Flooring & Roofing

UNIT 1 i
Flooring and roofing construction
Unit 1
TCM 301/05
Advanced Construction
Technology
Flooring and Roofing

Construction
ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

TCM 301/05 Advanced Construction Technology
COURSE TEAM
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COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Chan Yuan Eng
EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Professor Badorul Hisham bin Abu Bakar, Universiti Sains Malaysia
PRODUCTION
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UNIT 1 iii
Contents
Unit 1 Flooring and Roofing
Construction
Course overview
Unit overview
Unit objectives
1.1 Reinforced concrete floors
Objectives
Introduction
Solid concrete floor
Lift-slab system
Waffle slab
11
Suggested answers to activity
14
1.2 Steel floors
15
Objectives
15
Introduction
15
Steel deck floor
15
Slimfloor
17
19
1.3 Stairs
21
Objectives
21
Introduction
21
Components of stairs
21
iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Types of stairs
24
Reinforced concrete stairs
26
Timber stairs
27
29
1.4 Ramps
31
Objectives
31
Introduction
31
Car ramps
31
Pedestrian ramps
32
Handicap access
33
35
1.5 Roofs
37
Objectives
37
Introduction
37
Pitched roofs
37
Flat roofs
39
42
Summary of Unit 1
43
Unit practice exercise
45
Suggested answers to self-tests
47
Suggested answers to unit practice exercise
51
Terminology
53
References
55
UNIT 1 1
Course Overview
CM 301/05 Advanced Construction Technology is a 5-credit higher-level course
within the Bachelor of Technology in Construction Management (BTCM)
programme. It is a basic major course and must be taken by all students wishing to
complete their BTCM degree.
TCM 301/05 provides you with knowledge in advanced construction technology.

It introduces you to the unique features, advantages and also disadvantages of some
of the advanced construction techniques over the conventional ones. Furthermore,
the constructions of some advanced structures, i.e., high rise buildings, deep
basement, earth retaining structures, cable and arch structures and infrastructures,
i.e., tunnel, dam and jetty will also be discussed in this course. This course will
further enhance your understanding particularly on these advanced construction
technology and help you to become a more competent construction manager.
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify various common and advanced types of floor and roof systems.
2. Describe the design considerations and constructions of various types of
ramps and stairs.
3. Explain the construction techniques for deep basement.
4. Identify the types of earth retaining structures.
5. Examine the stability of various types of earth retaining structures.
6. Explain the types of high rise structures.
7. Describe the common Industrialised Building System (IBS) practiced in
Malaysia.
8. Describe the installations of various types of services for high rise buildings.
9. Determine the stability of cables subjected to point loads and uniform loads.
10. Determine the stability of arch structures.
11. Explain the applications of cables and arches in construction.
12. Describe the design concept, equipment and machinery as well as safety
and health concerns of tunnels, dams and embankments and jetty
constructions.
13. Explain the factors and implications that affect design concept, equipment
and machinery and health concerns for various civil works.
2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

UNIT 1 3
Unit Overview
elcome to Unit 1 of TCM 301/05 Advanced Construction Technology. In this
unit, you will have an overview of the constructions of floor and roof systems,
as well as stairs and ramps.
This unit is organised into five sections:

In section one, you are introduced with the types of advanced reinforced concrete
floor systems. In section two, we will examine the types of steel floor systems in
which the steel sheeting works in conjunction with a concrete topping to form
a strong composite floor slab. Section three explains various types of stairs and
their design considerations. Section four explains the design considerations and
constructions of ramps for vehicles, pedestrian and handicap access. In section
five, types of roof systems are discussed. You will have a better appreciation of the
design and construction of these building components at the end of this unit.
Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to:
1. Identify the types of advanced reinforced concrete floor systems.
2. Describe the common types of steel floors.
3. Describe the design considerations of various types of stairs.
4. Describe the design considerations and constructions of ramps for car,
pedestrian, and handicap access.
5. Describe the common types of roof systems.

UNIT 1 5
1.1 Reinforced Concrete Floors

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Describe the features and construction of various types of advanced
reinforced concrete floor systems.
2. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of using solid
concrete floor, lift-slab and waffle slab.
Introduction
Floor is defined as the surface of a room on which one stands. The terms floor and
slab are used interchangeably at times. However, to be specific, slab is the material
used for floor construction. A slab can be made of reinforced concrete, steel metal
or wood, with the former being a more common construction material used in
local practice.
Floors are normally used to support dead load including the selfweight of floor
and their finishes, and the anticipated live loads imposed by the occupants and
other movable furniture and equipment. In Malaysia, the British Standard (BS) is
still the main source of structural design code though Eurocode (EC) is gradually
accepted by practicing engineers. The estimated dead load and live load for a
specific building can be referred to BS6399: Part 1.
The floors/slabs can be designed as one-way slabs or two-way slabs depending
on the ratio between their span length in longitudinal axis (Ly ) and transverse
axis (Lx ). One way slabs (Ly /Lx > 2) are designed to transfer their loads to only
two opposite support beams/walls. The reinforcements provided will be along
the longer direction. Two way slabs (Ly /Lx 2) are designed to transfer their
loads to all the four support beams/walls. The reinforcements will be placed
along both the longitudinal and transverse axes, i.e., the reinforcements will be
perpendicular to one another. Figure 1.1 shows the differences between one-way
and two-way slabs.

(a) one-way slab
(b) two-way slab
Figure 1.1 Load distributions
For ground floor, majority of the floors are constructed as a non-suspended floor
or in other words, the floors transfer the structural loads directly to the ground.
If the ground underneath the floor has a slopped surface or has a low bearing
capacity or potentially subjected to large settlement, it may be more appropriate
to design a suspended floor. For this type of floor, the structural loads from the
floor are transferred to ground beams and subsequently to the columns/stumps
or load bearing walls. For upper floors, transferring the structural loads to beams
and subsequently the supporting columns is the norm. At present, solid concrete
floor or more commonly known as flat slab system is widely used flooring
constructions. It is a type of reinforced concrete slab that is supported directly
by columns without the use of beams. This advanced type of floor system will be
discussed explicitly in this section. Besides that, other advanced type of reinforced
concrete floor systems such as the lift-slab system and waffle slab will also be
discussed in the following sections. These floor systems vary by the method of
construction to serve specific functions.
Solid concrete floor

As mentioned in the introduction section, solid concrete floor is a relatively
advanced type of floor system whereby the slab is supported directly by columns
without the use of beams. Figure 1.2 shows the differences between conventional
beam supported floor system and the solid concrete floor system.
UNIT 1 7
(a) Normal floor system
(b) Flat slab system
Figure 1.2 Different types of solid concrete floor
The solid concrete floor is normally casted in-situ. The term of cast in-situ
means that the floor is formed and casted on site. In this case, the site is prepared,
forms for the concrete are set up and the reinforcement bars are laid down in both
directions. Failure to fully reinforce a solid concrete slab may result in crack along
weak lines in the concrete, which will in turn cause instability to the structure.
Subsequently, the concrete is mixed, poured and allowed to cure before moving on
to the next stage of construction. As such, these floors require temporary support
and formwork until the concrete gains sufficient strength to carry its loads.
For some sites, a solid concrete slab may be precasted off site and transported to a
site when it is needed. This may be done when conditions at the site do not facilitate
an easy pour or when the conditions for the slab construction need to be carefully
controlled. Transportation of the slab can be a great challenge if the slab panels are
of large dimensions.
Determining an appropriate slab thickness is a key criterion in the design of solid
concrete floor. In general, thinner slabs not only save direct material costs for
the frame, but also reduce the height of a structure and minimise cladding costs.
However, deflection could be an issue for a thin slab. This requires a detailed
structural analysis in which most structural finite element software are capable of
producing a considerably good estimate on the bending moment and deflection
of the slab when it is subjected to structural loadings. As a general guide, with
domestic loading and a span up to 4.5m, the thickness of 125 to 150mm would
be sufficient. For a span of longer than 5m, a slab thickness of 200mm would be
necessary.
A solid concrete floor may or may not have flared head. The floors with flared
head are sometimes referred as flat slab floors, while those without a flared head are
known as plate floors. In addition, some solid concrete floors may have flared head
with drop panel. The functions of flared head and drop panel are to increase the
shear capacity of slab at the points of column support and to reduce the bending
moment and deflection of the slab by reducing the clear span. This would eventually
reduce the required thickness of the slab. Figure 1.3 differentiates the plate floor
and the solid concrete floors with flared head and drop panel.

Drop
panel
Flared
head
(a) Plate floor
(b) Solid concrete floor with flared head

and drop panel
Figure 1.3 Differences between the plate floor and the solid concrete floors with
flared head and drop panel
The construction of solid concrete slabs is one of the quickest methods available.
Practical advantages arising from the use of solid concrete floors over the
conventional beam supported floors include reduction in self-weight of the
structure, more flexibility in room layout, saving in building height, reduction
in construction time etc. Besides that, the plate floor can also be used as an
exposed flat ceiling which could eventually save the cost of cladding and plaster
finishes. In short, solid concrete floors are more economical than beam-and-girder
construction. They yield a lower building for the same head room because they
eliminate the drops from the beams.
Lift-slab system
Lift-slab system is an advanced technique of reinforced concrete construction,
particularly for office buildings, apartments, parking garages, hotels or other
structures that characterised by repetitive framing from floor to floor. The method
involves casting of floor slabs at the ground level or lower floor (Figure 1.4) and
jacking them up to their designated levels (Figure 1.5).
UNIT 1 9
Figure 1.4 Casting of slabs at lower level

Source: http://webs.demasiado.com/forjados/patologia/lift_slab/index.htm
Figure 1.5 Slabs are lifted to their final locations
The plate floors that we have discussed in the previous subsection are commonly
used in the lift-slab system because they are so well suited to stack-casting. To
lift the slabs, a special lifting collars or shearheads are provided in the slabs at
the positions of columns. Bond breaking compounds are applied between slabs
to separate them. After the slabs have cured long enough to reach a prescribed
strength, powerful hydraulic jacks mounted on top of the columns lift the slabs
into their respective positions. However, the mounting position of the hydraulic
jack on top of the column often limits the height of the column and makes it
necessary to remove the jack before splicing on the next upper column tier. Recent
improvement in positioning of the jacks has brought further advances. The jack

is supported off the column by a welded plate that is later used to support the
slab shearhead. This new approach enables the columns to be erected as tall as
6-storey height without splicing (Figure 1.6). Another new lift-slab system has
evolved in which concrete bearing walls are lifted simultaneously with the slabs.
Concrete bearing walls are casted flat in the same stack with the slabs and attached
to the slab with loops of plastic rope, forming hinges. As the slab is raised, each
wall panel automatically unfolds into position (Figure 1.7). Since the walls are
load-bearing, there is no need for expensive steel columns or lifting collars as used
in conventional lift-slab work.
Hydraulic
jack
Figure 1.6 Position of hydraulic jack in the new approach

Source: http://www.concreteconstruction.net
Figure 1.7 A new lift-slab and wall system

Source: http://www.concreteconstruction.net
The greatest advantage of using lift-slab system is the elimination of most formwork.
This is an important factor in areas where labour costs are high. Concrete floor
construction at ground level is convenient and requires no shores, scaffolds or
cranes. The absences of decking formwork shores, scaffolding, hoists and cranes
have simplified the construction of high rise building. Another advantage is the
UNIT 1 11
reduced cost of handling and hoisting of materials and supplies. These materials can
simply be placed on top of the slabs and lifted with them. As such, the construction
time can be significantly reduced. In summary, the lift-slab system offers an
economical solution for the construction of high rise building with repetitive
framing.
Waffle slab
Waffle slab is a type of reinforced concrete floor that uses a square grid of deep
sides (Figure 1.8). This form of construction is used in airports, parking garages,
commercial and industrial buildings, bridges, residences and other structures
requiring large column-free spaces.
Figure 1.8 Waffle slab
The waffle slab is a monolithic-poured concrete slab with a flat top surface and
an under-surface made of a rectangular grid of deep concrete beams running at
right angles. The floor area between the grid beams is a thin flooring section.
From the underside, the slab resembles a waffle and supported by columns. This
structure is capable of providing a larger span than the conventional concrete floor
systems and can be economically used for spans up to 14.0 metres. However, the
construction of this slab requires complex formwork, making it a less favourable
choice. Somehow, the waffle slab can be prefabricated and transported to the site as
precast sections.
Recently, a lightweight type waffle slab has been developed (Figure 1.9). This type
of floor is developed to achieve a lighter selfweight than those of conventional
waffle slabs without causing any substantial loss of structural performance, noise
insulation or fire resistance.

Figure 1.9 Lightweight waffle slab

Source: http://www.imat.cat/web/en/lightweight_waffle_slab.html
The use of waffle slabs offers several advantages. Among which include allowing
long span, capable of carrying heavy loads without causing large deflection, and
excellent vibration control which can be an important factor for laboratory or
hospital. Besides that, the shape reminiscent of a waffle on the underside of the slab
makes it an attractive exposed ceiling.
Reading
Please refer to the following web links to learn more about concrete
slabs and lift-slab technology.
1. Slabs
http://www.concretecentre.com/technical_information/
building_solutions/frame_elements/slabs.aspx
2. Lift-slab technology: The principle of lifting the load

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwAZ9e1aV-o
UNIT 1 13
Activity 1.1
List the advantages and disadvantages of using solid concrete floor,
lift-slab, and waffle slab.
Self-test 1.1
Explain in detail the construction procedures of lift-slab system.
You can find the answers for Self-test 1.1 at the end of this unit.
Compare it with your own answer.
Summary
In this section, you have studied three types of advanced
reinforced concrete floor systems, namely solid concrete floor,
lift-slab system, and waffle slab. The solid concrete floor is a type
of advanced floor system that is supported directly by columns
without the use of beams. The lift-slab system involves casting
of floor slabs at the ground level or lower floor and jacking them
up to their designated levels. It is normally used for structures
that characterised by repetitive framing from floor to floor. The
waffle slab is a monolithic-poured concrete slab with a flat top
surface and an under-surface made of a rectangular grid of deep
concrete beams running at right angles. This structure is capable
of providing a larger span than the conventional concrete floor
systems. In summary, these advanced reinforced concrete floor
systems offer advantages of quick and simple construction,
larger span with thinner depth, and more economical solutions
compared to the conventional floor systems.

Feedback
Activity 1.1
Advantages
Disadvantages
Solid
concrete
floor
Offer quick construction

Reduction in selfweight
of the structure
More flexibility in room
layout
Saving in building height
Reduction in construction
time
The plate floor can also
be used as exposed flat
ceiling
Reduce the bending
moment and deflection
of slab with the provision
of flared head
May cause structural

instability if insufficient
reinforcements are
provided to the slab
Slabs require temporary
support and formwork
until the concrete gains
sufficient strength
Lift-slab
Elimination of most
formwork
Require no shores,
scaffolds or cranes
Reduce handling and
hoisting of materials
and supplies
Shorter construction
time
Costly
Require advanced
technology and skilled
labours
Only applicable for high
rise structures with
repetitive framing
Waffle
slab
Allow long span slab

for structures requiring
column-free spaces
Capable of carrying
heavy load without
causing large deflection
Provide excellent
vibration control which
can be an important
factor for laboratory or
hospital
The shape reminiscent
of a waffle on the
underside of the slab
could be an attractive
exposed ceiling
Requires special and

complex formwork
Thick slab
Costly
UNIT 1 15
1.2 Steel Floors

Objectives
1. Describe the types of steel floor systems used in construction of buildings.
2. Describe the features and construction of various steel floor systems.
Introduction
Recently, sustainable development has received so much attention in the world
construction industry. This is due to the fact that construction has an important
role to play in delivering sustainable development. The use of steel as a construction
material is highly promoted in view of its recyclable feature.
The use of steel for structural framing such as beams and columns has been very
common in the construction industry. In floor construction, however, steel sheeting
alone has rarely been used as a floor structure. This is because the steel sheeting tends
to undergo buckling when it is subjected to compressive stress. The steel sheeting
is normally working in conjunction with concrete to form a stable composite floor
system. As concrete is weak in tension, the steel can provide the required tensile
reinforcement for the concrete. In return, the concrete provides the required stiffness
and stability to the steel sheeting to resist buckling. Besides, the steel sections can
act as a permanent formwork to the concrete, and also provide sufficient shear bond
with the concrete, so that the two materials act as an efficient composite unit.
In this section, we will review two common types of steel composite floor structures,
namely steel deck floor, and slimfloor.
Steel deck floor

Steel deck floor is a composite floor slab that formed by steel profiled sheeting/
decking with a concrete topping, as shown in Figure 1.10. The steel profiled
sheeting acts as permanent shuttering and tensile reinforcement for the concrete
topping to form a strong composite panel. The steel sheeting is perforated (see
Figure 1.11) to allow for the installation of shear connectors to enhance the shear
bond with concrete. The concrete topping is normally casted in-situ. Steel mesh is
incorporated in the concrete to provide continuity reinforcement required over the
supporting beams.

Figure 1.10 Steel deck floor
Figure 1.11 Perforated sheeting
The steel deck depths are usually in the range of 38mm to 75mm and the
thicknesses of concrete topping typically vary between 65mm and 120mm. The
steel decks are normally attached to steel beams by welding or self-tapping screws.
The steel decks, despite light in weight, can provide a stable working platform
for concreting works if they are fixed in position to the beams. As such, propping
may not be required during the construction of the concrete topping. For a
construction with long span, the floor can be supported by steel truss, as shown in
Figure 1.12.
UNIT 1 17
Figure 1.12 Steel deck floor supported by steel truss
The steel deck floor offers several advantages over the conventional reinforced
concrete floors. For instances, the steel deck floor is thinner and lighter than most
of the concrete floors of equivalent strength, i.e., reduce the selfweight by almost
50%. Besides, they are easy to install and can provide a stable working platform
instantly. These features have significantly reduced the construction time.
Slimfloor
Slimfloor system is an innovative type of composite slab developed between the
1980s and 1990s. The system combines prefabricated concrete slabs with steel
beams to form a strong composite structure, as shown in Figure 1.13.
Steel beam
Prefabricated
concrete slab
Figure 1.13 Slimfloor system

In this system, slabs are supported by beams encased in the floor depth, and in
this way the beams do not essentially increase the overall depth of the floor. One
of the specialties of this slimfloor design is about its steel beam in which the beam
has a lower flange wider than its upper flange. This arrangement makes it possible
to fit the floor slabs directly onto the lower flange of the beam, so that the two
constituents make up the floor. This type of construction is particularly suitable
for square grids.
Slim floor structures offer an effective solution to reduce the total floor construction
depth. As mentioned earlier, the precast floor units are supported on the bottom
flange of a steel beam. This enables a shallow floor in which beams and slab elements
are integrated within the same depth. The partial encasement of the steel beams
also leads to a good inherent fire resistance. The slimfloor system is normally used
for long span slabs (span ranges between 5 to 10m), allowing for the elimination of
secondary beams. It is also a fast and easy method of construction.
Reading
Please refer to the following web link to learn more about steel
decking, metal decking and metal flooring.
1. Steel decking, metal decking and metal flooring
http://www.rapidsteeldecking.co.uk/
Activity 1.2
List the advantages of using steel deck floor and slimfloor systems.
Self test 1.2

Sketch the components of steel deck floor and slimfloor systems.
UNIT 1 19
Summary
This section examined two types of steel composite floor systems,
namely steel deck floor, and slimfloor. Steel deck floor is formed
by steel profiled sheeting/decking with a concrete topping in
which the steel profiled sheeting acts as permanent shuttering and
tensile reinforcement for the concrete topping to form a strong
composite panel. Slimfloor is a system that combines prefabricated
concrete slabs with steel beams to form a strong composite
structure. It offers an effective solution to reduce the total depth
of floor construction.
Feedback
Activity 1.2
Advantages
Steel deck
floor
Thinner and lighter than most of the concrete

floors of equivalent strength
Easy to be installed
Can provide a stable working platform instantly
Require no propping during the construction of
the concrete topping
Shorter construction time
Slimfloor
system
Reduce total depth of floor construction

Good inherent fire resistance
Allow long span slabs with the elimination of
secondary beams
Offer fast and easy method of construction

UNIT 1 21
1.3 Stairs
Objectives
1. Identify the components of stairs.
2. Describe the four categories of stairs used in the construction of buildings.
3. Explain the design considerations of stairs.
Introduction
Stairs or stairways are the name given to a series of steps rising between floors as
one or more straight flights of steps. They are used to access between floors in a
building. Besides this primary function, the stairs must also be designed to pose
sufficient strength and stability, ease of use and movement for the users, adequate
fire resistance, safety in use, and aesthetics.
In this section, we will first get familiar with some terms or terminologies of stairs.
Subsequently, we will examine some criteria or design considerations of stairs. The
types of stairs are then discussed, in which they can either be classified based on
their geometry or the material used to construct the stairs.
Components of stairs
Before we go further in detail, it is good that we get ourselves familiar with some
terms or terminologies of stairs. There are a number of terms that are commonly
used to describe components of stairs (refer to Figure 1.14):
1. Flight
A series of steps between floors or between floor and landing, or between
landing and landing.
2. Thread
The horizontal surface of a step. Sometimes, it is known as going.
3. Riser
The vertical or near vertical face of a step.

4. Landing
A flat surface for the stair user to rest before continuing up or down the
stairs. It is an important safety consideration.
5. Pitch
The inclination of a stair. It is defined by a formula: Pitch = 2 Risers + 1
Thread.
6. Newel post
The posts at both ends of a flight to provide structural rigidity as well as a
decorative function.
7. Stringer
Sloping board running the staircase to support or cover the ends of the
threads and risers.
8. Spindles
The supports for handrail.
9. Handrail
Provides a support whist ascending and descending the stairs.
10. Headroom
The height between the pitch line and the underside of upper floor or stair.
UNIT 1 23
Figure 1.14 Components of stairs
For reasons of safety and comfort of end users, stairs must pose certain measurements
or requirements. These performance requirements have been set out by various
building codes such as the Malaysian Standard MS1552: Part 1: 2002 (Specification
for raised access floor systems: Part 1: General requirements). The following are
some of the design parameters adopted for domestic properties:
Minimum tread length = 220mm.
Maximum rise = 220mm.
Maximum pitch angle = 42.
Slope: A value for the rise-to-tread ratio of 17/29 0.59 is considered optimal.
This corresponds to a pitch angle of about 30.
Minimum headroom = 2m
For a stairway width < 1m, at least one handrail should be provided. For a
stairway width > 1m, two handrails are required.
Maximum number of risers in a flight = 16, after which a landing must be
provided.
Height of the handrail: 900 1,000mm.

Types of stairs
Based on the geometry, stairs can essentially be categorised into four types, namely
straight flight stair, quarter turn stair, half turn stair and geometrical stair.
Straight flight stair

A straight flight stair rises from one floor to another in one direction with or without
landing (Figure 1.15). This is the simplest and also the most economical type of stair.
Figure 1.15 Straight flight stair
Quarter turn stair

A quarter turn stair rises to a landing, turns through 90, and then rises to the floor
above (Figure 1.16). This type of stair is commonly used in the two-storey terrace
house whereby the space below the stairs can be used as a utility/store room.
Figure 1.16 Quarter turn stair
UNIT 1 25
Half turn stair

A half turn stair rises to a landing, turn through 180, and then rises to the floor
above (Figure 1.17). The unique feature of this type of stair is that it lands roughly
over the same location as the starting point of the stair which makes the planning
for building space usage much easier.
Figure 1.17 Half turn stair
Geometrical stair
A geometrical stair is constructed with treads that are tapered on plan, with the
tapered threads around a centre support as a spiral stair (Figure 1.18), or an elliptical
stair (Figure 1.19). This type of stair is mainly used for grand means of access in a
large building/hotel.
Figure 1.18 Spiral stair

Figure 1.19 Elliptical stair
Reinforced concrete stairs

Reinforced concrete stairs are commonly used because of their high degree of
fire resistance and ease of construction. Most of the reinforced concrete stairs
used in local practice are of cast in-situ type, despite they can also be formed by
precast.
The reinforcement design of the reinforced concrete stair is similar to that
of reinforced concrete slab. The reinforcement arrangement in stair flights
follows a standard pattern, as shown in Figure 1.20. Deviation from this is
not recommended unless a specific need arises. Longitudinal steel is the main
reinforcement and in the transverse direction the minimum percentage of steel is
provided as distribution steel to prevent cracking.
Figure 1.20 Typical reinforcement detailing of a concrete stair
UNIT 1 27
The type of reinforced concrete stairs depends mainly on how the loading of the
stair is transferred to the building frame. The most common types include the span
between landing type, cranked slab type, string and trimmer type and cantilevered
from a central spine type. The selection of the type of reinforced concrete stairs,
in turn, depends on the structural form of the building and the convenience in
casting the stair. For instance, the span between landing type is the most economical
type of stair for a building with load bearing wall around the stair. The landing of
the stair can be built into both sides of the wall, whereby the flight is supported
by the landing slab, and the landing slab transfers the load to both sides of the
wall. For the cranked slab type, there are no side supports for the landings. The
flight and landings act as one piece of slab that is supported by two beams at
both ends of the landings.
Timber stairs
Timber stairs are normally used where the need for fire resistance does not dictate
the use of concrete. They are constructed by putting together timber boards the
same way as box or case. Landings are constructed on site and the flight is fixed in
position between landings and floors.
Figure 1.21 shows the typical construction procedures of timber stairs. In general,
the constructions of timber stair involves joining the thread and riser boards to
form the steps of the flight, and are fixed to strings whose purpose is to support
them. These members are normally formed by thin timber boards of thicknesses
32 38mm (treads), 19 25mm (risers), and 38 44mm (strings). The usual method
of joining risers to threads is to cut tongues on the edges of the risers and fit them
to grooves cut in the threads. Glue blocks are provided in the right angle between
the underside of treads and risers. Their function is to strengthen the right-angled
joints between the threads and risers. Furthermore, extra supports are provided
under the flight to act as a stiffener to the threads.
Figure 1.21 Typical construction of timber stair

Reading
Please refer to the following web link to learn more about stairs
and types of stairs.
1. Stair types for new home construction
http://www.build-home-building-house.com/stair_types.html
2. An Introduction to Stairs and building them

http://www.builderbill-diy-help.com/stairs.html
Activity 1.3
Define the types of stairs based on their geometry and construction
materials.
Self-test 1.3
Sketch a stair and define all the components of the stair.
Summary
This section discussed the common types of stairs. Firstly, the
components of typical stairs are defined. Some of the common
design considerations are listed. Next, four types of stairs based
on their geometry are identified, namely flight stair, quarter turn
stair, half turn stair, and geometrical stair. A straight flight stair
rises from one floor to another in one direction with or without
landing. A quarter turn stair rises to a landing, turns through
90o, and then rises to the floor above. A half turn stair rises to
a landing, turn through 180o, and then rises to the floor above.
A geometrical stair is constructed with treads that are tapered on
plan, with the tapered threads around a centre support as a spiral
UNIT 1 29
stair, or an elliptical stair. Besides, the types of stairs are categorised

based on their construction materials. Two types of stairs are
discussed here, namely reinforced concrete stair, and timber stair.
Reinforced concrete stairs are commonly used because of their high
degree of fire resistance and ease of construction. Timber stairs are
normally used where the need for fire resistance does not dictate
the use of concrete. They are constructed by putting together the
timber boards the same way as box or case.
Feedback
Activity 1.3
Types
Based on
geometry
Based on
construction
materials
Definitions
Straight
flight stair
Rise from one floor to another

in one direction with or without
landing
Quarter turn
stair
Rise to a landing, turns through

90, and then rises to the floor
above
Half turn
stair
Rise to a landing, turn through

180, and then rises to the floor
above
Geometrical
stair
Constructed with treads that

are tapered on plan, with the
tapered threads around a centre
support as a spiral stair, or an
elliptical stair
Reinforced
concrete
stair
Constructed by embedding
steel reinforcements in concrete,
similar to that of slab construction
Timber stair
Constructed by putting together

the timber boards the same way
as box or case

UNIT 1 31
1.4 Ramps
Objectives
1. Describe the types of ramps.
2. Explain the design considerations for various types of ramps.
Introduction
Ramps can be used for the passage of vehicles or pedestrians. They are also essential
for access by disabled persons. In commercial buildings, ramps are constructed
when there is a slight difference between floor elevations. These ramps are used
for the access of trolleys. For a large difference in floor elevation, such as between
floors, escalator is preferred.
In this section, we will examine three common types of ramps, namely car ramps,
pedestrian ramps, and handicap ramps. The design criteria for each type of the
ramps will be discussed.
Car ramps
Car ramps are normally used for the access of vehicles to the underground or upper
floor car parks (Figure 1.22). They should have a slope of about 1V:10H. For
safety reason, slip resistant surface should be provided to all car ramps to give a
good hold for tyres. This can be constructed by cement finished with a wood float
or swept with a stiff broom while still green. This exposes the sand particles and
provides a rough surface. Abrasive grit materials may be added to the surface mix
to increase the friction. Slip-resistance can be further increased by the provision of
transverse grooves formed on the surface.
When a curved ramp is constructed, the radius of the curved should not be less
than 7m. The width of the ramp depends upon whether it is for one-way traffic or
two-way traffic. For the one-way traffic, a minimum width of 3.65m is required,
while 7.30m is required for the two-way traffic.

Figure 1.22 Car ramp
Pedestrian ramps
Pedestrian ramps could probably provide a safer means of pedestrian movement
between different levels than stairs, provided they are properly designed and
constructed. This is because the ramps do not require accurate placing of the
foot. The gradient of the pedestrian ramp depends on the length of the ramp. For
instance, a 2m long ramp has a maximum gradient of 1V:12H, while a ramp with
10m in length has a maximum gradient of 1V:20H.
Figure 1.23 shows an example of pedestrian ramp. It is normally constructed in
the commercial buildings, warehouse or storage yard where the access for wheeled
items such as trolleys is necessity. The disadvantage of pedestrian ramp is that it
may occupy great area of room due to its allowable maximum gradient. Similar to
the car ramps, the surface texture of pedestrian ramps should also be coarse enough
to provide sufficient slip resistance for pedestrians.
Figure 1.23 Pedestrian ramp
The minimum width of a ramp should be the same as that for stairs. Greater width
may be required when the ramps are designed to permit two or more persons to
pass, depending upon the nature of the building and the amount of pedestrian
traffic.
UNIT 1 33
Handicap access
Disabled peoples should secure equal opportunities and equal rights as those of
normal persons. The awareness of this issue might have been excluded in the
past but, nowadays, it is an important design criterion for commercial buildings
and sidewalk. Handicap access/ramp is normally constructed beside a stair
(Figure 1.24). For a commercial building or a factory, the width of handicap access
should not be less than 1,200mm, and there should be a kerb at least 100 mm high
on any open side. A landing at least equal in width and length to the width of the
ramp should always be placed at a change of direction in the ramp. Each flight
of ramp should not be longer than 10 m with horizontal landings of 1.5m long
between each flight. Handrails between 900 and 1,000mm in height are required
on ramps rising more than 600mm.
Figure 1.24 Handicap ramp
Curb ramp is another type of handicap access that can be normally seen along
sidewalk. It is a landing that allows disabled persons to move completely off the
and onto the sidewalk, as shown in Figure 1.25. The flared sides of curb ramps
provide a graded transition between the ramp and the surrounding sidewalk.
Flares are not considered an accessible path of travel because they are generally
steeper than the ramp and often feature significant cross-slopes with excessive
rate of change of cross-slope. If the curb ramp is located where a pedestrian might
normally walk, flares are useful indicators to people with visual disabilities.
Flare
Figure 1.25 Curb ramp

For the comfort and safety of disabled users, the change of slope gradient of
sidewalk should not exceed 13%. Otherwise, excessive negative slope differences
between a gutter and a ramp may cause wheelchairs to tip forward (Figure 1.26
(a)). Rapid positive changes in grade may also cause a wheelchair user traveling
with speed to flip over backward, as illustrated in Figure 1.26 (b). Any amount of
height transition between the curb ramp and the gutter can intensify problems for
wheelchair users.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.26 Excessive change in slope gradient of sidewalk
Reading
Please refer to the following web link to learn more about
construction of pedestrian and handicap ramps.
1. Pedestrian kerb ramps and footpaths: Construction check list
http://www.prospect.sa.gov.au/webdata/resources/files/
PEDESTRTIAN_ACCESS_-_Construction_check-list.pdf
2. Handicap ramps: Design and construction guidelines

http://www.rcrv.org/WRAP/rampguidelines.pdf
Activity 1.4
Explain why excessive change of gradient on sidewalk is not
acceptable for handicap access.
UNIT 1 35
Self-test 1.4
Summarise the design considerations for car ramp, pedestrian ramp
and handicap ramp.
Summary
In this section, you have examined three common types of ramps,
namely car ramp, pedestrian ramp, and handicap ramp/access.
The design considerations for each type of the ramps are reviewed.
Car ramps are normally used for the access of vehicles to the
underground or upperfloor car parks. They should have a slope
of about 1V:10H. Pedestrian ramps are normally constructed in
commercial buildings, warehouse or storage yard where the access
for wheeled items such as trolleys is necessity. The gradients of the
pedestrian ramps depend on their lengths (ranging from 1V:12H
to 1V:20H). Handicap access/ramp is normally constructed beside
a stair. Curb ramp is another type of handicap access that can be
normally seen along sidewalk. It is a landing that allows disabled
persons to move completely off the and onto the sidewalk. For
safety reason, slip resistant surface should be provided to all types
of ramps.
Feedback
Activity 1.4
The allowable change of slope gradient of sidewalk should be
< 13%. This is because excessive negative slope differences
between a gutter and a ramp may cause wheelchairs to tip forward.
On the other hand, excessive positive slope may cause wheelchairs
to flip over backward. These considerations are essential for the
safety of disabled users.

UNIT 1 37
1.5 Roofs
Objectives
1. Describe the types of roof systems.
2. Describe the features and design considerations of various types of roof
systems.
3. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of pitched roof
and flat roofs design.
Introduction
Roof is an important element of a building as it provides protection from the
weather and has a significant role to play in building insulation. Typically, roofs
are supported by purlins and steel/timber truss. The structure of the roof systems
should have the basic requirements of strong, durable and resist to water leakage
over a long service life. This is because maintenance or servicing a roof system can
be a tedious and dangerous task. In modern building design, the aesthetic value of
the roof is also an important requirement that rated highly by the end users.
In this section, we will discuss two types of roofs based on their shapes, i.e., pitched
roof, and flat roof. The advantages and disadvantages and construction methods
for each type of the roofs will be reviewed.
Pitched roofs
A pitched roof is a roof for which one or more roof surfaces is pitched for more
than 10o. The slope serves the function of excluding or redirecting rain. Typically
the pitch of roof is greater in areas receiving high precipitation, like Malaysia. This
explains the commonness of pitched roof used in our local practice. Most of the
pitched roofs are constructed with symmetrical geometry of equal slopes pitched
to a central ridge, as shown in Figure 1.27. The terms for each part of a pitched
roof are presented in Figure 1.28.

Figure 1.27 Symmetrical pitched roof
Figure 1.28 Anatomy of a pitched roof

Source: http://www.williamsroofingcompany.com/anatomy.cfm
There are two basic methods of pitched roof construction:

1. A cut roof this is the traditional method of cutting the timber on site
and building up the roof using rafters, ridge boards, joists and purlins etc
the exact details being determined by the size of roof, size of timbers etc.
2. A truss roof using factory made steel trusses which are delivered to site.
Nowadays, the construction of a roof system requires a detailed calculation of the

load distributions on the roof sheets and subsequently transferred to purlins and
truss. As such, the truss roof method that utilises the prefabricated steel trusses
is becoming a more popular practice. The truss roof is made up of a number of
factory made frames (or trusses) each of which combines the joists, rafters and struts.
UNIT 1 39
These members are normally made of rolled steel sections connected through the
bolt and weld connections.
The advantages of pitched roof system are listed as follows:
1. Rapid construction.
2. Does not require weather covering and water proofing treatment.
3. Less issue with drainage of rainwater.
4. Can be used for long span industrial sheds without intermediate columns,
walls etc.
5. More economical than flat roof in case of industrial shed.
The disadvantages of pitched roof system include:

1. Not durable.
2. Cannot be used for upper floor.
3. When the roof is constructed with iron sheets, rusting problem may arise.
4. The roof for offices etc. is costly as false ceiling is required for thermal
comfort.
Flat roofs
Flat roofs have a slope of 1 5. The roofs act much in the same way as a slab to
support load. The flat roofs, unless they are designed to be accessible, they are
normally not as heavily loaded as slabs. The flat roofs differ from slabs in view
of their top finish called as terracing, which is used to protect roof from adverse
effects of rain and heat. Flat roofs are generally used for residential buildings rather
than industrial or commercial purposes because they tend to become unstable as
their size increases and also will turn out to be way more expensive than pitched
roofs. Flat roofs have a characteristic of modern design. Figure 1.29 shows an
example of flat roof system used on a contemporary house.

Figure 1.29 Flat roof
The construction of flat roof is relatively simpler as compared to the pitched roof.
It is in a much similar way to the construction of slab with a slight inclination.
This slight inclination allows water to drain out freely. Flat roofs can be made
up of variety of materials, including asphalt built up roof, modified bitumen,
Hypalon, PVC, TPO and synthetic rubber. To avoid problems like water logging
and water ponding, the flat roof covering utilises a continuous membrane such as
EPDM membrane sheets which are capable of resisting pools of standing water.
EPDM is an elastomeric compound that is manufactured from ethylene, propylene,
and a small amount of diene monomer. These ingredients are synthesised to
produce a product that exhibits a high degree of ozone, ultraviolet, weathering and
abrasion resistance, and outstanding low temperature flexibility. These membrane
sheets are then joined together with adhesive.
The advantages of flat roof system include:
1. Comparatively safer than other types of roofs.
2. Simpler construction.
3. Provide better light, ventilation and architectural appearance.
4. More economical than pitched roof for normal residential buildings.
5. Pose modern building design characteristic.
The disadvantages of flat roof system are:

1. Not suitable where rainfall is heavy.
2. Require heavy maintenance to prevent leaking.
3. Can be more expensive than pitched roof for large commercial buildings.
UNIT 1 41
Reading
Please refer to the following web link to learn more about building
pitch and flat roofs.
1. How to build a pitch roof
http://www.ultimatehandyman.co.uk/roofing/build-pitch-roof.
htm
2. Flat roofing materials TPO, PVC, EPDM rubber, tar & gravel
roofs
http://www.flatroofs.org/
Activity 1.5
Explain the functions of EPDM membrane sheets in flat roof
construction.
Self-test 1.5
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of pitch roof and flat
roof.
Summary
This section covered two common types of roof systems, namely
pitched roof, and flat roof. A pitched roof is a roof for which one
or more roof surfaces is pitched for more than 10. The slope serves
the function of excluding or redirecting rain. A flat roof, on the
other hand, has a slope of 1 5. It is commonly used for modern
residential houses. The construction methods, advantages, and
disadvantages for both types of the roofs are discussed in detailed
in this section.

Feedback
Activity 1.5
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) is an elastomeric
compound that is manufactured from ethylene, propylene,
and a small amount of diene monomer. These ingredients are
synthesized to produce a product that exhibits a high degree
of ozone, ultraviolet, weathering and abrasion resistance, and
outstanding low temperature flexibility. EPDM membrane sheets
are very lightweight and easy to be installed. The main function of
these sheets is to provide effective waterproofing to roof structure.
The EPDM membrane sheets requires little to no maintenance
because of its high durability characteristic.
UNIT 1 43
Summary of Unit 1
Summary
Floor and roof are among the most important parts of a building.
In this unit, you were introduced to some common types of
floor and roof systems, as well as stairs and ramps. There are five
objectives in this unit.
In considering objective 1, you have identified three types of
advanced reinforced concrete floor systems, namely solid concrete
floor, lift-slab system, and waffle slab. The solid concrete floor
is a type of advanced floor system that is supported directly by
columns without the use of beams. The lift-slab system involves
casting of floor slabs at the ground level or lower floor and
jacking them up to their designated levels. The waffle slab is a
monolithic-poured concrete slab with a flat top surface and an
under-surface made of a rectangular grid of deep concrete beams
running at right angles.
In considering objective 2, you were explored to two types
of steel composite floor systems, namely steel deck floor, and
slimfloor. Steel deck floor is formed by steel profiled sheeting/
decking with a concrete topping in which the steel profiled
sheeting acts as permanent shuttering and tensile reinforcement
for the concrete topping to form a strong composite panel.
Slimfloor is a system combines prefabricated concrete slabs with
steel beams to form a strong composite structure.
In considering objective 3, the common types of stairs were
discussed. Based on their geometry, the stairs can be categorised
into four types, namely flight stair, quarter turn stair, half turn
stair, and geometrical stair. Based on their construction materials,
two types of stairs were identified, i.e., reinforced concrete stair,
and timber stair. The designs of the stairs have to meet certain
requirements, such as the maximum height for each rise, the
minimum length for each tread etc.
In considering objective 4, you have examined three common
types of ramps, namely car ramp, pedestrian ramp, and handicap
ramp/access. The design considerations for each type of the
ramps are reviewed. Car ramps are normally used for the access of
vehicles to the underground or upperfloor car parks. Pedestrian
ramps are normally constructed at commercial buildings,
warehouse or storage yard where the access for wheeled items
such as trolleys is necessity. Handicap access/ramp is normally

constructed beside a stair. Curb ramp is another type of handicap

access that allows disabled persons to move completely off the
and onto the sidewalk. For safety reason, the surfaces of all types
of the ramps should be constructed to provide sufficient slip
resistance.
Finally, two common types of roof systems, namely pitched roof,
and flat roof were discussed in considering objective 5. A pitched
roof is a roof for which one or more roof surfaces is pitched for
more than 10. The slope serves the function of excluding or
redirecting rain. A flat roof, on the other hand, has a slope of
1 5. It is commonly used for modern residential houses. The
construction methods, advantages, and disadvantages for both
types of the roofs were discussed in detailed.
As a whole, Unit 1 provided you with an overview of the types of
floors, roofs, stairs and ramps that are commonly seen in building
construction. By completing this module, it is expected that you
have gained some fundamental understanding of these elements
and appreciate the importance of these elements in building
construction.
UNIT 1 45
Unit Practice Exercise

A developer is planning to develop a 20-storey high luxury condominium with
contemporary design. The construction needs to be completed within a tight
schedule to meet the current market demand.
Based on the knowledge that you have learnt from this unit, suggest and justify
the types of floor, roof and fire escape stair to be used for the development above.

UNIT 1 47
Suggested Answers to Self-tests

Feedback
Self-test 1.1
Cast multiple solid concrete floors at ground or lower level.
Install a special lifting collars or shearheads in the slabs at the

positions of columns.
Bond breaking compounds are applied between slabs to separate

them.
After the slabs have gained sufficient strength, powerful

hydraulic jacks mounted on top of the columns lift the slabs
into their respective positions.
Self test 1.2

1. Steel deck floor
Concrete topping
Steel mesh
Shear connector
Metal deck/
Perforated
steel sheeting
Steel beam

2. Slimfloor
Steel beam
Prefabricated
concrete slab
Shear
connector
Wider lower flange
Self-test 1.3
Components
Definitions
Flight
A series of steps between floors, or between floor

and landing, or between landing and landing.
Thread
The horizontal surface of a step. Sometimes, it is

known as going.
Riser
The vertical or near vertical face of a step.
Landing
A flat surface for the stair user to rest before

continuing up or down the stairs. It is an important
safety consideration.
UNIT 1 49
Components
Definitions
Pitch
The inclination of a stair. It is defined by a formula:

Pitch = 2 Risers + 1 Thread.
Newel post
The posts at both ends of a flight to provide

structural rigidity as well as a decorative function.
Stringer
Sloping board running the staircase to support

or cover the ends of the threads and risers.
Spindles
The supports for handrail
Handrail
Provides a support whist ascending and

descending the stairs.
Headroom
The height between the pitch line and the

underside of upper floor or stair.
Self-test 1.4
Types of ramps
Design considerations
Car ramp
Slope of about 1V:10H.

Slip resistant surface.
Radius of the curved should not be less
than 7m.
For one-way traffic, a minimum width of
3.65 m is required; while for two-way traffic,
7.30 m is required.
Pedestrian ramp
The gradient depends on the length of ramp.

A 2m long ramp has a maximum gradient of
1V:12H, while a ramp with 10 m in length
has a maximum gradient of 1V:20H.
The minimum width of a ramp should be the
same as that for stairs. Greater width may
be required when the ramps are designed
to permit two or more persons to pass,
depending upon the nature of the building
and the amount of pedestrian traffic.
Handicap ramp
The width should be not less than 1,200mm.

A kerb is required at least 100mm high on
any open side.
A landing at least equal in width and length
to the width of the ramp should always be
placed at a change of direction in the ramp.
Each flight of ramp should not be longer
than 10m with horizontal landings 1.5m
long between each flight.
Handrail between 900 and 1000 mm in
height are required on ramps rising more
than 600mm.
The change of slope gradient should not
exceed 13%.

Self-test 1.5
Advantages
Disadvantages
Pitched
roof
Rapid construction.
Does not require weather
covering and water
proofing treatment.
Less issue with drainage
of rainwater.
Can be used for long
span industrial sheds
without intermediate
columns, walls etc.
More economical than
flat roof in case of
industrial shed.
Not durable.
Cannot be used for upper
floor.
When the roof is
constructed with iron
sheets, rusting problem
may arise.
The roof for offices etc.,
is costly as false ceiling
is required for thermal
comfort.
Flat
roof
Comparatively safer than

other types of roofs.
Simpler construction.
Provide better light,
ventilation and
architectural appearance.
More economical than
pitched roof for normal
residential buildings.
Pose modern building
design characteristic.
Not suitable where

rainfall is heavy.
Require heavy
maintenance to prevent
leaking.
Can be more expensive
than pitched roof for
large commercial
buildings.
UNIT 1 51
Suggested Answers to Unit Practice

Exercise
Feedback
Floor type:
Solid concrete floor constructed with lift-slab technique is
suggested. This is because this system offers quick construction.
The flat slab can be used as exposed flat ceiling for the condominium
unit. Furthermore, most condominium consists of repetitive
framing. Thus, the use of lift-slab system is justified.
Roof type:
Flat roof is suggested because it has the contemporary characteristic
which is suitable for the luxury condominium with modern design.
Fire escape stair:

Reinforced concrete half turn stair is suggested. The reinforced
concrete stair has a good fire resistance which is a strict requirement
for all high rise residential building. The half turn geometry is
selected because it makes the planning for the building space usage
much easier.

UNIT 1 53
Terminology
Suspended
Tergantung
Flared
Terkembang
Monolithic
Monolitik
Reminiscent
Mengingatkan
Perforated
Berlubang
Composite
Komposit
Ramp
Landas angkat
Abrasive
Kasar
Grit
Kersik
Curb
Bebendul jalan
Pitched
Condong

UNIT 1 55
References
Chudley, R (1999) Construction Technology, 3rd edn, vol. 1 4, Longman Scientific
& Technical.
Foster, J S (1994) Structure and Fabric Part 1, 5th edn, Mitchells Building
Series, Longman Scientific & Technical.
Foster, J S and Harington, R (2000) Structure and Fabric Part 2, 6th edn,
Mitchells Building Series, Longman Scientific & Technical.

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UNIT 1 i

Flooring and roofing construction

Flooring and Roofing

ii WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

2012 Wawasan Open University

Wawasan Open University

54, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, 10050 Penang.

1.1 Reinforced concrete floors

Solid concrete floor

Suggested answers to activity

1.2 Steel floors

Steel deck floor

Suggested answers to activity

iv WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Reinforced concrete stairs

Suggested answers to activity

Suggested answers to activity

Suggested answers to activity

Unit practice exercise

Suggested answers to self-tests

Suggested answers to unit practice exercise

TCM 301/05 provides you with knowledge in advanced construction technology.

2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

This unit is organised into five sections:

4 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

1.1 Reinforced Concrete Floors

6 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

(a) one-way slab

(b) two-way slab

Figure 1.1 Load distributions

Solid concrete floor

(a) Normal floor system

(b) Flat slab system

Figure 1.2 Different types of solid concrete floor

8 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

(a) Plate floor

(b) Solid concrete floor with flared head

Figure 1.4 Casting of slabs at lower level

Figure 1.5 Slabs are lifted to their final locations

10 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 1.6 Position of hydraulic jack in the new approach

Figure 1.7 A new lift-slab and wall system

Figure 1.8 Waffle slab

12 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 1.9 Lightweight waffle slab

2. Lift-slab technology: The principle of lifting the load

14 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Suggested answers to activity

Offer quick construction

May cause structural

Allow long span slab

Requires special and

1.2 Steel Floors

Steel deck floor

16 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Figure 1.10 Steel deck floor

Figure 1.11 Perforated sheeting

Figure 1.12 Steel deck floor supported by steel truss

Figure 1.13 Slimfloor system

18 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

Self test 1.2

Suggested answers to activity

Thinner and lighter than most of the concrete

Flooring & Roofing

Flooring & Roofing