes
7848 to 7915 E. The area is composed of series of
plains, valley bottoms, undulating uplands and broken
chains of eastern - ghats viz., Pachamalai. The average
221
height of Pachamalai hill is 100 meters. But few of its

peak above 1020 meters from MSL. The elevation of
the basin ranges from 250-400 meters. The Marudaiyar
basin has its origin from the Pachamalai hills, and it
flow in the southeastern direction, passing through the
Perambalur, Kunnam, Ariyalur Udaiyarpalayam and
Lalgudi taluks of Perambalur and Tiruchirappalli District
before joining the Coleroon River. In the study area, the
average annual rainfall ranges from 750mm to 1000mm.
The area comes under the influence of both the southeast
monsoon (June September) and northeast monsoon
(October - December) due to orographic effect. Most of
the people in the study area are engaged in agricultural
activities and the important crops cultivated in the area
include paddy, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, sorghum,
pearl millet, finger miller, red gram and banana.
In order to demarcate the groundwater prospect
zones of the Marudaiyar basin, different thematic maps
at 1:50,000 scales were prepared from remotely sensed
data and from conventional data. Thematic maps of
geology, geomorphology and lineament were prepared
using IRS ID LISS III data of 1:50, 000 scales. The
satellite data was visually interpreted and after making
through field check, the map was finalized. The maps
of drainage density, lineament density and slope maps
were prepared from 1: 50,000 scales topographic
sheets of the Survey of India. The Arc Info /Arc View
GIS software package was used for the creation of digital
database, data integration and analysis. All thematic
maps were digitized in continuous mode, in the vector
format, and the digitized values were then edited. The
different polygons in the thematic maps were labeled
separately. Unique attributes were assigned for all
the features of different thematic maps. The different
polygons in thematic maps were categorized as follows
i). Excellent, ii).Good, iii).Moderate and iv). Poor in
terms of their importance with respect to groundwater
occurrence. Then suitable weights were assigned to each
Table 1. Categorization Criteria of Thematic Layer
Theme
Lithology
Geomorphology
Drainage density
Lineament density
Resistively
Basis of Categorization
Rock type, weathering character,
thickness of weathering, joints
and fractures etc.
Type, area extent, associated
vegetation
Drainage density value
Lineament density value
Massive and consolidated nature
in relation to high resistively with
respect to depths.
thematic feature after considering their characteristics.

The criteria adopted to categorize different thematic
layers are given in table 1. All the thematic layers have
been integrated and analyzed using a model developed
with logical conditions in the GIS. The methodology
adopted in the present study is shown in the form of a
flow chart (Fig. 1.).
FLOW CHART DEPICTING

THE METHODOLOGY OF
GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL ZONES
Result and Discussions

Geographical Information System (GIS)
Geographic Information System (GIS) is a
computer based information system digitally used
to represent and analyze the geographic features
present on the Earth surface and the events (nonspatial attributes linked to the geography under study)
that taking place on it. The GIS has provided a new
dimension of information processing-specially related to
the processing of information of the Earth and its natural
resources. It is a tool for storing, manipulating, retrieving
and presenting both spatial and non-spatial data in a
quick efficient and organizing way. Since most land
information elements have a geographic implication,
geographically referred data with GIS techniques come
to the force in such an application. The term GIS refers
to the locational attributes, which define the spatial
222
positioning of the piece of information on the face of the

earth. Preparation and maintained of data in the face of
maps and referenced tabular files itself can be considered
as a primitive form of GIS. However, with the advent of
digital computers, with high data processing speed and
the development of analytical tools there on to handle
geographically referenced data with ease and flexibility,
computer aided GIS has become a reality of late.
There are a number of positive developments
in GIS technology that will help accelerate its use. The
world over, the GIS applications are now commonplace
in the utilities, land information and planning. GIS can
be an effective tool in the design and monitoring of
groundwater development and its uses. GIS has found
a role in the analysis and management of all such areas
where variations in local and micro-elements influences
the patterns.There exists a potential in GIS applications
to use remotely sensed data (images) to evaluate the
potential of groundwater resources for agriculture and
sustainable development. Recent researches have also
proved that indigenous knowledge system and rapid and
participatory rural / resources appraisal methods could
be integrated with GIS.
Applications of GIS in Hydrological

Studies
Groundwater resources are dynamic in nature
as they grow with the expansion of irrigation activities,
industrialization, urbanization etc. As it is the largest
available source of fresh water laying beneath the
ground it has become crucial not only for targeting of
groundwater potential zones, but also monitoring and
conserving these important resources. The role of
GIS in hydrological applications such as groundwater
resource assessment, planning, soil erosion and urban
drainage system and the remote sensing data derivation
has gained popularity in recent times with raster and
vector in GIS environment (Burrough, 1989, Lyon 2003
and Brown 1995). Several researchers have utilized the
GIS technology and the remote sensing derived data for
water resource management, groundwater assessment
and modeling.
Weights Assignment for Thematic

Layers
After understanding their behavior with respect
to groundwater control, the different classes were initially
categorized. The feature-based categorizations of
different thematic maps and the exact weight assigned to
each of the thematic features based on the relative merit

and demerit with respect to groundwater occurrence
is given in table 2. While considering the lithological
variations, one need to understand the characteristics of
rocks in terms of their compactness, weathering status,
joints and fractures. In the study area, sedimentary rocks
have been rated higher than the metamorphic rocks
considering compactness characteristics. It can be noted
that the different classes were given suitable weights
according to their importance among other classes in
the same thematic layer. The logical reasoning adopted
for categorization and weight assignment for each of the
thematic features are detailed below.
Geology
Among the various rock types of the study area
(viz., alluvium, calcareous sandstone and limestone,
shale, calcareous sandstone and clay, clay and sandy clay,
peninsular gneiss) alluvium was assigned the maximum
weightage (50) owing to their unconsolidated nature,
high prosing and permeability (Table 2). The weightage
values assigned for the other categories in a progressively
decreasing order, which include calcareous sandstone
and limestone (40), shale (35), calcareous sandstone and
clay (30), clay and sandy clay (20) and peninsular gneiss
(20). Thus the lowest weightage value was assigned for
peninsular gneiss in view of their highly massive water
and varies poor porosity and permeability.
Geomorphology
Among the various landforms of the study
area alluvial plains were assigned the maximum value
(70) in view of the fact that this landform is essentially
composed of alluvial materials, which are unconsolidated
and highly porous, and permeable (Table 2). Moreover
as this landform is very close to the rivers, these alluvial
plains gets recharged guide often and hence naturally
this landform possess excellent groundwater. The
valley fills, which are the unconsolidated materials
of varying sizes, confined to the valleys are also rich
in groundwater, as this landform possess favorable
constituent in consolidated materials, which facilitates
instant infiltration of groundwater making them on of
the groundwater rich landform hence it was assigned a
weightage of 65. Progressively lower weightage were
assigned to landforms such as pediplain over sedimentary
rocks (50), Pediplain over gneisses (35), Pediment (20),
gullied land (20) badland topography and denudation hill
(10).
223
Table 2. Rank and Weightage Assigned for Various Thematic Layers

with Respect to Groundwater Prospects
Parameters
Geology
Alluvium
Calcareous sandstone and lime stone
Shale
Calcareous sandstone and clay
Clay and sandy clay
Peninsular gneiss
Geomorphology
Alluvial plain
Valley fills
Pediplain over sedimentary
Pediplain over gneisses
Pediment
Gullied land
Badland topography
Denudational hills
Drainage density (in km/ sq.km)
<1
1-2
2-3
3-4
>4
Lineament density (in km/ sq.km)
>3
2-3
1-2
<1
Slope (in )
<1
1-2
2-5
5-10
>10
Weightage
Class
Rank
50
40
35
30
20
20
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Good
Moderate
Moderate
1
1
2
2
3
3
70
65
50
35
20
20
10
10
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Good
Moderate
Moderate
Poor
Poor
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
50
40
30
20
10
Excellent
Good
Moderate
Moderate
Poor
1
2
3
3
4
40
30
20
10
Excellent
Good
Moderate
Poor
1
2
3
4
50
40
30
20
10
Excellent
Excellent
Good
Moderate
Poor
1
1
2
3
4
224
Drainage Density
High drainage density reflects the higher surface
runoff and low infiltration of surface water with the
ground. On the other hand low drainage density reflects
poor surface runoff and high infiltration of surface
water into the ground or subsurface flow. This fact was
considered in assigning the weightage for the various
drainage density classes of the study area. Drainage
density class of less than 1km per sq.km was assigned
the maximum weightage value (50); progressively lower
weightage were assigned to the drainage density classes
of 1-2 km/sq.km; 2-3 km/sq.km; 3-4 km/sq.km and >4
km/sq.km(Table 2).
Lineament Density
The lineaments especially those representing
geologically weak zones especially fractures, joints, faults,
sheer zones are good rechargeable zones. If the density
of the lineaments is more than, the possibility for higher
recharge is more and this character was considered to
assign weightage for different lineament density zones
of the study area. Areas with highest lineament density
(>3 km/sq.km) was assigned the maximum weightage
(40) and progressively lower weightage were assigned
for the lineament density classes of 2-3 km/sq.km; 1-2
km/sq.km and the least weightage was assigned to the
lineament density class of < km/sq.km (Table 2).
of slopes. This fact was considered while assigning the

weightage for the various slope classes. Thus areas with
slopes less than 1 were assigned higher weightage (50)
and progressively lower weightage was assigned to the
slope classes of 1-2, 2-5, 5-10 and >10 (Table 2).
Integration of Thematic Layers

To demarcate different groundwater potential
zones, all the thematic layers were integrated with one
another according to their importance with respect to
groundwater prospects through GIS union concept. The
sequences adopted in the present exercise are as follows:
i) geology, ii) geomorphology, iii) drainage density, iv)
lineament density and v) slope. In the present study,
the delineation of groundwater potential zones was
made by grouping the polygons of the integrated layers,
into different potential zones, such as excellent, good,
moderate and poor (Fig. 2). Instead of just dividing the
maximum and minimum values into different categories,
which has limited logical reasoning, a model has been
developed using relevant logical conditions through
Geographical Information System. The table 3 gives
the integrated groundwater categories after adding
the weightage in different thematic layers derived for
demarcation of the groundwater prospecting areas.
Table 3. Groundwater Categories after Integration
Slope
In areas with higher slopes, the water, which
flows on the surface rapidly, drains off, greatly reducing
the chances of water infiltrating into the ground. On the
other hand in flat areas /plains, water which flows on the
surface with lower velocities and hence the possibility
of water infiltrating into the ground is more and hence
it is grunt natural to expect plain areas with higher
groundwater potential than areas with higher degrees
Categories
Weightage values
Excellent
240 180
Good
180 120
Moderate
120 60
Poor
Less than 60
After adding all the polygon the maximum

weightage is 240, the polygon were divided with an
interval of 60 as weightage difference and accordingly
excellent prospect was delineated by grouping the
polygon which have weightage from 240 to 180, good
(180 to 120), moderate (120 to 60) and poor prospective
zone as polygons which are having the weightage factors
less than 60 (table 3). By utilizing the above-discussed
model a map showing different groundwater potential
zones of the study area was prepared (Fig. 2).
Conclusion
In order to understand the groundwater potential
in the study area, thematic layers of parameters which
affect the groundwater potential in an area such as
225
lithology, slope, geomorphology, lineament density and

drainage density were integrated and analyzed using Arc
GIS software. For each of the above parameters suitable
weightage values were assigned based on their ability
to store water. As a as lithology is concerned alluvium
was assigned the maximum weightage value followed by
limestone, shale, calcareous sandstone and clay, clay and
sandy clay, and gneisses in the decreasing order. Areas
with less than 1 slope were assigned higher weightage
and progressively lower weightages were assigned to the
slope classes of 1-2, 2-5, 5-10 and >10. Among the
various landforms of the study area maximum weightage
value was assigned for alluvial plains, followed by valley
fills, pediplain over sedimentary rocks, pediplain over
gneisses, pediment, gullied land, badland topography
and denudation hill in the decreasing order. As for as
lineament density parameter is concerned, maximum
weightage value was assigned to areas with highest
lineament density (>3 km/sq.km). Progressively lower
weightage values were assigned for the lineament density
classes of 2-3 km/sq.km; 1-2 km/sq.km. Among the

various drainage density classes, higher weightage value
was assigned to areas with low drainage density and
vice-versa. After assigning weightage values for various
classes of each of these parameters, these thematic
layers were integrated and the resultant map was reclassed showing zones of excellent, good, moderate
and poor groundwater potentials. The analysis thus
carried out has revealed that the area extents of zones
with excellent, good, moderate and poor groundwater
potentials are 152 sq.km, 432 sq.km, 28 sq.km and
13 sq.km respectively. In general it is found that in the
study area, areas with excellent and good groundwater
potentials are spread over most part of the study area,
occupying 24.32 per cent and 69.12 per cent of the
study area respectively. On the other hand, zones of
moderate and poor groundwater potentials occupy just
about 4.48per cent and 2.08 per cent of the study area
respectively and these categories are mostly confined to
the western part of the study area.
References
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226
41
Engineering of Photorespiration
Mechanism in Crop Plants for
Higher Productivity in Drought
Prone Areas
K. Silvas Jebakumar Prince, P .Kanagaraj, K.S. Vijay and J. Annie Sheeba
Introduction
Terrestrial plants are classified into three major
photosynthetic types, namely, C3, C4 and Crassulacean
acidmetabolism (CAM) plants, according to the
mechanism of their photosynthetic carbon assimilation.
About 90% of terrestrial plant species, which include
major crops such as rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum
aestivum), soybean (Glycine max), and potato (Solanum
tuberosum), are classified as C3 plants, and they assimilate
CO2 directly through the C3 photosynthetic pathway,
also called the Calvin cycle or the photosynthetic carbon
reduction (PCR) cycle. C4 and CAM plants possess
a unique photosynthetic pathway, in addition to the
C3 pathway, which allows them to adapt to specific
environments. While C3 plants grow well in temperate
climates, CAM plants such as stonecrops and cactus
adapt to extreme arid conditions, but their photosynthetic
capacity is very low. By contrast, C4 plants such as maize
(Zea mays) and sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) adapt
to high light, arid and warm environments and achieve
higher photosynthetic capacity and higher water- and

nitrogen-use efficiencies compared with C3 plants. Both
C4 and CAM plants evolved from ancestral C3 species
in response to changes in environmental conditions that
caused a decrease in CO2 availability. C4 plants evolved
in response to the low atmospheric CO2 concentrations,
while the CAM plants evolved either in response to
the selection of increased water-use efficiency or for
increased carbon gain (Ehleringer and Monson, 1993).
In leaves of C3 plants, all of the photosynthetic
reactions from the capture of solar light energy
to assimilation of carbon into carbohydrates
(triosephosphates) proceed in the chloroplasts of the
mesophyll cells. The primary CO2 fixation step in the
C3 pathway is catalysed by ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). However, Rubisco also
reacts with O2 at its catalytic site (oxygenase reaction),
leading to photorespiration. Photorespiration plays a
role in protecting photosynthesis from photoinhibition
(Osmond and Grace,1995), but it wastes fixed carbon
227
as released CO2 and decreases the efficiency of

photosynthetic CO2 assimilation in C3 plants (Leegood
et al., 1995). Under current atmospheric conditions
(0.036% CO2, 21% O2), up to 50% of the fixed carbon
is lost by photorespiration. C4 plants have evolved the
C4 photosynthetic pathway, a mechanism to concentrate
CO2 at the site of the reaction of Rubisco, and thereby
overcame photorespiration.
CO2 concentrating mechanisms

This CO2-concentrating mechanism, together
with modification of leaf anatomy, enabled C4 plants
to achieve high photosynthetic efficiency. Leaves of
C4 plants have two types of photosynthetic cells,
the mesophyll and bundle sheath cells that contain
chloroplasts of different functions. While all the
photosynthetic enzymes are confined in the mesophyll
cells in C3 plants, they are localized in the mesophyll
and/or bundle sheath cells in C4 plants. The enzymes
involved in the C3 pathway are located in the chloroplasts
of the bundle sheath cells while those involved in the C4
pathway in the mesophyll and/or bundle sheath cells.
The C4 pathway consists of three key steps: (i) The
initial fixation of CO2 in the cytosol of the mesophyll
cells by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) to
form a C4 acid, oxaloacetate (OAA), (ii) Decarboxylation
of a C4 acid in the bundle sheath cells to release CO2,
and (iii) Regeneration of the primary CO2 acceptor
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). As a whole, one molecule
of CO2 is pumped up from the cytosol of the mesophyll
cells into the vicinity of Rubisco in the chloroplast of
the bundle sheath cells, consuming two molecules of
ATP. The decarboxylation reaction is catalysed by one
or more of the three enzymes, namely, NADP-malic
enzyme (NADP-ME), NAD-malic enzyme (NAD-ME),
and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEP-CK), and
C4 plants are classified into three subtypes depending
on these major decarboxylation enzyme. The C4 acid
exported from the mesophyll to bundle sheathcells are
also different. Before being exported, OAA is reduced to
malate by NADP-malate dehydrogenase (NADP-MDH) or
transaminated to aspartate by aspartate aminotransferase
(AspAT) in the NADP-ME type and the NAD-ME and
PEP-CK types, respectively. Regeneration of PEP is
catalysed by pyruvate, orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK)
located in the mesophyll cell chloroplasts in all subtypes,
although PEP-CK in the bundle sheath cell cytosol also
participates in this process in the PEP-CK type. Maize
and sugarcane use NADP-ME for the decarboxylation
and these are classified as the NADP-ME type.
Transfer of C4 traits to C3 Plants

Since the discovery of the C4 pathway, it has
been postulated that the transfer of C4 traits to C3 plants
should improve the photosynthetic performance of C3
plants. Initially, conventional hybridization between
C3 and C4 plants was carried out. This approach was
available only in several plant genera and most C3C4 hybrids were infertile (Brown and Bouton, 1993).
Another approach that has been adopted in the last ten
years involves the use of recombinant DNA technology.
With this technology, understanding of the evolution
of C4 photosynthetic genes has been expanded and it
is now possible to express C4 enzymes at high levels
and in desired locations in the leaves of C3 plants. The
evolution of C4 genes together with techniques with
which to overproduce C4 enzymes in the leaves of C3
plants is a successful path towards photorespiration
engineering. The regulation and physiological impacts
of overproduced C4 enzymes in transgenic rice plants
are also presented. The physiological impacts of the
overproduction in potato, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
and Arabidopsis thaliana as well as rice have been
reviewed, Hausler et al., 2002.
Factors affecting the expression levels

of C4 transgenes
The expression of transgenes is hampered
by many mechanisms including the positional effects
(Gelvin, 1998), silencing (Gallie, 1998; Chandler and
Vaucheret, 2001) and rearrangement (Hiei et al., 1994) of
transgenes. During overproducing C4 enzymes studies,
it was found that the rearrangement occurs frequently
during the gene transfer mediated by Agrobacterium
tumefaciens. A significant fraction of transgenic rice
plants introduced with the intact maize C4-specific gene
showed activities of C4 enzymes comparable to or even
lower that that of non-transformants (Ku et al., 1999;
Fukayama et al., 2001). DNA gel-blot analysis of these
low-expressing lines showed that transgenes in all lines
tested sustained partial deletion and/or chimeric linking
(Fukayama et al., 2001). Such rearrangement is not
peculiar to long transgenes with complex exon-intron
structures, and it did occur in five out of nine transgenic
rice plants introduced with a cDNA construct of 4.4 kb.
It is possible that cis-acting elements and/or the transit
sequence are selectively deleted from an introduced gene,
altering the level and/or location of a C4 enzyme in
transgenic C3 plants. The overproduction of C4 enzymes
in C3 plants can be achieved by introducing appropriate
228
gene constructs. It is also necessary to screen a number

of transgenic plants to obtain a desired expression level
of a C4 enzyme and to confirm the enzyme location in
the leaves of C3 plants.
Applications of overproduction of C4
enzymes
A major objective of overproduction of C4
enzymes in C3 plants is to improve the photosynthetic
performance. Hausler et al.,2002 reported none
of the positive effects on photosynthesis have been
observed in transgenic C3 plants overproducing a
single C4 enzyme. Transgenic C3 plants overproducing
multiple enzymes are being produced and analysed in
successful manner. Although the introduction of the
C4-like pathway into the mesophyll cells of C3 plants
is one strategy being adopted (Mann,1999; Surridge,
2002), whether or not this pathway can operate with
desirable effects on C3 photosynthesis is a matter of
controversy (Edwards, 1999; Leegood, 2002;Hausler
et al. 2002). Considering the C4 pathway operating in
a single cell found in some aquatic organisms (Leegood,
2002), it might be possible that the C4-like pathway
could support C3 photosynthesis under some stress
conditions such as drought, in which the CO2 availability
is limited. Apart from photosynthesis, overproduction of
a single C4 enzyme seems to have some positive effects
on physiology of C3 plants. It has been reported that
overproduction of the chloroplastic, but not cytosolic,
PPDK increased the number of seeds per seed capsule
and the weight of each seed capsule in transgenic
tobacco (Sheriff et al., 1998), and that overproduction
of the maize C4-specificc PEPC improved resistance to
aluminium with root elongation in transgenic rice (Miyao
et al., 2001). It is of prime importance to elucidate
mechanisms for these effects and to confirm whether
or not similar phenomena can be generally observed in
different plant species. Taking account of a variety of
housekeeping functions of the C3-specific enzymes, it
is not unlikely that overproduction of C4 enzymes could
improve various features of C3 plants.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
There has been considerable progress in recent
years in the molecular engineering of C4 photosynthesis.
The technology to express the C4 enzymes at high levels
and in the desired locations in the leaves of C3 species
is becoming well established, and it is now possible to

produce transgenic C3 plants that express at least a
set of key enzymes of the C4 pathway. Thus, we have
just reached the starting point in introducing the basic
biochemical elements of the C4 pathway into C3 plants.
Apart from the goal of installation of a complete C4
pathway into C3 plants, some transgenic C3 plants that
overproduce a single C4 enzyme show alterations in
carbon metabolism. These plants are also proving to be
useful tools in probing the housekeeping function(s)
of the C4-like enzymes in C3 plants and the evolution
of the C4 photosynthetic genes. Experiments with
transgenic plants have reinforced the fact that the C4
mechanism is a finely tuned metabolic machine where
both a high degree of precision in gene expression and
structural morphology work together to concentrate
CO2 efficiently at the site of Rubisco.Work with
transgenic C4 Flaveria and also transgenic C3 plants
shows that relatively small changes in leaf biochemistry,
induced by transgene action, can have major deleterious
effects on photosynthetic competence. First, we should
deliver the degree of precision required to coexpress the
necessary genes at the correct levels and ratios in the
correct compartments. For the primary enzymes of the
C4 pathway these preliminary results are promising but
correct posttranslational regulation of the introduced,
heterologous enzymes, fine-tuning of the levels of
ancillary enzymes (such as CA, adenylate kinase, and
pyrophosphatase) and metabolite transporters must
also be addressed. We should create an efficient CO2
concentrating mechanism in a plant lacking Kranz leaf
anatomy, a morphological feature independently arrived
at several times through the convergent evolution of C4
plants. In connection with the key issue, there are good
examples of higher plant CO2 concentrating mechanisms
without Kranzanatomy, namely, the submersed aquatic
macrophytes (SAMs) such as Hydrilla verticillata, in which
an intracellular C4-like pathway is induced in response
to a decline of ambient CO2 concentration. Studies on
the mechanisms of induction of a C4-like pathway in
SAM plants may help us to understand how to introduce
an effective C4-like mechanism to MCs of C3 plants.
However, the performance of an artificially introduced
C4 pathway in C3 crops can only be obtained by the
generation and comprehensive analysis of transgenic
crop plants currently being produced.
229
42
Water Efficient Rice Cultivation
Strategy
C.Sudhalakshmi, V.Velu and T.M. Thiyagarajan
Introduction
Irrigated agriculture consumes more than two

thirds of the available water. Rice is a profligate user of
water. More than 5 tonnes of water is needed to grow
one kilogram of rice. Water use efficiency of rice is only
3.7 kg/ha/mm (Subbian et al., 2000) which is the lowest
compared to any other cereal crop. Opportunities for
the development of new water resources are dwindling.
If food security must be maintained, ways of increasing
the productivity of water must be explored. Rice is not
naturally an aquatic plant (Paurd et al., 1989), which
deserves the fact that limited irrigation may suffice
attaining enhanced yields and outruns the age-old
notion, more the water, higher the crop yields which
strongly persists with a majority of cultivators. Hence
the present investigation was framed to bring out the
possibility of water saving rice cultivation by System of
Rice Intensification method which encompasses modified
planting, irrigation, weeding and nutrient management
strategies.
Field experiments were designed in the wetlands

of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (110 N 770 E)
during the wet season (September 2001 January
2002) with rice hybrid CORH2 (125 days duration) and
during the dry season (February - June 2002) with rice
hybrid ADTRH1 (115 days duration). The soil of the
experimental site was clay loam in texture with pH of
8.3, electrical conductivity was 0.54 dSm-1, organic
carbon content was 8.2 g kg-1, available N (KMnO4
N) was 232 kg ha-1 at the start of the wet season and
190 kg ha-1 at the start of the dry season, Olsen P
was 32 kg ha-1 and available K (NH4 O Ac K ) was
740 kg ha-1.
The treatments included two methods under
each of the four factors studied viz., planting, irrigation,
weeding and nutrition.
P1: Transplanting 24 days old conventional nursery
seedlings at 20 x 20 cm spacing.
230
P2: Transplanting 10 12 days old dapog nursery

seedlings at 20 x 20 cm spacing during wet season and
direct seeding during dry season.
I1: Irrigating the field to 5 cm one day after the
disappearance of ponded water
I2: Irrigating the field to 2 cm after the development of
hairline cracks.
W1: Manual hand weeding twice as per the farmers
practice (weeds removed)
W2: Weeding by conoweeder at 10 days interval upto
maximum vegetative period (weeds buried)
N1: Recommended level of N, P, K and Zn without the
addition of green manures
N2: Recommended level of N,
Zn with the addition of green
6.25 t ha-1.
P, K and
manures @
The experiment was laid out in strip plot

design with the treatments replicated four times. Water
management was effected using parshall flume placed in
the field. Rainwater during the experimental period was
also monitored. Grain yields (14 % moisture) were based
on 13.5 and 13.0 m2 of each plot in the wet and dry
seasons respectively. Gross size of the plots in both the
seasons was 26.4 m2. Plant samples were collected as
suggested by Thiyagarajan et al., 1995 and the crop data
were analysed using GENSTAT (Payne et al., 2002).
submergence. But during dry season, conventional

irrigation has registered a significantly higher grain yield
(6492 kg ha-1) as against 6171 kg ha-1 observed under
limited irrigation (Table 2).
In the wet season, grain yield under limited
irrigation was similar to that recorded under conventional
irrigation which implies that there is immense scope for
water saving rice culture in wet season. However the rate
of uptake of nutrients was less under modified irrigation
which depicts the occurrence of internal water stress due
to reduced water potential. The productivity of major
nutrients was also lower under limited irrigation during
both the seasons which would have attributed for this
decline in yield. During dry season, limited irrigation was
continued upto maturity as compared to flowering in the
wet season. The extended period of limited irrigation
reduced yields in the dry season.
During crop growth, the total rainfall was 3560
m3ha-1 in the wet season and only 560 m3ha-1 in
the dry season. The total number of irrigations and
frequency of irrigation were higher in the dry season.
Water productivity (grain yield per unit of total water
used, i.e. irrigation and rainfall) was higher under limited
irrigation during both the seasons irrespective of the
methods of planting. Also water productivity was higher
during dry season compared to wet season (Table 3). The
water productivity levels realized with limited irrigation
are in the range typical for Philippines, i.e., 0.3 1.1 kg
m-3 (Bouman and Toung, 2000).
Conclusion
It can be inferred from the table that water saving

irrigation, though has resulted in reduced grain yields
during wet season, it did not show statistical significance
with that of yield recorded under conventional irrigation
(Table 1). Ramamoorthy et al. (1993) reported that
intermittent application of irrigation water 1 to 5
days after the disappearance of standing water saved
25 to 50 % irrigation water compared to continuous
submerged conditions. Purushothaman and Jeyaraman
(1992) observed that partial submergence of rice fields at
critical stages of growth gave similar yields as continuous
From the results obtained from the present study

it is quite evident that limited irrigation can suit only
during wet season without drastic reduction in yield.
Limited irrigation does not suit dry season due to reduced
internal water potential. However the duration of the
limited irrigation is an important factor in maintaining
yield levels currently realized with flood irrigation. Limited
irrigation thus has immense scope during wet season but
during dry season, the duration of limited irrigation must
be considered to sustain rice productivity.
231
Table 1. Grain yield of rice hybrid CORH 2 in wet season (2001 - 02)
P1
W1
W2
P2
Mean
Mean
N1
6151
6199
6841
6268
6365
N2
6000
6195
5893
5059
5787
N1
6008
6908
6838
6707
6615
N2
6343
6349
7612
7126
6858
Mean
6269
Mean
6543
I1 = 6461 I2 = 6352
6076
6737
6407
N1= 6490 N2 = 6322
Table 2. Grain yield of rice hybrid ADTRH 1 in dry season (2001 - 02)
P1
W1
W2
P2
Mean
Mean
6226
N1
6009
5694
6682
6366
6187
N2
6261
5809
6600
6391
6265
N1
6240
6014
6890
6400
6386
N2
6311
6080
6941
6612
6486
Mean
6052
Mean
I1 = 6492 I2 = 6171
6610
6436
6311
N1= 6287 N2 = 6376
Table 3. Water productivity of irrigation regimes in SRI

Particulars
Wet season
Dry season
I1
I2
I1
I2
15
10
23
17
Amount of irrigation water supplied (m3 ha-1)
12600
5952
15020
7316
Rainfall in growing season (m3 ha-1)
3560
3560
560
560
Total supply (m3 ha-1)
16025
9512
15580
7876
Yield (kg ha-1)
6461
6352
6492
6171
Water productivity (kg m-3)
0.400
0.673
0.419
0.795
Number of irrigations
232
References
Bouman, B.A.M. and Toung, T.P. 2000. Field water management to save water and increase its productivity in
irrigated lowland rice. Agricultural Water Management. 1615 : 1- 20.
Paurd, M., Couchat, P and Laseve, G. 1989. Etude des mecnisms d adaptation du riz aux contraintes du milieu I :
Modification de l anaomic cellulaire. L Agronomic Tropicale. 44: 156-173.
Payne, R., Murray, D., Harding, S., Baird, D., Sontar, D. and Lane, P. 2002. Genstat for window TM (6th edition).
Introduction VSN International.
Purushothaman, S. and Jeyaraman, S. 1992. Influence of weed control methods under different irrigation regimes
on total water requirement and water use efficiency in transplanted rice. Madras Agric. J., 79 : 641 644.
Ramamoorhty, K., Selvaraj, K.V. and Chinnaswami, K.N. 1993. Varietal response of rice (Oryza sativa) to different
irrigation regimes. Indian J. Agron., 38 : 468 469.
Subbian, P., Annadurai, K. and Palaniappan, S.P. 2000. In : Agriculture: facts and figures. Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana.
Thiyagarajan, T.M., Sivasamy, R. and Budhar, M.N. 1995. Procedure for collecting plant samples at different growth
stages of transplanted rice crop. In: Nitrogen management studies in irrigated rice. Proceedings of the SARP
applications workshops held at the International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Philippines.
233
43
A Study on Adoption Behaviour
of Dry Land Farmers
K. Thangaraja*, C. Karthikeyan** J.Venkatapirabu**& M.Asokhan**
Introduction
Dry land agriculture in India is always a
challenge, since crop production in dry land depends
on monsoon showers. Dry land area receives less than
750 mm rainfall. Out of the net sown area of 136.18
m ha, the dry land accounts for 93.13 m ha (68.4%)
and contribute 55 million tonnes of food production.
This dryland agriculture from 93m ha supports 40 per
cent of human population, 60 per cent of cattle heads
and contributes 44 per cent to total food production in
India (Kannaiyan et al; 2001). Area under rainfed crops
included sorghum to a tune of 93.8 per cent and maize
77.4 per cent. About 42 per cent of total food grain
production of the country is received from dry farming
regions. Almost the entire quantity of coarse grains, 90
per cent of sorghum is produced in dry farming regions.
So, for meeting the targeted food grain production of
240 million tonnes in the beginning of 21st century,
production from dry lands has to be increased from 60
million tonnes to about 144 million tones by 2000 AD
(Veerabadran et al., 2000).
In Tamil Nadu, area under dry farming constitutes

52 per cent of the total cultivable area contributing to 40
per cent of total food production. The productivity of
crops grown in dryland is not only low but also remains
stagnant over years. Tamil Nadu has a total geographical
area of 13 m ha, of which 7 m ha is cultivable area. From
the total cultivable area, around 3.1m ha are occupied by
dry land crops. Most of the areas in Tamil Nadu come
under semi arid tropical climate except the hilly regions
and East coast. Out of 5.50 m ha of net sown area,
nearly 3.20 m ha are rain fed (Kannaiyan et al., 2001).
Majority of the dry land farmers are small farmers
with scarce resources. The poor resource base allows
only low input subsistence farming with low and unstable
crop yield. Theres a strong need to channelise the
efforts to increase the crop yield in dry land. Increased
population and less per capita availability of land created
an immediate necessity to increase productivity and
bridge the gap between the potential yield and actual
yield. Thus, there is a need to identify the socio-economic
characteristics of the farmers which may influence the
234
rate of adoption of dryland technologies leading to

increased yield and to tap the untapped land, labour and
available technical resources. Hence a study was taken
up to assess the extent of adoption of selected dry land
crops in Reddiarchataram block of Dindigul district.
METHODOLOGY
The study was taken up in Dindigul district of
Tamil Nadu. Reddiarchatram block was purposively
selected for the study, since their main occupation of
most of the people was agriculture, which depended on
poor and erratic rainfall, majority of the farmers in the
sampled block had been practicing dry farming. The
sample size was 90 farmers consisting 45 maize growers
and 45 sorghum growers. The selection of 30 farmers
was done at random in each village. Thus, 10 farmers
were selected from each of the nine villages covering
three revenue villages using simple random sampling
technique. The data were collected with well-structured
and pre-tested interview schedule. Percentage analysis
was used for data analysis.
Findings and Discussion

Practice wise Extent of adoption of the dry
land technologies in maize and sorghum The extent of
adoption of the selected 12 recommended practices in
maize and sorghum crops by the dry land farmers was
studied in terms of full adoption, partial adoption and
non-adoption and the results are presented in table.
Summer Ploughing
It is seen from the table that, more than threefourth (82.22%) of the maize growers had full adoption
(3-4 ploughing) of summer ploughing practice while
17.78 per cent had partial adoption. Similarly, a majority
(66.67%) of the sorghum growers had adopted summer
ploughing fully (i.e. 2-3 times). The rest of 22.22 per
cent of the sorghum growers had partial adoption of
summer ploughing. Summer ploughing is important for
eradication of weeds and conserving the soil moisture in
dry land area.
Recommended Variety / Hybrid

Cent percent of the maize growers have not
adopted the recommended variety / hybrid in maize
crops. But they adopted Icel hybrid and kargil variety.
Like wise cent percent of the sorghum growers had full
adoption of recommended sorghum variety namely K3
and K4.
Seed Rate
More than three-fourth (88.89%) of the maize
growers had full adoption of recommended quantity
of seed rate (7 kg/ac). While about 11.11 per cent
of the farmers had partial adoption. Like wise 17.78
per cent of the sorghum growers had full adoption of
recommended quantity of seed rate (5 kg/ac), the rest
more than three-fourth (82.22%) of the sorghum growers
had partial adoption, this might be due to the reason
that the germination is low in dry land area. so, they had
used higher seed rate.
Seed Treatment
Very few maize growers (8.89%) had full
adoption of bio-fertilizers in general i.e., Azospirillum
/ Phosphobacteria 4 pockets /ac in their field and
11.11 per cent of the farmers had partial adoption and
remaining 80.00 per cent of the farmers did not adopt
the biofertilizers. More than one-tenth (11.11%)of the
sorghum growers had full adoption of bio-fertilizers,
Azospirillum 4 pockets/ac in their field and 4.44 per
cent of the farmers had partial adoption. The rest 84.44
per cent of the sorghum growers did not adopt the biofertilizers. The reason might be that the non-availability
of bio-fertilizers and lack of knowledge about the use of
bio-fertilizers.
Spacing
About 40.00 per cent of the maize growers
adopted the recommended spacing (45 x 20 cm) and
60.00 per cent of them had partial adoption. Similarly
cent per cent of the sorghum growers had partial adopt.
This might be due to their lack of knowledge about the
spacing to be adopted for dry land crops (maize and
sorghum).
Manures
More than one-fourth (31.11%) of the maize
growers had full adoption about the application of 5.0t
FYM/ac during the last ploughing, while majority (68%)
of the farmers had partial adoption. Likewise majority
(80%) of the sorghum growers had partial adoption
followed by one-fifth (20%) of them did not adoption.
Normally organic matter application was done to improve
soil fertility. Wherever it was available they might have
applied, while few had not applied the recommended
level depending on its availability.
235
Fertilizers
Major Disease Management
More than one-tenth (11.11%) of the maize

growers had full adoption of application of (90 kg urea
+ 70 kg DAP + 45 kg potash per acre) fertilizer and
majority (88.89%) of the farmers had shown partial
adoption. Similarly majority (64.44%) of the sorghum
growers had partial adoption of application of (16: 8: 0
NPK kg/ac) fertilizers followed by 35.56 per cent of the
farmers expressed non-adoption. The farmers might not
have the knowledge about the benefit of split application
of fertilizers coupled with lack of money for investment
and this may be the reason for such results.
Very few (6.67%) maize growers had partial

adoption of disease management i.e., leaf spot, powdery
mildew controlled by application of Metalaxyl 72 wp @
500 g/ac or Mangozeb 500 g/ac 30 DAS. While about
a majority (93.33%) of the farmers did not adopt the
practice. Similarly cent percent of the sorghum growers
did not adopt any disease management practice in dry
land area. This might be due to less pest and disease
incidence in the crop.
Micronutrient
Majority (62.22%) of the maize growers had

harvested the crop in the right time after the maturity,
which had reflected in full adoption followed by 37.78
per cent of farmers had revealed partial adoption.
Likewise 71.11 per cent of the sorghum growers had
full adoption of the practice. The rest of 28.89 per cent
of the farmers had partial adoption of the practice. The
reason for this was due to the demand of labour and high
cost of labour during harvesting of maize and sorghum
(January February).
Less than one-tenth (8.89%) of the maize growers

had revealed full adoption of micronutrients. A few of
them 6.67% adopted Znso4 10 kg/ac partially followed
by majority (84.44%) of them did not adopt. Similarly,
few (4.44%) of the sorghum growers had full adoption
of micronutrients (Znso4 10kg/ac) followed by less
than one-tenth (8.89%) of farmers had partial adoption.
The rest (86.67%) of the farmers did not adopt. This is
due to the lack of knowledge and awareness about the
advantages of micronutrient application to the crops.
Weedicide Application
About one-tenth (8.89%) of the maize growers
had partially adopted post emergence herbicides i.e., 15
DAS (Atrazine 500 g/ac) followed by majority (91.11%)
of the farmers did not adopt. Like wise cent percent
of the sorghum growers did not adopt any weedicide
application. The reason for non-adoption of majority of
the farmers was due to the high cost of herbicide and
lack of knowledge on herbicide usage.
Major Pest Management

More than one-tenth (11.11%) of the maize
growers had partial adoption of pest management
i.e., stem borer, cob borer controlled by application of
pesticides (Endosulfan 500 ml/ac or Quinolphos 25 EC
500 ml/ac) followed by majority (88.89%) of farmers
did not adopt any pest management practices. Similarly
cent percent of the sorghum growers did not adopt any
pest management practices. The reason was maize and
sorghum crops are more resistant to pest attack in dry
land area.
Stage of Harvest
Conclusion
This study clearly shows the practice wise
adoption of dry land technologies by farmers. Accordingly
full adoption was found against summer ploughing,
recommended variety in sorghum, usage of seed rate
in maize, timely harvesting followed by partial adoption
was found against the usage of seed rate in sorghum,
adoption of spacing and application of manures and
fertilizers in maize and sorghum crops. Similarly nonadoption was found against recommended variety/hybrid
in maize, seed treatment with biofertilizers, application
of micronutrients and weedicide, major pest and disease
management. It was observed that the dry land farmers
due to inadequate investment could not get timely inputs
like seeds and fertilizers and other agricultural inputs.
Lack of farm power and lack of contact with agricultural
officers, would have been the possible reasons for low
level of adoption of dry land technologies. It is suggested
to provide timely inputs at subsidized rate by government
societies and agriculture depots. Village level extension
officers should take efforts to conduct meetings and
demonstrations for out reach of technologies. Field visit
may be organized to further promote the adoption of dry
land technologies among the farming community in dry
land areas.
236
References
Kannaiyan,
S.,
T.M.
Thiyagarajan,
M.
Subramanian,
T.N.
Balasubramanian
and
R.Selvaraj. 2001. Dryland green revolution in Tamil Nadu : The Perspectives, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Press, Coimbatore.
Veerabadran, V., B. Gururajan and B.J. Pandian. 2000. Dry farming and its importance in Indian Agriculture,
Dry farming, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Madurai.
Table. Distribution of farmers according to technology- wise extent of adoption

Sl. No.
Technologies
Extent of adoption
Maize (n=45)
1.
2.
Summer
ploughing
Recommended
variety / hybrid
3.
Seed rate
4.
Seed
treatment
*Bio-fertilizers
*Fungicide
Sorghum (n=45)
Full
adoption
Partial
adoption
Non
adoption
Full
adoption
Partial
adoption
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
37
82.22
17.78
30
66.67
10
22.22
45
100.00
45
100.00
40
88.89
11.11
17.78
37
82.22
8.89
11.11
36
80.00
11.11
4.44
38
84.44
Non
adoption
5.
Spacing
18
40.00
27
60.00
45
100.00
6.
Manures
14
31.11
31
68.89
36
80.00
20.00
7.
Fertilizer
11.11
40
88.89
29
64.44
16
35.56
8.
Micronutrient
8.89
6.67
38
84.44
4.44
8.89
39
86.67
9.
Weedicide
application
8.89
41
91.11
45
100.00
Major pest
management
11.11
40
88.89
45
100.00
Major disease
management
6.67
42
93.33
45
100.00
28
62.22
17
37.78
32
71.11
13
28.89
10.
11.
12.
Stage of
harvest
237
44
Effect of Crop Geometry
Cropping System in Bhendi
Under Drip Fertigation
G.Vijayakumar1, D.Palanisamy2, M.V. Ranghaswami3 and D. Tamilmani2
Introduction
Indias crop production suffers mainly from the
availability of water. Thus, water is the most limiting factor
in the Indian agricultural scenario. Due to water scarcity,
the available water resources should be very effectively
utilized through water saving irrigation technologies such
as drip and sprinkler irrigation. Now a day, the irrigation
technology is growing day by day; among the irrigation
methods, drip irrigation may be more desirable over
sprinkler and surface irrigation methods, as it minimizes
losses due to runoff, deep percolation and possible
soil water evaporation. Also, fertigation offers the best
solution for intensive and economical crop production
where both water and fertilizers are delivered to crop
through drip system.
Materials
experimental field soil having sandy loam soil in texture

with 7.66 pH and 1.13 dSm-1 of electrical conductivity.
Also, the available N, P and K of the experiment field is
84.07, 74.21 and 261.3 kg/ha respectively.
Methods
Experimental details
According to Jadhav et al., (2002) the irrigation
of experimental field were scheduled as given below,
WR = Water requirement of crop in lit/day

Epan = Pan evaporation in mm,
Kp = Pan factor, Kc = Crop factor,
Wp = Wetted percentage (0.4, adopted from FAO paper,
1980, Vol.36) and
Field location
Field studies were conducted at Thondamuthur
in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu during the year
2004. The field is located at 110 N latitude, 770 E
longitude with an altitude of 256 m above MSL. In the
A = Crop area in Sq.mt. (0.3 x 0.3 m).

Hence, the time scheduling of drip irrigation
operation in minutes for different cropping stages of
bhendi was determined and given in Table. 1.
238
Design and Treatments
Evaluation
The experimental plot was laid out in a

randomized block design with four treatments and seven
replication for the study.
The effect of plant height, number of leaves per

plant, weed properties, depth of root formation and
yield components was evaluated under different fertilizer
recommendation levels of bhendi crop.
T1 Nitrogen at 100 % of recommended level,

Fertilizer Use Efficiency
Fertilizer use efficiency was calculated by using

the following formula and expressed in per cent.
T4 Nitrogen at 100 % of recommended level by manual

feeding.
Experiment Layout
Fertilizer Use Efficiency (%) = Yield (kg/ha)/

Fertilizer Utilized (kg/ha)
Moisture distribution pattern in drip

irrigation
From the water source, the water was pumped

through 15 HP motor and conveyed to the field with 50
mm diameter PVC main pipe line. From the main line,
40 mm diameter sub main PVC pipes were taken off.
Then, the 16mm LLDPE lateral pipes were taken on
both the sides to irrigate the fields from sub main pipe
line; finally the water is distributed to crops with an 8 lph
on line emitters.
Wetting front advance and depth of wetting

in drip systems were recorded for different times of
emissions, before and after irrigation to fix the optimum
and economical emitter spacing. The soil moisture
contour maps were plotted using the computer software
package surfer of windows version.
Fertilizer Application
Economics
The recommended fertilizer level of bhendi crop

is 40:50:30 kg/ha N, P and K respectively. The entire
phosphorus and one fifth of nitrogen and potash were
applied as basal. The balance nitrogen and potassium
were applied in nine equal splits at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
60, 70, 80 and 90 days after sowing (DAS) through
ventury fitted in the main pipe line.
Gross and net income per ha and benefit- cost

ratios were worked out based on the cost of cultivation,
cost of input and sale of produce.
Fig. 1. Experimental layout of four rows planting.
Results
Soil moisture distribution pattern
Moisture contents were observed in drip irrigated
experimental plot at surface, 15, 30 and 45 cm depth
at a distance of 15 and 45 cm from emitter on both
sides. Observed moisture content from emitter point,
the moisture content was gradually decreased while
the distance from the emitter increased. The moisture
content on surface is lower compared at 15 cm and 30
cm depths, because of pores space of the sandy loam
soil and gravitational force of the water. It shows that the
moisture available was evenly distributed before irrigation
and it was then gradually increased with increase in
depth. Near the surface, the soil moisture was minimum
(12.1 to 12.9 per cent). The soil moisture obtained before
irrigation up to 45 cm depth was 12.1 to 15.1 per cent.
The contour maps are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
239
Effect of nitrogen levels on growth

parameters
Shoot length
The height of bhendi crop 15 days after sowing
(DAS), the maximum plant height of 34.6 cm was
recorded under drip irrigation at 80 per cent nitrogen
fertilizer recommended level (T2). The plant heights of
32.8, 31.6 and 29.8 cm were recorded in T1, T3 and T4
respectively. The CD and SEd values were found to be
1.99 and 0.911 respectively. The T1, T3 and T4 are on
par each other. By increasing nitrogen levels, the plant
height was increased during the cropping season. Drip
irrigation at 80 per cent nitrogen fertilizer recommended
level (T2) produced taller plants of 36.82 cm at 15 DAS.
The taller plants of 74.68, 116.28, 151.28, 187.28 and
221.34 cm in T2 were recorded 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90
DAS.
Number of leaves per plant

The number of leaves per plant was recorded
at 15 days interval after sowing to study the aspect of
influence of nitrogen levels. Nitrogen at 80 per cent of
recommended level (T2) registered significantly more
number of leaves of 5.4. Nitrogen at 100 per cent of
recommended level (T1) average number of leaves were
4.6 closely followed by 4.4 in nitrogen at 60 per cent of
recommended level (T3), where as the number of leaves
in control plot (T4) was 4.7. The results of analysis of
variance showed that among the treatments treatment

(T2) was found to be significant at 5 per cent level of
significance. The CD and SEd values were found to be
1.50 and 0.69 respectively at 90 DAS. The T1, T3 are
on par each other and T4 were found to be poorest
performing treatment.
Root Growth
Nitrogen levels greatly influenced the root depth
formation during the cropping season. The depth
was greater in drip irrigation at 80 per cent nitrogen
recommended level (T2) of 28.6 cm at harvest stage. The
root depths of 26.4, 25.4 and 22.5 cm were recorded
in T1, T3 and T4 respectively. The diameter of the root
spread was was highest of (52.9) cm under drip irrigation
at 100 per cent nitrogen fertilizer recommended level
(T1), whereas the root diameter of 51.1, 50.5, and 50.3
cm were measured in T2, T3 and T4 respectively.
The analysis of data observed that among
the treatments tried, treatment (T2) was found to be
significant in number of roots per plant at 5 per cent
level of significance at harvest.
The CD and SEd values were found to be 4.64
and 2.13 respectively. The T1, T2 are on par each other.
The T4 was poorest performing treatment. The root
diameter and tap root length were found to be significant
in T1 at 5 per cent level of significant. The CD and SEd
values were 0.39 and 0.85 respectively.
Influences of nitrogen levels on yield

Nitrogen at 80 per cent recommended level (T2)
gave the highest yield of 10,676.01 and 9931.707 kg/
ha by the treatment T1 followed by the treatment T4
with the yield of 9874.07 kg/ha, where as the lowest
yield was recorded in the treatment in nitrogen at 60 per
cent recommended level (T3) of 9499.97 kg/ha.
The analysis of data revealed that among
the treatments tried, treatment (T2) was found to be
significant at 5 per cent level of significance. The plant
height and number of leaves were high in T2 resulted
in higher yield, due to more number of inter nodes and
more number of flowering.
Fertilizer use efficiency

The highest fertilizer use efficiency of 95.32
per cent was found out in drip irrigation with nitrogen
at 80 per cent of recommended level (T2) due to
high yield of bhendi with effective fertilizer utilized as
240
compared to other treatments, where as in 60 per cent

of recommended level (T3) the efficiency was worked out
as 91.34 per cent. The fertilizer use efficiency of 82.76
per cent and 82.28 per cent were recorded in T1 and
T4 treatments respectively.
A relatively high yield of 10676.01 kg/ha
was recorded in T2 at 80 per cent effective nitrogen
recommended level as compared to the yield of 9874.07
kg/ha in T4. The CD and SEd values were found to be
5.18 and 3.54 respectively.
Cost Economics
The life of the drip material was taken as 6
years, interest at 8 per cent of fixed cost, the repair and
maintenance cost at 2 per cent of fixed cost were taken
in to consideration to work out the cost economics. The
fixed cost of the installation of drip irrigation was Rs.
43,143 per ha for the first three treatments and control
treatment, the fixed cost of installation for drip irrigation
was Rs. 75,000 per ha due to closer lateral spacing. The
gross income per ha were obtained from treatment T1,
T2, T3 and T4 were Rs. 49,658, 53,380, 47,499 and
47,370 respectively.
The treatment T2 registered the highest gross

income of Rs.53, 380 per ha because of high yield due
to effective and optimal nitrogen uptake. The benefitcost ratio was also higher (2.01) in this treatment (T2)
compared to all other treatments (Table 2). In control
plot (T4) the benefit-cost ratio was low of 1.41 than
fertigated treatments.
Conclusions
The suitable drip system was designed, based
on the observations recorded on the physio-chemical
properties of soil and water of the experimental plot.
From the study, it could be concluded that for bhendi
crop,
To reduce the initial investment cost of drip
system, the laterals may be laid at 240 cm spacing and
recommended to adopt 4 rows of planting at a plant
spacing of 30X30 cm. By adopting this new technique it
is possible to reduce the system cost by 17.4 per cent.
Drip irrigation with nitrogen at 80 per cent of
recommended level (T2) was found to be effective in
producing highest fertilizer use efficiency and maximum
return.
References
Hegin, J. and A. Lowengart (1995). Fertigation for minimizing environment pollution by fertilizers. Fort. Research
Kluwer Academic Publishers 1995/1996. 43: 5-7.
Jadhav, A.S. patil, M.T and P.V.Patil (2002). Protected cultivation, Hi-tech floriculture and vegetable project, college
of agriculture, Pune. Pp 71-72.
Kaul, R.K (1979). Hydraulic of moisture front advance in drip irrigation, Ph.D thesis submitted to IARI, New Delhi,
India.
Klepper, B (1991). Crop root system response to irrigation. Irrigation Science, 12: 105-106.
Selvaraj, P.K. 1997 Optimization of irrigation scheduling and nitrogen fertigation for maximizing the water use efficiency
of turmeric in drip irrigation PhD Thesis submitted to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

241
Table. 1 Time schedule of drip irrigation operation under cropping stages.

Sl.
No.
Stage of crop growth
1
2
3
4
5
Emergency to early growth

Initial period to growth
Major crop growth period
Flowering stage
Harvesting stage
Water
requirement
(lit/crop)
0.5
0.75
1.25
2
1.5
Water released per

emitter (lpd)
(8 Plants)
4
6
10
16
12
Time of
operation
(min)
30
45
75
120
90
Table. 2 Cost economics of drip irrigation system for bhendi in 1 ha

Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7
8.
Description
Fixed cost (Rs).

Life (year)
Depreciation (Rs)
Interest @ 8 % (Rs)
Repair and Maintenance (Rs)
Total cost, (Rs).
Cost of cultivation, (Rs/ha)
Seasonal total cost, (Rs).
Yield produce (t/ha)
Selling price (Rs/t)
Income from produce, (Rs).
Net seasonal income (Rs)
Benefit - Cost ratio
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
43,143
6
7190
3,451
862
11,503
15,000
26,503
9.9317
5,000
49,658
23,155
1.87
43,143
6
7190
3,451
862
11,503
15,000
26,503
10.676
5,000
53,380
26,877
2.01
43,143
6
7190
3,451
862
11,503
15,000
26,503
9.4999
5,000
47,499
20,996
1.79
75,000
6
12,500
6,000
1,500
20,000
15,000
35,000
9.874
5,000
49,370
14,370
1.41
242

" Aditya Singh Rathour" Water Harvesting Bringing Green Revolution To Rain-Fed Areas

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" Aditya Singh Rathour" Water Harvesting Bringing Green Revolution To Rain-Fed Areas

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WATER HARVESTING

Brining Green Revolution to Rainfed Areas

Proceedings of the International Symposium

Dr. Arumugam Kandiah

A. Balakrishnan, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agriculture University, Coimbatore, India

A.K.Sinha, Professor, Department of Geology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India

Management of Aquifer Recharge The key to sustainable rural groundwater

In situ Rainwater Harvesting and Related Soil & Water Conservation

Low Cost On-Farm Indigenous and Innovative Technologies of Rainwater

Integrating In-situ Soil Moisuture Conservation Techniques and Supplementary

Conservation of Rainwater and Sustainaility of Productivity through Imporved

Implements for Water Harvesting and In-stiu Mositure conservation,

Effect of In-situ Conservations practices on runoff, soil loss and yield

Drought Mitigation through Floodwater Harvesting for the Artificial Recharge

Tank Systems for Water Harvesting, R.Sakthivadivel

Water Harvesting and Ground Water Recharge, N.Varadaraj

Potential of Water Harvesting as a Tool for Drought Mitigation, S.Mohan

Impact of cost effective water harvesting techniques on artificial groundwater

Rain water harvesting, recharging and skimming techniques suitable for

Crop Management Options to Enhance Water Productivity of Rainfed Area,

Opportunity for Enhancing Crop Water Produtivity in Rainfed Areas::

Improving Productivity in Dryland Groundnut Framing LEISA Otucomes

Integrated Farming System for Increasing Agricultural Wter Productivity,

Generation of regional water harvesting potential scenarios using

Improving Water Productivity in Maize by Nutriseed Holder Techinque under

Aerobic Rice for mitigating water scarity: Physilogical approaches,

Socio-Economic Issues in Watershed Development Programs, Madar Samad

Community Resource Management: Much needed strategy in Tank

Indigenous Knowledge use in Dryland, P. Balasubramaniam,

Priciples and Policty Perspective of Rain Water Harvesting,

Impact of National Watershed Programmed for Rainfed Agriculture. A case

Holistic Watershed Development A practical Approach for

Natures own water harvesting- Groundwater recharge in some

Role of Research, Extension and Education in Water Harvesting

Tamil Nadu, India, D.Tamilmani, A.Raviraj and S.SanthanaBosu

absorption of floodwaters to reduce their destructive

Managed Aquifer Recharge should be regarded

Managed Aquifer Recharge Techniques

Managed Aquifer Recharge is carried out all over

Numerous schemes exist to enhance recharge

Other reasons to manage aquifer recharge

erosion. Here the focus is on intentional recharge, the

Infiltration or Recharge Ponds or

The depth of the basin should be shallow enough,

Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT)

close to ground surface. The wastewater contains

results in wastewater becoming regarded as an asset rather

An example: the AGRAR study, India (Gale et al.,

In order to quantify the impacts of check dam

The use of urban wastewater for irrigation can

Kolwan Valley, Maharashtra (ACWADAM). The

Sand Storage Dams

Where flow is very flashy and contains large

The additional water that the recharge structures

Wells, Shafts and Boreholes

The equivalent depth (4.8 to 12 mm) of additional

Open Wells and Shafts

adjacent to the surface water body (OHare et al., 1982).

reduce the potential for clogging of pores, particularly

A particular variant of this method is used in

Use of wells has the potential to introduce not

Drilled Wells and Boreholes

A key objective of these types of schemes is