Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
I. Introduction:
The quality of the analytical results produced by the laboratory depends on
a. The purity of chemicals used as analytical reagents.
b. The availability and quality of the reference materials used to calibrate assays.
The solutes and solvents used in analytical work are reagent grade chemicals,
among which water is a solvent of primary importance. Preparation of most regents and
solutions used ion the clinical laboratory requires pure water. Now the term Pure Water
is replaced by Reagent Grade Water followed by designation of type I, type II & type
III, which defines the specification of the water and is independent of method of
purification.
II. Grades of Water:
The specifications / guidelines proposed by NCCLS (National Committee of
Clinical Laboratory Standards) for the three grades of water are as follows
Type I
Type II
Type III
Microbial Content
< 10
< 1000
NS
pH
NS
NS
5-8
Resistivity M/cm
> 10
>2
> 1.0
< 0.05
< 0.1
< 1.0
NS
NS
Organic
NS
NS
Silicate mg/L
Activated Carbon
Advantages:
Removes dissolved coionized solids particulate matter pyrogens or toxins, micro
organisms and to some extent dissolved ionized gases or substances with low boiling
point.
2.Deionization:
Process:
Removal of ions to produce mineral free deionized water by the use of mixed bed
residue charged with hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.
Advantage: Removes effectively dissolved ionized solids gases.
Disadvantages: Fails to remove organic matter, particulate matter, organisms, pyrogens
and toxins.
3. Reverse Osmosis:
Process: Water is forced through a semi permeable membrane that acts as a molecular
filter.
Advantage: (Similar to distillation) Removes dissolved ionized solids organics
particulate matter microorganisms.
Disadvantages: Does not remove dissolved ionized gases.
4.Carbon Adsorption: Removes only dissolved organics. Activated carbon removes
dissolved chlorine gas alone.
Microbial
contaminant. When
water
is
removed
from
storage
to
secondary
Pyrogens :
Some immunoassays are interfered by pyrogens. In such cases, it can be routinely
monitored.
Silica:
Interferences with trace metal and electrolyte analyses, enzyme determinations.
Can be measured by spectrometrical analysis.
Organic Contaminants:
Purification system is not maintained properly can act as a source of organic
contaminants.
Hence instead of using those non specific (Permanganate)/cost (HPLC)
techniques for assessing organic constituents, it is better to maintain the system
optimally or couple it with UV Oxidation techniques.
Comparison of Water Purification Process.
Purification
process
Distillation
Micro
Pyrogen
Organism /Endotoxin
+
+
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
Reverse
Osmosis
Carbon
Absorption
Chemical
Oxidation
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Deionizer
Filtration
Ultra Filtration
Nano Filtration
UV Oxidation
UV
Sterilization