IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 50, NO.

6, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2014

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Load Models for Flat-Panel TVs

Franklin L. Quilumba, Member, IEEE, Wei-Jen Lee, Fellow, IEEE, and Jess Jtiva-Ibarra, Member, IEEE

AbstractA realistic representation of power system loads has

proven to be essential for ensuring reliable and economic operation of a power system. Although the exact load model is nearly
impossible to obtain, it is still possible to find a suitable load
representation that can improve the accuracy of steady-state and
dynamic simulations. Load model development has been a continuous effort among industry since the 1980s. However, with the
ever increasing development of technology, electric appliances and
equipment behavior have changed. In particular, home electronics,
such as televisions, are a good example of these changes not only
for their cutting edge technology but also for their penetration into
the system. Electronic loads tend to behave mostly near constant
power with respect to voltage and frequency variations, which may
have significant impact on the system stability. Devoting efforts
to include the load models of new appliances become a critical
issue in the field of computer simulation. This paper devotes its
efforts to develop ZIP load models for liquid-crystal-display and
light-emitting-diode televisions to be added into the family of the
load models to improve the accuracy of system simulation. A
computer simulation of a power system illustrates the impact of
load models on the stability of the power systems.
Index TermsLoad components, load modeling, power system
modeling, static load model (SLM), ZIP load model.

I. I NTRODUCTION

OAD modeling is, for all power system studies, as important as the rest of the power system models. However, not
long ago, most utilities overlooked modeling specific loads in
their simulations due to the complexity of obtaining accurate
models to represent the load behavior [1]. In power system
simulations, load is the least accurately represented component.
A great effort has been done over the years with regard to load
modeling. In the early 1990s, the authors in [2] and [3] provided
initial guidance about load representation. The Western Electricity Coordinating Council has performed tremendous work
in developing a permanent composite load model to be used for
planning and operation studies [4]. In addition to the steady-

Manuscript received June 8, 2013; revised November 2, 2013, December 12,

2013, and February 16, 2014; accepted March 21, 2014. Date of publication
March 25, 2014; date of current version November 18, 2014. Paper 2013-PSEC240.R3, presented at the 2013 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual
Meeting, Orlando, FL, USA, October 611, and approved for publication in the
IEEE T RANSACTIONS ON I NDUSTRY A PPLICATIONS by the Power Systems
Engineering Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society.
F. L. Quilumba and W.-J. Lee are with the Energy Systems Research Center,
The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019 USA (e-mail:
quigufrale@ieee.org; wlee@uta.edu).
J. Jtiva-Ibarra is with the Department of Electrical Energy, Escuela Politcnica Nacional, E11-253 Quito, Ecuador (e-mail: jesus.jativa@epn.edu.ec).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2014.2313660

state operation, it has been recognized that load also plays a

critical role in power system stability [2], [5].
Power system simulation at an end-use level is certainly
impractical; thus, the aggregate effects of possibly thousands of
individual load components, along with the complex distribution grid, can be lumped to produce a composite load model
[6][8]. Understanding the behavior of the load has become
critically important when power systems are operated with
limited margin. Load models are classified into two broad categories: static and dynamic [9], [10]. Static load models (SLMs)
can be reasonably represented by algebraic functions, which are
mostly based on the voltage (and frequency) dependence of the
load. Dynamic load models (DLMs) account for the dynamics
of load components.
In a recent study [11], the CIGRE Working Group C4.605
has reported that about 70% of utilities and system operators
around the world use only the SLM for power system stability
studies; about 30% of them use some form of induction motor
model to represent dynamic loads in power system stability
studies. The common practice in the U.S. is to use a composite
model of SLM (typically ZIP) and DLM (typically large induction motors).
Loads are evolving, not only in the amount of power drawn
from the system but also in the dynamic and steady-state characteristics. Many researchers have devoted efforts in developing
their models. A complete summary of reported parameters of
existing load models can be found in [12]. Those models were
based on the existing equipment during the period in which
they were developed. Substantial changes in the nature of the
loads have occurred recently with the development of new
technologies and their availability in the market. The increasing
penetration of home electronics [13] is a good example. Unlike
traditional appliances, they act more similar to constant power
equipment as long as the voltage and frequency are within a
reasonable range of operation. Recent publications [14][17]
have shown a renewed effort to update the individual load component models. Therefore, updating and/or adding new loads
that have emerged into the market for residential customers
are the purposes of this paper, with emphasis on flat-screen
TVs ZIP load models. The results presented herein provide
additional information for more accurate load modeling.
This paper is organized as follows. Section II introduces
basic concepts about load modeling. Section III explains the
significance of the development of flat-screen TVs ZIP load
models. Section IV describes the laboratory component test.
Section V introduces the process to identify the ZIP coefficients
for flat-screen TVs. Section VI presents a case example of
the implications of changes in load behavior in the stability
of the power system. Finally, the conclusions are provided
in Section VII.

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TABLE I
E STIMATED U.S. R ESIDENTIAL E LECTRICITY
C ONSUMPTION BY E ND U SE , 2010

II. L OAD M ODELING

Classical load models used in power flow simulations defined
load as functions of bus voltage and frequency, i.e., the SLM
[18]. SLMs are still popular in the power industry for transient
stability analysis; in [19], the authors conclude that appropriate
load models are adequate for transient stability analysis since
transient stability analysis is mainly concerned with the real
power behavior of load during and after a disturbance. On the
other hand, consideration should be given on the DLMs in voltage stability studies, where SLM cannot adequately represent
the behavior of a real power system under a voltage collapse
problem [2], [18]. A vast set of load models is presented in
[18], where the main categories are static and dynamic models.
The polynomial model is one of the SLMs widely accepted
among utility industries. This model is commonly referred
to as the ZIP model because it is composed of constant
impedancecurrentpower components. Due to the use of a
switching power supply and TVs design for both 50- and
60-Hz systems, frequency variation will not change the consumption pattern of the flat-screen TVs. Since the per unit
voltage variation is much larger than the per unit frequency
variation in most disturbances [3], the flat-screen TVs load
models can be treated as frequency independent.
Mathematically, the ZIP model of the flat-screen TVs can be
represented as follows:


 2
 
V
V
(1)
+ Ip
+ Pp
P = P0 Z p
V0
V0


 2
 
V
V
Q = Q0 Z q
+ Iq
(2)
+ Pq
V0
V0
where P is the total active power; Q is the total reactive power;
and Zi , Ii , Pi , i = {p, q} are constant impedance, constant current, and constant power fractions, respectively, and constitute
the parameters to be determined. P0 and Q0 are the load active
and reactive power at rated voltage V0 , respectively.
It is well known that, depending on the percentage on the
combination of the ZIP representation of the electrical loads,
one can get dramatically different results in power system
stability studies [9], [20][22].
III. E ND -U SE E LECTRICITY C ONSUMPTION IN THE U.S.
The energy consumption in U.S. homes has substantially
changed over the past 30 years, according to the 2009 Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS). U.S. homes, on
average, have become larger, have fewer occupants, and are
more energy efficient [13]. Although space cooling, lighting,
and water heating mainly drive U.S. residential electricity demand, refrigeration and television also contribute to electricity
consumption [23], as shown in Table I. The other end-use
loads have less impact but are still important. One interesting
finding on the 2009 RECS is that the average household had
2.5 televisions, whereas in 1978, most households had only one
television [24]. Over 45% of homes have at least one television
with a screen size of 37 in or larger [24]. Screen size and

Fig. 1.

Number of televisions in U.S. homes by percentage of households.

average energy consumption per television have continued to

grow over time [25]. Figs. 13 reflect the usage profile of TVs
in a U.S. household as it is presented in the Energy Information
Administrations RECS data [26]. A television usage analysis
is presented in [27] to establish the range of annual TV usage
in U.S. homes that complements the information in [26].
IV. L ABORATORY L OAD C OMPONENT T EST
The loads selected for laboratory testing correspond to flatpanel televisions of two different technologies: liquid-crystal
display (LCD) lit by cold cathode fluorescent lamps, or simply
LCD, and light-emitting diode (LED)-backlit LCD display, or
simply LED. The television loads tested are listed in Table II,
along with their respective nameplate information. The procedure followed to determine the TV ZIP models can be described
in three basic steps [17]: 1) testing; 2) data handling; and
3) determination of the ZIP coefficients.

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B. Data Handling
All recorded data are in a raw format; hence, it is necessary to
extract refined data from them. All raw data have been plotted
as a means of identifying valid data. Therefore, the entire test
sequence can be visually previewed, and the valid test data can
be specified by a beginning and ending sample number. This
treatment converts the test data to a usable form.
C. Determination of the ZIP Coefficients
Fig. 2.

Display size of most used televisions in U.S. homes by households.

The determination of the ZIP coefficients is formulated as an

optimization problem. Let L be the error to be minimized, i.e.,
L=

N


L2i =

i=1

N


(g (Vi ) gi )2 .

(3)

i=1

Here, g can represent P or Q, as defined in (1) and (2),

respectively. Therefore, we obtain
L=

N

i=1

Fig. 3.

Display type of most-used televisions in U.S. homes by households.

TABLE II
NAMEPLATE OF T ESTED T ELEVISIONS


Zp

Vi
Vo

2
+ Ip

Vi
Vo

Pi
+ Pp
Po

2
.

(4)

Vi /Vo and Pi /Po correspond to the normalized values of

voltage and power, respectively, with respect to their nominal
values; N is the number of samples.
The ZIP coefficients were fitted to the measured data considering three cases.
1) No constraints; therefore, minimization of (4).
2) One constraint added: minimization of (4) subject to the
sum of all coefficients should be equal to one [see (5)],
i.e.,
h(Zp , Ip , Pp ) = Zp + Ip + Pp 1 = 0.

(5)

3) Two constraints added: minimization of (4) subject to the

sum of all coefficients should be equal to one [see (5)],
and all coefficients should be greater than or equal to zero
[see (6)], i.e.,
A. Testing
The load component testing was executed in a controlled
environment. The required power is obtained from the grid
through an autotransformer. Since preliminary test confirms
that the frequency does not affect the power consumption of
the TV set, only voltage excursions are considered through
a stepwise variation of the voltage in a slow ramp (voltage
ramp-down test) to develop the SLM. Starting at 130 V, the
voltage is decreased in steps of 5 V until the device shuts
down. The shutdown voltage is referred to as Vo . Although
the voltage of operation of some appliances is rated in a range
as it is shown in Table II, 120 V and 60 Hz are defined as the
nominal values. Standard laboratory instrumentation was used
in these tests. The quantities monitored are voltage, current, real
power, reactive power, and power factor recorded at a sampling
rate of 1/2 s (due to logger equipment capabilities) for later
analysis.

Zp , Ip , Pp 0.

(6)

For cases 1 and 2, it should be noticed that the coefficients

can be negative values, making the model not physically based,
as long as the model behavior matches the load characteristic.
The reactive power is treated in a similar fashion to determine
its ZIP coefficients.
After the ZIP coefficients have been determined, the rootmean-squared error (RMSE) is calculated to evaluate the accuracy of the fitted models. The RMSE is defined as follows:

1 
(Ai Fi )2
(7)
RMSE = 
n i=1
where Ai is the actual value, and Fi is the fitted value of Pi /Po
(or Qi /Qo ).

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TABLE III
S UMMARY OF S TEADY-S TATE C OMPONENT M ODELS

Fig. 4. P V and QV curves for a 22-in LCD television.

V. T ELEVISION ZIP M ODEL

C OEFFICIENTS I DENTIFICATION
The steady-state ZIP load models resulting from the foregoing procedure are summarized in Table III. In addition,
the voltage range over which the models were obtained is
presented. The curves of active power versus voltage (P V ) and
reactive power versus voltage (QV ) of the measurements and
ZIP models are shown in Figs. 46 for the LCD technology
and in Figs. 79 for the LED technology.
One can notice that, when the sum of the ZIP coefficients
equals to one, as a constraint, it ensures that the device will
consume its nominal power at its nominal voltage. Therefore,

Fig. 5. P V and QV curves for a 40-in LCD television.

this ZIP model is commonly used. A comparison is made of the

load shapes for all different display sizes at each different technology in Figs. 10 and 11, and it is shown that, in both cases,
the active power shape follows a similar trend of increasing P
while decreasing V . For the reactive power, it can be stated that
their behavior is entirely leading power factor.
In addition, comparing the active power rated values from the
nameplates in Table II against P0 in Table III, it can be noticed
that the rated values are oversized with respect to P0 .
From Table III and Figs. 49, one may notice that, when
the ZIP coefficients are subject to be greater than or equal to
zero, in addition to the fact that their sum is equal to one,

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Fig. 6. P V and QV curves for a 55-in LCD television.

Fig. 9. P V and QV curves for a 55-in LED television.

Fig. 7. P V and QV curves for a 26-in LED television.

Fig. 10. P V and QV curves for LCD televisions.

Fig. 8. P V and QV curves for a 32-in LED television.

the active power ZIP load models for the tested televisions
are represented entirely as constant power loads. However, one
must keep in mind that making the ZIP load models physically
based affects the goodness of fit, i.e., the difference between
the actual and the predicted values becomes larger, as reflected
by the RMSE, and its use is not recommended particularly for
voltages below 100 V when the rated voltage is 120 V. For

Fig. 11. P V and QV curves for LED televisions.

voltages above 100 V (approximately), one may notice that the

TV load consumption is nearly constant power for both LCD
and LED technologies.

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TABLE IV
C ASE S TUDIES U SING THE LED TV ZIP L OAD M ODEL

Fig. 12. Six-machine system [28].

VI. P OWER S YSTEM S TABILITY S TUDY U NDER

D IFFERENT ZIP M ODEL C ONDITIONS
As stated in [2], load characteristics can affect the results of
stability studies. Power system simulation is the fundamental
tool of power system analysis and control, and therefore, it
should use the best possible models of all power system elements. Since different load models can produce a significant
difference to simulation results, developing appropriate load
models is essential for ensuring secure and economic operation
of power systems [12]. Examples of the effects of load modeling on power system dynamics can be found in [12].
Once the ZIP coefficients have been determined, one may
assess the stability of a power system to better understand the
impact of load modeling under different levels of TV load
penetration into the system. A case example is presented here to
observe the performance of a six-machine system (see Fig. 12)
whose data can be found in [28] under different load characteristics, as described in Table IV. In case 1, all loads were
represented as 100% constant current for real power and 100%
constant impedance for reactive power. Case 1 is the most commonly accepted SLM when no information on the load composition is available: represent active power as constant current
and reactive power as constant impedance [2]. For cases 2
to 5, it is assumed that the percentage of TV load is known
for all the load buses in the power system. This percentage is
taken out of the existing load, in active and reactive power, at
each bus. Therefore, a certain percentage is modeled as the LED
TV ZIP load, while the remaining part follows the standard
convention of representing active power as constant current and
reactive power as constant impedance [2]. The aforementioned
case studies start with 10% LED TV load penetration (case 2)
up to 40% (case 5). Case 2 is meant to approximately represent the contribution of TV electricity consumption shown
in Table I, whereas the increasing penetration from case 3 to

Fig. 13. Response of a six-machine system following a three-phase fault,

which is cleared after four cycles. Case 1: 0% LED TV.

case 5 could represent the TV consumption during major events

such as the State of the Union Address, Olympic Games, World
Cup, or Super Bowl. The generators scheduled voltages and
reactive power compensations should be adjusted to maintain
the power system in equilibrium before performing any power
system stability simulation in this case.
For cases 2 to 5, the IEEE Load Model, IEELBL, from Power
System Simulator for Engineering (PSS/E), whose load characteristic equations are shown in (8) and (9), is used because the
constant variables can be tailored to represent the ZIP model as
presented in (1) and (2), i.e.,
P = Pload (a1 v n1 + a2 v n2 + a3 v n3 ) (1 + a7 f )

(8)

Q = Qload (a4 v n4 + a5 v n5 + a6 v n6 ) (1 + a8 f ).

(9)

The performance of system stability is illustrated by conducting a study of the six-machine system. The disturbance,
initiating at 1 s, is a three-phase fault occurring near bus 152
at the end of the line 1523004. The fault is cleared after four
cycles (0.067 s), and then, the simulation runs up to 10 s.
Plots of the response of the six-machine system during the
disturbance for cases 1 to 5 are illustrated in Figs. 1317,
respectively. It can be noticed that the system is stable when the
load is modeled representing active power as constant current
and reactive power as constant impedance, as well as when the
TV load penetration modeled as LED TV increases from 10%

QUILUMBA et al.: LOAD MODELS FOR FLAT-PANEL TVs

Fig. 14. Response of a six-machine system following a three-phase fault,

which is cleared after four cycles. Case 2: 10% LED TV.

Fig. 15. Response of a six-machine system following a three-phase fault,

which is cleared after four cycles. Case 3: 20% LED TV.

to 30%. In case 6, as plotted in Fig. 17, it is evident that the rotor

angles drift apart, and therefore, the system becomes unstable.
The results of these simulations indicate that modeling LED
TVs as ZIP load models can vary the response of the stability
of a power system. In addition, a TV penetration of 40% of the
total demand modeled as an LED TV ZIP load can lead to a loss
of synchronism after an incident.
Although only load characteristics of LED TV have been
accounted in the load buses, it can be noticed from the simulations that load representation does affect the results on system
stability analysis.
VII. C ONCLUSION
With the ever increasing development of technology, the behavior of electric appliances and equipment, such as televisions,
has changed. In modern society, televisions have an important

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Fig. 16. Response of a six-machine system following a three-phase fault,

which is cleared after four cycles. Case 7: 30% LED TV.

Fig. 17. Response of a six-machine system following a three-phase fault,

which is cleared after four cycles. Case 8: 40% LED TV.

contribution on electricity consumption. Unlike traditional appliances, they act more similar to constant power equipment as
long as the voltage is around its operating value. A constant
power device will have significant impact on the power system
stability. Since flat-screen TVs fall in this category, their power
consumption patterns require a detailed analysis.
This paper devotes its efforts to systematically develop ZIP
load models for LCD and LED televisions to be added into the
family of the load models to improve the accuracy of system
simulation. The importance of updating the flat-panel TV load
models was emphasized to properly represent the electrical
behavior of the new appliances that have recently emerged
into the market. As shown in the case study example, a better
representation of LED TVs as ZIP load models coupled with
a high penetration of LED TVs into the system is critical for
stability analysis.

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Franklin L. Quilumba (S10M14) received the

Diploma degree in electrical engineering from the
National Polytechnic School (Escuela Politecnica
Nacional EPN), Quito, Ecuador, in 2008, and the
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from The University of Texas at Arlington (UTA),
Arlington, TX, USA, in 2014.
From 2008 to 2009, he held a teaching position
at the EPN. He is currently a Postdoctoral Research
Associate with the Energy Systems Research Center
at UTA. His areas of interest are power systems
analysis, operation, stability, and control; computer simulation of electric power
systems; power load modeling; generation and transmission planning; demand
response; and load forecasting.

Wei-Jen Lee (S85M85SM97F07) received

the B.S. and M.S. degrees from National Taiwan
University, Taipei, Taiwan, and the Ph.D. degree
from The University of Texas at Arlington (UTA),
Arlington, TX, USA, in 1978, 1980, and 1985,
respectively, all in electrical engineering.
In 1985, he joined the UTA, where he is currently
a Professor of electrical engineering and the Director
of the Energy Systems Research Center. He has been
involved in research on power flow, transient and
dynamic stability, voltage stability, short circuits,
relay coordination, power quality analysis, renewable energy, and deregulation
for utility companies.
Prof. Lee is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.

Jess Jtiva-Ibarra (M83) received the Electrical

Engineer Diploma from the National Polytechnic
School (EPN), Quito, Ecuador, in 1981 and the
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
from The University of Texas at Arlington (UTA),
Arlington, TX, USA, in 1988 and 1991, respectively.
He holds Postgraduate Diplomas in energy conservation in industry from the F-Energikonsult Syd AB,
Sweden, received in 1995, and in development planning techniques from The Institute of Social Studies,
The Netherlands, received in 1998.
From 1994 to 1997 and from 2004 to 2008, he was the Head of the
Department of Power Systems, EPN, and the Promoter of the Masters degree
programs in power system and electric power markets. He has been a Consultant in electric and generating utilities in Ecuador. He is currently a Principal
Professor of electrical engineering with the Department of Electrical Energy,
School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, EPN. His research interests
include power systems analysis, operation, stability, and control.