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- Lightning
- Birds and animals bridging insulators
- Dig-ups for underground cables
- Poles collapsing
- Conductors breaking
- Wind borne debris
- Incorrect operation by personnel
Ic = 3.63 x 10-6 x UN X FN x CB x S
Ic
charging current A
UN
FN
CB
equi potential points on pilot wires. Taps can be provided on operating coil and restraining coil
of relay for adjusting the balance.
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance
measurement it is appropriate to use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line up to a
predetermined point (the reach point).
Distance relay is designed to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location and
the predetermined (reach) point, thus giving discrimination for faults that may occur in
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different line sections. The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of
voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. The calculated apparent impedance is
compared with the reach point impedance.
If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault
exists on the line between the relay and the reach point
Zones of Protection:
Careful selection of the reach point settings and tripping times for various zones of measurement
enables correct coordination between distance relays on a power system. Basic distance
protection will comprise one instantaneous (Zone 1) and one or more time delayed zones (Zone
2, Zone 3, Zone are shown in Fig.2-17 :
Fig.2-17 zones of distance protection
Zone 1: this is set to protect between 80% of the line length AB and operates without any
time delay. This under-reach setting has been purposely chosen to avoid over-reaching
into the next line section to ensure selectivity since errors and transients can be present in
the voltage and current transformers. Also manufacturing tolerances limit the measurement
accuracy of the relays.
Zone 2: this is set to protect 100% of the line length AB, plus at least 20% of the shortest
adjacent line BC and operates with time delay t2. (0.5s)
It not only covers the remaining %20 of the line, but also provides backup for the next line
section.
Zone 3: this is set to protect 100% of the two lines AB, BC, plus about 25% of the third line
operates with time delay t3. (1.5s)
It should be noted that, digital distance relays may have up to six zones, some set to measure in
the reverse direction.The shape of the operation zones as shown in Fig.2-18 has developed
throughout the years. An overview of relay characteristics can be seen below:
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