Industrial Training

AT PRASAR BHARTI BHOPAL MP

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in Electronics & Communication
Submitted to

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDHYALAYA BHOPAL (M.P.)

Submitted By

Varun Shrivastava

0111EC091113

Under the supervision of

Mr. P. K. Pati (Engg.)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Technocrats Institute of Technology, Bhopal

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful and extend my sincerest thanks to Dept. of

Doordarshan Kendra, Bhopal M.P. for providing me with an excellent working
environment, so that I could work uninterruptedly and complete the project within
due date.
I also express my sincerest thanks and gratitude to the complete staff of
Doordarshan Kendra, Bhopal M.P. under whose able supervision, valuable
guidance, and all possible assistance, I successfully completed my vocational
training and subsequent compiled this report.
I also express my sincerest thanks to Mr.P.K.Pati DDG(E) and Mr.R.K
Bajpai (Asst. Engineer) of Doordarshan Kendra, Bhopal M.P. without whose
assistance the above would not have been possible.
I am also thankful to my HOD EC Department Prof. Vikas Gupta for
giving opportunity and encouragement for doing the Vocational Training.

INDEX

1. Introduction
2. Basic unit description
3. Detailed discretion
a.Studio center
b.Active area
c.CCU
d.Production Control Area
e.Video Tape Recording
f.Control Apparatus Unit
4. Usefulness
5. Summary
6. Conclusion

INTRODUCTION
Doordarshan Kendra is a television program production and telecasting
center. A fully fledged Doordarshan Kendra consists of studio and transmitters. In
television both the picture and sound are transmitted. This makes television
program production a complex affair.
Television stated in India as an experimental service in 1959. However, long
and regular general service of television was started in August in 1965. National
program was introduced over a entire network with effect from 15/08/1982. At the
same time it introduced in a phased manner. The first telecast in color was an
Independence Day function on 15/08/1982.Till 31/01/1992 Doordarshan had high
power transmitter .371 low power transmitter, 76 very low power transmitter
covering 78.7% of the population. Now a days number of power transmitters has
increased with the tremendous demand for additional software facilities. To meet
the requirement off diverse software objectives, a three tire service as under has
been implemented.India adopts CCIR 625 PAL B television systems. In this
system the picture system is amplitude and sound signal frequency modulated
before transmission. The carrier frequencies are suitably spaced and the modulated
outputs radiated through a common antennal. Thus each broadcasting station has it
own frequency and a receiver can be tune to select any desired station.
Doordarshan, the national television service of India, is one of the largest
broadcasting organizations in the world in terms of coverage and the infrastructure
of studio and transmitters. Todays broadcasting major had a modest beginning
with the experimental telecast starting in Delhi in September, 1959 with a small
transmitter and a makeshift studio. The regular daily transmission started in 1965
as a part of All India Radio. The television service was extended to a second city
Mumbai only in 1972. Till 1975, only seven cities were covered by Television.
Doordarshan was separated from AIR in 1976.
Doordarshan operates 30 channels five All India channels. One Parliament
channel, Eleven Regional Language Satellite channels, Eleven Hindi belt Network,
Gyandarshan (Educational channel) and one International channel. Besides this,
Doordarshan has DTH service DD Direct Plus.

The first experiment in satellite technology in India was conducted in 197576 under the programme Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE). This
was incidentally, the first attempt in the world to use satellite broadcasting for
social education. Colour transmission was introduced during the Asian Games held
in New Delhi in 1982. Doordarshan then proceeded to install transmitters
nationwide rapidly for terrestrial broadcasting. In camera tube the conversion of
optical information to electrical form and its transmission are carried out element
by element one at a time sequential manner to cover the entire scene which is to be
televised.
There remain approximately 10 regional stations which operate in areas not
included within the present 75 per cent population coverage. Even if coverage was
extended as far as 87 per cent, some regionals would still be outside such coverage.
If the present terrestrial footprint was extended it may offer further opportunities
for regional broadcasters who are currently outside the current footprint. Any
extension would need to be supported by a business case assessing the related costs
and benefits. Areas of future extension would be to less heavily populated areas
with smaller potential audiences for broadcasters and higher costs per viewer. The
extension of the present terrestrial footprint by the present licensees seems unlikely
to be commercially viable in the present economic circumstances. Any
Government support would therefore need to be weighed against other
government priorities and the benefits to be gained from any extension; and the
availability of funding cannot be assumed.
Extension of the footprint also becomes increasingly unlikely as the country
moves closer to a DSO date. At present there are around 60 per cent of viewers
who are watching a digital service, and as DSO nears the other 40 per cent will
gradually adopt digital reception. Viewers in areas outside the terrestrial footprint
will only have the option of satellite reception, so as digital take-up increases, this
would further weaken the case for extension of the terrestrial service. That is,
households outside the existing coverage will already have purchased satellite
television equipment

BASIC UNIT DISCRIPTION (WEEKLY)

a) 1st week
Primary Services
Each major state is to have its own primary service produced at state capital
on the language of the state to be available throughout the state.

National Services
The programs for the nation T.V. Service are the mainly produced at Delhi.
Besides programs produced at other regional centers are also used for the service.
National services is already available throughout the country utilizing S band
transponders of INSAT and the existing microwave links.

Television
India adopts CCIR 625 PAL B television systems. In this system the picture
system is amplitude and sound signal frequency modulated before transmission.
The carrier frequencies are suitably spaced and the modulated outputs radiated
through a common antennal. Thus each broadcasting station has it own frequency
and a receiver can be tune to select any desired station.

Picture Transmission
The Picture information is optical in chapter and may be thought of assembly of
large no. of bright and dark areas representing picture details. These areas may be
called as picture elements.
In camera tube the conversion of optical information to electrical form and
its transmission are carried out element by element one at a time sequential manner
to cover the entire scene which is to be televised.
The output from the last if stage is demodulated to recover the video signal.
This signal that carries picture information is amplified and coupled to the picture

tube which converts the electrical signal back into picture element of the same
degree of black and white. This glass envelop contain an electron guns produces
beam of electrons aimed at the fluorescent screen. nick of the tube.
The amplitude of the current in the horizontal and vertical deflection
coils.When the electron beam strike the screen light is emitted. The beam is
deflected by a pair of coils mounted at theso adjusted that the entire screen called
raster gets illuminated because of the fast rate scanning.
The video signal is fed to the grid or cathode of the picture tube. When the
varying signal voltage makes the control grid less negative, the beam current is
increased making the spot of light on screen brighter and vice versa. The rate at
which the spot of light moves is so fast that the eye is unable to follow it and also
so a complete picture is seen because of the storage capacity of the human eye.

Sound Reception
The path of the sound signal is common with the picture signal from antenna
to the video detector section of the receiver. Here the two signals are separated and
fed to the respective channels. The frequency modulated audio signals is
demodulated after at least one stage of amplification. The audio output from FM
detector is given due amplification before feeding it to the load speaker.

Synchronization
It is essential that the same co-ordinates be scanned at any instant both at the
camera tube target plate and the raster of the picture tube otherwise picture details
or would split and get distorted. To ensure perfect synchronization,
synchronization pulses are transmitted during retrace in fly back intervals of
horizontal and vertical motions of the camera scanning beam. Thus in addition to
carrying picture details the radiated signal at the transmitter also contains
synchronizing pulses. These pulses which are distinct for horizontal and vertical
motion control are processed at the receiver and fed to the picture tube sweep.
Scanning of the elements is done at a very fast rate and this process is
repeated a large number of times per second to create an illusion of simultaneous

pickup and transmission of picture details. A camera tube is used to convert the
optional information into a corresponding electrical signal, the amplified of which
varies in accordance with the variation of brightness.
The object to be televised be focused by a lens assembly on a rectangular
glass plate which has a very thin layer has a very high sensitive when no light falls
on it. According to the brightness of image the conduction of each element of
photo layer changes accordingly.
An electron beam is used to pick up the picture information now available on the
target plate in terms of varying resistance at each point on its way the beam is
deflected by a pair of deflecting coils kept mutually perpendicular to each other to
achieve scanning of a entire area. Scanning is done in the same way. The magnetic
deflection caused by the current in one coil gives horizontal motion to the beam
from left to right at a uniform rate and then brings it quickly to the top of plate to
start the procedure all over again.
As the beam moves, than element to element it encounters a different resistance
across the plate, depending on the resistance of photo conductive coating the result
is a flow of current which varies in magnitude as the element across of the
resistance Ri and this corresponds to the optical varying voltage picture. The
electrical information obtained from the T.V. camera tube is modulated career
frequency .The modulated output is fed to the transmitter antenna for radiating
along with sound signal.

Sound Transmission
The microphone converts the sound signal into proportionate electrical signal
which is normally a voltage. The audio signal from microphone after amplification
is frequency modulated, employing the assigned carrier frequency. Output of the
sound FM transmitter is finally combined with AM picture transmitter output
through a combining network and fed to a common antenna for radiation of energy
in the term of electromagnetic waves.

Transmiter
The one volt p-p video signal and 10dBmbalanced audio signal from master
switching room (MSR) are fed to transmitter to transmit the signal into air. The
10KW transmitter can cover 80Km of air distance around Bhopal. Transmitter
compact in construction and the design employees and state of art techniques and
devices. The principal features of this transmitter are:
1. Solid state exciter
2. Control unit
3. Solid state power amplifier
4. Audio power amplifier
Video power amplifier
Video last power amplifier
IF unit
Up-converter unit
D G corrector
The IF unit consists of:
1. Video processor
2. Visual modulator
3. IF synthesizer
4. ICPM corrector
5. Rectifier and regulator board
6. Display board
7. CIN Diplexer

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig-Block Diagram of 10kW TV Transmitter

The video signal from MSR passed through hum suppressor to suppress any hum
in the line then fed to video equalizer to signed they feed to the switcher. Output of
the switcher routed to exciter through STAB (color establishing unit) to adjust the
various parameter .The 10dBm audio signal from MSR is fed to switcher from it is
routed through limiting amplifier /program amplifier. Two attenuator are provided
on console for attenuation of the signal.
VU meters are provided for monitoring the audio level from LA/PA the
audio signal feed to aural exciter section. For monitors video signal on waveform
monitor and vector-scope after switcher monitor are provided at various state for
monitor signal level.
Similarly loud speaker s provided at various stages to monitor audio level.

Antenna
The output of VLPA stage is fed through co-axial feeder into a combine
network is CIN (constant impedance notch). Duplexer where the output from the
FM sound transmitter is added to it. This network is designed in such a way that
while combining either signal doesnt interfere with the working of the other
transmits. A coaxial connects the combined output to the antenna system mounted
on a higher tower situated close to me transmitted. A turnstile antenna array is used
to radiate equal power in all direction. The antenna is mounted horizontally for
better signal to noise ratio.

Fig- Antenna

b) 2nd week
OBJECTIVES OF DOORDARSHAN STUDIO

1) To originate programmes from studios

2) To knit various sources of programs i.e., camera output, OB out, M/W, VTR
out, video graphics and characters generator etc.
3) Processing / distribution of different sources.
4) Routing of programme for recording/ transmission via MSR and Micro Wave.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

FIG-VIDEO CHAIN OF A DOORDARSHAN STUDIO

Activities in a Television studio can be divided into two major areas such as :
1) Action area (Studio)
2) Production control room (P.C.R).
Action area
a. This place requires large space and ceiling as compared to any other
technical area.
b. Action in this area includes staging, lighting, performance by artists, and
arrangement to pick up picture and sound.
c. Typical size of TV Studio is 20 x20x8.5 cubic meters
Hardware provided in this area include:
a. Monitoring facilities for all the input and output sources(audio/video).
b. Remote control for video mixer, and special effect (ADO) etc.
c. Communication facilities with technical areas and studio floor.
d. Vision mixing and switching
e. Character Generator (CG)
f. Sync Pulse-Generator (SPG)
g. Camera Control Unit (CCU)
h. Light Control.
i. Audio mixing and control
j. Video Tape-Recorder
k. Electronic Still Storage System
l. Post Production Suites

Vision mixing and switching

Unlike films, television media allows switching between different sources
simultaneously at the video switcher in Production control room operated by the
Vision Mixer on the direction of the program producer. The producer directs the
cameramen for proper shots on various cameras through intercom and the vision
mixer (also called VM engineer) switches shots from the selected camera/cameras
with split second accuracy, in close cooperation with the produce. The shots can
be switched from one video source to another video source, superimposed, cross
faded, faded in or faded out electronically with actual switching being done during
the vertical intervals between the picture frames. Electronics special effects are
also used now days as a transition between the two sources.

Fig- video mixing

Ampex Digital Optics (ADO-2000)

ADO is a very useful aid to production. 30 preset effects can be recalled
through the keyboard. Various picture manipulations are possible. The picture can be
compressed, size can be reduced and cropped into another picture. The principle of
operation is that the input Video is converted in digital form using A/D and then the
digits are manipulated to create the desired effects and then it is converted back to
analog
form
using
D/A.

Character genrator
Characters Generators are provide titles and credit captions during production
in Roman script. It provides high resolution characters different colors for colonizing
characters, background, edges etc. At present bilingual and trilingual C.G are also
being
used
by
Doordarshan.
Character Generator is a microcomputer with Texts along instructions when
typed in at the keyboard is stored on a floppy or a Hard disk. Many pages of scripts
can be stored on the disk and recalled when needed, by typing the adresses for the
stored pages, to appear as one of the video sources.

Central apparatus room

This is the nerve center for a television station. Activities in this area
include:
1 Distribution of stabilized power supply to different technical areas with
protection devices.
2.Sync pulse generation and distribution.
3 Distribution of sources to various destinations
4. Video processing and routing.
5. Electronics for camera chain, video switchers, special effect generator.
6. Monitoring facilities
7. Patch panel for video and audio lines
8. Electronics for micro wave links

Sync Pulse-Generator
It is essential that all the video sources as input to the switcher are in
synchronism i.e., start and end of each line or all the frames of video sources is
concurrent. SPG is normally duplicated for change over in case of failure.

Light Control
The scene to be televised must be well illuminated to produce a clear and
noise free picture. The lighting should also give the depth, the correct contrast and
artistic display of various shades without multiple shadows.
The lighting arrangements in a TV studio have to be very elaborate. A large
number of lights are used to meet the needs of key, fill, and back lights etc.
Lights are classified as spot and soft lights. These are suspended from motorized
hoists and telescopes. The up and down movement is remote controlled. The
switching on and off the lights at the required time and their dimming is controlled
from the light control panel inside a lighting control room using SCR dimmer
controls. These remotely control various lights inside the studios
Modern TV studios have a computer-controlled lighting system the intensities of
various lights can be adjusted independently and memorized for reproduction. The
status indication of lights regarding their location and intensity is available on a
monitor/MIMIC display. During reproduction of a particular sequence, the
information from the memory operates the respective light dimmers. Hand held
control boxes are also available for controlling light intensities inside the studios
which communicate via a control panel. Most of the operational controls of the
computerized light control system can also be performed manually with the back
up matrix and fadder controls.

Video Tape recorders

VTR room is provided at each studio center. It houses at least two console
type 1 videotape recorders (VTRs) and a few Broadcast standard Videocassette
recorders (VCRs). In these recorders, sound and video signals are recorded
simultaneously on the same tape.

ACCESS TO ELECTRONIC STILL STORAGE SYSTEM

Some PCRs have access to the electronic still storage system. One replay
remote control of the digital library system is mounted on the video production
control table at the PCR. Still pictures stored in the library system can be recalled
and used in production by selecting them by their addresses either from the local or
from the remote control pannel after recomposing if desired.

Video chain
Output from the switcher goes to stabilizing amplifier via PP and VDAs.
Output from the stab. Is further distributed to various destinations. It may be noted
that the use of VDAs helps to monitor the video signal at different locations and
the use of PP is very helpful for emergency arrangements during breakdowns and
trouble shooting.

A separate monitoring bus is provided in CCU, LCU and END CONTROL

with sources as shown. END CONTROL also has a remote for the adjustment of
levels etc. in the STAB AMP unit. Route for the other sources is similar to this
and can be understood from the block schematic.

SYNC Pulse Generator

Television signals for broadcasting are originated by cameras and telecines,
recorded and replayed by video tape recorders, mixed in studio vision mixers and
finally distributed for transmission. Fig. shows the use of sync pulse generator for
generating colour composite video signal (CCVS).

Black Burst (BB)

This pulse contains all the pulses except active video information. It
contains pulses H, V, A, S K, P & SC. This pulse can be decoded back to
regenerate these pulses back. Most of the equipment now a days are using this
single pulse from SPG instead of several pulses. This allows us to have single
distribution network for synchronising pulses.

Each source needs its own SPG. This is true if it has to work in a standalone
environment. Where several cameras work together, as in a studio, it is better to
use a common SPG. Characteristics of these waveform has specified durations,
levels and rise-times, etc. The more stringent specifications cause complex and
costly generator.
One generator serving a number of sources is a better option than many
separate generators. It is also important that the signals from the various camera
match time-wise. This is easier to achieve if they all had same generators.

Pulse Distribution
With only one SPG centrally located a mechanism of pulse distribution is
required. With each and every 75 ohm destination requires a dedicated 75 ohm
source.

If this is not done then cables will be incorrectly terminated, signals will
have the wrong amplitude and will suffer from reflections. Use of PDA provides
multiple feed to various destinations.

Pulse Distribution Amplifiers

These amplifiers have a high input impedance (around 10 K typically) and a
number of 75 ohm outputs. 10 outputs are typical for a pulse distribution amplifier
(PDA). The PDA consists of an amplifier with very low output impedance, less
than 0.1 ohm. It is capable of generating a considerable signal current (1V into 75
ohm is a peak signal current of 14 mA). This high current, low impedance, output
is distributed to the various separate outputs by 75 ohm resistors. It is these
resistors which determine the output impedance.

Video distribution Amplifiers

Video is distributed in the same way as pulses. Video signals are distributed
by 75 ohm circuits, consequently separate distribution amplifier (DA) outputs are
needed for each. Vision DAs are usually much more sophisticated than their pulse
counterparts having performance up to 5.5 MHz with minimum impairment to the
signal. The distortion introduced by a DA should be immeasurably small as the
signal passes through the distribution system.

Video equalisers
Co-axial Cable has resistance, capacitance and inductance. It will therefore
introduce losses to the signal particularly to the higher frequencies. This is
undesirable and hence a suitable correction is carried out by equalizers. These are
reactive circuits which basically introduce an equal and opposite frequency
characteristic to that of the cable. For short cables upto 50 meters of length, simple
equalisers are used. The basic tie line equalizer is a passive device and can only
introduce more loss

Consequently such an equaliser is designed to reduce all frequencies to the same

level, they are amplified again to regain level.

It is assumed that the total loss of such equalizer and cable is no more than 6
dB. Distribution amplifier also provides the necessary gain - in this case 6dB.
(This is in addition to the termination loss of 6 dB required of all amplifiers driving
into 75 ohms)

OB Signals
OB Signals are not synchronized with the station and hence they are non
synchronized sources. In order to mix OB signal with other sources it has to be
made synchronous with the station sync. There are two methods which can be
used to make them synchronous.
a) Gen-lock
b) Frame synchronizer

Gen-lock is short for generator lock. The sync pulse generator providing the
station pulses is referenced to the contribution video from the OB. It uses internal
timing comparators to force its output timings to match those of the input video.
The principle limitations of Gen-lock is that only one outside source can be made
synchronous at a time. The alternative approach, using a synchronizer, does not
suffer from this disadvantage.

Gen-Lock SPG
Sync Pulse Generator can be synchronized to an external video signal by
referencing the sync pulse generator supplying the studio to the external signal.
Similar arrangements apply in respect of Black Burst installations. Where each
area in a studio complex has its own sync generator. A reference signal (usually
black and burst) is distributed to all the generators to maintain synchronism
between them.

Stabilising Amplifier
Stabilising Amplifier is placed at the end of the studio chain. As the video
signal from the source has traveled to various D/A, switchers and other processing
equipment before it comes to the stab. amplifier, it might have suffered some
impairment etc., As synchronizing pulses are very important for the locking of TV
receiver scanning oscillators, it is better to clean it. Stab. Amplifier provide the
following :
a) Clipping the sync. Pulses at 50% level, regenerate them and then fix them
back to the video signal.
b) Provide end control for the adjustment of various levels like video level,
chroma level, sync. Level, burst level and chroma phase level etc. It is also
possible to adjust these controls from a remote location.

3) 3rd week
VIDEO
Video is the technology of electronically capturing, recording, processing,
storing,
transmitting,
and
reconstructing
a
sequence
of still
images representing scenes inmotion.

History
Video technology was
first
developed
for cathode
rat
be(CRT) television systems, but several new technologies for video display
devices have since been invented. Charles led an Ampex research team developing
the first practical video tape recorder (VTR). In 1951 the first video tape recorder
captured live images from television by converting the camera's electrical impulses
and
saving
the
information
onto
magnetic videotape.
Video recorders sold for $50,000 in 1956, and videotape cost $300 per one-hour
reel.[1] However, prices steadily dropped over the years; in 1971, Sony began
selling videocassette (VCR) tapes to the public. After the invention of the DVD in
1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape and tape equipment
plummeted.Later advances in computer technology allowed computers to capture,
store, edit and transmit video clips.
Characteristics of video streams number of frames per second
Frame rate, the number of still pictures per unit of time of video, ranges
from six or eight frames per second (frame/s) for old mechanical cameras to 120 or
more frames per second for new professional cameras. PAL(Europe, Asia,
Australia, etc.) and SECAM (France, Russia, parts of Africa etc.) standards specify
25 frame/s, while NTSC (USA, Canada, Japan, etc.) specifies 29.97 frame/s. Film
is shot at the slower frame rate of 24photograms/s, which complicates slightly the
process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame
rate to achieve the illusion of a moving image is about fifteen frames per second.

Interlaced vs progressive
Video can be interlaced or progressive. Interlacing was invented as a way to
reduce flicker in early mechanical and CRT video displays without increasing the
number of complete frames per second, which would have required sacrificing
image detail in order to remain within the limitations of a narrow bandwidth. The
horizontal scan lines of each complete frame are treated as if numbered
consecutively and captured as two fields: an odd field(upper field) consisting of the
odd-numbered lines and an even field (lower field) consisting of the evennumbered lines.
Analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively
doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. When the
image capture device acquires the fields one at a time, rather than dividing up a
complete frame after it is captured, the frame rate for motion is effectively doubled
as well, resulting in smoother, more life-like reproduction (although with halved
detail) of rapidly moving parts of the image when viewed on an interlaced CRT
display, but the display of such a signal on a progressive scan device is
problematic.
NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats. Abbreviated video
resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example,
PAL video format is often specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total
number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing, and 50 indicates 50 fields
(half-frames) per second.

AUDIO SIGNAL
An audio signal is a representation of sound, typically as an electrical
voltage. Audio signals have frequencies in the audio frequency range of roughly 20
to 20,000 Hz (the limits of human hearing). Audio signals may
be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a
microphone, musical
instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge,
or tape
head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical audio signal into sound.
Digital representations of audio signals exist in a variety of formats.

VIDEO MEASUREMENT
Video measurement is a very important part of video production in
doordarshan or in any broadcasting system.The transmission of Television signal
can be termed as wave form transmission. The signal passes through many
equipment and it gets amplitude/phase distorted. Engineers who are operating and
maintaining the equipment are supposed to monitor and make regular checks and
corrections at periodical intervals so that the received signal is distortion free. For
making evaluation of video we normally use two methods and they are
1. Objective evaluation
2. Subjective evaluation.
Each has its own merits and demerits and both combined together form an
effective tool to judge the quality of the picture. In the Objective evaluation
method normally a standard wave form is sent and the received wave from is
compared for deviations from the original. This is called wave form comparison
method. The other method is the sweep frequency method and popularly used for
evaluating the frequency response of the transmitter. Whenever we think of video
measurement or test signal immediately we think about the pulse and bar signal.

Fig- video measerment

Since long time square wave is being used to find the response of any
equipment as it is very easy to generate and convenient to use.

In Television also it is no exception. The figures given below illustrate a

fairly good account of the effect of the deteriorations on the shape of the bar.The
duration of the bar signal is 25 m sec. (one half of the active line period) in full
field signals and 10 m sec. in ITS.

S/N Ratio
Noise can be defined here as a generic name for all the various forms of
unwanted voltages which modify the signal during the course of transmission from
one point to another. Whenever we say S/N ratio normally we mean the continuous
random noise measurement only. The random noise takes the form of quasi
infinite series of short pulses whose amplitudes and instants of occurrences are
random.
The S/N Ratio = 20 log 10 (Ep/Em)
Where Ep = peak to peak Signal voltage and Em = RMS noise voltage.
Normally the peak to peak Signal voltage will be 0.7 volts
As you might be aware that higher luminance frequency components are
subjectively less visible. So some people felt that you should simulate the
response of the eye to get the true picture by introducing filters to filter out noise
voltages of frequencies beyond 8 or 10 MHz. So a weighting filter is introduced
which simulates the response of the eye. This is known as weighted S/N ratio.
This is normally more than the unweight S/N ratio.

Fig-s/n ratio

4) 4th week
OB VAN
Since 1998 we have been the biggest integrator and supplier of the TV and radio OB
Vans in the Czech Republic as well as mobile TV satellites and terrestrial links for
broadcasting, production and distribution companies. Over the course of time we have
provided our customers with a great deal of deliveries ranging from the small vans to
the custom-made coach buildings on the multi-tonne chassis or semi-trailers. The
assembly of the OB Vans takes place in our new assembly hall in our manufacturing
area. It has a capacity for a simultaneous assembly of two large OB Vans, or four to
six small ones
OB Van is equipped with 8 nos of Thomson TTV 1657 Digital CCD cameras,
16 input versatile vision mixer ROSS Synergy with various special effects. 16 channel
Sound Craft make audio mixer with facility of individual channel equalization and
limited. In addition to the above, one computerized MOVE CG for supering titles.
Two nos. of broadcast quality VCR having slow motion (TTV3575p), two nos. of
Recording VCRs and one EVS make Live slow motion hard disc recording system is
also installed. One Long haul microwave link is also available with OB Van.

Fig- Ob van

5 camera OB/SNG van

Vehicle
Mercedes 814D, 1994,140HP, 280.000km
Weight 8,4T, L: 6,33 m, W: 2,2m, H: 3,5m
Power
32A 400V. CEE
HF:
1x Antenna Vertex 1,8m
1x Downconverter PMCA SDC 50
1x Poleswitch Nortel Dasa
1x Antennacontrol Vertex 7031
1x Spectrum analyser Tektronix 2712
1x TV modulator Barco TVDM 40
2x HPA Nortel Dasa 300W KU Band
1x HPA switch Mitec MC2724
2x Upconverter Nortel Dasa
Digital modulator Radyne ComStream DM-180
5-40 Mbps
2x DVB encoder Thomson DBE 4110 4:2:2/4:2:0
Analog/SDI
Encryption:
BISS1, BISS/E/buried ID, injected-ID
1x Digital satellite receiver Kathrein
2x Digital satellite receiver NDS, Scopus
1x Kathrein SAT splitter

Video
1x Sony DFS-700 8ch. digital videomixer
1x Videogenerator Grundig VG1100
1x WFM Tektronix 1741A
8 Sony monitors LMD 9030 9"
1x Sony monitor LMD 1430 14"

Audio
1x Yamaha O3D,digital 16ch. mixer
2x Meter NTP 277-400
2x Speaker K&H
Intercom
2x D-net
2x Telephone hybrid (analog)
1x Intercomunit , 5 stations
2x Cameraring, production and engineer
1x Motorola basstation
4x Motorola walkie talkies
1 Drake intercomstation for connection with OB van.

Cables
1x 150m audio multicore (10x)
1x 100m video (SDI)
AVA has recently evolved into one of the biggest production companies in
Croatia. With future projects in mind, they ordered an OB van from AVC.
Our team of experts has professionally fulfilled every request: from the
initial meetings regarding the concept of the van, through concrete details
concerning the technical characteristics, choice of equipment and requests for
interior design, to the delivery itself and the subsequent support during field work.
The van was equipped with 5 digital cameras, 3 digital recorders, 24-channel audio
DSNG VAN
The mobile DSNG Van is equipped with 400 W TWT of Xycom and
Tandberg E5500 encoder in 1+1 mode along with upconvertors / downconvertors of
ADVENT and base band equipments. The DSNG van can be operated in both C or
Ku band and it has the unique dual band waveguide in it. The system is operational
since November 2002 The 2 meter antenna system is of advent make having the auto
tracking facility controlled through laptop computer and can track any satellite in
very short period automatically. It has a GPS system with flux gate compass etc used
for auto tracking of satellites. The vehicle
mounted DSNG Van supplied through BECIL is used in live coverages for up
linking.

DETAILED DISCRIPTION
a) Studio center
The studio centre of Doordarshan has the following objectives.
1. To originate programs from studios either for live telecast or for recording
for a video tape.
2. To knit various other resources of program available at the production desk.
3. Processing/distribution of different sources to various distributions in
technical areas.
4. Routing of mixed program for recording/transmission via master switching
room and microwave to the transmitter or any other desired destination.
Activities in a television studio can be divided into three major areas such
as:
Action area.
CCU
Production Control Area.
Video Tape Recording.

b) Action area
This place requires large space as compared to any other technical
area. Action in their area includes stage, lighting, performance by artists
and arrangement to pickup picture and sound.
Requirement
1. Very efficient air conditioning.
2.Uniform and even flooring.

3. Acoustic treatment (use cyclorama on the walls of the action area).

4.Supporting facilities (like make-up room, wardrobe etc).

5.Communication facilities for the floor.
6.Audio and video monitoring facilities.
7.Cyclorama and certain tracks blue and black curtain for chroma keying
and limbo lighting respectively.

Fig PLAN OF TELEVISION STUDIO BHOPAL

c) Camera control unit (CCU)

This is the camera control unit. This provides necessary adjustments of the camera
such as monitoring, super positioning of tubes (RGB picture tube in camera k125). Sequential display of picture tubes to find fault, tally light, color blanking,
cap of lens, chroma adjustment, color temperature adjustment, gain of light, view
find, filtering, menu section, auto facility.

d) Production Control Area

Activities:1. Direction to the production crew by the producer of the program.
2. Timing a production/telecast.
3. Editing of different sources available at the production desk.
4. Monitoring of output/off air signal.
5. Remote control for video mixer and library store and special effect.
6. Communicaton facilities with technical areas and studio floor.

The Production Control Area consists of:

1. Vision mixer
2. Character generator
3. Sync pulse generator
4. Sound and mixing control
5. Audio facilities

Vision mixer or video switching:

Through the video switching is done by the VM at the remote channel the
electronics is located in CAR. The vision mixer is typically a 16x1 or 24x1 cross
bar switcher relation any of the 10 or 20 input sources to 6 to 10 different output
lines. The input sources includes cameras, VTR, telecine cast signal etc.

Same coincident with the station sync are called synchronous while others
having their own independent synchronous are called non synchronous. The vision
mixer provides for the following operational facilities for editing of TV program.
1. Take or cut

: Selection of any input source, switching clearly from

One source to another.

2. Dissolve

: Fading out of no source of video and in another source

3. Superimposition : Keypad caption when selected in day is super imposed

of two sources on the background picture.
4. Special Effects

: A choice of a no. of a wire patterns fell split screen as

Wipe effect.

The selected output can be monitored in the corresponding preview

monitor. All the picture sources are available on the monitors. The switches also
provided facilities to switch camera tally, light as an indication to cameraman
whether his/her camera is on or, out of the switch.
2. Character Generator
Character generator is provided to provide titles and credit captions during Roman
script. It provides high resolution characters for background edges etc. At present
bilingual and trilingual C.G. are also being used by doordarshan.
3. Sync. Pulse-Generator
It is essential that all the video sources and input to the switches are in
synchronism i.e. start and end of each time for all the frames of video sources is
concurrent. Their requirement is ensured by the sync. Pulse generator (SPG). SPG
consists of highly stable crystal electrically which forms clock for the generator of
video signal. These pulses are fed to all the video generally equipment to achieve
their objective of synchronism. It provides the following outputs:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Line drive
Field drive
Mixing blanking
Mixed sync.

4. Sound Mixing and Control

As a rule in television, sound accompanies the picture; several microphones
are generally required for production of complex television program besides other
audio sources also called married sound from telecine VTR and audio tape/disc.
Replays. All these audio sources are connected to the sound control console.

Fig- sound mixing

The sounds from different resources are controlled and mixed in accordance with
are requirement of the program split second accuracy is required for providing the
correct audio source in synchronization with the picture thus requiring lot of skill
from the engineer. Even the level of sound sometimes is varied in accordance with
the short composition called sound prospective.
5. Audio Facilities
An audio mixing console, with a number of inputs say about 32 inputs is
provided in a major studio. This includes special facilities such as equalization,
RFL, Phase reversal, echo send/receive and pre-filter digital reverberation units at
some placed takes records and EMI 938 disc reproduce are provided for playing
back/creating audio effects as independent resources to the switches.

e) Video Tape Recording

This unit provides the recording of the video as well as audio input. In other
words this unit records the video input and audio input coming from the production
control unit through VDA and ADA simultaneously in tape with the help of the
video cassette recording. The video tape recording system comprises of following
steps. For video input amplifier one output two pre-emphasis circuit. Driven
amplifier, FM-modulator, recording head amplifier, stepping brusher. Head drum.
Other output of video amplifier fed to sync separator and shape, servo-controlled
circuit, head drum motor drive, motor them motor fed to head drum. The four
video head for audio input fed to amplifier ultrasonic biasing network-amplifier
then to audio record head. A.C. bias oscillation is also used with ultrasonic biasing
network.

Fig- video transmission

For video input amplifier one output two pre-emphasis circuit. Driven
amplifier, FM-modulator, recording head amplifier, stepping brusher.

Head drum. Other output of video

amplifier fed to sync separator and shape, servo-controlled circuit, head
drum motor drive, motor them motor fed to head drum. The four video head for
audio input fed to amplifier ultrasonic biasing network-amplifier then to audio
record head. A.C. bias oscillation is also used with ultrasonic biasing network.

SLIP RING
BRUSHES

VIDEO
HEAD
S

SWITCHER
AMPLIFIER

EQUALISER
AND
LIMITER
CIRCUIT

FM
DEMODULATO
R

MOTOR

TO
MONITER

AM
MODULATO
R

HEAD
DRUM

MOTOR

VIDEO
AMPLIFIER

HEAD MOTOR
DRIVE

TO TV

RECEIVER

SERVO
CONTROLLER
D CKT

CAPSTAN
MOTOR DRIVE

CAPSTAN

SPEED CONTROL
SIGNALS

AMPLIFIER

AUDIO HEAD

BLOCK DIAGRAM IN PLAYBACK MODE OF VIDEO TAPE RECORDER

Driven amplifier, FM-modulator, recording head amplifier, stepping brusher.

Head drum. Other output of video amplifier fed to sync separator and shape, servocontrolled circuit, head drum motor drive, motor them motor fed to head drum.

The four video head for audio input fed to amplifier ultrasonic biasing
network-amplifier then to audio record head. A.C. bias oscillation is also used with
ultrasonic biasing network.

f) Control Apparatus Unit

This is the nerve center for a television station. Activities in this area
included.
1. Distribution of established power supply to different technical areas with
production devices.
2. Sync. Pulses generator and distribution.
3. Distribution of resources to various destinations.
4. Video processing and routing.
5. Electronics for camera chain, video switches special effect generator, test
signal and pattern generator.
6. Monitoring facilities
7. Patch panel for video and audio lines.
8. Electronics for micro wave links or other technical areas associated with
central apparatus room (CAR).
a. CCU
b. Light control unit and dimmer room
c. ACR

d. VTR

e. Telecine

f. Digital library stage

g. Video graphic

h. Post production and editing suit for

Outdoor work by the (ENG/EFP)

Post Production Room

This unit is made for editing purpose. Then unit edits the already
made program. This unit is also used for the audio recording such as to give
voice effect in the already made program.

Master Switching/ Control Room

Master switching or control room is used mainly for the local
transmission. This section sends signal to the earth station for the up-linking or
the signal. The unit also receive the Delhi Signal (FS) same as received by the
transmitter. And fed to transmitter to transmit the signal into air.

Studio Light
Light plays an important role in the studios and theatres. Artificial light not
only creates adequate filming or viewing conditions, but is also an important factor
in artistic direction. Many performance and light effects are not possible without
the correct lamps. Constantly, new light sources and equipment open up new
avenues lighting to meet the various requirements. There is a multitude of means
from the new luminaries types (e.g. Footlights and softlights,flood and spots) to
special control and dimming equipment modern theatrelamps must satisfy all
demands on economy and lamp life as well as high requirements on luminous flux,
luminaries efficacy and color temperature. For their reason, we have developed a
whole range of progressive tungsten-halogen lamps and theatre lighting.

They combine the advantages of high grade quartz technology with the
superior technology of the tungsten-halogen cycle. Television shooting requires an
abundance of light. The ceiling of a modern studio is densely covered with flood
lights. Tungsten-halogen technology is responsible for more compact and mobile
luminaries which radiate less heat; our tungsten halogen lamps for films.
Television and theatre provide high luminous efficacy and lower power
consumption. They also yield a higher ratio of visible light infrared heat radiation.
The actors suffer less from the heat radiation. The actors suffer less from the heat
and the air conditioners are less loaded. For studio lightning therefore, the standard
color temperature for which electronic cameras and color films are balanced is
important.
Television Lighting
Technical requirements:

1. Incidental Lighting Level: In general it is governed by the sensitivity of

the camera tube, taking into account the working aperture of the camera
lens. The working lens operation is determined from the depth of field
consideration.
2. Contrast Ratio: Contrast is the ration between the luminance of the
lightest and darkest part of the subject or image. The scene contrast outof-door is the average 160:1, although it may be as 1000:1.
19
The uses of lighting to model a set i.e. create areas of light and shade
increase the overall contrast ratio.
3. Colour temperature: In colour television studios the colour temperature
of the light sources should be within 150K of the line upcolour
temperature i.e. 2950K to 2150K.
4. The working lens operation is determined from the depth of field
consideration.
5. Tungsten-halogen technology is responsible for more compact and
mobile luminaries which radiate less heat; our tungsten halogen lamps for
films. Television and theatre provide high luminous efficacy and lower
power consumption..

6. They also yield a higher ratio of visible light infrared heat radiation. The
actors suffer less from the heat radiation. The actors suffer less from the
heat and the air conditioners are less loaded. For studio lightning
therefore, the standard color temperature for which electronic cameras
and color films are balanced is important

Fig- lights used in studio

Artistic Requirements
1. Illusion of Depth: This is the first artistic consideration otherwise picture
will tend to look flat and uninspiring. Monochrome re-production takes
away the interest normally created by contrasting area of colour and it is
necessary to light for shape, form tonal contrast and surface texture. In
general, lighting can be divided in two parts, the first being modelling of
artists and second lighting the sets, subjects are modelled by lightusing
shadows.
2. Script: Script requirements have to be satisfied to create atmosphere and
mood whilst at the same time maintaining a balance picture content which
has a fairly constant main brightness, so minimising the effect at the receiver
due to the absence of D. C. restoration. Additionally, it reduces the amount
of vision control required.
The script requirement of basically twofold: Explicit - Day, light, interior, exterior.
Implicit - mood or artistic impression etc visualized by director
and lighting supervisor.
3. Compatibility: Not all domestic receiver are colour and a further
constraint is added to the transmitted picture, namely that the compatible
picture(monochrome) is not degraded. To artist the realization team
(lighting, scenic design, costume and make up) in this respect, most of the
studio control room monitors are monochrome. Only the monitors are used
for final assessment are colour.
4. Light Sources : The lighting sources fall into two categories Hard source : A hard source behaves as a point source and cast a
Single hand edge shadow.
Soft source : A soft source behave as a large area source taking

Into account the relative sides of objects and light

Source and the distance separating them.
5. Lighting Control: In a television production each scene will required it
own lighting plot with the appropriate dumiraires switched on and their
intensities balanced to give the desired effect. The intensities are varied by
some form of dimming arrangement, and the dimming and on/off are
remotely controlled by a channel controller on a lighting console.

6. Basic Portraiture : In portrait lighting, four basic lamp are used:

Key light: This is the principle resource of illumination. It gives
Shapes and modelling by casting shadows. It is the sun
In the sky, there should only be one sun. Normally it is
The hard source.
Filler: Controls lightly contrast by filling in shadows. It can
also provide catch lights in eyes. Normally a soft source.
Background light : Separates the person from the background,
Reveals back ground interest and shape.
Normally it is a hard source.

CAMERA
Introduction
A typical video camera consists of the following Sections.
1. Lens
2. Optical Block
3. Transducer or Pick-up device.
4. Electronic.
The lens and optical block forms camera optics.
The purpose of the camera lens is to focus the image at the face plate of a
pickup device i. e. to term a optical image. The lens used for the video camera
depends on the size of the pick-up device.
The lens for a video camera has the following section.
Back focus section with adjustment facilities for back focus and micro focus.
Focus section.
Zoom section with manual or servo mode.
Aperture section with manual or auto mode.
Servo drive assembly for zoom and iris control.
Whereas the optical assembly inside camera head has colour filters wheel,
optical block consisting of diachronic mirror, bias light and a suitable lens
mount.

CCD Device
Charge coupled devices are being used in studio cameras of full broadcast quality.
CCD device is a kind of transducer which converts optical image into electrical
signal. Any camera having CCD device is called a CCD camera.

Principle of CCD camera

Any camera will need a device to convert optical image into electrical
signal. For more sharpness or better resolution, we have to increase the elements of
small picture. This picture frame can now be focused on a structure of so many
CCD elements. Each CCD elements will now convert light information on it to a
charge signal. There should be arrangement to collect this charge and convert it to
voltage.

Types of CCD chips used as pick-up devices for CCD cameras are Interline transfer type
Frame transfer type
Frame interlining transfer type

Fig- cameras

T.V. Camera
A T.V. camera consists of three sections
1. A camera lens and optics: To form optical image on the face
plate if a pick up device.
2. A transducer or pick-up device: To convert the optical image into an
electrical signal.
3. Electronic: To process output if a transducer to get a CCVS signals.

Fig- tv cameras

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Studio Camera KCM-125

KCM-125 color camera uses a 3-tube RGB system with plumb icon pick-up
tubes. The color camera head, thecamera control unit are each equipped with a
micro-computers are inter connected via several data lines and are in contact with
each other. Each micro-computer has its own program. When the camera is turned
on micro-computer can recall setup data which had been stored automatically when
the system was turned off.
The control Panel consists of the following set-up:
Set-up Add on unit.
Remote Control unit.
Camera Control unit.
Joystick panel.

Telecine
Telecine is an equipment to convert film based program material to a video tape,
optical image produced by the film projection is converted into a line scanner. A
typical side telecine room will have two no. of CCD telecine chain type FDL-60
two no. of sepmag sound following slide projectors compromising a camera
multiplex assignment switcher and monitors etc. in a studio setup besides side
scanners film editing tables and projectors FDL-60 can handle 16mm, 35mm
normal/cinema scope uses any type of sound.

EARTH STATION
Earth station in Bhopal doordanshan was meant for up-link M. P. Signal
services. It consists of expanded C-band up-link satellite system operating in the
frequency range 6.725GHz to 7. 025GHz for transmit and 4.5GHz to 4.8GHz for
receiving signals. The total system consists of 7. 0m parabolic reflector antenna
step track control system redundant LNA systems, redundant 3KW klystron high
power amplifier redundant up convertor with change of the earth station
equipment, redundant 70MHz. video modulator and demodulator video and audio
processing units, control remote, power distribution panel, dehydrator microwave handwave and set of measuring instruments.

Up-Link
Video Hum Suppressor
Hum Suppressor is intended to be used in television network for reducing the
spurious signal which arise as a result of different earth potentiality the sending
and receiving ends of a transmission line. It is effective in suppressing spurious
signal.

Video Equalizer
The video equalizer is used to compensate for the video signal attenuation in cables
of length up to 300m. The equalization can be adjusted in 20 steps. The outputs are
free from mutual interaction and from the input..The equalizer is suitable for color
television as different phase distortion is very small.
Video Distributer
The video distributer amplifiers are employed to distribute blank
video (BA) signals to a no. of units. Video distributer contains two independent
distributing amplifiers each provides 5 outputs.

FIG- Video Distributer

Stab
The color stabilizing amplifier is used along with a sync processor to process
the composite video signal. The composite video
signal is processed to remove the hum and noise for the timing component in the
sync processor which produces regenerated noise free sync and blanking signal.
These noise free sync and blanking signals are added to the composite color video
signal in the color stability amplifier.

Modulator
The modulator subsystem frequency modulates both video and up to two
audio signals to IF (70MHz.)

Video/Sound combiner
The video/sound combiner accepts video input from the 5MHz low pass
filter module, sound subcarrier signals from the sound modulator. Modules 1 and
2 and 25MHz energy dispersal signal from the ED generator module combines and
amplifiers them to give up a composite output.

Up-Convertor
The up converter frequency translating circuits which convert 70MHz
signal to FC is in the band 5.8GHz to 6.425GHz (6.725-7.025for external C-band).
The up-convertor has a nominal gain of 15 dB with the nominal power being
0dBm. The up-converter contents filters for super vision of Lo Leak and spurious
products. Equalizers compensate for group delay introduced by the filters and
beep amplitude response within specification.

High Power Amplifier

The klystron amplifier contains a high power klystron amplifier tube solid
state amplifier IPA, various RF components. Beam power supply, beam power
regulator supply and a control panel which controls the entire system.

DOWN LINK
LNA (Low noise amplifier)
Low noise bi-polar transistors are used as an active device in these
amplifiers, LNA provides again in excess to these incoming signals. This gain also
ensures that the noise figure of succeeding stages does not degrade over all noise
figure of the system.
The micro skip band pass filter follows the LNA ensure image rejection. The
input- output impedances of this circuit block are 50 ohms.

Down Converter
The down converter constants frequency translating circuits which convert
FC MHz input signal to70MHz signal where FC is in the band of 3625MHz to
4200MHz (4500MHz to 4800MHz for external c band). The down converter has
variable gave of 58dB to 8dB, with nominal power output being -12dBm. The
down convertor contains filter for suppressions of local oscillators (LO) leak and is
various products. Equalizer compensate for group delay introduced by filters and
keep amplitude response within specification.

Demodulator
The demodulator system frequency demodulates both video and up to two
audio signal to IF (70MHz).

Working
Video drives are routed through the hum suppressor forelements hum and
then video equalizer studio lines are routed through stab, where different video
parameters viz. chrommance level, luminance level, blanking level, sync. , level
and color burst level adjusted. Then finally processed video signal feed to
modulator input. After switching audio signal passed through a limiting amplifier
where audio level limits to a preset wall and pre-emphasis is done (boosting of
higher frequency). Then audio signal goes to input of the modulator

AIR CONDITION
One of the primary function of an air conditioning system is to maintain
conditions that are conductive the code of minimum requirement for comfort air
conditioning sponsored by a a-ahvfasvf has defined the scope of system and its
state comfort air conditioning .for purpose of the code is defined as the process by
which simultaneously the temperature moisture contain movement and quality of
air in enclosed spaces, intended for human occupancy may be in within required
limits
In order to satisfy the stipulated requirement as complete air conditioning
system is obliged to perform the following function.
1. Cooling and dehumidification for summer condition
2. Heating and humidification for winter conditions
3. Air filtration and proper ventilation the year along
Necessarily, these function involve control of temperature
humidity, purity and movement of air .mechanical refrigeration is achieved by
altering compressing and expanding the refrigerant with the help of a compressor
and pressure reducing device

Compressors Serve Two Purposes:

1 it draws the refrigerant from the chiller and forces it into the condenser
2 it increases the pressure of the refrigerant
By sucking the refrigerant, the compressor reduces the pressure in the
cooling coil and maintains it at level low enough to permit the refrigerant to boil
or vaporized and consequently heat in the process. By discharging refrigerant
vapour into the condenser the compressor increase vapour pressure and
temperature. The hot vapors flow to the condenser where it is condensed into the
liquid at high temperature giving up heat to atmospheric Air or water depending
upon the weather the condenser is air cooled or water cooled. The liquid refrigerant
thus passes through pressure reducing devices such as expansion Valve.

BOLCK DIAGRAM

Fig-BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AIR CONDITIONING UNIT

Primary function of an air conditioning system is to maintain conditions that

are conductive the code of minimum requirement for comfort air conditioning
sponsored by a a-ahvfasvf has defined the scope of system and its state comfort air
conditioning .for purpose of the code is defined as the process by which
simultaneously the temperature moisture contain movement and quality of air in
enclosed spaces

USEFULNESS
Energy consumption
Artificial lighting consumes a significant part of all electrical energy
consumed worldwide. In homes and offices from 20 to 50 percent of total energy
consumed is due to lighting. Most importantly, for some buildings over 90 percent
of lighting energy consumed can be an unnecessary expense through overillumination. The cost of that lighting can be substantial. A single 100 W light bulb
used just 6 hours a day can cost over $25 per year to use (.12/kWh). According to
the UN Environment Programme/Global Environment Facility en.lighten initiative,
by simply replacing all incandescent lamps with energy efficient compact
fluorescent lamps globally, 409 TWh per year would be saved, which is
approximately 2.5% of global electricity consumption. This is equivalent to the
combined yearly electricity consumption of the United Kingdom and Denmark.[1].
Thus lighting represents a critical component of energy use today, especially in
large office buildings where there are many alternatives for energy usage in
lighting. There are several strategies available to minimize energy requirements in
any building:

Specification of illumination requirements for each given use area.

Analysis of lighting quality to ensure that adverse components of lighting (for
example, glare or incorrect color spectrum) are not biasing the design.
Integration of space planning and interior architecture (including choice of
interior surfaces and room geometries) to lighting design.
Design of time of day use that does not expend unnecessary energy.
Selection of fixture and lamp types that reflect best available technology
for energy conservation.
Training of building occupants to use lighting equipment in most efficient
manner.
Maintenance of lighting systems to minimize energy wastage.
Use of natural light - some big box stores are being built (ca 2006 on) with
numerous plastic bubble skylights, in many cases completely obviating the
need for interior artificial lighting for many hours of the day

Load shedding can help reduce the power requested by individuals to the main
power supply. Load shedding can be done on an individual level, at a building
level, or even at a regional level.
Specification of illumination requirements is the basic concept of deciding
how much illumination is required for a given task. Clearly, much less light is
required to illuminate a hallway or bathroom compared to that needed for a word
processing work station. Generally speaking, the energy expended is proportional
to the design illumination level. For example, a lighting level of 80 footcandles
might be chosen for a work environment involving meeting rooms and
conferences, whereas a level of 40 footcandles could be selected for building
hallways. If the hallway standard simply emulates the conference room needs, then
twice the amount of energy will be consumed as is needed for hallways.
Unfortunately, most of the lighting standards even today have been specified by
industrial groups who manufacture and sell lighting, so that a historical
commercial bias exists in designing most building lighting, especially for office
and industrial settings.

Daylighting
Daylighting is the oldest method of interior lighting. Daylighting is simply
designing a space to use as much natural light as possible. This decreases energy
consumption and costs, and requires less heating and cooling from the building.
Daylighting has also been proven to have positive effects on patients in hospitals as
well as work and school performance. Due to a lack of information that indicate
the likely energy savings, day lighting schemes are not yet popular among most
buildings..

Portable air condition

A portable air conditioner is one on wheels that can be easily transported
inside a home or office. They are currently available with capacities of about
5,00060,000 BTU/h (1,80018,000 W output) and with and without electricresistance heaters. Portable air conditioners are either evaporative or refrigerative.
Portable refrigerative air conditioners come in two forms, split and hose.
These compressor-based refrigerant systems are air-cooled, meaning they use air to
exchange heat, in the same way as a car or typical household air conditioner does.
Such a system dehumidifies the air as it cools it. It collects water condensed from
the cooled air and produces hot air which must be vented outside the cooled area;
doing so transfers heat from the air in the cooled area to the outside air.

A portable split system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor

unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit.
Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air, are vented to the
outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects the water in a bucket or tray
and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water and discharges it
through the ducted hose and can run continuously.
A single-duct unit uses air from within the room to cool its condenser, and
then vents it outside. This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms,
thus reducing the unit's effectiveness. Modern units might have a coefficient of
performance (COP, sometimes called "efficiency") of approximately 3 (i.e., 1 kW
of electricity will produce 3 kW of cooling). A dual-duct unit draws air to cool its
condenser from outside instead of from inside the room, and thus is more effective
than most single-duct units.

Health issues
Air-conditioning systems can promote the growth and spread of
microorganisms, such as Legionella pneumophila, the infectious agent responsible
for Legionnaire' disease, or thermophilic actinomycetes; however, this is only
prevalent in poorly-maintained water cooling towers. As long as the cooling tower
is kept clean (usually by means of a chlorine treatment), these health hazards can
be avoided.

Energy use
In a thermodynamically closed system, any power dissipated into the system
that is being maintained at a set temperature (which is a standard mode of
operation for modern air conditioners) requires that the rate of energy removal by
the air conditioner increase. This increase has the effect that, for each unit of
energy input into the system (say to power a light bulb in the closed system), the
air conditioner removes that energy.[14] In order to do so, the air conditioner must
increase its power consumption by the inverse of its "efficiency" (coefficient of
performance) times the amount of power dissipated into the system. As an
example, assume that inside the closed system a 100 W heating element is
activated, and the air conditioner has an coefficient of performance of 200%. The
air conditioner's power consumption will increase by 50 W to compensate for this,
thus making the 100 W heating element cost a total of 150 W of power.

Humidity control
Refrigeration
air-conditioning
equipment
usually
reduces
the
absolute humidity of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below
the dewpoint) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air (much
like an ice-cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass), sending the
water to a drain and removing water vapor from the cooled space and lowering the
relative humidity in the room. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by
the evaporation of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the
comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60%
relative humidity in the occupied space. In food-retailing establishments, large
open chiller cabinets act as highly effective air dehumidifying units

SUMMARY
TECHNICAL FACILITY
Doordarshan Bhopal was commissioned on 20th October 1992. There are two
Studios A of an area of 374 Sq.m. and Continuity Booth (Studio-B) of an area of 50
Sq.m. two Transmitters (DD-I & DD-News) of 10 KW each, one Earth Station
Unlinking the Regional Service of M.P., one OB Van for outdoor live coverages and
one DSNG Van for Mobile unlinking.

STUDIO-A
Studio-A having an area of 374 initially equipped with 4 nos. of A Philips
Digital LDK 20 and LDK 100 (two each) CCD cameras and modern lighting
equipments with dimmer controls. There are 14 nos. of motorized buttons with
provision for 8 light fittings in each button and 36 nos. of motorized buttons with
provision for 4 light fittings in each buttons. There are also 18 nos. of telescopic light
fitting arrangements in the Studio floor. This studio is mainly used for programme
recordings. Presently 31 nos. of cool lights are in use.

PRODUCTION CONTROL ROOM (PCR-A)

PCR is equipped with 16 input versatile vision mixer of PDS 9000 Digital
Switcher with various special effects and 16 channel sound craft audio mixer with the
facility of individual channel equalization, limiting and Phone-in console. One
reverberation unit & one Advance Feedback Suppressor (dBX) for producing special
audio effect is available in PCR. In addition to the above, one Computerized MOVECG for supering titles and other special effects is also installed in PCR . The PCR-A is
also equipped with Dimmer Control panel for Studio-A.

CAMERA CONTROL UNIT (CCU)

In this section, the studio levels are adjusted and controlled for proper
matching in order to achieve excellent quality recording, now integrated in PCR
console itself.

VIDEO TAPE RECORDER (VTR)

VTR is equipped with 4 nos. of BETA format and one no. of DVC Pro AJD
VCRs of broadcast quality (PVW 2800-4 nos). These are used for studio recordings
and transmissions. It is also equipped with Video Server make Letch VR445
consisting of two independent recorders and players based on hard disc recording
system.

MASTER SWITCHING ROOM (MSR)

This section is equipped with a 16X16 Digital Routing Switcher where all the
signals from Studio-A, Studio-B, Transmitter, Earth Station, OB Van signal, DSNG
etc are routed to various areas as per requirements for recording/transmission. One
OFC link between MSR and Earth Station has also been installed.

POST PRODUCTION FACILITY

There is a separate post production section having 3 nos. of edit suites with
voice over facility, each edit suite having following component of the equipment.

Suit-1[A/B Roll edit suit with DVE cum Video switcher]

VM (Snell & Wilcox), Edit Controller AJ 850, Audio mixer (12 Channel),
CD Player, Phone in console, move CG 2001, DVC pro AJ-D455E, PVW2800P, PVW-2800P

Suit-2 [Beta Edit Suit with FXE-120P]

FXE-120P, PVW-2800P, DVC Pro AJ-D455E, BVW-70P

Computerized editing system is also available at this Centre having the latest state of
the art technology used for editing/post production for better presentation of the
programmes namely, NLE, Media 100,DPS Velocity, QUATTRUS NLE, 3D Graphics
& ISLEWIZ Compuer graphics.

STUDIO-B
Studio-B (Continuity booth) having an area of 50 sq.m was initially equipped
with three KCA-110 tube cameras and now replaced with two CCD cameras (SONY
DXC-50-1 No. KYD-29JVC-1 no) & modern lighting equipments with 7 nos. of cool
lights mounted on fixed grid . One auto BDL system has been integrated with SONY
DXC-50 Camera and another unit has been networked with News Room for semi
automation of News system. This Studio is used for transmission of Regional Service
including Regional News.

PCR-B
PCR-B is equipped with 16 input versatile vision mixer of PDS 9000 Pinnacle
make with various special effects. 16 channel Sound Craft make audio mixer with
facility of individual channel equalization and limiting. In addition to the above, one
computerized MOVE CG for supering titles, Phone-in-Console, Advance feedback
Suppressor and other high quality bi-lingual Collage make CG is also installed in
PCR-B.

ENG
This section is equipped with 6 nos. of Beta camcorder unit, 6 nos. of DVC Pro
camcorder and 3 no of Mini DV Camcorders for field coverage. These units are
deployed throughout M.P. for recording all important and special events which are
later edited and including in the news/programmes. Four No of DVCPRO50
Camcorders are being included.

A/C PLANT
The Studio is air-conditioned with 4X60 tones centrally air-conditioned plant
with 5 nos. of air handling unit of M/s Utility make. In addition to that, there are 4 nos.
of package units of Blue Star make for other sections.

POWER SUPPLY
Two 33 KVA Feeder are terminated at DDK complex from which power supply
is extended to studio complex, transmitter and Earth Station. In addition to above,
captive power supply is available for meeting the emergency requirement of Studio,
Transmitter and Earth Station. Diesel Generator having capacity of 62.5 KVA each is
used at Studio, DD-I, DD News Transmitter, Earth Station and 35 KVA D.G is used
for OB Van set up. There is a 40 KVA online UPS system with back up period of 30
minutes for all Studio equipments and 20 KVA UPS for OB Van in order to maintain
uninterrupted transmission.

CLIPMAIL SYSTEM
Doordarshan Kendra, Bhopal has installed a Clip mail Receive system through
which video clips from different of Doordarshan i.e. Indore, Gwalior, Jabalpur, Rewa
and Sagar can be received. The Transmit unit has been installed at the above Kendras.

EARTH STATION
Earth Station Bhopal was commissioned on 19/11/93 and DDK, Bhopal is up

linking M.P. Regional Service. Earth Station is equipped with two number of 3 KW
High Power Amplifier of MCL make upgraded with 2+1 Digital Simulcast facility,
Recently two amplifiers of 400W have included. There is a 7 meter solid motorized
PDA having linearly polarized feed with auto tracking facility.

TRANSMITTER-DD-I
Bhopal was brought on map of Doordarshan with the commissioning of a Low Power
Transmitter for relay of National Programmes on 19th November, 1982. This was
upgraded to a 10 KW High Power Transmitter operating in Channel-5 radiating DD-I
programmes. It is a BEL Mark-II Transmitter working since 24th October, 1984. This
transmitter has further been replaced by NEC Transmitter on dated 28/12/2003.

TRANSMITTER-DD-II (NEWS)
Metro channel transmission was started on 30th July 1994 with commissioning
of Low Power Transmitter. This has been upgraded to a 10 KW High Power
Transmitter operating in CH #7 radiating DD-II Metro programmes. It is a Thomcast
Transmitter commissioned on 3/8/2000 and dedicated on 12/5/2001. It is a solid state
transmitter with the latest state of the art technology.
Both DD-I and DD-II Transmitter outputs are combined and signal radiated
with a signal Wide Band Antenna system of Jampro, USA make, which has been
installed on 11/7/2001.

The Central Air Conditioning Plant For TV Studio Bhopal

Capacity

4x60 T.R

Refrigerant

Freon 22

Type of System

Chilled Water Type.

Oil Servo Freeze F-68.

S.NO
1
2
3
4

Equipments
Compressor
Compressor-Motor
Condenser
Chiller

Make
Utility trane
4BD SPDP
Utility trane
Utility trane

Cooling Tower
Condenser Water
Pump
Chilled
WaterPump
Water Softening
Plant
Make UP Water
Make UP Water
Air-Handling Unit
A-H-5
A.H-7
A.H-7
AH-9

Prajapati

type-Model
3E-5H-60
75HP
CDS-322
EVP-368
induced Draft
type

Kirloskar

FRP

Kirloskar

KDS-830

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

NIMA
Sintex
Kirloskar
Utility trane
Utility trane
Utility trane Built up
Utility trane
Utility trane

Capacity (Each)
60TR
100TR.
60TR
120TR.

7.5 HP
6000 LTS
10000 LTS
2HP
AH-5
AH-7
AH-7
AH-9

CONCLUSION
The technology of earth stations has been reviewed and a few illustrative
systems have been described. In coming years the number of large earth station
facilities that we are accustomed to seeing will continue to grow. However, in
addition, there will be an exponential growth of small earth terminals for consumer
services. Like a web, the major nodes will be filled in by a dense network of
smaller nodes of varies types and sizes.
An earth station, ground station, or earth terminal is a terrestrial terminal
station designed for extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft, and/or
reception of radio waves from an astronomical radio source. Earth stations are
located either on the surface of the Earth, or within Earth's atmosphere. Earth
stations communicate with spacecraft by transmitting and receiving radio waves in
the super high frequency or extremely high frequency bands (e.g., microwaves).
When an earth station successfully transmits radio waves to a spacecraft (or vice
versa), it establishes a telecommunications link.
Earth stations may occupy either a fixed or itinerant position. Article 1 III of
the ITU Radio Regulations describes various types of earth stations, stationary and
mobile, and their interrelationships.
Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with
satelliteschiefly communications satellites. Other earth stations communicate
with manned space stations or unmanned space probes. An earth station that
primarily receives telemetry data, or that follows a satellite not in geostationary
orbit, is called a tracking station.
When a satellite is within an earth station's line of sight, the earth station is
said to have a view of the satellite. It is possible for a satellite to communicate with
more than one earth station at a time. A pair of earth stations are said to have a
satellite in mutual view when the stations share simultaneous, unobstructed, lineof-sight contact with the satellite.