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1. INTRODUCTION
You may have seen a spark (or a crackles sound), when we take off our synthetic
clothes. Have you ever tried to find any explanation for this phenomenon? Do you know the
reason for lightning?
The above phenomenon can be explained on the basis of static electricity. Static
means anything that does not change with time.
Electrostatics deals with the properties of charges at rest.
2. ELECTRIC CHARGE
It is found experimentally that the charges are of two types:
i) Positive charge
ii) Negative charge
The unit of charge is Coulomb . The names of positive and negative charges are
purely conventional.
Note:
Positively charged body means deficiency of electrons in the body from its neutral
state and a negatively charged body means excess of electrons.
Gold Leaf electroscope
A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is called gold leaf electroscope.
Apparatus
It consists of a vertical metal rod placed in a box. Two thin gold leaves are attached to
its bottom end as shown in figure.
Working
When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on
to the leaves and they diverge. The degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount of
charge.
1.3 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Conductors
Conductors are those substances which allow passage of electricity through them.
Insulators
Insulators are those substances which do not allow passage of electricity through
them.
1.3 (1) EARTHING (OR) GROUNDING
When a charged body bring in contact with earth, all the excess charge pass to the
earth through the connecting conductor. This process of sharing the charges with the earth is
called grounding or earthing.
Earthing provides protection to electrical circuits and appliances.
Step II
Bring a positively charged rod near to these spheres. The free electrons in the spheres
are attracted towards the rod. Hence one side of the sphere becomes negative and the other
side becomes positive as shown in the figure (b).
Picture
Step III
Separate the spheres by a small distance by keeping the rod near to sphere A. The two
spheres are found to be oppositely charged as shown in figure .
Picture
Step IV
Remove the rod, the charge on spheres rearrange themselves as shown in figure (d).
Picture
In this process, equal and opposite charges are developed on each sphere.
How can you charge a metal sphere positively without touching it?
Picture
d)
Additivity of Charges
If a system contains n charges
q1, q2, q3 , q n
system
1.6
is q1, + q2 + q3 + . + qn
COULOMBS LAW
Statement
The force between two stationary electric charges is directly proportional to
the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Explanation
q1
q2
r
Consider two point charges q1 and q2, which are separated by a distance, r,
The force F21 (on the second charge by first} is given by (vector form)
1 q1^q 2
r 12
F =
12
4 r2
0
1
4 0
where
9 109 Nm2 /c 2
F12
(on the
1 q1^q 2
12
r 12
4 0 r 2
F12
F
i.e
= - 21
1.7 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
Super position principle
If the system contains a number of interacting charges, then the force on a given
charge is equal to the vector sum of the forces exerted on it by all remaining charges.
Explanation
Picture
1q ^1 q 2
12
r 12
4 0 r 12
1q ^1 q2
21
r 13
4 0 r 13
12
F
^
13
1q 1 q 2
1
1q 1 q3
r 12
2
0 12
r 13
4 0 r 213
System of n charges:
If system contains n charges, total force acting on q1 due to all other charges.
12
13
+.
14
q q
q q
1 q1q2
r 12+ 12 3 r 13 + . .. 12 n r 1 n
2
4 r 12
r 13
r1 n
0
q1
4
1n
r il 21 r il
i=2
1 Qq
r
4 r 2
0
1=
1 Q
r
4 r 2
0
This force is called electric field intensity at a distance r from the source charge.
E =
ie
F1
q
1
4 0
Q
r2
Note: The test charge q has its own electric field. This electric field may modify the electric
field of source charge (Q). To minimize this effect, we rewrite electric field intensity at r as
E =
Limit
F
q
E1
E2
E =
+
+ .. +
E =
qn
q1
r
2
1p
r1 p
1
4 0
q2
r
2
2p
r2 p
+ +
1
4 0
1
4 0
r np
r 2np
1
4 0
E n
1
4 0
r2 1
1=2
1p
r1p
6) Electric field lines due to static charge never from closed loops.
7) In a uniform electric field, lines of force are parallel.
1.10 ELECTRIC FLUX
=E . s
is defined by
=E S cos
The above equation shows that, flux is proportional to the number of field lines cutting the
area element.
1.11 ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Electric dipole
A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by small distance is called electric
dipole.
Dipole moment (p)
Electric dipole moment (p) is defined as product of magnitude of charge and dipole
length.
Dipole moment p q 2 a
q charge, 2a dipole length
1.11. (1) Electric field at a point on the axial line of an electric dipole.
Consider an electric dipole of moment P 2 aq . Let S be a point at a distance r
from the centre of the dipole.
-q
+q
A
EA
r
Electric field at S due to point charge at A
EA
1
4 0
q
(r +a)2
1
4 0
q
(ra)2
E=
1
4 0
q
2
(ra)
E=
q
4 0
1
2
(ra)
E=
q
4 0
( r +a)2( ra ) 2
2
( r a ) ( r +a ) 2
E=
q
4 0
4 ar
2
(r 2a 2)
1
4 0
1
2
(r +a)
EB
q
2
(r +a)
E=
1
4 0
2 Pr
2
(r 2a 2)
P = q x 2a
2P
r3
E
1
4 0
2P
3
r
E S=
4 0
Consider a dipole of dipole moment P =2aq. Let S be a point on its equational line at a
distance r from its centre. The magnitudes of electric field at S due to + q and q are equal
and acts as shown in figure.
To find the resultant electric field resolve and
Picture
Their normal components cancel each other whereas their horizontal components add up to
give the resultant field at S
E= EA cos + Eb cos =2 EB cos
1
4 0
Since EA = E8 =
Cos =
E=2
E=
1
4 0
1
4 0
r 2+ a 2
a
(r 2+ a 2)
q
( r 2+a 2 )
a
r 2+a 2
2 aq
(r 2+a 2)3 /2
E (s) =
1
4 0
P
r3
Where P = 2aq
The direction of the field due to the dipole at a point on the equatorial line is opposite to the
direction of dipole moment.
Note: Electric field due to a point charge varies inversely as the second power
of distance
r whereas the electric field due to a dipole varies inversely as the third power of distance r
1.11.2 Physical significance of dipole
The molecules of dielectrics may be classified into two classes:
1) Polar molecules
2) Non polar molecules
1. Polar molecules
In a polar molecule, the centres of negative charge and positive charges do not
coincide. Therefore they have no permanent electric dipole moment.
Example: CO2, CH4 etc
Note: In the presence of external electric field, a non- polar molecule becomes a polar
molecule.
1.12 DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD
Picture
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment P= 2aq kept in a uniform external electric field,
inclined at an angle to the field direction
Equal and opposite forces +q E and q E act on the two charges. Hence the net force
on the dipole is zero. But are different constitute a torque.
Torque = any one force x perpendicular distance
(Between the line of action of two forces)
=qE 2 a sin
Since P= 2aq
=p E sin
Vectorialy
=PxE
This torque tries to align the dipole along the direction of the external field.
Special Case:
1. When = 0; = 0
2. When = 90;
Q
I
Q if is the charge
Q
S
Q is the charge
Q
V
1.14 GAUSSS LAW
Gausss theorem states that the total electric flux over closed surface is 1/e0 times the
total charge enclosed by the surface.
Gausss theorem may be expressed as Type equation here .
or
ds
1
0
Proof
Picture
ds
The flux at P can be written as, = E
ds
1
4 0
1 q
4 0 r 2
q
r2
ds
ds
1
4 0
E ds
q
r2
1
4 0
q
r2
ds
ds=
2
4 r
q
0
Consider a thin infinitely long straight rod conductor having charge density
q
1
. =
ds
ds
I
0
q
0
(since q = I)
Integrating over the Gaussian surface, we get (we need not integrate the upper and lower
surface because, electric lines do not pass through these surfaces.)
E2
E=
rl=
l
0
1
2 rl
(L.S.A of cylinder = 2 rl
l
0 E =
1
2 0
ds
=
ds
0
ds
E
=
1
0
(since q = ds)
ie. E 2ds =
E=
ds
2 ds0
ds
= 2ds
ds
0
E=
2 0
Note: We need not intergrate the curved surface because electric lines do not pass through
curved surfaces.
Field due to two parallel plane sheets
S1
E1
A
E2s
S2
E1
B
E2
E1
C
E2
Consider two plane sheets (s1 and s2) having charge densities
The electric field produced by the one sheet is
E 20
Electric field at A
Total electric field at A, EA= E1 + E2
+ 2
1
2 0
20
(The electric field towards the left is taken as negative)
1 2
respectively
EA =
1
2 0
(1 + 2) .. (1)
Electric field at B
Total electric field at B,
EB=E1 + E2
1 2
+
2 0 2 0
Electric field at C
Total electric field at C, E= E1 + E2
+ 2
1
20
20
1.15.3 FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL
Consider a uniformly charged hollow spherical conductor of radius R. Let q be the
total charge on the surface.
Picture
To find the electric field at P (at a distance r from the centre), we imagine a Gaussian
spherical surface having radius r
Then , according to Gausss therorem we can write,
1
E ds 0 q
The electric field is constant ., at a distance r So we can write.
1
E ds 0 q
r 2=
E4
1
4 0
1
0
q
q
r2