Insane, Destitute and Promiscuous:

Characterisation of Iconoclastic Women in Australian Literature

By Bianca van de Water

Penton once stated that Australians react with horror, ridicule, or contempt and indifference to
mavericks (1941, p. 45). The present essay evaluates this polemic through an exploration of the
characterisation of women outcasts in three Australian texts, including Prelude to Christopher (Dark
2012), Josie (Palmer 2002) and Down at the Dump (White 2002). The texts demonstrate that
twentieth-century Australian society disapproved of independent and iconoclastic women in that nonconformity was responded to with callousness or punished with ostracision.

Prelude to Christopher is set in the fictitious 1930s country town Moondoona. The main events unfold
across a historical time span of four days, starting with Dr Nigel Hendons car accident on Tuesday,
and culminating in his wife Linda Hendons suicide on Friday. The characters psychological time spans
across twenty years, from prior to World War I to the Depression Era.

Nigel and Linda represent the political and social tensions of 1930s Australia (Carson 2009, p. 124), in
that they are influenced and polarised - by the eugenics movement. This ideology was part of the
Australian zeitgeist, (Brooks & Clark 1998, p. 113), which was shaped by a nation intent on
modernising and maintaining the Caucasian identity of its population (Moore 2001, p. 21). Rationalist
experiments in managing family and sexual life were redefining what it meant to be modern (Ibid.).
Nigel captures the zeitgeist by arguing for eugenics, propounding its efficiency and rationality: The
marvels . . . that humanity had perfected, the breeding of animals, the standardisation of machinery
(Dark 2012, p. 22). By contrast, a man who bred . . . sheep with infinite care would marry a tuberculosis
wife and rear an infected family (Ibid.). Nigel had established a eugenicist colony twenty years prior
and intended to rear healthy children from untainted stock (Dark 2012, p. 43). Thus, eugenics is an
inherently discriminatory ideology, as it aims to achieve racist purity by guarding against reproduction

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of those considered unfit (Carson 2009, p. 125). Consequently, it divides society between insiders and
outsiders. Linda represents the latter, in that she originates from tainted stock (Dark 2012, p. 63),
potentially affected by hereditary insanity, which can express itself in homicidal tendencies (Dark 2012,
p. 40). Thus, Lindas genetic profile renders her unfit for reproduction and precludes full participation
in Nigels eugenicist colony Hy-Brazil. Her outsider status is symbolised in dAuberts painting, which
shows her likeness in the background separated from Hy-Brazils seascape in the foreground.
Furthermore, Lindas stream of consciousness demonstrates subliminal awareness of her isolation,
which is demonstrated by repeated allusions to Tennysons Lady of Shalott. Fragments intrude into
Lindas consciousness (Dark 2012, p. 53), which may suggest that she perceives her situation
comparable to the Ladys isolation.

Lindas characterisation focusses on her disturbed psyche, which is exposed through the use of stream
of consciousness techniques characteristic of modernist literature. These include imagery, inner
monologue and sensory perceptions, which highlight Lindas otherness. Readers become emphatically
aware of her psyche through carnivalesque imagery. For instance, Linda visualises losing her mind,
cog-by-cog, ultimately letting go to ride ones madness in the dark as though to some wild Witches
Sabbath . . . alive with beating wings and slithering bodies (Dark 2012, p. 52). Furthermore, her
narrations suggest homicidal tendencies, which is demonstrated through violent inner monologues.
Linda reflects how she could hit her [mother-in-law], injure and maim her. . .Killing. . . (Ibid.). The
stream of consciousness narrations also include sensory perceptions, which demonstrates Lindas
alienation from her own body. The monologue described above was followed by a queer, burning
sensation in the palm . . . as though it had . . . some fierce desire of its own (Dark 2012, p. 53).
Nonetheless, Linda refrains from acting upon such thoughts and her behaviour betrays no homicidal
tendencies. They do cause her to act unconventionally, and consequentially, her death is inevitable, as
her survival would be to sanction antisocial behaviour (Brooks & Clark 1998, p. 117).

Two decades after Hy-Brazils cessation, when Nigel and Linda have settled for a quiet country
existence, Linda is again perceived as an outsider. Moondoonas inhabitants consider her the mad wife

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Dr Hendon had brought along with his stethoscope (Dark 2012, p. 63). Their intolerance is epitomised
in Kay, who, in contradiction to her role as a nurse, beheld Linda with horror and repulsion and
hopes she might never again see anyone in such a torment (Dark 2012, p. 174). She concludes that
Linda should be incarcerated before knowingly abandoning her to her miserable end. Hereby, Kate
demonstrates callousness, hostility and an utter lack of compassion, which may be symbolic of societal
attitudes towards otherness.

The short story Josie unfolds in a similar setting, i.e. an Australian country town during the Depression
Era. It comprises the narrators reminiscences regarding schoolgirl Josie Pattons death from
pneumonia. Contrary to Prelude to Christopher, this text focusses on otherness caused by economical
factors. The late Josie belonged to the working class as the daughter of a ganger, which contrasts with
Linda, who belonged to the upper-middle class. This era saw widespread poverty, whereby destitute
families lived in shanty towns, characterised by improvised dwellings, poor sanitation and lack of
resources (Robertson 1974, pp. 416-19). In response, documentary writing gained prominence,
emphasizing facts which radical writers perceived to have been conventionally excluded or falsified
in literary discourses (Carter 1988, p. 371). The working class experience is symbolised in Josie, who
lives in a bare little house with no paddocks or yards and no gutters on the tin roof (Dark 2002, p.
2556). This description marks the text as social realist fiction, in that it comprises a sober and authentic
depiction of working class circumstances (Straus 1998, p. 122).

The depiction of otherness in Josie contrasts considerably with Prelude to Christopher, in that it is
narrated from the perspective of an omniscient narrator, presumably a member of the insider group,
rather than the outsiders own stream of consciousness. The narrator-insider describes how no one had
ever liked Josie very much or wanted to sit next to her in class (Palmer 2002, p.2575). S/he justifies
the ostracision by arguing Josies culpability: she had things in her hair and ringworm-infested skin
(Ibid.). Additionally, she demonstrates anti-social behaviour, in that she lacks table manners and has an
inclination to steal others lunches (Ibid.).The narrator-insider demonstrates self-righteousness, in that
s/he believes Josies ostracision to be inevitable. This is demonstrated in his/her final thought, whereby

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s/he ironically expresses gladness that the angels didnt know as much about Josie as we did (Palmer
2002, p. 2608). This does not express genuine fellow-feeling but rather a presumption Josie would be
ostracised in the afterlife also, if the guardian angels had been cognizant of her otherness. Considering
that the narrator demonstrates condescension towards Josies impoverishment, s/he considers himself
socially superior and may thus symbolise the middle class and middle class attitudes.

Social realist writers considered the Great Depression as a cause of profound disturbances in social
relations, whereby human nature as a source of value and continuity is imperilled (Carter 1988, p. 371).
This is epitomised by the narrator-insider, who, like Kay in Prelude to Christopher, demonstrates
indifference and callousness. The narrator neither contemplates the causes of Josies death nor expresses
pity for a life extinguished gratuitously. This disruption in fellow-feeling is emphasized in brief, secondperson narrations, whereby s/he considers contemplation undesirable, otherwise you would be awake
all night, as well as irrelevant, in that lots of people did grow up to be old, and your chance was as
good as any (Palmer 2002, p. 2593). Thus, the narrator demonstrates wilful indifference towards Josie,
which may be symbolic of middle class attitudes towards the poor.

Down at the Dump contrasts with the previous texts in that it is set in post-war suburbia. Like Josie,
the narrative focusses on the recent death of a woman outcast, namely Daisy Morrow. Her outsider
status becomes evident through the behaviour of those attending her funeral. Daisys niece, Meg
Hogben, leaves the funeral prematurely to explore the dump, where she has an intimate encounter.
Meanwhile, her father Les Hogben, derides Daisys lover for grieving, in that he never knew a man to
cry at a funeral (White 2002, p. 3985). By contrast, he felt rather rakish driving home in his Holden
Special (White 2002, p. 4073) after they had dumped Daise (4036). Although the characters thoughts
and actions may appear trivial, it is exactly these trivialities that render them into symbols of the
superficiality and materialism endemic in contemporary Australian society (McKernan 1989, p. 176).
Furthermore, the characters callousness appears even more contemptible due to its setting in the postwar era, which was characterised by a booming economy (Clarke 1992, p. 267) and relative affluence

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(McKernan 1989, pp. 167-68). Therefore, in contrast to the previous texts, there is no historical or
external crisis to extenuate the characters attitudes.

Daisys outsider status is a consequence of her promiscuity, which would have been considered immoral
sexual conduct in post-war Australia (Lake 1995, p. 68). In contrast to Josie, multiple perspectives
have been orchestrated, comprising a jigsaw of memories and interior monologue flashbacks of
multiple characters (Wilson 1976, p. 282). This device is characteristic of modernist literature and
reflects the notion that people are the sum of multiple perspectives upon them (Showalter 2000, p.
XXI). Les Hogbens inner monologue reveals he considers Daisys last relationship a parting folly
with an old scabby deadbeat (White 2002, p. 3675). Posthumously, Daisy refers to herself as a loose
woman (White 2002, p. 4015), who, as her sister Myrtle Hogben remembers, had no objections to
having paramours (White 2002, p. 3671). Daisy justifies her promiscuity as an expression of love and
compassion (Ibid.). However, an omniscient narrator reflects that nobody would ever understand, for
ever and ever. And ever (White 2002, p. 4020). Hereby, this text paints a rather pessimistic picture of
suburban society, in that discriminatory and parochial attitudes are considered to be enduring as well as
resistant to mediation. Thus, of the three texts discussed, Down at the Dump provides the strongest
criticism of early to mid-twentieth century Australian society.

The three texts discussed provide an eclectic overview of women outcasts, involving sharply contrasting
characters: wealthy but mad Linda; poor and powerless Josie; and, non-judgmental and promiscuous
Daisy. Reactions to these characters demonstrate that Australian society was intolerant of those who
failed or refused - to meet revered social values, such as sensibility, chasteness, respectability,
wholesomeness, and, class consciousness. Thus, the three texts support Pentons opinion that Australian
society is intolerant of non-conformity (1941, p. 45) and disrupt national myths of a free, just and
classless society (Ibid.). By contrast, the texts expose several social ills, such as indifference,
callousness, self-righteousness and superficiality. By remorselessly exposing these social ills, it could
be concluded that the authors made an appeal to uphold social values of tolerance, compassion and
inclusivity instead.

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References

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