Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

BJF3033 Manufacturing Processes 2

METAL CASTING PROCESS

Fundamental of Metal Casting
Expendable Mould Casting
Permanent Mould Casting
Foundry Sand Testing
Furnace and Melting Practice
FUNDAMENTAL OF METAL CASTING
The definition: A manufacturing process by which a liquid metal at high temperature is poured
into a cavity of a mould of the required shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is
also known as a casting, which is ejected (die casting) or broken out (sand mould casting) of the
mold to complete the process. This is suitable for industries looking for large production of
products at low cost.
History: Casting is a 6000 year old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper frog from
3200 BC.
Advantages of Casting Process:
1) Size of Object to be Manufactured:
Size of cast objects varies over large range; any object from 5gm to 200 ton can be made.
2) Complexity:
Casting can be effectively used for complex shaped objects. It can work where general
machining processes cannot be used, as in complicated inner and outer shapes of object.
3) Control Over The Process:
Casting provides versatility. Wide range of properties can be attained by adjusting
percentage of alloying elements.
4) Accuracy:
Casting can be made with hair like precision provided proper molding and casting technique
is employed.
5) Tough Structure:
Only casting has this advantage. Casting leaves component with its solid fibrous structure
which inherit great compressive strength. So, component subjected to compressive
strength are made with casting ex. IC engine cylinder.
6) Control over Grain Size:
Grain size of cast component can be easily controlled by controlling cooling rate which in
turn can be used to modify the properties.
7) Low Cost:
Casing is one of cheapest method for mass production
Disadvantages of Casting:
1) Though casting is cheapest for mass Production, it becomes non economical in case of job
production.
2) Sand casting leaves rough surface which needs machining in most of cases. It adds up the
cost in production.
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3) Again in sand casting, poor dimensional accuracy is achieved.

4) Cast products are superior for compressive loads but they are very poor in tensile or shock
loads. (They are brittle).
Casting Yield is defined as the ratio of casting mass to actual mass of the metal that has entered
the mould cavity, expressed as a percentage.
% Casting Yield = (weight of casting) / (weight of casting + weight of gating system) x 100%
Gating system
The main objective of a gating system as shown in Fig. 1 is to lead clean molten metal poured
from ladle to the casting cavity, ensuring smooth, uniform and complete filling. Clean metal
implies preventing the entry of slag and inclusions into the mould cavity, and minimizing
surface turbulence. Smooth filling implies minimizing bulk turbulence.

Fig. 1: Gating system

Example:

Down sprue/riser = 50 g, gating = 100 g, casting = 500 g

Casting Yield = [500 / (500 + 50 + 100)] x 100% = 77%

Fig. 2: Casting and the Gating System

Types of Metal Casting Process:AEXPENDABLE MOULD CASTING (DISPOSABLE)
Mould typically are made of sand, plaster, ceramic and mixed with various binders (bonding
agents) for improved properties. Examples: sand mould casting:- i) clay bonded (green and
dry), ii) chemical bonded (shell mould, CO2 process, investment casting), plaster mould, ceramic
mould.
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Fig. 3: Examples of Expendable Mould Casting

BPERMANENT MOULDS CASTING (DIE)
Moulds are made of metals that maintain their strength at high temperature. They are used
repeatedly and are designed in such a way that the casting can be removed easily and the
mould used for the next casting. Metal moulds (die) are better heat conductor than expendable
non metallic moulds; hence the solidifying casting is subjected to a higher rate of cooling, which
in turn affects the microstructure and grain size within the casting. Eg. Permanent mould
casting, vacuum casting, pressure casting, die casting, centrifugal casting, squeeze casting

Fig. 4: Example of Permanent Moulds Casting

A1. Sand Casting
Major production of castings is in sand moulds and sand casting still the dominant casting
method in the automotive, general engineering, and ship building sectors, where demands on
surface finish and integrity are not too demanding. Sand casting remains the most popular
method of casting accounting for more than 90% of cast metal production. Although there are
other casting methods such as die-casting and permanent mould casting, sand casting is the
most prevalent and preferred mould casting technique. Sand casting may incorporate
greensand, dry sand and resin or chemically bonded sand.
There are three variants of sand used in molding. Green sand is composed of silica or olivine
sand, bentonite clay, water and other additives blended together. These ingredients are
compacted by either squeezing or jolting the mold packed around a wood or metal pattern. Dry
sand mould is prepared in the same manner as that of green sand moulding, except that the
mould is baked in oven at 204-316C to remove the moisture present in the sand and also the
harden the moulds. Another type of sand casting is chemically bonded sands or resin-bonded
silica sand. Molds are generally dried (or baked) in large mold drying or with large mold heaters.
Pattern
Pattern is required in sand casting process; it is a full-sized of the product The pattern is
typically made of wood, plastic, or metal. A single piece or solid pattern is used for simple

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designs. Patterns that are more complex are made in two parts, called split patterns. The upper
part of a split pattern is called a cope, while the bottom section is called a drag. The parting line
is where the cope and drag meet. Both solid and split patterns can have cores inserted to create
internal cavities or detailed external features. When making a pattern, it is necessary to taper
the edges so the pattern can be drawn out of the sand without breaking the mold. The pattern
is housed in a box called the flask, and then packed with sand.
The design of pattern considers:
a- Removing the holes: Removing all the holes formed by cores from the product is
required. Also, as the pattern design is required to produce the cored characteristics in
reference to the design of the core support in the mold. The volume equivalent to the
entire core is to be added to the geometry of the pattern to achieve the desired pattern
shape.
b- Shrinkage solidification : Since the castings have a tendency to shrink away from the
wall of the molds, this implies that internal dimensions of the castings decreases while
external dimensions increases to balance the solidification contraction of the casting.
c- Machining allowance: This added amount of extra material depends on the final
tolerances of the process dimensions, quality of sub-surface, size of the component and
the kind of machining required.
d- Draft: A draft angle is provided to all faces of the product, which are parallel to the draw
direction for facilitating the process of withdrawal. Its value lies between 0.5 Degrees to
3 degrees depending upon the size of the external faces
e- Fillets: The sharp edges are rounded for the process of molding and filling.
Type of Pattern:
i.
Removable pattern is used for producing multiple identical moulds. The sand is packed
around the pattern and the pattern is withdrawn from the sand leaving the desired
cavity. The cavity produced is filled with molten metal to create the casting. Made from
wood, metal, plastic etc.
ii.
Disposable pattern the patterns are made from polystyrene or other materials and
sand is rammed around them. The pattern is left in the mould instead of being removed
from the sand. The pattern material vaporizes when the molten metal is poured into the
mould and cavity (or melted before molten is poured) thus the cavity is filled with the
molten metal. Made from wax, polystyrene, etc.
a- Greensand Casting Mould
The Process as shown in Fig. 5: The sand mixture is compacted through mechanical force or by
hand or machine around a pattern to create a mould. The mechanical force needed for the
sand casting process can be induced by slinging, jolting, squeezing or by impact/impulse. A
binder helps harden the sand into a semi-permanent shape. Once the sand mold is harden, the
pattern is removed. This leaves a hollow space in the sand in the shape of the desired part.
Sand cores can then be inserted in the mold to create holes and improve the casting's overall
shape. Simple patterns are usually open on top, allowing molten metal to be poured into them.
Two-piece molds are clamped together. Molten metal is poured into a pouring cup where it will
then travel down a sprue and into the gating system. Vent holes are created to allow hot gases
to escape during the pour. Ideally, the pouring temperature of the molten metal is a few
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hundred degrees higher than the melting point, assuring good fluidity. The temperature
difference also prevents premature cooling and resulting voids and porosity. After the metal
cools, the sand mold is removed and the metal part is ready for additional operations, such as
cutoff and grinding.

Fig.5: Sand Mould Casting Mould Process

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Greensand is the most widely used moulding medium, consisting of the aggregate, bonded with
a mixture of mainly clay and water and always has been and remains one of the most important
and common binder systems. It is low cost, environmentally friendly and recyclable and the
most important, it is extremely fast. Modern greensand plants can produce 600 molds per hour
compared to chemically bonded moulds, which can be produced at perhaps 60100 per hour.
The word of greensand should be written as one word, not as green sand.
The greensand moulding is by far the most popular and most economical, its main advantage is
that moulds may be produced, poured and knocked out in a continuous cycle of short duration.
The greensand process produces the majority of small to medium weight castings. Although the
moulds are relatively weak in this condition, steel castings weighing up to 5 tonnes have been
made in greensand. About 70% of ferrous castings are made from green moulding sand.
Greensand mould is well known method used in metal casting operations and is performed by
85% of foundries. Greensand moulds comprise a base sand, clay binder and water, which have
been mixed and mulled to produce a satisfactory moulding media. However, other additions
may be used, such as coal dust iron foundries or an equivalent replacement is added to impart
a good surface finish to the castings. Greensand is usually 100% reclaimed and rebounded for
further use. The base sand may be either naturally bonded sand in which the clay already
presents in the sand acts as the binder or added with active clay such as bentonite. The
majority of mechanised foundries today operate fully synthetic greensand for making their
mould so that active clay can be added in controlled quantities. Some foundries add a
proportion of natural sand to their synthetic mixes producing what is called as semi-synthetic
sand. There are various types of clay used, depending upon the moulding properties and
refractoriness required. Generally the steel foundry uses the American Wyoming bentonite as
its clay bond, whereas a sodium exchanged Fullers Earth, a cheaper material, is employed by
most iron and non-ferrous founders.
Advantages:
Less expensive Method.
Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture.
Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
Suitable for mass production.
Disadvantages:
Moulds prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and stability.
They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes etc. because of low permeability
and lot of steam formation due to their moisture content.
Moulds cannot be stored for appreciable length of time.
Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings are not satisfactory.
Mould erosion is common in green sand mould casting.
Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes

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b- Dry sand Casting Mould

The process whereby the sand is rammed around the pattern by hand, jolty, squeeze or slinging
and the completed mould stoved at about 2500 C to dry the sand. If the mould is too large to
move then portable heaters are used to bring about the desired effects. The drying produces a
much stronger moulds and eliminates moisture that could cause blowing defects. It is rather an
expensive process in terms of time from producing the mould to stove, core laying, closing and
then pouring.
This type is not as much as in the past but does have greater mould strength and dimensional
stability than greensand. Comprises a base sand, clay binder, water and other additives, which
are mixed, moulded and dried to produce a satisfactory mould for casting. Drysand moulding is
reducing in popularity because of the advent of cold setting processes, which have eliminated
the need for expensive drying operations. Dry sand moulding has greater mould strength and
better dimensional stability than greensand moulds.
Advantages:
Strength and stability of dry sand moulds is high when compared to green sand moulds.
Baking removes moisture and hence, defects related to moisture are eliminated.
Dry sand moulds give better surface finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.
Disadvantages:
Consumes more time, labour and cost due to baking process. Hence, not suitable for
mass production.
Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to bake.
High capital cost of bake ovens.
c- Chemical Bonded Sand Casting Mould
This method is used both in core making where high strength is required to withstand the heat
of molten metal, and in mould making. These systems involve the use of one or more organic
binders in conjunction with catalysts and different hardening/setting procedures. Chemically
bonded sand consists of 9399% silica and 13% chemical binder. The chemical additives used
may be either cold or heat setting. Cold setting processes include catalysis, gas hardening, and
carbon dioxide hardened sodium silicate. Systems include furan/acid, phenolic/acid,
alkyd/isocyanate, and phenolic/isocyanate. Heat setting processes include shell moulding and
hotbox treatment using phenol, formaldehyde etc. Chemically bonded systems offer a number
of advantages over green sand systems such as lower sand to metal ratio of about 1:1 to 4:1
compared with 5:1 to 8:1 for greensand. Because of the variety of binders available the systems
are more versatile and can be used for casting of various metals using a common sand mix.
Advantages:
Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can be used.
Adaptable to large or small quantities
High compressive strength mould
Better as-cast surfaces.

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Improved dimensional stability and accuracy

Less skill and labor required then in conventional sand molding.
Better dimensional control.

Disadvantages:
Sand pH value affected to the consumption of the binder such as olivine and chromite
sand which are alkaline (unsuitable for use with acidity resins)
Patterns require additional maintenance.
A2.
Shell Mould Casting
A process for producing simple or complex near net shape castings, maintaining tight
tolerances and a high degree of dimensional stability. Shell moulding is a method for making
high quality castings. These qualities of precision can be obtained in a wider range of alloys and
with greater flexibility in design than die-casting and at a lower cost than investment casting.
The process was developed and patented by Croning in Germany during World War II and is
sometimes referred to as the Croning shell process or C process.
Shell molding, also known as shell-mould casting, is an expendable mould casting process that
uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. It is used for small to medium parts that require
high precision. Shell mould casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that
molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a
thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a
metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable
pattern allows for higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex
geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin
mixture, dump box, and molten metal.
Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using
cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical
parts are small-to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder
heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.
Fig. 6 shows the process of making shell mould:
1. Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (36%) thermosetting phenolic resin and liquid
catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The pattern is usually made from
cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 C. The sand is allowed to sit on the pattern for a
few minutes to allow the sand to partially cure.
2. The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of the pattern,
leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and temperature of the pattern the
thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm.
3. The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the sand. The shell
now has a tensile strength of 2.4 to 3.1 MPa.
4. The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.
5. Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a thermoset
adhesive, to form a mold. This finished mold can then be used immediately or stored
almost indefinitely.
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6. For casting the shell mould is placed inside a flask and surrounded with sand, or gravel
to reinforce the shell.
The machine that is used for this process is called a shell molding machine. It heats the pattern,
applies the sand mixture, and bakes the shell.

Fig. 6: Shell Mould Casting Process

Examples of shell molded items include gear housings, cylinder heads and connecting rods. It is
also used to make high-precision molding cores.
Advantages:
* Can form complex shapes and fine details,
* Very good surface finish,
* High production rate,
* Low labor cost,
* Low tooling cost
* Little scrap generated
* Can form complex shapes
One disadvantage is that the gating system must be part of the pattern because the entire mold
is formed from the pattern, which can be expensive. Another is the resin for the sand is
expensive.
Applications: cylinder heads, connecting rods, engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases,
gears, pulleys.
A3.
Lost Foam Casting
A type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to investment casting except foam
is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes advantage of the low boiling point of

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foam to simplify the investment casting process by removing the need to melt the wax out of
the mold.
The Process as shown in Figure 7; First, a pattern is made from polystyrene foam. For small
volume runs the pattern can be hand cut or machined from a solid block of foam; if the
geometry is simple enough it can even be cut using a hot-wire foam cutter. If the volume is
large, then the pattern can be mass-produced by a process similar to injection molding. Preexpanded beads of polystyrene are injected into a preheated aluminum mold at low pressure.
Steam is then applied to the polystyrene which causes it to expand more to fill the die. The final
pattern is approximately 97.5% air and 2.5% polystyrene. Pre-made pouring basins, runners,
and risers can be hot glued to the pattern to finish it.

Fig. 7: Foam Mould Casting Process

Next, the foam cluster is coated with ceramic
investment, also known as the refractory coating, via
dipping, brushing, spraying (as shown in Figure 8) or
flow coating. This coating creates a barrier between
the smooth foam surface and the coarse sand surface.
Secondly it controls permeability, which allows the gas
created by the vaporized foam pattern to escape
through the coating and into the sand.

Fig. 8: Coating by spraying

After the coating dries, the cluster is placed into a

flask and backed up with un-bonded sand. The sand is
then compacted using a vibration table. Once
compacted, the mold is ready to be poured.
The advantage of this process are dimensionally accurate, maintains an excellent surface finish,
and has no parting lines so no flash is formed.
As compared to investment casting, it is cheaper because it is a simpler process and the foam is
cheaper than the wax. Risers are not usually required due to the nature of the process; because
the molten metal vaporizes the foam the first metal into the mold cools more quickly than the
rest, which results in natural directional solidification. Foam is easy to manipulate, carve and
glue, due to its unique properties. The flexibility of LFC often allows for consolidating the parts
into one integral component; other forming processes would require the production of one or
more parts to be assembled.
The two main disadvantages are that pattern costs can be high for low volume applications and
the patterns are easily damaged or distorted due to their low strength. If a die is used to create
the patterns there is a large initial cost
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A4.
Investment Casting
An industrial process based on and also called lost-wax casting, one of the oldest known metalforming techniques. From 5,000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to todays hightechnology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings allow the production
of components with accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity in a variety of metals and
high-performance alloys.
Generally used for small castings, but has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames,
steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg. It is generally more
expensive per unit than die casting or sand casting, but has lower equipment costs. It can
produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with die casting, yet like that
process, it requires little surface finishing and only minor machining
Wax is used in investment casting because it softens with heat, which allow sit to be easily
shaped. Originally patterns were made from bees wax, but now a days the term wax applies
to any substance with wax like properties that can also be described as an industrial moulding
compound.
The advantages are:
Excellent surface finish
High dimensional accuracy
Machining of the casting can be reduced or completely eliminated
High production moulding process
No flash or parting lines
The main disadvantages are:
Cost for die of pattern is expensive
Length of time required to make a shell mould is high
The size of casting produced is limited
The Process: The investment casting process begins with fabrication of a sacrificial pattern of
the same basic geometrical shape as the intended finished cast part. Patterns are normally
made of investment casting wax that is injected into a metal wax injection die (Fig. 9A).
Once a wax pattern is produced, it is assembled with other wax components on a central wax
stick, called a sprue, to form a casting cluster or assembly (Fig. 9B).
The entire wax assembly is then dipped in a ceramic slurry and covered with a sand stucco (Fig.
9C), and allowed to dry.
The dipping and stuccoing process is repeated until a shell of ~6-8 mm (1/4-3/8 in) is applied.
Once the ceramic has dried, the entire assembly is placed in a steam autoclave to remove most
of the wax. The remaining amount of wax soaked into the ceramic shell is burned out in a
furnace (Fig. 9D).
At this point, all of the residual pattern and gating material is removed, and the ceramic mold
remains. The mold is then preheated to a specific temperature and filled with molten metal,
creating the metal casting (Fig. 9E).
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Once the casting has cooled sufficiently, the gating system is cut from the casting (Fig. 9F).
After minor final post processing (sandblasting, machining), the castings - identical to the
original wax patterns - are complete and ready for shipment (Fig. 9G).

The two main disadvantages are that pattern costs can be high for low volume applications and
the patterns are easily damaged or distorted due to their low strength. If a die is used to create
the patterns there is a large initial cost.

Fig. 9: Investment Mould Casting Process

A5.

Plaster Mould Casting

A metalworking casting process similar to sand casting except the molding material is plaster of
paris (gypsum or calsium sulfate) with addition of talc and silica flour to improve strength. A
precision metal pattern (usually brass) generates the two part mold which is made of a gypsum
slurry material. The mold is removed from the pattern and baked at a temperature range 120
2600C to remove the moisture and then preheat to about 1200C. The molten metal is poured
into the mold and allowed to cool. The mold is broken to remove the part (see Fig. 4).
Like sand casting, plaster mold casting is an expendable mould process; however it can only
limited to low melting temperature metals (non-ferrous materials), i.e. aluminum, copper, zinc
and magnesium alloys due to degradation of the plaster mold at elevated temperatures.
Applications: Parts that are typically made by plaster casting are lock components, pump
impeller, gears, valves, fittings, tooling, ornaments and moulds for plastic and rubber
processing, i.e. tyre moulds
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Advantages: Plaster mold casting is used when an excellent surface finish and good dimensional
accuracy is required. Because the plaster has a low thermal conductivity and heat capacity the
metal cools more slowly than in sand mold, which allows the metal to fill thin cross-sections;
the minimum possible cross-section is 0.6 mm. It also produces minimal scrap material. The size
is ranging from 25 g to 50 kg in weight. However, castings up to 100 kg have been made.
The major disadvantage of the process is that it can only be used with lower melting
temperature non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc. The most
commonly used materials are aluminium and copper. The maximum working temperature of
plaster is 1,200 C, so higher melting temperature materials would melt the plaster mold. Also,
the sulfur in the gypsum reacts with iron, making it unsuitable for casting ferrous materials.
Another disadvantage is that its long cooling times restrict production volume. Plaster mold has
low permeability and can create gas evolution problems.

Fig. 10: Plaster Mould Casting Process

A6.
Ceramic Mould Casting
The manufacturing process of ceramic mould casting is like process of plaster mould casting but
can cast materials at much higher temperatures. Instead of using plaster to create the mould
for metal casting, ceramic casting uses refractory ceramics for a mould material (ceramic, ethyl
silicate, alcohol and a gelling agent ceramic slurry). These casting processes are commonly
used to make tooling, especially drop forging dies, but also injection molding dies, die casting
dies, glass molds, stamping dies, and extrusion dies.
The main advantages of ceramic molds are: a reusable pattern, excellent surface finish where
usually no machining is required, close dimensional tolerances, thin cross-sections, and intricate
shapes can be cast. For undercuts and other difficult to cast features, part of the pattern can be
made from wax in conjunction with a standard pattern; essentially using investment and
ceramic mold casting techniques together.

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The main disadvantages are: it is only cost effective for small- to medium-sized production runs
and the ceramic is not reusable, low porosity permeability
Ferrous and high-temperature non-ferrous are most commonly cast with these processes;
other materials cast include: aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, and zinc alloys.

Fig. 11: Ceramic Mould Casting Process.

B1.
Die Casting
A process of molten metal is forced under high pressure into mold cavities as shown in Fig. 12.
The metal hardens to get a desired shape. Die-casting can be done using a cold chamber or hot
chamber process.
Die casting is a widespread non-expendable technique in which metal are forced into the mold
cavity under high pressure. Die casting mold that are known as dies can be used repeatedly to
produce castings in a variety of sizes, shapes and wall thickness. The mold cavities are designed
with intricate designs that enables in producing complex shapes with accuracy, surface finish
and attractiveness.
The Process: molten metal or other materials are forced, under high pressure into the cavities
of the steel mold. Dies are two part molds that are made of alloy tool steel - The fixer die half
and the ejector die half. The die or mold is fabricated with the impression of the component
that is to cast.

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Fig. 12: Die casting process

There are four types of dies:
*Single cavity to produce one component
*Multiple cavity to produce a number of identical parts
*Unit die to produce different parts at one time
*Combinations die to produce several different parts for an assembly
The molten metal is injected into the die under high pressure and high speed, which helps in
producing a casting that is smooth and precise as the original mold. The pressure is maintained
on the mold until the hot metal solidifies. When the metal is hardened, the die is opened to
remove the casting.
Alloys used: Aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin based alloys are predominantly used in diecasting.
Applications: Die casting is most suitable for casting medium sized parts with complex details.
Die-casting is the largest casting technique that is used to manufacture consumer, commercial
and industrial products like automobiles, toys, parts of sink faucet, connector housing, gears,
etc. Most die castings are done from non-ferrous metals like aluminum, magnesium, etc.
Advantages of die casting:

High productivity.
Good dimensional accuracy.
Good surface finish
Thin wall parts may be cast.
Very economical process at high volume production.
Small size parts may be produced.

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Disadvantages of die casting:

Not applicable for high melting point metals and alloys (eg. steels). Suitable for relatively
low melting point metals (1600F/871C) like lead, zinc, aluminum, magnesium and some
copper alloys.
Large parts cannot be cast, most suitable for small castings up to about 75 lb.
Equipment and die costs are high.
Some gases may be entrapped in form of porosity.

Example of Die Casting Products:

Body Pump Housing

Steering Housing

Oil Pan

Timing Chain Cover

Oil Pump Body

Cover Sub Cylinder Head
Fig 13: Examples of die casting products

B2.
Centrifugal Casting
A casting technique typically used to cast thin-walled cylinders. It is noted for the high quality of
the results attainable, particularly for precise control of their metallurgy and crystal structure.
In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously about its axis at high speeds
(300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown
towards the inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a finegrained casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter, owing to chilling against the mould
surface. Impurities and inclusions are thrown to the surface of the inside diameter, which can
be machined away.
Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical-axis. Horizontal axis machines are
preferred for long, thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings.

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Fig.14: Centrifugal die

casting

Applications:
Typical parts made by this process are pipes, brake drums, pulley wheels, train wheels, gun
barrels, boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are rotational
symmetry. It is notably used to cast cylinder liners and sleeve valves for piston engines, parts
which could not be reliably manufactured otherwise.
B3.
Squeeze Casting
A method combines casting and forging technologies. In contrast to other casting techniques
(sand casting, die casting), in which a molten metal is poured (injected) into the mold cavity
after the two parts of the mold are assembled, squeeze casting mold is closed after a portion of
molten metal has been poured into the preheated bottom die. The upper die lowers towards
the bottom die causing the melt to fill the mold cavity. The squeezing pressure is applied until
full solidification of the casting. A scheme of the process is shown in the picture:

Fig. 15: Squeeze

casting

Squeeze castings are

characterized by:
low shrinkage
and gas porosity;
enhanced
mechanical
properties because of fine grain structure caused by rapid solidification ;
good surface quality.
Squeeze casting is commonly used for processing aluminum and magnesium alloys.
This process is also used for fabrication of reinforced metal matrix composites where molten
aluminum infiltrates a fiber reinforcing structure.

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Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

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FOUNDRY SAND TESTING

Foundry Sand Minerals
Four most commonly minerals employed in sand casting are silica sand - consist naturally
bonded sand (clay-bearing) and synthetic sand (clay-free which is clean silica sands; free from
clay and other impurities), zircon, chromite and olivine. Silica sand is the most common
material used in making moulds and cores due to the most readily available in earth and lowest
cost moulding mineral. Zircon, chromite and olivine are more expensive than silica sand, only
used for special applications due to special properties for example olivine sand is often premier
choice for casting manganese steel.
Table: Comparison of foundry sand mineral
Material Useful Properties
Silica
Olivine
Zircon
Chromite

Highly abundant, low costs, bonds well with organic and inorganic binders, suitable for
recycling.
Lower thermal expansion than silica sand but less stable under thermal shock than zircon
or chromite
Low thermal expansion, cooling rate 4 times that of quartz, chemically unreactive,
completely unwetted by molten metal, compatible with organic and inorganic binders.
Excellent thermal stability, highly refractory, chemically unreactive and not easily wetted
by molten metal.

Fig. 16: Comparison of Foundry Sands in Thermal Expansion

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Silica Sand
The most common foundry sand mineral is silica sand due to its world-wide availability,
appropriate particle size and distribution, and high melting point. The vast majority of moulds
and cores in foundry casting industry are made primarily from silica sand. The ideal
specifications for foundry sand are the shape of material should have rounded or sub-angular
grains, and a grain size distribution that is spread over four to five sieves and silica content of
9596% (although 98-99% is often preferred). The silica content of sand for foundry sand is 9596% minimum where the higher the more refractory the sand. The usual limits of silica for
moulding sands is 80-90%. Generally, the purest silica sand, which is more than 99.8% of SiO 2, is
considered the most refractory and thermally stable. The presence of excessive amounts of iron
oxide, alkali oxides, and lime can cause objectionable lowering of the fusion point in sands.
According to Fosecos Ferrous Foundryman Handbook, requirement of chemical properties of silica sand
for foundry use as stated in Table below.

Table 1: Chemical properties requirement of silica sand for foundry use.

SiO2
95-96% minimum The higher the silica the more refractory the sand
Loss on ignition
0.5% max
Represents organic impurities
Fe2O3
0.3% max
Iron oxide reduces the refractoriness
CaO
0.2% max
Raises the acid demand value
K2O, Na2O
0.5% max
Reduces refractoriness
Acid demand value 6ml max
High acid demand adversely affects acid catalysed
binders
The American Foundrymens Association began first published the systematic methods for
foundry sand testing to identify the mechanical properties which are moisture content,
permeability, strength and fineness in 1924. Foundry Sand Handbook has been published by
American Foundrymens Society (AFS), which have been accepted as standard for foundry sand
testing. In British, Joint Committee on Sand Testing has described testing of prepared claybonded sand as follows:
a) Preparation of sand for testing; sampling
b) Mechanical analysis; proportion of clay present, the size distribution and average grain
size
c) Moisture content;
d) Preparation of test piece; to produce standard size of test piece
e) Measurement of permeability;
f) Measurement of strength; green strength is always measured in compression
g) Shatter test; is included in the series of standard tests only in Britain
h) Drying of test piece; for dry sand mould
i) Interpretation of test results.
AFS Foundry Sand Handbook had been described the details of test, testing procedures and
equipment used.

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Mechanical Grading: Grain Size Distribution and Average Grain Size

The test is conducted by mechanical sieve grading where graph for grain size distribution and
cumulative curve can be plotted and the average grain size can be calculated. The size
distribution of foundry sands in general fall into the range 150-400 m and the most commonly
used is 220-250 m, if the size spreads 95% on four or five screens, or more than 10% on each
sieve over three to five consecutive sieve sizes. Majority of castings produced in the UK are
made sands that lie in the American Foundrymens Society Fineness Number range AFS 45-100
or 0.3-0.15 mm (300-150 m), normally for ferrous casting within AFS 55-65 (300-210 m) and
AFS 55-90 (270-170 m) for non-ferrous work. The foundryman usually defines sand grain
distribution by the number of adjacent sieves that retain more than 10% of sand on each.

Fig. 17: Sieve shaker machine

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Fig. 18: Grading and classifications of sands (E.D Howard, 1958)

Defects due to grain sand size
Grain Sand too
Permeability reduced, green strength increased. Possible defects: blisters,
size
fine
pinholes, blowholes, misruns, and scabs.
Sand too
Permeability increased, green strength decreased. Possible defects: rough
coarse
casting surface and metal penetration.
Classification of Grain Shape
Grain shape of the sand is an essential element since this influences green strength,
permeability, smoothness of the finished surface of the casted part, amount and distribution of
binders. The shape of sand grains may be rounded, angular, or sub angular, depending on their
geologic history. The ideal specification for foundry sand is sub-angular because this shape
allows individual grains to interlock sufficiently well to form a good mould or core while still

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providing necessary pore spaces for superheated gases to escape without breaking the mould
during the casting process. A sub-angular shape also allows for a relatively smooth finished
surface to the casted parts.

Fig. 19: Grain shapes of foundry sand

Fig. 20: The effect of grain shape on the permeability

Determination of Clay Grade

The clay grade is expressed as the percentage of true (natural) clay particles in sand. True clay
thus includes fine particles of silt or dead clay, which do not function as effective clay or new
clay and do not contribute to bonding properties. Most foundry processes no longer use
naturally occurring clay as a binder for moulds and cores. For this reason, modern foundry
sands ideally contain as little clay as possible. Standard of determination A.F.S. clay (or clay
grade) is designed to separate particles less than 0.22 mm diameter by washing in dilute caustic
soda in a mechanical agitator, followed by siphoning.

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Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

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Moisture Content
Determine the percentage of water in the sand mould. The test for moisture content is the
most important of the tests on foundry sand because moisture affects all the mechanical
properties of greensand mould and most defects, which are due to failure to control moisture.
The bonding quality of clay depends on the maximum thickness of water film it can maintain.
Water activates the clay so that it develops the necessary plasticity and strength. The amount
of water used should be properly controlled. Greensand moulding needs 3-10% by weight of
clay, used as a binding agent; water is added in a quantity equal to 3-4% by weight to activate
the clay transformation to gel, which gives an appreciable cohesion to the mould.
Green Compression Strength
According to Salmon and Simons (1966), the green compression strength of foundry sand is the
maximum compressive strength a mixture is capable of developing when moist. Parkes (1971)
mentioned, for routine purposes, green strength is always measured in compression. Dry
strength may be measured in compression or shear. The green compression strength of
foundry sand is the maximum compression strength where AFS standard cylindrical specimen
(size 50 mm50 mm in height) mixture of sand, water and clay is capable of sustaining when
prepared and rammed by applying three ramming blows of 6666 g each using a metric standard
rammer. The specimen then is tested using a universal sand strength-testing machine. The
standard practical value of green compression strength is 20-80 kN/m2.

Fig. 21: Universal strength test machine

Permeability Number
AFS (1963) described the permeability as the physical property of the moulded mass of a sand
mixture, which allows gas to pass through it. It is determined by measuring the rate of flow of

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air (2000 cm3) under standard pressure (10 g/cm2) through the standard cylindrical sand test
piece (50 mm 50 mm in height). Specimen is produced by compacting the mixture of sand,
water and clay on applying three ramming blows of 6666 grammes, which is enough to produce
the standard size of test piece. The test piece then tested with permeability meter. For cast iron
is 10-80, bronze is 35, aluminium is 20-40 and steel is 150-300.

Fig. 22: Permeability test machine

Effect of Clay and Water on Mechanical Properties

Clay and water act as control addition to influence mechanical properties of moulding sand. Clay
and water have a significant role in improving the mechanical properties of greensand mould.
Designing these greensand parameters plays important roles in getting quality castings whereas
sand control additions had been practiced through evaluation of the physical properties of the
sand in line with recommendations made. The water activated clay bonds the sand particles
together and develops the strength needed to sustain the geometry of the sand mould. The
moisture content varies from 2% to 8% and clay is required ranged 3-10% depending on the type
of moulding being done. Figures below show the effect of clay and moisture on the mechanical
properties of sand mould.

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Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

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Fig. 23: The effect of clay and moisture

content on the mechanical properties of
sand mould.

Fig. 24: Working range for optimum mechanical properties

Defect due to clay content:
Too much Accompanied by too little moisture, results in decreasing permeability, increasing
clay
green strength. Possible defects: hot cracks, tears, and scabs.
Too little Low green strength and high permeability. Possible defects: drops, cuts, washes, dirt,
clay
and stickers.
Defect due to moisture content:
Too
Permeability and green strength decreased. Possible defects: blows, scabs, cuts, washes,
high
pin holes, rat tails, and metal penetration.
Too
Permeability and green strength too low. Possible defects: drops, cuts, washes, and dirty
low
castings.
FURNACE AND MELTING PRACTICE

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Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

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Cupola Furnace
One of the oldest styles of melting furnaces, the cupola furnace, has a tall, cylindrical shape.
The insides of these furnaces are lined with clay, blocks or bricks which protect the furnace's
interior from heat, abrasion and oxidation. To melt the metal in the furnace, workers add layers
of metal such as ferrous alloys, limestone and coke. Alternating layers of metal and ferrous
alloys, coke, and limestone are fed into the furnace from the top. A schematic diagram of a
cupola is shown in below. The limestone (as a flux) reacts with the metal, making the impurities
float up to the surface of the melting metal.

Fig. 25: Cupola furnace

Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture. Container (crucible) is made
of refractory material or high-temperature steel alloy. Used for nonferrous metals such as
bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum. Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type,
(b) stationary - from which molten metal must be ladled, (c) tilting as shown in Fig. 26.

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Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

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Fig. 26: Crucible Furnaces

Ladles - Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is sometimes done using crucibles.
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles. Fig. 27 shows two common types of ladles: (a)
crane ladle, and (b) two-man ladle

Fig. 27: Ladles

Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc. High power consumption, but electricarc furnaces can be designed for high melting capacity. Used primarily for melting steel.

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Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

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Fig. 28: Electric-arc furnaces

Induction Furnaces
Alternating current passes through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal. Induced current
causes rapid heating and melting. Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid
metal. Since metal does not contact heating elements, the environment can be closely
controlled, which results in molten metal of high quality and purity. Melting steel, cast iron, and
aluminum alloys are common applications in foundry work.

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Chapter 1: Metal Casting Process

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Fig. 29: Induction furnace

Melting practice:
iiiiiiivvviviiviiiix-

Selection of charge material

Melt the charge to the desired temperature
Determine the chemistry
Refine the metal (removal phosphorous or sulfur in ferrous casting such as
using calcium oxide where react to become part of slag)
Usually practice is manually removing the slag from the molten bath, thus
permanently removing the phosphorous from the furnace.
Add any necessary alloy to the metal
Adjust the temperature
Determine the chemistry
When the temperature and chemistry are determined to be correct, the
furnace content are tapped into a ladle

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