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ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

1. INTRODUCTION
You may have seen a spark (or a crackles sound), when we take off our synthetic
clothes. Have you ever tried to find any explanation for this phenomenon? Do you know the
reason for lightning?
The above phenomenon can be explained on the basis of static electricity. Static
means anything that does not change with time.
Electrostatics deals with the properties of charges at rest.
2. ELECTRIC CHARGE
It is found experimentally that the charges are of two types:
i) Positive charge
ii) Negative charge
The unit of charge is Coulomb . The names of positive and negative charges are
purely conventional.
Note:
Positively charged body means deficiency of electrons in the body from its neutral
state and a negatively charged body means excess of electrons.
Gold Leaf electroscope
A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is called gold leaf electroscope.
Apparatus
It consists of a vertical metal rod placed in a box. Two thin gold leaves are attached to
its bottom end as shown in figure.
Working
When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on
to the leaves and they diverge. The degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount of
charge.
1.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Conductors
Conductors are those substances which allow passage of electricity through them.
Insulators
Insulators are those substances which do not allow passage of electricity through
them.
1.3 (1) EARTHING (OR) GROUNDING
When a charged body bring in contact with earth, all the excess charge pass to the
earth through the connecting conductor. This process of sharing the charges with the earth is
called grounding or earthing.
Earthing provides protection to electrical circuits and appliances.

1.4 CHARGING BY INDUCTION


A body can be charged in different ways.
1) Charging by friction
2) Charging by conduction
3) Charging by induction
Charging by friction
When two bodies are rubbed each other, electrons in one body (in which electrons are
held less tightly) transferred to second body (in which electrons are held more tightly)
Explanation
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, some of the electrons from the glass are
transferred to silk. Hence glass rod gets +ve charge and silk gets ve charge.
Charging by conduction
Charging a body with actual contact of another body is called charging by conduction.
Explanation
Picture

If a neutral conducting body (A) is brought in contact with positively charged


conducting body (B), the neutral body gets positively charged.
Charging by induction
The phenomenon by which a neutral body gets charged by the presence of
neighboring charged body is called electrostatic induction.
Explanation
Step I
Place two metal spheres on an insulating stand and bring in contact as shown in figure
(a).
Picture

Step II
Bring a positively charged rod near to these spheres. The free electrons in the spheres
are attracted towards the rod. Hence one side of the sphere becomes negative and the other
side becomes positive as shown in the figure (b).
Picture

Step III
Separate the spheres by a small distance by keeping the rod near to sphere A. The two
spheres are found to be oppositely charged as shown in figure .
Picture

Step IV
Remove the rod, the charge on spheres rearrange themselves as shown in figure (d).
Picture

In this process, equal and opposite charges are developed on each sphere.
How can you charge a metal sphere positively without touching it?
Picture

Place the uncharged metallic sphere on an insulating stand. Bring a negatively


charged rod close to the metallic sphere as shown in figure (b). Due to the attraction of rod
positive charges (electrons) at farther end. When the sphere is earthed, electrons flow from
the sphere to the earth.
Disconnect the sphere from ground and then remove rod from it. The positive charge
uniformly distributes over the sphere.
1.5 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
a) Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
b) Charge is conserved

Total charge of and isolated system remains constant.


(OR)
Charges can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Explanation
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, some of the electrons from the glass are
transferred to silk. Hence glass rod gets + ve charge and silk gets ve charges.
Sometimes nature creates charged particles: a neutron turns into a proton and an
electron. The proton and electron thus created have equal and opposite charges and the total
charge is zero before and after the creation.
Antother example is found in fission reaction
n1 + 92U235
> 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1
Charge before and after fission is the same.
c) Electric Charge is Quantized:
Charge on anybody is the integral multiple of electronic charge. This is called
quantization of charge.
q= ne
n=1,2, 3
i.e
0

d)

Additivity of Charges
If a system contains n charges

q1, q2, q3 , q n

, then the total charge of the

system
1.6

is q1, + q2 + q3 + . + qn
COULOMBS LAW
Statement
The force between two stationary electric charges is directly proportional to
the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Explanation

q1

q2
r

Consider two point charges q1 and q2, which are separated by a distance, r,
The force F21 (on the second charge by first} is given by (vector form)
1 q1^q 2

r 12
F =
12
4 r2
0

1
4 0

where

9 109 Nm2 /c 2

and r 12 is the unit vector from charge 1 to 2. Similarly, the force

F12

(on the

first charge by second) is given by

1 q1^q 2
12

r 12

4 0 r 2

Note: Coulombs law agrees with the Newtons Third law.

F12
F
i.e
= - 21
1.7 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
Super position principle
If the system contains a number of interacting charges, then the force on a given
charge is equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted on it by all remaining charges.
Explanation
Picture

Consider a system of three charges q1, q2, and q3 as shown in figure


The force on q1 due to q2

1q ^1 q 2
12

r 12

4 0 r 12

Similarly the force q1 due to q3

1q ^1 q2
21

r 13

4 0 r 13

The total force F1 on q1 (due to q2 and q3) can be written as

12

F
^

13

1q 1 q 2
1

1q 1 q3

r 12

2
0 12

r 13

4 0 r 213

System of n charges:
If system contains n charges, total force acting on q1 due to all other charges.

12

13

+.

14

q q
q q
1 q1q2
r 12+ 12 3 r 13 + . .. 12 n r 1 n
2
4 r 12
r 13
r1 n
0

q1
4

1n

r il 21 r il
i=2

1.8 ELECTRIC FIELD


The concept electric field is introduced to explain the interaction between two
charges.
Electric field intensity
Strength or intensity of the electric field at any point is defined as the force acting on
a unit positive charge placed at that point.
Mathematical expression of electric field intensity
Q
q
r
Consider a charge q (test charge) at a distance r from a source charge Q.
The force acting on q due to Q.

1 Qq
r
4 r 2
0

The force acting on unit charge due to Q.

1=

1 Q
r
4 r 2
0

This force is called electric field intensity at a distance r from the source charge.


E =

ie

F1
q

1
4 0

Q
r2

Note: The test charge q has its own electric field. This electric field may modify the electric
field of source charge (Q). To minimize this effect, we rewrite electric field intensity at r as

E =

Limit

F
q

1.8.1 Electric field due to a system of charges


Consider a system of charges q1, q2 qn. Let P be point at distances. r1p, r2p,
rnp
charges q1, q2, . qn respectively.
According to super position principle, total electric field at p due to all other charges,

E1
E2
E =
+
+ .. +

E =
qn

q1
r

2
1p

r1 p

1
4 0

q2
r

2
2p

r2 p

+ +

1
4 0

1
4 0

r np

r 2np

1
4 0

E n

1
4 0

r2 1
1=2

1p

r1p

1.8.2 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ELECTRIC FIELD


Q. What is the importance of the concept of electric field?
1) Electric field explains the electrical environment of a system of charges.
2) Electric field at a point in the space around a system of charges tells the force acting on a
unit charge.
3) Electric field at any point gives the properties of source charge.
4) Electric field help us to explain the interaction between two charges at rest or in
motion
1.9 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Properties of Electric Lines of Force


Picture

(Field lines due to some simple charge configurations)


1) An Electric line of force originates from positive charge and ends on negative charge.
2) The tangent drawn at a point on an electric line of force will give the direction of electric
field at that point.
3) Two lines of force never intersect each other. (If they cut each other, at the point of
intersection there will be two tangents. This indicates that there will be two directions
of electric field at the same point which is imposible).
4) The number of electric lines of force passing normally through an area is directly
proportional to the strength of the electric field.
5) The relative density (i.e closences) of the field lines at different points indicates the
relatives strength of electric field at those points.
Electric field lines originating from a point charge is shown in the figure. Electric field
density at R is larger than density a S. This means that the electric field strength is
greater at R than at S.
Picture

6) Electric field lines due to static charge never from closed loops.
7) In a uniform electric field, lines of force are parallel.
1.10 ELECTRIC FLUX

Consider a closed surface. Let s


be a small area element on the surface. The
electric field lines (E) passes through this area element at an angle . Electric flux
through an area element s

=E . s

is defined by

=E S cos
The above equation shows that, flux is proportional to the number of field lines cutting the
area element.
1.11 ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Electric dipole
A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by small distance is called electric
dipole.
Dipole moment (p)
Electric dipole moment (p) is defined as product of magnitude of charge and dipole
length.
Dipole moment p q 2 a
q charge, 2a dipole length

1.11. (1) Electric field at a point on the axial line of an electric dipole.
Consider an electric dipole of moment P 2 aq . Let S be a point at a distance r
from the centre of the dipole.
-q
+q
A

EA

r
Electric field at S due to point charge at A
EA

1
4 0

q
(r +a)2

Directed as shown in figure.


Electric field at S due to point charge at B
EB =

1
4 0

q
(ra)2

Directed as shown in figure.


Therefore resultant electric field at S
And its magnitude E EBEA

E=

1
4 0

q
2
(ra)

E=

q
4 0

1
2
(ra)

E=

q
4 0

( r +a)2( ra ) 2
2
( r a ) ( r +a ) 2

E=

q
4 0

4 ar
2
(r 2a 2)

1
4 0

1
2
(r +a)

EB

q
2
(r +a)

E=

1
4 0

2 Pr
2
(r 2a 2)

P = q x 2a

We can neglect a2 because a << r


Electric field at S,

2P
r3
E
1

4 0

2P
3
r
E S=

4 0

The direction is along EB


The field due to an electric dipole is directed from negative charge to positive charge along
the axial line.
1.11 (2) Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the perpendicular bisector of the
dipole
(at a point on the equatorial line).
picture

Consider a dipole of dipole moment P =2aq. Let S be a point on its equational line at a
distance r from its centre. The magnitudes of electric field at S due to + q and q are equal
and acts as shown in figure.
To find the resultant electric field resolve and
Picture

Their normal components cancel each other whereas their horizontal components add up to
give the resultant field at S
E= EA cos + Eb cos =2 EB cos

1
4 0

Since EA = E8 =

Cos =

E=2

E=

1
4 0
1
4 0

r 2+ a 2

a
(r 2+ a 2)
q
( r 2+a 2 )

a
r 2+a 2

2 aq
(r 2+a 2)3 /2

But (r2 + a2)3/2 (r2)3/2 = r3 (Since a r)

E (s) =

1
4 0

P
r3

Where P = 2aq

The direction of the field due to the dipole at a point on the equatorial line is opposite to the
direction of dipole moment.
Note: Electric field due to a point charge varies inversely as the second power
of distance
r whereas the electric field due to a dipole varies inversely as the third power of distance r
1.11.2 Physical significance of dipole
The molecules of dielectrics may be classified into two classes:
1) Polar molecules
2) Non polar molecules
1. Polar molecules
In a polar molecule, the centres of negative charge and positive charges do not
coincide. Therefore they have no permanent electric dipole moment.
Example: CO2, CH4 etc
Note: In the presence of external electric field, a non- polar molecule becomes a polar
molecule.
1.12 DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD
Picture

Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment P= 2aq kept in a uniform external electric field,
inclined at an angle to the field direction

Equal and opposite forces +q E and q E act on the two charges. Hence the net force
on the dipole is zero. But are different constitute a torque.
Torque = any one force x perpendicular distance
(Between the line of action of two forces)
=qE 2 a sin
Since P= 2aq
=p E sin

Vectorialy


=PxE

This torque tries to align the dipole along the direction of the external field.
Special Case:
1. When = 0; = 0
2. When = 90;

= PE, the, maximum.

Note: In uniform electric field dipole has only translational motion


Dipole in non uniform electric field
Q. What happens to dipole if the applied electric field is non uniform?
In non uniform electric field, the net force and torque acting on the dipole will not be zero.
Hence the dipole undergoes for both translational and rotational motion.
1.13 CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
Charges on a body may be distributed in different ways according to the nature of body.
Depending upon this distribution of charge, we deal with different types of charge densities. I
Line charge density, ii) Surface charge density,
or iii) Volume charge density, p
1. Linear charge density
Charge per unit length is called linear charge density.
If Q is the charge contained in a line element / ,
Linear charge density
=

Q
I

2. Surface charge density (


Charge per unit area is called surface charge density

Q if is the charge

contained in a area element s, surface charge density can be written as


=

Q
S

3. Volume charge density (p)

Charge per unit volume is called volumecharge density if


contained in a volume

Q is the charge

v, volume charge density

Q
V
1.14 GAUSSS LAW
Gausss theorem states that the total electric flux over closed surface is 1/e0 times the
total charge enclosed by the surface.
Gausss theorem may be expressed as Type equation here .

or

ds

1
0

Proof
Picture

Consider a charge + q, which is kept inside a sphere of radius r

ds
The flux at P can be written as, = E

But electric field at P,E


E

ds

1
4 0

1 q
4 0 r 2
q
r2

ds

Integrating on both sides we get,

ds

1
4 0

E ds

q
r2

1
4 0

q
r2

ds

ds=
2
4 r

q
0

Thus theorem is proved


Important points regarding Gausss Law

i) Gausss Law is true for any


ie) Independent of size and shape of the surface)
ii) Total charge enclosed by the surface must be added (algebraically). The charge may be
located anywhere inside the surface.
iii) The surface that we choose. for the application of Gausss law is used to find electric field
due to system of charges having some symmetry.
iv) Gausss law is based on the inverse square of distance. Any violation of Gausss law will
indicate departure from the inverse square law.
1.15 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSSS LAW
Gausss law can be used to find electric field due to system of some symmetric charge
configurations. Some examples are given below.
1.15.1 FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITELY LONG STRAIGHT UNIFORMLY
CHARGED WIRE.
Pictur
e

Consider a thin infinitely long straight rod conductor having charge density
q
1

. =

To find the electric field at P, we imagine a Gaussian surface passing through P.


Then according to Gausss law we can write.
=

ds

ds

I
0

q
0

(since q = I)

Integrating over the Gaussian surface, we get (we need not integrate the upper and lower
surface because, electric lines do not pass through these surfaces.)
E2

E=

rl=

l
0

1
2 rl

(L.S.A of cylinder = 2 rl
l
0 E =

1
2 0

1.15.2 FIELD DUE TO A UNIFIORMLY CHARGED INFINITE PLANE SHEET


Picture

Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of charge of density


To find electric field at a point P (at a distance r from sheet), imaging a Gaussian
surface in the form of cylinder having area of cross section ds
According to Gausss law we can write.

ds

=
ds
0

ds
E
=

1
0

(since q = ds)

But electric field passes only through end surfaces so we get

ie. E 2ds =

E=

ds
2 ds0

ds

= 2ds

ds
0

E=

2 0
Note: We need not intergrate the curved surface because electric lines do not pass through
curved surfaces.
Field due to two parallel plane sheets
S1
E1
A
E2s

S2
E1
B
E2

E1
C
E2

Consider two plane sheets (s1 and s2) having charge densities
The electric field produced by the one sheet is

E 20
Electric field at A
Total electric field at A, EA= E1 + E2

+ 2
1
2 0
20
(The electric field towards the left is taken as negative)

1 2

respectively

EA =

1
2 0

(1 + 2) .. (1)

Electric field at B
Total electric field at B,

EB=E1 + E2

1 2
+
2 0 2 0

Electric field at C
Total electric field at C, E= E1 + E2

+ 2
1
20
20
1.15.3 FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL
Consider a uniformly charged hollow spherical conductor of radius R. Let q be the
total charge on the surface.
Picture

To find the electric field at P (at a distance r from the centre), we imagine a Gaussian
spherical surface having radius r
Then , according to Gausss therorem we can write,
1
E ds 0 q
The electric field is constant ., at a distance r So we can write.
1
E ds 0 q
r 2=

E4

1
4 0

1
0

q
q
r2

Case- I: Electric field inside the shell is zero


Case-II : At the surface of shell r = R
1
q
E=
4 0
R2

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