The Abstract

The abstract is a crucial part of your report as it may be the only section read by people at the
executive or managerial level who must make decisions based on what they read in your abstract.
When you include specific content, it is important to remember these readers are looking for the
information they need to make decisions.
The abstract is an overview that provides the reader with the main points and results, though it is not
merely a listing of what the report contains. It is a summary of the essence of a report. For this
reason, it should be crafted to present the most complete and compelling information possible. It is
not a detective storym building suspense as the reader hunts for clues, and should not be vague or
obtuse in its content.
The abstract should include

Why the work was done (the basic problem), the specific purpose or objective, and the scope
of the work if that is relevant. (College lab reports may not require this part of the abstract.)

How the work was done, the test methods or means of investigation

What was foundthe results, conclusions, and recommendations

The abstract should

Not make references to material in the text

Not lose the message by burying the methods, results, conclusions, and recommendations in a
sea of words

Not be written before the rest of the report

Therefore, a good abstract is

Complete

Concise

Specific

Self-sufficient

Evaluating abstracts
Because the abstract is of major importance in a report, a summary of effective qualities of abstracts
is offered here.
A well-written abstract

Considers the readers it will encounter

States what was done and what results were found

Is concise

Avoids vagueness by stating specific results

Uses past tense to report what was done

Is informative

Is self-sufficient and does not refer to the body of the report

Makes concrete, useful recommendations

Below are two abstracts. The first one, (A), was written by a student for a lab report, and the other
one (B) was a revision written by someone with more experience in writing abstracts. Read both
versions and try to figure out why the changes were made in B.

Abstract A
We studied the flow characteristics of meters, valves, and pipes that constitute a
flow network. The meter coefficients for orifice and venture meters were determined.
The orifice and venture coefficients were, on the average, 0.493 and 0.598,
respectively. Fanning friction factors for pipes of different sizes and for gate and
globe valves were also determined.
The accuracy with which the meter coefficients and friction factors were determined
was affected by leaks in the piping network. In addition, air bubbles trapped in the
pipes and manometers affected the accuracy with which pressure drops were measured.
Hence, it is recommended that the piping system be checked to ensure the absence of
any leaks. Furthermore, the fluid should be allowed to flow in the network for some
time before taking any measurements, in order to get rid of the air trapped in the
pipes and manometer.

Abstract B
In an orifice and a venturimeter in a flow network, we measured the meter coefficients
to be 0.5 0.1 and 0.6 0.15. We measured the Fanning friction factors at steady state
for several pipes and for gate and globe valves. The most important source of error

was a leak in the piping network which has to be repaired in order to obtain more
precise results.

The Executive Summary

The government and some companies have begun to request executive summaries at the beginning of
a long report. An executive summary is a one-page statement of the problem, the purpose of the
communication, and a summary of the results, conclusions, and recommendations. The same
considerations of readers and situation should guide your executive summaries.

Abstracts and Executive Summaries

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The abstract and executive summary are key components because they allow readers to quickly
decide whether or not they need / want to read the entire document. Audiences use these summaries
to determine:
1. Whether or not the document is relevant
2. What the main conclusions of the document are
What they share: is this specific role in the document, content, and general structure:

1.

These summaries are both stand-alone documents, meaning that they should be thought of
as being independent from the report. In other words, the readers of your summary may not
read the report; it also means that the readers of the report may not have read your
summary. Practically speaking, this means that the documents are purely summary: they
should not contain any information that is not in the report. However, you should not cut
and paste from your report; some readers will read both, and will recognize copied sentences.
2. They should contain all key elements of the report. Given the generic structure of an
engineering research paper (See Online Handbook/Accurate Documentation / Conducting &
Understanding Secondary Research in Engineering), this includes:
Situation: provide context information
Problem: define the problem that the paper addresses
Solution: describe the solution its key characteristics, fundamental principles, and
how it solves the problem
Evaluation: evaluate how well solution solves problem
Recommendations: give suggestions for future work or implementation
Where they differ: is primarily in audience, which translates to differences in focus, level of

discourse, and length.

1.

The audience for an executive summary is precisely what the name indicates - executives and
managers; the audience for the abstract is usually a more technical reader. A design report
may include an executive summary aimed at your boss, who may need to decide whether or
not to use your design, and also an abstract for your peers or other engineers who may need
to thoroughly understand the design.
2. As audience changes, the content and focus of the summary changes as well:
Executive Summary
Abstract
Focus: Problem (especially financial aspects), Recs (esp. results of
implementing)
Language: Less technical, more financial

Focus: Solution, Evaluation

Language: Technical, less
background

Length: Often longer than abstract to reflect different focus, need for
Length: Less than a page,
background and higher likelihood that readers will only read this
usually one paragraph long
summary
(See Abstracts and Executive Summaries iWrite Site and below for examples and commentary.)
Abstract
(1) At this time, power utilities major techniques of monitoring their distribution systems are after-thefact indicators such as interruption reports, meter readings, and trouble alarms. (2) This system is
inadequate in that it fails to provide the utility with an accurate picture of the dynamics of the
distribution system, and it is expensive. (3) This report describes a project to design a radio-based
system for a pilot project. (4) The basic system, which uses packet switching technology, consists of
a base unit (built around a personal computer), a radio link, and a remote unit. (5) The radio-based
distribution monitoring system is more accurate than after the fact indicators used, small enough to
replace the existing meters, and is simple to use. (6) We recommend installing the basic system on
a trial basis.
Commentary: This abstract almost demonstrates almost a sentence-component correspondence.
(1) = situation, (2) = problem, (3) + (4) = solution, (5) = evaluation, (6) = recommendation.
Executive Summary
(1) Presently, we monitor our distribution system using after-the-fact indicators such as interruption
reports, meter readings, and trouble alarms. (2) This system is inadequate in two respects: first, it
fails to give an accurate picture of the distribution system. (3) Last year, we overproduced by 7
percent, resulting in a loss of $273 000. (4) Second, it is expensive. (5) Escalating labor costs and
an increasing number of difficult to access residences have led to higher costs. (6) Last year, we
spent $960 000 reading the meters of 12 000 such residences. (7) The proposed pilot project
implements a radio-based distribution monitoring system in these homes.

(8) The basic system consists of a base unit (built around a PC), a radio link, and a remote unit. (9)
It is a feasible alternative to our current methods because it is more accurate than after-the-fact
indicators currently used, small enough to replace existing meters, and simple to use. (10) Initial
capital costs would be recouped within 3.9 years. (11) We recommend installing the basic system on
a trial basis; if the trial proves successful, the radio based system could provide a long term solution
to the current problems of inaccurate and expensive data collection.
Source: Adjusted from Crowe, 1985, cited in [1]
Commentary: This ES is slightly longer than the abstract above, and adds key details in the
following areas:
1. Problem definition: sentences (3) and (5-6) elaborate on the problem, focusing
specifically on its cost.
2. Recommendation: it justifies the recommendation by citing cost recovery potential
and potential for post trial applications.
In essence, it provides a more detailed argument for the recommendation by identifying the
monetary cost of the problem and comparing it to the solution.
It removes some details about the technology (packet switching technology sentence 4 above)
that may be foreign to non-technical readers.

[1] Michael Markel and Helen Holmes. Technical Writing: Situations and Strategies. Scarborough:
Nelson Canada, 1994.

A Step-by-Step on How to Do a Background

Study for a Thesis
Educationby Demand Media
by Stacy Alleyne, Demand Media

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Writing a background study is challenging, but necessary.

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One of the preliminary steps to completing a thesis is the background

study for it. The background study for a thesis includes a review of the
area being researched, current information surrounding the issue,
previous studies on the issue, and relevant history on the issue.
Ideally, the study should effectively set forth the history and
background information on your thesis problem. The purpose of a
background study is to help you to prove the relevance of your thesis
question and to further develop your thesis.
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1
Conduct preliminary research in the beginning stages of formulating a thesis,
when many issues are unclear and thoughts need to be solidified. Conducting

preliminary research on your area of study and specific topic will help you to
formulate a research question or thesis statement that will lead to more specific
and relevant research. Visit your library, the internet and electronic databases to
find preliminary sources, such as books and scholarly journals, for your
background study.

2
Read the information and develop a research question or thesis statement that
will guide your thesis. You will need to take notes and keep accurate track of the
sources that you used up to this point. Many people use note cards, but with
current technology there many electronic note taking programs available. Use a
method of recording source information that you are comfortable with. Be sure
to cite the source of the information on each note so you don't forget where
each piece of information came from, should you decide to use it in your thesis.

3
Write a thesis statement or research question. Think about what you've read
and look for issues, problems or solutions that others have found and determine
your own opinion or stance on the issue. Write out your opinion as a
authoritative statement on the issue, problem or solution. At this point, you can
do more detailed research and find sources that are more relevant to your thesis
or research question.

4
Complete your research using your thesis statement and research question as
your guide. You will find relevant sources that will provide insight into your
specific thesis issue or problem. Make sure that your sources provide details on
the history and past research related to your research question.

5
Create relevant sections as you write the background study. As you evaluate
your research and begin to write the background study, create five separate
sections that cover the key issues, major findings, and controversies
surrounding your thesis, as well as sections that provide an evaluation and
conclusion.

6
Conclude by identifying any further study that needs to be done in that area, or
provide possible solutions to the issue that haven't been considered before.

7
Revise and edit your background study. Complete several drafts of your work,
revising and filling in information as you go. Each time that you read over your

work, try to leave it better than it was before. It's also a great idea to have
someone else look it over as well.

Anchoring Research Paper: Good

Background Study
A research paper anchors its strength and credibility to the studies and literature that support it. Without a
sound background of the study, usually done in chapter two in most research papers, the entire studys
reliability
becomes
shaky
and
its
relevance
quite
unstable.
Why?
Chapter two of most research papers is called the Background Study or Review of Related Literature. It is
important in determining the overall credibility of a research paper because it presents previous
researches and literatures that support the main claim of the ongoing study.
A background study is usually long. Some research papers even have chapter twos that comprise half of
the entire research paper. It basically depends on how extensive researches have previously been done
in
the
field
or
subject
to
be
investigated.
Although, it doesnt essentially mean that the longer the background study the more quality the research
paper gets. It doesnt follow because it all boils down to getting the appropriate studies to efficiently
support
the
paper.
Through the review of related literature, the researcher builds the studys relevance by citing related study
or studies that lead up to the current research. Previous studies serve as a foundation to a research
paper,
rooting
down
its
worth
to
prior
facts
and
ideologies.
Chapter two also contains a definition of terms section specifically when the paper uses special or
technical terms that might not be understood by the general reader. Because chapter two builds the
studys significance, research papers review of literature need to be as comprehensible as possible a
simplified
approach
so
as
to
connect
clearly
ones
study
to
the
other.
However, understanding the importance of a sound background study is just the initial step. The
challenge is how and where to gather the right research materials to be employed in chapter two.
Writing a research papers background study entails a crucial process of information collection. In order to
produce a relevance-driven chapter two, data selection is very critical. Being in the right place and having
the
right
materials
is
vital
in
writing
research
papers.
Libraries are more often than not the right initial place to be. General reference books such as
encyclopedias and books are good starting point in doing research. General reference materials help the
researcher to be better acquainted with the subject. But it doesnt stop there theres a lot of place to be
if
a
research
paper
aspires
for
great
academic
recognitions.
After conducting an initial background research, a more comprehensive research using journals,

magazines,
newspapers,
and
the
Internet
are
advisable
to
employ.
Why?
Review of related literature is not merely about previous studies. It also can add a fresh touch of details.
Journals, magazines and newspapers usually provide more current information on than reference books.
These materials only add up to the scholastic value of the research paper.
Also, the internet can be a valuable for supplementing source to the data gathered from books and
journals. On the other hand, it is an imperative to evaluate the information to be taken from the Internet
accuracy,
content
and
author
are
prime
criteria.
With the enormous challenge to prove a main argument, writing research papers call for keen attention to
the chapter that anchors its way to proving its relevance the study of the background.

Theoretical Framework
A Little Bit About Frameworks
The weather forecasts a significant snowfall for the evening and near blizzard
conditions are expected. The snow is just starting to fall. You are trying to get to the
grocery store to pick up some supplies as you expect to be "snowed in" for a couple of
days. It took you 20 minutes longer to get to the store from work than it normally
does. People were either driving too fast and sliding off the road or they were driving
so slowly that only one car could get through the traffic light.
Once in the store, you find that there are only a few gallons of milk left in the case,
only a 15, one dozen egg cartons are left, and the bread that is on the shelf is smashed.
Finally, you get your supplies and push the cart to the cashiers only to find that there
are 10 to 12 people in each line. People are grumbling and complaining, babies are
crying, and children are whining. People are tense and irritable.
Drawing on your knowledge of psychology and sociology, you begin to think about
the problems that people have been dealing with today, the lack of supplies, long
lines, and the concern about the impending winter storm. While you are not really
aware of it, you start relating and explaining their behavior to stress theories. Theories
are used by every discipline and every person, regardless of the level of the theory.
Theories are use to explain and predict. "A theoretical framework is a frame of
reference that is a basis for observations, definitions of concepts, research designs,
interpretations, and generalizations, much as the frame that rests on a foundation
defines the overall design of a house (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 1998, p. 141).
According to Nieswiadomy (1998) the word theory is derived from "theoria," a Greek
Word. Theoria means a beholding or speculation. Theories are speculations. Theories

are NEVER PROVED. Theories are used to describe, predict, explain, and control
phenomena.
Why are theoretical frameworks used?
Theoretical frameworks provide the organization for the study. It guides the researcher
in the interpretations of the results. the importance of the theory is dependent on the
degree of research-based evidence and level of its theory development. There are four
levels of theory development 1) factor isolating (describe phenomena) 2) Factor
relating (explain phenomena), 3) Situation relating (predict the relationships
between/among phenomena), 4) Situation producing (control phenomena and
relationships)
What is the difference between a Theoretical Framework and a Conceptual
Framework?
While the words are used interchangeably in the literature, a theoretical framework
provides a broad explanation of relationships that exists between concepts. A
theoretical framework is based on ONEtheory. The concepts of the study relate back
to the theory. Theoretical frameworks start out as a conceptual framework and with
much research, develop into a research-based theoretical framework.
When no existing theory fits the concepts that the researcher wishes to study, the
researcher may construct a conceptual framework that can be used to describe and
begin to explain the relationships of the concepts.
For example, when I wanted to study computer attitudes and state anxiety, I
constructed a conceptual framework to guide the study. The conceptual framework
was a compilation of concepts from three theoretical frameworks.
A conceptual framework is not as well developed as is a theoretical framework.
Some theoretical frameworks from nursing
Uncertainty: Mishel (1988)
Interpersonal theory: Peplau (1988)
Health promotion: Pender (1987)
Goal attainment: King (1981)

 Interaction model of client behavior: Cox (1982)

Self-care deficit theory: Orem (1991
Unitary person: Rogers (1970)
Adaptation: Roy (1984)
Systems model: Neuman (1972)
Some Theoretical frameworks from other disciplines:
Social learning theory: Bandua (1986); Rotter (1954)
Adult learning theory: Knowles (1980)
Role theory: Mead (1934)
State-Traite Anxiety: Spielburg (1972)
Stress: Selye (1976)
Helplessness: Seligman (1975)
Cognitive dissonance: Festinger (1957)
Developmental theory: Piaget (1926); Freud (1938); Erickson (1950);
Havighurst (1952)
Motivation: Maslow (1970)
Crisis: Caplan (1964)
Relaxation: Benson (1975)
Pain: Melzak and Wall (1983)
Body Image: Schilder (1952)
Job satisfaction: Herzberg (1966)

 Family theory (Minuchin (1974); Duvall (1977)

Family communication: Satir (1967)
Coping: Lazarus and Folkman (1984)
Moral reasoning: Kohlberg (1978)
Change theory: Lewin (1951)
Health behaviors: Becker (1985)
Health Belief: Becker (1955)
Attitudes: Fishbein & Ajzen (1975)
Gate control: Melzak & Wall (1983)
Once a theoretical framework is selected, it should be used throughout the study. This
means that it guides the entire research process; however, the entire theory is not
tested in one study.
These are the steps when a researcher selects and uses a framework:
Do a search of the literature for theories and examine various theories to
determine what might be appropriate to examine the research problem.
Select the theory for the research study. This is the theory that will guide and
direct the research process.
Conduct a comprehensive review of literature on studies that used this theory
base
Formulate the hypotheses or research questions to be tested using the theory or
propositions fromwithin the theory,
Write the conceptual definitions of the study variables based on the theory, .
Operationalize the study variables by selecting the instruments that will be used
to test the concepts. The instrument must be congruent with the theory.

 Explain the findings of the study using the theory,

Draw conclusions from the results based on the theory.
Decide if the theory is supported by the results of the study
Determine if there are any implications from the results that can be related to
the theory
Make recommendations for future research and include use of the theory

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY: CULTURAL

HISTORICAL ACTIVITY THEORY AND DEVELOPMENTAL WORK
RESEARCH
The underlying ideas of cultural historical activity theory were initially formulated in
1920's and 1930's in Russia in the search for a solution to the problems of traditional
psychology, which was seen as unable to describe the relationships between individual
and society, and the historical development of psychological processes as well
(Leont'ev, 1977).
In activity theory, the activity is defined with the help of the concept of object. The
object of activity is twofold in that the object is both something given and something
projected or anticipated (Leont'ev, 1977). According to Leont'ev, the object determines
the horizon of possible goals and actions that functions as the motive force driving the
activity forward. The subject constructs the object, and "singles out those properties
that prove to be essential for developing social practice" (Lektorsky, 1984, p. 137).
Goals or objectives can be understood in relation to the object and motive of
collective activity. To understand the relation between the individual goal and motive
of collective activity, Leontevs (1981) example of the hunting activity of a tribal
community is helpful. In hunting the mutual efforts of members of the tribe are
motivated by the game as an object to get food and clothing. To catch the game the
tribe has to give different tasks to its members: for example some dislodge the game,
others kill it. The goal of dislodging game is actually contrary to the motive of the
activity as a whole. The beater frightens animals away; he does not try to catch and
kill them. To make this action seem reasonable, an individual must be able to see it in
connection with the motive and meaning of the activity as a whole.

As shown in the example above, the objects and motives of activity are collective. In
the planning of a curriculum unit by a teacher team, there can also be identified a
broader vision consisting of the teaching of teachers and the learning of students. In
their complicated activity, in which there is a division of labor, the members of teacher
teams mould not only their own plans and goals but also collectively this broader
vision of activity. In an activity, the object is constructed both mentally and physically.
This means that the object of activity is not fixed and clearly defined but constantly
evolving, and it is possible to trace the history of a particular activity, and the
evolution of its object.
Activity theory and developmental work research focus on locally and temporally
concrete activity systems - that is, work processes and organizations. A central
premise of the theory from a developmental work research viewpoint is that
organization members themselves represent a central force for genuine organizational
development.
Historically, the work activity of school teachers is called teaching. In this study,
however, teacher teams were founded in order to plan curriculum units
collaboratively. Thus, here the studied activity of the teachers is largely planning
activity of curriculum units. One could say that the work of teachers has been
expanded to include planning of collective curriculum units. I am also studying the
execution of the planned curriculum units. However, I am not studying the learning
activity of the students since this would be a study of its own.
Teams can be understood as intermediate activity systems between the level of the
entire school and the level of an individual teacher. In developmental work research,
the activity system of an individual or group is studied and represented in its wider
activity context and against its historical background. The analysis of the activity
system as a whole is crucial, because it directs the focus and analysis to the whole
organizational context. For such an analysis one needs a conceptual model of an
activity system (Figure 3.1.).

Figure 3.1. Conceptual model of an activity system (Engestrm, 1987).

The model reveals multiple mediations in activity (Engestrm 1990, p. 79).

The subject refers to the individual or group whose point of view is adopted in the
analysis. In this research, the subject is the teacher team whose point of view is
adopted in the analysis. The object in the activity system refers to the "raw material"
or "problem area" to which the activity is directed. The object of the activity is
oriented towards a particular goal and is transformed to produce outcomes with the
help of mediating instruments. These artifacts are tools, signs, and various kinds of
representations that occur within the organization. The object of the teacher teams of
this study is twofold: the students on the one hand and the local curriculum on the
other. The outcome could be the successful implementation of the curriculum. As their
instruments, the team members could use, for example, collaborative planning
patterns of curriculum.
The model of an activity system can help to describe the relation between individual
and community in workplace activity. Any one teacher or group of teachers can be
observed as subject. Community signifies all the participants of an activity system,
who share the same object. Division of labor refers to the distribution of tasks,
authority, and benefits among these participants. Rules refer to the explicit or implicit
regulations that constrain actions, written or unwritten rules. I will return to the
definition of the activity systems of the studied teams more tentatively in Chapter 6
and more precisely in Chapter 10.
An activity system contains a variety of different viewpoints or "'voices", as well as
layers of historically accumulated artifacts, rules, and patterns of division of labor.
Engestrm (1996a) stresses that this multi-voiced nature of activity systems is both a
resource for collective achievement and a source of conflict.
In cultural historical activity theory, the concept of contradiction is of crucial
importance. For Il'enkov (1977), systems in the world are internally contradictory.
According to him, the object can be by itself internally contradictory. To develop
means to resolve those real contradictions in the world, both intellectually and
practically. According to Il'enkov (1982, p. 83-84), any improvement of labor before
becoming accepted first emerges as a certain deviation from previously accepted
norms.
Engestrm (1987) states that a conceptual model of the activity system is particularly
useful when one wants to make sense of systemic factors behind seemingly individual
and accidental disturbances occurring in the daily practice of workplaces. Inner
contradictions can be identified as tensions between two or more components of the
system. When analyzing and trying to understand these inner contradictions, it is
necessary to interpret them against a historical analysis of the evolution of the activity
system. As a new element enters into the activity system from outside, a contradiction

appears between the elements. For example, in teachers' work, the contradiction may
appear when a new object, for example the planning of thematic unit , emerges in a
teacher's daily practice. Teachers need to expand their collaboration but there are as
yet no proper collective instruments to change planning and teaching patterns.
Conflicts emerge between the thematic unit as an object and the traditional individual
instruments of teaching.
In team literature (see e.g., Katzenbach & Smith, 1993), there has been a lack of
analyzing the development of teams in terms of teams' concrete inner contradictions.
However, the significance of contradictions as sources of evolution has recently been
noted in some organizational literature (Putnam, 1994; Quinn & Cameron, 1988;
Donnellon, 1996). Putnam (1994) has demonstrated the creativity of conflict in her
study of collective bargaining between teachers and managers, including conflict
aroused from differing positions and from engaging in interaction outside the normal
bounds of teachers' and managers' activity.
The concept of paradox is closely related to the notion of contradiction. The analysis
of paradoxes captures interesting dynamics of changes and development of work.
However, the notion of object; and thus the specific content of collaboration and
problem solving, remains outside of analysis. In activity theory, the outlining of
contradictions of an activity system is based on a historical analysis of object-oriented
activity. In this study, teachers' work is examined as having historically changing
objects. Paradoxes, disturbances, or dilemmas in the teacher teams' discourse are
understood here as external manifestations of certain contradiction.
The notion of the developmental cycle (Engestrm, 1987, p. 189) helps to localize the
phase in the development of the work of the team. The cycle is a spiral that leads to a
qualitative change of the activity system. The first phase of a developmental cycle is
the "need state". Characteristic of this phase is vague discontentment that is often
directed towards people or groups of people instead of towards the structural features
of the activity system. The second phase is called "double bind" (see Bateson, 1972).
It means a phase when a sharpening contradiction has formed between certain factors
of the activity system. The discontentment of the members of a workplace is directed
to more clearly defined goals. The contradiction is experienced as intolerable.
Solution of double bind requires analysis, gaining conceptual mastery of the
contradiction. The third phase, "outlining new object and motive and forming a new
model of activity", is where members of a workplace sketch and plan a new solution
to present contradictions. As an example of this phase the formation of teams may be
mentioned. The formation of teams includes developing new strategic instruments and
forms of collaboration and division of labor. The fourth phase, "the application and
generalization of a new model of activity", means that this new model is applied in
everyday work. This often occurs the testing of strategic partial solutions. Finally, the

fifth phase, "the consolidation and assessment of a new line of activity", means
transition to a state, where new practices are followed systematically. With the help of
the developmental cycle model, I will return in Chapter 10, to the present
contradiction of the studied teams, and to the contradictions which the teams were
created to resolve.
Change and learning in work and organization requires construction of a new object
and new motives. From the viewpoint of activity theory, collaborative learning in the
team setting can be analyzed as object formation. Engestrm (1987) has introduced
the notion of expansive learning as expansion of object, which means that a team
learns something that does not yet exists, the starting point of learning. According to
Engestrm (1987), expansive learning means above all the expansion of the object
and motive of activity. This means that questions such as what is the aim of an
activity, what is produced and why, are formulated and reformulated, leading often to
the formation of new collaborative relations of workplace members (Engestrm et al.,
1995).
However, not all collaborative learning within an organization is expansive, since
collaborative learning processes contain contradictory and multivoiced elements
(Engestrm, 1987). For instance, there can exist a qualitatively narrowing cycle
leading to a reduction of activity as well. Careful analysis and comparison of
collaborative learning processes of both teams is an empirical and theoretical task of
the present study. Engestrm (1987) stresses that learning is a long-term process of
internalization and externalization, appropriation of available cultural resources and
design of a novel form of practice. In each chapter, in which findings are presented, I
will return to the issue of how the teachers constructed their objects as learning in a
more precise way. Chapter 8 especially is focused on the question of how the teachers
constructed their objects in a planning activity.
The cycle of expansive learning may also be called a "zone of proximal development"
of activity (Engestrm, 1987). When analyzing the learning process of a child ,
Vygotsky (1978, p. 86) defined the concept of zone of proximal as its being "the
distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers."
On the level of a whole collective activity system the zone of proximal development
means the distance between a prevailing line of activity which is experienced as
dissatisfying and a historically possible new line of activity bringing resolution to the
contradictions (Engestrm, 1987). I will return to the zone of proximal development
of the studied teams in Chapter 10.

Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not
necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research,
determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will
look for.
Theoretical frameworks are obviously critical in deductive, theory-testing sorts of
studies (see Kinds of Research for more information). In those kinds of studies, the
theoretical framework must be very specific and well-thought out.
Surprisingly, theoretical frameworks are also important in exploratory studies, where
you really don't know much about what is going on, and are trying to learn more.
There are two reasons why theoretical frameworks are important here. First, no matter
how little you think you know about a topic, and how unbiased you think you are, it is
impossible for a human being not to have preconceived notions, even if they are of a
very general nature. For example, some people fundamentally believe that people are
basically lazy and untrustworthy, and you have keep your wits about you to avoid
being conned. These fundamental beliefs about human nature affect how you look
things when doing personnel research. In this sense, you are always being guided by a
theoretical framework, but you don't know it. Not knowing what your real framework
is can be a problem. The framework tends to guide what you notice in an organization,
and what you don't notice. In other words, you don't even notice things that don't fit
your framework! We can never completely get around this problem, but we can reduce
the problem considerably by simply making our implicit framework explicit. Once it
is explicit, we can deliberately consider other frameworks, and try to see the
organizational situation through different lenses.

Cases and Variables

Cases are objects whose behavior or characteristics we study. Usually, the cases are
persons. But they can also be groups, departments, organizations, etc. They can also
be more esoteric things like events (e.g., meetings), utterances, pairs of people, etc.
Variables are characteristics of cases. They are attributes. Qualities of the cases that
we measure or record. For example, if the cases are persons, the variables could be
sex, age, height, weight, feeling of empowerment, math ability, etc. Variables are
called what they are because it is assumed that the cases will vary in their scores on
these attributes. For example, if the variable is age, we obviously recognize that

people can be different ages. Of course, sometimes, for a given sample of people,
there might not be any variation on some attribute. For example, the variable 'number
of children' might be zero for all members of this class. It's still a variable, though,
because in principle it could have variation.
In any particular study, variables can play different roles. Two key roles
are independent variables and dependent variables. Usually there is only one
dependent variable, and it is the outcome variable, the one you are trying to predict.
Variation in the dependent variable is what you are trying to explain. For example, if
we do a study to determine why some people are more satisfied in their jobs than
others, job satisfaction is the dependent variable.
The independent variables, also known as the predictor or explanatory variables, are
the factors that you think explain variation in the dependent variable. In other words,
these are the causes. For example, you may think that people are more satisfied with
their jobs if they are given a lot of freedom to do what they want, and if they are wellpaid. So 'job freedom' and 'salary' are the independent variables, and 'job satisfaction'
is the dependent variable. This is diagrammed as follows:

(yes, I know. It looks like the Enterprise)

There are actually two other kinds of variables, which are basically independent
variables, but work a little differently. These are moderator and intervening variables.
A moderator variable is one that modifies the relationship between two other
variables.
For example, suppose that the cases are whole organizations, and you believe that
diversity in the organization can help make them more profitable (because diversity
leads to fresh outlooks on old problems), but only if managers are specially trained in
diversity management (otherwise all that diversity causes conflicts and
miscommunication). Here, diversity is clearly an independent variable, and
profitability is clearly a dependent variable. But what is diversity training? Its main
function seems to be adjust the strength of relation between diversity and profitability

For example, suppose you are studying job applications to various departments within
a large organization. You believe that in overall, women applicants are more likely to
get the job than men applicants, but that this varies by the number of women already
in the department the person applied to. Specifically, departments that already have a
lot of women will favor female applicants, while departments with few women will
favor male applicants. We can diagram this as follows:

Actually, if that model is true, then this one is as well, though it's harder to think
about:

Whether sex of applicant is the independent and % women in dept is the moderator, or
the other around, is not something we can ever decide. Another way to talk about
moderating and independent variables is in terms ofinteraction. Interacting variables
affect the dependent variable only when both are acting in concert. We could diagram
that this way:

An intervening or intermediary variable is one that is affected by the independent

variable and in turn affects the dependent variable. For example, we said that diversity
is good for profitability because diversity leads to innovation (fresh looks) which in
turn leads to profitability. Here, innovation is an intervening variable. We diagram it
this way:

Note that in the diagram, there is no arrow from diversity directly to profitability. This
means that if we control for innovativeness, diversity is unrelated to profitability. To
control for a variable means to hold its values constant. For example, suppose we
measure the diversity, innovativeness and profitability of a several thousand
companies. If we look at the relationship between diversity and profitability, we might
find that the more diverse companies have, on average, higher profitability than the
less diverse companies. But suppose we divide the sample into two groups: innovative
companies and non-innovative. Now, within just the innovative group, we again look
at the relationship between diversity and profitability. We might find that there is no
relationship. Similarly, if we just look at the non-innovative group, we might find no
relationship between diversity and profitability there either. That's because the only
reason diversity affects profitability is because diversity tends to affect a company's
innovativeness, and that in turn affects profitability.
Here's another example. Consider the relationship between education and health. In
general, the more a educated a person is, the healthier they are. Do diplomas have
magic powers? Do the cells in educated people's bodies know how to fight cancer? I
doubt it. It might be because educated people are more likely to eat nutritionally
sensible food and this in turn contributes to their health. But of course, there are many
reasons why you might eat nutritionally sensible food, even if you are not educated.
So if we were to look at the relationship between education and health among only
people who eat nutritionally sensible food, we might find no relationship. That would
support the idea that nutrition is an intervening variable.

It should be noted, however, if you control for a variable, and the relationship between
two variables disappears, that doesn't necessarily mean that the variable you
controlled for was an intervening variable. Here is an example. Look at the
relationship between the amount of ice cream sold on a given day, and the number of
drownings on those days. This is not hypothetical: this is real. There is a strong
correlation: the more you sell, the more people drown. What's going on? Are people
forgetting the 'no swimming within an hour of eating' rule? Ice cream screws up your
coordination? No. There is a third variable that is causing both ice cream sales and
drownings. The variable is temperature. On hot days, people are more likely to buy ice
cream. They are also more likely to go to the beach, where a certain proportion will
drown. If we control for temperature (i.e., we only consider days that are cold, or days
that are warm), we find that there is no relationship between ice cream sales and
drownings. But temperature is not an intervening variable, since it ice cream sales do
not cause temperature changes. Nor is ice cream sales an intervening variable, since
ice cream sales do not cause drownings.
Results Section
The results section is where you tell the reader the basic descriptive
information about the scales you used (report the mean and
standard deviation for each scale). If you have more than 3 or 4
variables in your paper, you might want to put this descriptive
information in a table to keep the text from being too choppy and
bogged down (see the APA manual for ideas on creating good
tables). In the results section, you also tell the reader what
statistics you conducted to test your hypothesis (-ses) and what the
results indicated. In this paper, you conducted bivariate
correlation(s) to test your hypothesis.
Include in Results (include the following in this order in your results
section):
Give the descriptive statistics for the relevant variables
(mean, standard deviation).
Provide a brief rephrasing of your hypothesis(es) (avoid exact
restatement). Then tell the reader what statistical test you
used to test your hypothesis and what you found.
Explain which correlations were in the predicted direction, and
which were not (if any). Were differences statistically
significant (i.e., p < .05 or below)? Don't merely give the
statistics without any explanation. Whenever you make a

claim that there is (or is not) a significant correlation between

X and Y, the reader has to be able to verify it by looking at the
appropriate test statistic. For example do not report The
correlation between private self-consciousness and college
adjustment was r = - .26, p < .01. In general, you should
not use numbers as part of a sentence in this way. Instead,
interpret important data for the reader and use words
throughout your sentences: The negative correlation
between private self-consciousness and college adjustment
indicated that the more participants felt self-conscious, the
worse their adjustment to college, r = - .26, p < .01
However, don't try to interpret why you got the results you
did. Leave that to the Discussion.
Note: Be sure to underline all abbreviations of test statistics
(e.g., M for mean and SD for standard deviation). See pages
112-118 of the APA manual for more on reporting statistics in
text.
Some specifics:
For each correlation, you need to report the following
information either in the text of your paper or in a table: correlation
coefficient, significance level (p value).
If you are reporting a single correlation for the whole
results section, report it in the text of the paper as
follows: r =.26, p < .01 or r = -.11, n.s.
Note:
Use n.s. if not significant; or use whichever of the following is most accurate:
p < .05; p < .01; p < .001
If your correlation was non significant, but p < .10 you can still talk about
it. You might put the following text in your paper: While the correlation
was not significant relative to the standard alpha level of .05, the p-value
was less than .10. Then provide a rationale for why you should still be able
to discuss this non-significant correlation (see your hypothesis testing lecture
notes). You may then cautiously interpret such a correlation. Don t make
grand conclusions or use strong language based on the existence of a
marginally significant finding. Also, you should indicate that a marginal
correlation is non-significant in a table; only refer to the correlation as
approaching significance in the text of the paper.

If you computed two or more correlations (thus involving at least

three variables) provide a table at the end of the paper (ordinarily
tables would only be used for even more complex findings, but I'd
like you to practice since you have a few correlations to work
with). Create a correlation matrix like the example (see Table
1). If you include a correlation matrix table, you should, in the
text of the result section, refer readers to your table instead
of typing out the r and the pvalue for each correlation. If you are
using Word as your word processor, create the table, then you can
adjust the "borders and shading" for each cell/row/column to get
the table formatted properly. I can show you how if you have
trouble. Other word processors should have similar functions.
Table 1
This Table is an Example of a Correlation Matrix among Three Variables for an
Imaginary Sample of College Students (n = 129).
Variable

1. name of

---

.56**

-.29*

---

.44*

variable
2. name of next
var.
3. name of 3rd var.

--

* p < .05; **p < .01

==========================================
===========================
You need to report the statistics in some way in your result section,
but regardless of whether you use a table or type the statistics in
the text, you should alsointerpret the correlation for the reader
say exactly what that means:

E.g. As expected, college adjustment was positively correlated

with the amount of contact with friends and family members
(see Table 1).
E.g. No significant relationship was found between the
importance of one's social life and social adjustment to
college, r = -.11, n.s.
E.g. As shown in Table 1, some of my predictions were
supported. There was a significant correlation between
extroversion and life satisfaction.However, life satisfaction
was not significantly related to college adjustment.
See your text, APA manual, and Sample Paper (The Title of the
Paper) for more information and suggestions. In general, I
would suggest writing the words of the results section first, and
then going back to insert the numbers and statistical information.

Discussion section

In your discussion section, relate the results back to your initial

hypotheses. Do they support or disconfirm them? Remember:
Results do not provehypotheses right or wrong, they support them
or fail to provide support for them.
I suggest the following information in the following order:
Provide

a very brief summary of the most important parts of

the introduction and then the results sections. In doing so, you
should relate the results to the theories you introduced in the
Introduction. Your findings are just one piece among many -resist the tendency to make your results the final story about
the phenomenon or theory of interest. Integrate the results
and try to make sense of the pattern of the findings.
In

the case of a correlational project, be careful to not use

causal language to discuss your results unless you did an
experiment you cannot infer causality. However, it would be
impossible to fully discuss the implications of your results without
making reference to causality. That is fine. Just don't claim that
your results themselves are demonstrating causality.
If

your findings did not support your hypotheses, speculate

why that might be so. You might reconsider the logic of your
hypotheses. Or, reconsider whether the variables are
adequately measuring the relationship. For example, if you
hypothesized a relationship between anger toward the
stigmatized and narcissism and didnt find it consider
whether anger is really the right variable... perhaps "disgust"
would better capture the relationship. Alternatively, you might
also consider whether the relationship you hypothesized might
only show up in certain populations of people or under certain
conditions (e.g., self-threat). Where possible, support your
speculation with references.

 Talk

about any qualifications important to your findings (all

studies have weaknesses/qualifications). This includes alternative
explanations for the results. For example, you might speculate
about an unexamined third variable that was not present in you
study. However, BE SPECIFIC and back up any assertions you
make. For example, if you claim that 3rd variables might affect
your correlations, tell me what they are and how they would
affect your correlations.
Speculate

about future directions that research could take to

further investigate your question. This might relate back to any
weaknesses youve mentioned above (or reasons why the
results didnt turn out as expected). Future directions may
also include interesting next steps in the research.
A

discussion section is about what we have learned so far;

and where we should go next; Your final conclusion should
talk briefly about the broader significance of your
findings. What do they imply about human nature or some
aspect of it? (Don't wildly speculate, however!) Leave the reader
feeling like this is an important topic... you will likely refer back
to your opening paragraph of the introduction here and have
partial answers or more specific responses to the questions you
posed.

Important Parts of the Paper Dont Forget Them!!

Title page - Try to write a title that maximally informs the reader
about the topic, without being ridiculously long. Use titles of articles
you've read as examples of form. Also provide the RUNNING HEAD
and an abbreviated title that appears in the header of each page
along with the page number. Provide your name and institutional
affiliation (Hanover College). See APA Manual and sample paper.
Abstract - Write the abstract LAST. An abstract is a super-short
summary and is difficult to write.
Info on abstracts from APA manual:
An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an
article, allowing readers to survey the contents quickly.
A good abstract is:
accurate:

Ensure that your abstract correctly reflects the

purpose and content of your paper. Do not include
information that does not appear in the body of the paper.
self-contained: Define all abbreviations and
acronyms. Spell out names of tests/
questionnaires. Define unique terms. Paraphrase rather
than quote.
concise and specific: Make each sentence maximally
informative, especially the lead sentence. Begin the
abstract with the most important information (your question),
but do not repeat the title. Be as brief as possible.
non-evaluative: Report rather than evaluate: do not add to
or comment on what is in the body of the manuscript.
coherent and readable: Write in clear and vigorous prose.
Use the third person rather than the first person.
In less than 150 words your abstract should describe:
the problem under investigation (an "introduction" type
sentence)

 the

specific variables investigated and the method of doing so

(a "method" type sentence)
the results of the study in brief (no numbers, just words)
a hint about the general direction the discussion section takes
References: Use APA style. See your APA manual, textbook and
the sample paper for examples of how to cite and how to make a
reference list. Make sure that all references mentioned in the text
are also mentioned in the reference list and vice versa.
Tables and/or Figures: Use APA style. Tables go at the very end of
your paper. Make sure you refer to the table or figure in the text
of your paper.
*See APA Manual, textbook and sample paper for information on
how to format each section of your paper and how to order the
sections.

Results and Discussion

Note that sometimes in lab reports it may be more appropriate to present the results in one
section, called Results, and then to discuss them in a separate Discussion section.
In the Results and Discussion section, you present your results and discuss them by:

commenting on the results obtained

interpreting what the results mean and

explaining any results which are unexpected.

You present the measurements made in the experiment and you then compare your measurements to
the calculations you made in your preliminary work or the published theoretical values.
You need to:

identify any discrepancies and

to state them as a percentage.

You also need to:

identify any sources of error in your measurements and

if possible, suggest how your experiment could have been performed more accurately.

What should you aim for?

Clear comparisons made between the calculations and the measurements with the discrepancy
expressed as a percentage.

Good explanation of the possible reasons for the discrepancy and the possible sources of error in
the measurements.

Example
Here are some useful expressions to use if your measurements correspond well with your calculations:
The measurements are consistent with the preliminary calculations.
The measured values agree well with the calculated values.
Example
Here are some useful expressions if your measurements do not correspond well with your calculations:
The measurements are significantly different from the preliminary calculations.
The measured values do not agree well with the calculated values.
Example
Here are some useful expressions for explaining the source of errors:
The discrepancy may be due to human error.
The difference may be the result of incorrect calibrations.

Method section
Your method section provides a detailed overview of how you conducted your research. Because your
study methods form a large part of your credibility as a researcher and writer, it is imperative that you
be clear about what you did to gather information from participants in your study.
With your methods section, as with the sections above, you want to walk your readers through your
study almost as if they were a participant. What happened first? What happened next?
The method section includes the following sub-sections.

I. Participants: Discuss who was enrolled in your experiment. Include major demographics that have
an impact on the results of the experiment (i.e. if race is a factor, you should provide a breakdown by
race). The accepted term for describing a person who participates in research studies is
a participant not a subject.
II. Apparatus and materials: The apparatus is any equipment used during data collection (such as
computers or eye-tracking devices). Materials include scripts, surveys, or software used for data
collection (not data analysis). It is sometimes necessary to provide specific examples of materials or
prompts, depending on the nature of your study.
III. Procedure: The procedure includes the step-by-step how of your experiment. The procedure
should include:

A description of the experimental design and how participants were assigned conditions.

Identification of your independent variable(s) (IV), dependent variable(s) (DV), and control
variables. Give your variables clear, meaningful names so that your readers are not confused.

Important instructions to participants.

A step-by-step listing in chronological order of what participants did during the experiment.

Results section
The results section is where you present the results of your research-both narrated for the readers in
plain English and accompanied by statistics.
Note: Depending on the requirements or the projected length of your paper, sometimes the results are
combined with the discussion section.
Organizing Results
Continue with your story in the results section. How do your results fit with the overall story you are
telling? What results are the most compelling? You want to begin your discussion by reminding your
readers once again what your hypotheses were and what your overall story is. Then provide each
result as it relates to that story. The most important results should go first.
Preliminary discussion: Sometimes it is necessary to provide a preliminary discussion in your
results section about your participant groups. In order to convince your readers that your results are
meaningful, you must first demonstrate that the conditions of the study were met. For example, if you
randomly assigned subjects into groups, are these two groups comparable? You can't discuss the
differences in the two groups until you establish that the two groups can be compared.
Provide information on your data analysis: Be sure to describe the analysis you did. If you are
using a non-conventional analysis, you also need to provide justification for why you are doing so.
Presenting Results: Bem (2006) recommends the following pattern for presenting findings:

Remind readers of the conceptual hypotheses or questions you are asking

Remind readers of behaviors measured or operations performed

Provide the answer/result in plain English

Provide the statistic that supports your plain English answer

Elaborate or qualify the overall conclusion if necessary

Writers new to psychology and writing with statistics often dump numbers at their readers without
providing a clear narration of what those numbers mean. Please see our Writing with Statistics
handout for more information on how to write with statistics.

Discussion section
Your discussion section is where you talk about what your results mean and where you wrap up the
overall story you are telling. This is where you interpret your findings, evaluate your hypotheses or
research questions, discuss unexpected results, and tie your findings to the previous literature
(discussed first in your literature review). Your discussion section should move from specific to
general.
Here are some tips for writing your discussion section.

Begin by providing an interpretation of your results: what is it that you have learned from your
research?

Discuss each hypotheses or research question in more depth.

Do not repeat what you have already said in your resultsinstead, focus on adding new
information and broadening the perspective of your results to you reader.

Discuss how your results compare to previous findings in the literature. If there are
differences, discuss why you think these differences exist and what they could mean.

Briefly consider your study's limitations, but do not dwell on its flaws.

Consider also what new questions your study raises, what questions your study was not able
to answer, and what avenues future research could take in this area.

Example: Here is how this works.

Briel begins her discussion section by providing a sentence about her hypotheseswhat
she expected to find. She immediately follows this with what she did find and then her
interpretation of those findings. After discussing each of her major results, she
discusses larger implications of her work and avenues for future research.

Results and Discussion

So you've spent many, many months on your project, you've got some
great results, and now it comes to getting them into a paper. You want to
tell everybody about all the hours you've spent testing every solvent,

catalyst, and additive you could think of and all the trouble you've had
with the HPLC. However, if you do this, your reader is likely to get very
bored very quickly. So the best advice is to keep your focus and make
your R&D concise but informative.
Focus on the really important bits, not the very small detailsespecially
if you are writing a communication and not a full paper. To put this into a
simple example, if you've tried a reaction in several different solvents,
you don't need to discuss every single experimental result with every
single solvent. Put all the data in a table, and perhaps you could
comment on a general trend, such as polar versus nonpolar, and discuss
why the best solvent is the best solvent in this particular case. Going
through each individual result in the table is usually unnecessary.
Try and keep in mind that the R&D and the experimental sections are
different. There is usually no need to discuss experimental procedures in
the R&D section unless the practical aspects of the work have some
direct effect on the outcome of the experiments. For example, if the
order of reagent addition alters the yield or the reaction pathway, this
should definitely be part of your discussion. If not, leave it until the
experimental.
Use abbreviations sparingly and consistently throughout your paper.
Define an abbreviation where it is first used and leave it at thatit is not
necessary to re-define abbreviations in every new section. You don't
need to define the simpler things, such as NMR, AFM, or HPLC, but
make sure you do define abbreviations of chemical names, as the
abbreviations used for certain chemicals in other parts of the world are
not necessarily the same as the ones that you use!
Sometimes, the most interesting and discussible parts of research are
the anomalies or the things that don't make sense. Don't ignore these
outliers because referees will likely ask you to comment on your strange

results. Discussion of strange results is often as valuable as focusing on

the expected findings, as it can help in understanding the more subtle
features of a reaction, a catalyst, or a material. And who knows, your one
weird result might just be enough to open up a whole new area of
research!

Next month: The Experimental Section Possibly the easiest

section to write, but there are still things you can do to make your
experimental section an easy read.
See all Tips for Writing Better Science Papers

Article Information

DOI: 10.1002/chemv.201200123

APA Referencing guide

Academic conventions and copyright law require that you acknowledge when you use the ideas of others. In most
cases, this means stating which book or journal article is the source of an idea or quotation.
This guide draws from the:
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual
of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.).
Washington, DC: Author.
University policy mandates the use of the APA Style defined by this referencing guide.
On this page:

List of references
How to cite references within the text of an assignment (including citations from secondary sources and
Creative Commons)
Additional help

List of References

At the end of your essay, place a list of the references you have cited in the text. Arrange this in alphabetical order of
authors' surnames, and then chronologically (earliest publication date first) for each author where more than one
work by that author is cited. The author's surname is placed first, followed by initials or first name, and then the year
of publication is given. If the list contains more than one item published by the same author(s) in the same year, add
lower case letters immediately after the year to distinguish them (e.g. 1983a). These are ordered alphabetically by
title disregarding any initial articles (a, an or the).

The reference list includes only the sources you have used in any submission. APA Style requires
reference lists, not bibliographies.
The reference list begins a new page with the centred heading - References
Double-space all reference entries.
Reference list entries should be indented half an inch (five to seven spaces) on the second and
subsequent lines of the reference list for every entry - a hanging indent is the preferred style. (i.e. entries
should begin flush left, and the second and subsequent lines should be indented).
Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author as the letters appear (e.g. M, Mac,
MacD, Mc).
If there is no author, the title moves to the author position (filed under the first significant word of the
title). If the title in this instance begins with numerals, spell them out.
States and territories are abbreviated in the location section of the publication information. For U.S.
states, use the official two-letter postal service abbreviation (e.g. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill). Spell out
country names if outside Australia or the United States.

Reference list examples

Books (print and online)

Journal and newspaper articles
Web documents and sites
Other electronic media
Audiovisual and other media
Legislation and legal authorities
Unpublished works
Proceedings and technical reports
USQ course materials

Books (print and online)

General forms (when DOIs are assigned, use them):
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxxxxxx
Author, A. A. (year). Title of work. Retrieved from xxxxxxxxxxxx database.
Include subtitles. All titles must be italicised.
Information about editions (if other than the first), series, volume numbers or chapter page ranges should be included
in parentheses ( ) after the title - not in italics but before the full stop.
Other descriptive information may also follow the title and any parenthetical information in brackets [ ] also before the
full stop.