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MANCHESTER
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING, SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
Petroleum and Gas Engineering
Division
MSc Petroleum and Gas
Engineering
Question 1
A - The are two main types of unconformity: Parallel unconformity and angular
displacement. So the layer A is a parallel unconformity that can be defined as The layers
of different ages are deposited in parallel and separated only by erosion surface stratigraphic break To be more precise it is stratigraphic discordance that is subgroup of
parallel unconformity. As a proof of this, from picture above can be seen that the rock
formation A it is a conglomerate, where conglomerate is a sedimentary rock formation,
connection something heterogeneous, inconsistent mix.
B - Can be an apophyse or as part of batholith or even dike. It is difficult to say what it is
exactly, it is needed to know relative dimensions of this formation, what form it have
below the picture, or how it connected with other igneous rocks.
C - Dike, because it is intrusive body with dimensions where length is much bigger than
width. According with this rock formation we can get a little clarification about rock B,
which is more like batholith that other types, because of the property of dikes to break
through the granite batholiths in the late stages of their formation.
d) - Same as previous Dike.
3) - The rock X was the first to be formed. Then was intrusion of Z, further parallelness of
layers X and Z was violated with some tectonic movement or other actions. Appearance
of igneous rocks B, C, D related with some active magmatic processes. The igneous rock
B was first, and then C and D. Dikes are the most widespread in the oceanic crust formed
by spreading or in the intercontinental rift zone. Intrusion of dikes C and D came out to
the surface of formation X. In consequence of erosion the surface area was aligned with
formation of conglomerate A and sandstone T, and then the subsidence of shale Y.
Question 2
1) - To denote the rocks (without age) on geological maps, geological cross section and
stratigraphic columns uses colour alphabetic and dashed notation according with international
standards:
Igneous rock
Limestone
Conglomerate
Shale
Sandstone
2) Based on some of the Stratigraphic principles stated in the chapter 1, in a descending
order arrangement,
D Oldest (Law of Original Horizontality and the fact that Limestone D, moved only
20o SE)
C Next (Law of Superposition)
B Next (Law of Superposition)
A Next (Law of Superposition)
3) - U Erosion Unconformity; F Fault; Counting horizontal line Dike
Question 3
1) Principle methods of exploration and reservoir prediction
Gravity Survey Method: Gravity surveys are performed to examine bedrock
topography under the Earths surface, map large metallic mineral deposits, and locate
subsurface caverns and also contacts between geologic units of differing mass and
density. It is a fairly complicated system but it is based on the premise that a target, oil
reserve in this case, has a different density from the surrounding geology. Computer
models are once again generated to depict the general area where such gravity
changes occur. Once the gravity survey indicates an area where there is density
differences it is time to perform a seismic survey. The instruments used make use of
the earth's gravitational field and the way the field varies according to differences in
mass distribution near the earth's surface. Because the density of rocks varies, the
gravitational force they exert necessarily varies. If very light rocks are found close to
the surface, the gravitational force they exert will be less than those of very heavy
rocks. With this in mind, geophysicists attempted to locate salt domes, which would
be associated with minimum gravity, by using the torsion balance instrument. The
pendulum method is another way of carrying out gravity survey but was superseded
by the gravity meter. Advances in gravity instrument technology afforded
geophysicists better equipment with which to make more accurate determinations.
The most common gravitational instrument in use today is the gravity meter or
gravimeter, which measures variations in the earth's gravitational field by the
gravitational pull on a mass balanced against some form of elastic force.
Magnetic Method: Most oil occurs in sedimentary rocks that are nonmagnetic.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks rarely contain oil and are highly magnetized. By
conducting a magnetic survey over a given area, a prospector can determine where
oil-bearing sedimentary rock is more likely to be found. Two types of magnetic
instruments are used to measure the slight difference in magnetism in rocks, the field
balance and the airborne magnetometer. The field balance is used on the earth's
surface to measure magnetism in specific locations. The airborne magnetometer is
used to measure the magnitude of the earth's total magnetic field over a large area.
flat spot that represents a fluid (gas-oil or gas-water) contact, which can also show the
downdip limit of the reservoir in some cases
gas chimneys above leaking reservoirs
shadow zones below the accumulation
velocity push-down because of lower velocities of hydrocarbons than rocks
Difference in response between reflected pressure and shear energy.
Hydrocarbon indicators are most common in relatively young, unconsolidated siliciclastic
sediments with large impedance contrasts across lithologic boundaries, such as those in the
Gulf of Mexico and offshore western Africa. An ongoing issue in exploration for hydrocarbon
indicators is the difficulty in distinguishing between gas accumulations and water with a low
degree of gas saturation ("fizz water").
4) Sources of Energy Used in Seismic Prospecting
Explosives (dynamite): Explosives, such as dynamite, can be used
Question 4
1)
NS(meters)
EW(meters)
TARGET
964
-144
RIG
1334
653
N
133
4
RIG
X
370
TGT
96
4
W
S
797
144
65
opp
h yp
370
878.7
= 0.4211
Vertical depth
Horizontal displacement Kick-off depth
Build rate
-
1500
r
S
10560
ft
D
y
9060f
t
x
a) Radius of curvature
r = B.R x
r=
100
2
4375f
180
180
= 2864.79ft
b) Hold Angle
From the figure above,
z = 4375ft r = 4375 2864.79 = 1510.21ft
opp
adj
9060
1510.21
= 5.9991
adj
h yp
2864.79
9158
= 0.3119
360
S=
27.63
360
X 2r
X 2 (2864.79)
S = 1381.5ft
Therefore,
MDhold = 1500 + 1381.5 = 2881.5ft
d) Measured Depth at Total Depth
MDTVD = KOP + S + X
From triangle ADC,
91852 = x2 + 2864.792
x2 = 91852 - 2864.792
x = 76157203.26
x = 8726.81m
MDTVD = 1500 + 1381.5 + 8726.81
= 11608.31ft
Question 5
1)
a)- Productivity Index
A commonly used measure of the ability of the well to produce is the Productivity Index.
Defined by the symbol J, the productivity index is the ratio of the total liquid flow rate to the
pressure drawdown. For a water-free oil production, the productivity index is given by:
Where
Qo = oil flow rate, STB/day
J = productivity index, STB/day/psi
avg(Pr) = volumetric average drainage area pressure (static pressure)
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure
P = drawdown, psi
The productivity index is generally measured during a production test on the well. The well is
shut-in until the static reservoir pressure is reached. The well is then allowed to produce at a
constant flow rate of Q and a stabilized bottom-hole flow pressure of pwf. Since a stabilized
pressure at surface does not necessarily indicate a stabilized pwf, the bottom-hole flowing
pressure should be recorded continuously from the time the well is to flow. The productivity
index is then calculated from the above Equation.
It is important to note that the productivity index is a valid measure of the well productivity
potential only if the well is flowing at pseudo-steady state conditions. Therefore, in order to
accurately measure the productivity index of a well, it is essential that the well is allowed to
flow at a constant flow rate for a sufficient amount of time to reach the pseudo-steady-state.
there can be no inflow. If the well-bore pressure is zero, the inflow would be a maximum
possible i.e the Absolute Open Flow (AOF).
For intermediate well-bore pressures, the inflow will vary. For each reservoir, there will be
unique relationship between the inflow rate and wellbore pressure. For a heterogeneous
reservoir, the inflow performance might differ from one well to another. The performance is
commonly defined in term of a plot of surface production rate (stb/d) versus flowing bottom
hole pressure (pwf in psi). Several models are available for determining the different types of
Inflow performance Relation; they are Straight line flow, Vogel's method, Future IPR flows,
The Fetkovich method and many more.
Vogel
qo
qmax
= [1 0.2
Pwf
P
- 0.8(
Pwf
2
P )]
Fetkovitch
qo = C(Pr2 Pwf2)n
qo = C1(Pb2 Pwf2) + C2 (Pr Pb)
d) Gas Reservoir Deliverability
This is defined as the gas production rate achievable from reservoir at a given bottom hole
pressure. It is a major factor affecting well deliverability. Reservoir deliverability relates the
ability to produce gas into well bore and, subsequently to the surface facilities at a particular
rate. Rate of flow from porous area and permeable drainage area into a well bore is a function
of properties of the information and the fluids, as well as the pressure gradient which is the
driving force.
The following factors involve gas deliverability:
Flow near the well bore as affected by the skin effect.
Reservoir pressure.
Well bore radius.
Reservoir fluid properties.
Flow into the well bore through particular completion system and up or down through
the well.
Field to main pipeline connection.
2)
a) - Injectivity Test
Injectivity test is a pressure transient, it would have been similar to pressure draw down test
for the unit M, but for the constant rate that is negative with a value of q inj. injectivity test
procedures include:
Shutting in the well until the pressure is stabilized at the initial reservoir pressure.
injecting at a constant rate qinj and recording the bottom hole flowing pressure
The objectives of the injectivity test is as follows
b) - Falloff Test
A pressure fall off test is preceded by an injectivity test of a long duration. It is similar to a
build up test in that the pressure change with time is monitored after flow ceases. The
procedure for carrying out a fall-off test includes:
Injectivity test that lasted for a total injection time tp at a constant injection rate
Well shut in followed by pressure analysis by Horner method.
The objectives of the fall off test include:
It helps to determine the permeability of the sand around the injection wells.
it shows the gradual build up of skin occurring with time
It can be used to determine that there is an appreciable level of skin effect occurring
with time.
It helps to determine the mobility of the water in rock rather than in gas.
c) - Interference Test
Interference test is a kind of multiple well test(multiple well test is a kind of well test that
involves two or more wells). in this kind of test, the rate of the active well is modified. For
example, the well is closed or put into operation and the effects on the observation wells are
measured.
The objective of the interference well test includes:
It can be used to get information about the formation properties between the wells.
d) - Drill Stem Test
Drill stem test is the well test that is usually conducted with the drill string still in the well.
These tests are usually conducted with a down hole shut in tool that allows the well to be
opened and closed at the bottom of the hole with a surface actuated valve. Drill stem test
provides primarily an indication of formation content. Drill stem testing is a procedure for
temporarily completing a well to determine the productive characteristics of a specific zone.
e) - Pulse Test
This kind of test is usually similar to interference test but usually within a considerably
shorter time. There is very small pressure change sometimes only within the K pa, therefore
special differential pressure gauges are required. the active wells usually produces at short
intervals, the production and the shut in periods are different but the cycles are the same.
Pulse test can be analysed using the method of Kamal and Brigham(1975).
Question 6
Pwf (MPa)
18.41
18.38
18.35
18.32
18.30
18.29
18.25
Pw
f
18.6
18.5
18.4
18.3
18.2
18.1
18
100
time
10
2) a) gradient, m =
1000
P /cycle
162.6 q B
mh
= 76.17mD
d) Skin Effect
s = 1.1513
( P 1h r Pwf )
m
log
K
Ctr 2 w
+3.2255
s = 1.1513
+3.2255
(2728.163002.3)
40.61
log
76.17
0.17 x 8.27 x 106 x 9.2 x 0.328 x 0.328
]
s = 1.1513 (6.751 7.738 3.2255) = 2.57 =2.6
Question 7
Np = 21409 m3 [134648bbl], cumulative production
q = 38.3 m3/d [241bbl/d], production rate before shut-in
Boi = 1.52 (rb/stb)
Pi = 20.7 MPa [3002.3 psi]
o = 9.2 103 Pa-s [9.2 cp]
h = 21 m [68.9 ft]
= 0.17
Swi = 0.25
ct = 1.2 109Pa1 [8.27 1061/psi]
rw = 0.1 m [0.328 ft]
1)
a)- production time tp
tp =
Np
q
134648
241
= 558.7 days
P / cycle
tp + t
t
13409+1
1
= 13410hrs
K=
0.0002637 Ktp
CtA
162.6 q B
mh
= 182.79mD
A = 103.2 acre
1 acre = 43560ft2
103.8 acre = 43560 x 103.8 = 4.52 x 106 ft2
Therefore,
tpDA =
2.303 (PP)
m
tp+ t
t
=1
P* = 12.75Mpa = 1849.23psi
Therefore,
5.9 =
2.303 (1849.23P)
43.52
4002.071
2.303
= 1737.76 = 1738psi
= 11.06
Question 8
tM = 100hours
(tD/r2D)M = 50
PM = 105 Pa [= 14.5psi]
PDM = 0.8
q = 300 m3/d [= 1887bbl/d]
= 0.82 103 Pa-s [0.82cp]
Bw = 1.0
h = 12 m [39.4ft]
r = 112.4 m [368.8ft]
a) Permeability
K = 141.2
K = 141.2
b) - ct =
2.64 e4 k
r 2
Q BPd m
h Pm
tm
(tD /r 2 D)m
2.64 e4 x 443.62
0.82 x 368.8 x 368.8
=2.10 x 10-61/psi
Question 9
= 443.62mD
100
50
3. 3rd flow regime (late time region) = region where you start feeling the effect of the
boundary
When the curve is maximum it means the wellbore is damaged, but when the curve is
minimum it means the wellbore is stimulated in the Early Time Region, the flat curve
indicates a homogeneous system during the Middle Time Region where the permeability of
the rock remains constant, and the Late time Region also indicates that the test has to be
conducted for a longer period to feel the boundary effect.
The plot lines from figure 8 show the pressure plot (blue) and the derivative (red).
Analysis for fault system plot:
A fault will create an additional pressure drop that causes no flow to occur orthogonally to the
fault, before the additional pressure drops, the boundary is picked up by the pressure gauge,
and the system behaves as if the reservoir has an infinite extent of directions. Once the
boundary is detected, the response deviates from the infinite acting radial flow until it
doubles. If the fault is detected the speed of the pressure doubles because there are two wells
producing instead of one. From the derivative, it can be seen that the reservoir is a
homogeneous reservoir i.e the porosity, permeability and thickness is the same in all
directions, it also shows that there is a boundary.
Analysis for channel system plot:
In this case, the well is located in a channel i.e. between two parallel faults. The orthogonal
distance between the well and the two boundaries is the width of the channel. If the well is
significantly closer to one of the boundaries the same behaviour as seen in a fault will be
experienced. When the second fault is detected the response will go straight to its final
behaviour i.e. a linear flow along the channel.
Analysis for wedge system plot:
Here, the well is located between two intersecting linear boundaries of infinite extent; is
the angle between the faults. If the well is significantly closer to one of the boundaries, the
initial behaviour is the same as for a single sealing fault. When the second fault is detected,
the response enters its final behaviour. If the well is fairly equidistant from the two faults, the
response goes straight the final behaviour. Since is the angle between the two faults, the
actual reservoir size is smaller than an infinite reservoir factor of
pressure is
Question 10
Thickness = 10m
Radius = 5km = 5000m
Porosity = 15% = 0.15
Water saturation = 0.3
Oil saturation = 0.7
Oil in place = vol. (1- Sw)
But,
Volume = r
2
= 500 10
V = 785398163.4
Oil in place = 785398163.4 0.15 (1 0.3)
3
= 82466807.16 m
If 1 barrel = 0.1589
X = 82466807.16
X=
82466807.16
0.1589
Oil in place in barrels = 518985570.5 barrels = 5.19 x 108 barrels
2) - Density =
mass
volume
Mass = Density volume
= 900 82466807.16
10
Mass = 7.4220 10 kg
Question 11
Gas
Wet Gas
Dry Gas
vaporizing when pressure is decreased. Fluid at point A is above critical temperature and is
therefore classified as gas. On reduction of pressure at constant temperature from point A,
the dew point line is crossed at A and liquid begins to condense from the reservoir gas.
Dry Gas
The phase diagram shown on figure 11a the pressure-temperature plane, typifies the
behaviour of a dry gas reservoir. If the pressure and temperature are reduced from the original
reservoir conditions at point A to standard stock tank conditions, there is no liquid recovery
and the reservoir fluid remain completely in the gaseous phase during the process.
Wet Gas
As shown on figure 11a, fluid that exists above its critical temperature as gas in reservoir
conditions, but produces a small quantity of liquid condensate on reduction to separator/stock
tank conditions, may be termed wet gas.
Figure 11c Phase Diagram for Light Intermediate and Heavy Crude System
(Source: Dr. Lateef Akanji, 2013)
From the figure above, the higher the pressure, the lighter the crude will be and the lower the
pressure, the heavier the crude will be. It can also be seen that at a high temperature the crude
is heavier and at a low temperature the crude is lighter.
Question 12
PRESSURE
GP(108m3)
P/Z
(MPa)
25
24
23
22
21
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0
6.09
11.8
17.1
23.1
29.4
27.91
26.44
25
23.596
plot of Gp vs P/Z
25
10
20
plot of Gp vs P/Z
15
Linear (plot of Gp vs
P/Z)
10
5
0
20
3.16
25
30
3
0.95
= 3.16MPa
Question 13
P = 100kPa = 100,000Pa
L=10 X 10-2m=0.1m
r=2cm=0.02m
k=200mD = 200 X 10-15m2
=15% = 0.15
= 0.001a-s
1) - Q =
Area
KA P
l
Q=
Q
2) - q= A
2.51 X 107
1.26 x 103
= 1.99 X 10-4m/s
QUESTION 14
K 1 h 1+ K 2 h 2+ K 3 h 3
h 1+h 2+h 3
= 370mD
h1
K1
3
Ke
h2
+ K2
h3
+ K3
1
1000
1
+ 100
1
10
3
Ke =
1+10+100
1000
3
Ke
111
1000
Ke =
3 1000
111
= 27.02mD
n k 1 k 2 k 3 . kn
Kr =
3 1000 100 10
Kr =
3 1000000 = = 100mD
QUESTION 15
Surface tension: = 0.02Nm
Radius of blob = 0.05mm
1) - The value of the capillary pressure
Capillary pressure =
2
r
2 x 0.02
0.05 x 103
=800N/m2
2) - The pressure is higher in the oil because the blob pressure is low
QUESTION 16
Component
methane
Ethane
Propane
0.820
0.059
0.046
16
30
44
Apparent
molecular
weight
(YiMi)
13.12
1.77
2.024
Composition Composition
in weight
in volume
fraction
fraction
YiMi
(Yi)
( EYiMi )
0.634
0.0856
0.0979
0.820
0.059
0.046
Iso butane
N-butane
0.035
0.030
58
58
EMi = 206
2.03
1.74
EYiMi =
20.684
0.0981
0.0841
0.035
0.030
2) Specific Gravity
g =
AMWg
AMWair
20.684
29
= 0.713
QUESTION 17
Component
Mole Fraction
(Mi)
Molar Mass
(Yi)
n- butane
n - pentane
n - hexane
0.29
0.40
0.31
58
72
86
o =
S.G =
Mass
Volume
AMW
Liquid Volume at 60 F
o( pounds /ft 3)
w( pounds/ ft 3)
API Gravity =
141.5
S.G
API Gravity =
39.26
62.4
Apparent
Molecular
Weight (AMW
-YiMi)
16.82
28.80
26.66
EYiMi = 72.28
72.28
1.841
Liquid
Vol. at
60oF(ft3)
0.462
0.734
0.645
E = 1.841
= 39.26
= 0.629
- 131.5
141.5
0.629
- 131.5 = 93 API
QUESTION 18
Compone
nts
Mole
Fractio
n
(PPM)
Na+
Ca++
Mg++
7365
1582
305
Milligrams
per litre
(PPM/dens
ity of
brine)
5987.8
1286.2
248.0
Percent
Valency Atomic
Solids
weight
(PPM/1000
0)
0.7365
0.1582
0.0305
1
2
2
22.99
40.08
24.31
Equivalent
Weight (atomic
weight/valency)
Me/L(PPM/E
quivalent
weight)
22.99
20.04
12.16
320.36
78.94
25.09
SO4-CLCO3-HCO4-
521
14162
705
0
423.6
11513.8
573.2
0
0.0521
1.4162
0.0705
0
2
1
2
1
96.07
35.45
60.01
60.01
48.04
35.45
30.01
61.01
10.85
398.48
23.49
0
Brine Pattern
2
Na+
Cl
-
1.5
Ca2+
Mg2
CO32-
0.5
SO32-
0
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50
50
HCO3-
REFERENCES
Dr Lateef Akanji- Basic Well Testing, Petroleum and Gas Engineering, University of
Salford. March 2013
Dr. L. T. Akanji. Production Engineering. Petroleum and Gas Engineering. University
of Salford. March 2013
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Hendrik-Oil Exploration: METHODS OF LOCATING THE OIL. 2013. [ONLINE]
Available at: http://hendrikengineering.blogspot.co.uk/2006/06/methods-of-locatingoil.html.
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http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Seismic+Exploration.
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%20name&filter=hydrocarbon%20indicator.
Seismic source - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 2013.[ONLINE] Available at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_source.
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at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_seismology.
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http://petmuh.blogspot.co.uk/2008/05/productivity-index.html
Auguto Podio. Petroleum Engineering-UPSTREAM-Artificial lift. Department of
Petroeum and Geosystems Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas,
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