Dr. Hermann Riedel Auth. Fracture at High Temperatures 1987

Materials Research and Engineering
Edited by B. llschner and N. 1. Grant
Hermann Riedel
Fracture
at High Temperatures
With 109 Figures
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Dr. HERMANN RIEDEL

Max-Planck-Institut fiir Eisenforschung
4000 Dusseldorf, FR Germany
New Address, Starting October 1986:
Fraunhofer-Institut fUr Werkstoffmechanik
7800 Freiburg, FR Germany
Dr. rer. nat. BERNHARD ILSCHNER

o. Professor, Laboratoire de Metallurgie Mecanique,
Departement des Materiaux, EPFL, Lausanne
Prof. NICHOLAS J. GRANT

Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cambridge
ISBN 978-3-642-82963-5
ISBN 978-3-642-82961-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-82961-1
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data.
Riedel, Hermann
Fracture at high temperatures.
(Materials research and engineering)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Fracture mechanics. 2. Materials at high temperatures. 3. Materials--Creep.
I. Title. D. Series.
TA409.R54 1987 620.1'126 86-31444
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations,
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use, a fee is payable to "Verwertl.!,ngsgesellschaft Wort", Munich.
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1987
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws
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2161/3020-543210
Editors' Preface
This book covers the fundamentals of fracture at high temperature. It

has been written by an author whose outstanding competence in this field has
gained worldwide appreciation. He has contributed substantially to the understanding of a phenomenon that demands a scientific treatment which judiciously integrates the concepts of mechanical deformation, thermodynamic
eqiulibria, and kinetic rate laws. This challenge has been taken up by Hermann
Riedel with both skill and energy.
For the first time, a comprehensive and coherent interpretation of all
the phenomena related to creep rupture is presented. A thorough analysis of
the relevant observations and a "close-packed" presentation of the associated
phys i ca I concepts introduce the reader to each one of the prob 1em areas
addressed in this book. They provide the material and the tools to construct
models for nucleation and growth of intergranular cavities, for the interaction of particles with sliding ~Boundaries, for stress concentration and
stress relief in triple junctions, for rupture criteria in creep and fatigue,
etc. The quantitative aspect is a permanent guideline, and so is the consideration of qualitative changes due to varying stress, temerature, or grain
size. The numerous references given constitute a complete review of the
re 1evant 1i terature, and a wea Ith of data, sk ill fu Ily extracted from recent
publications, renders the text practical for application in realistic case
studies. The obvious technical relevance of the subject matter is underlined
in the author's preface and becomes visible throughout the book.
Physical reasoning is backed up by mathematical calculus reflecting
the modern approach to process modelling and at the same time the author's
individuality. It is analytical wherever possible, translating reality into
formulas in an easy and elegant way, always keeping the balance between
necessary rigidity and acceptable simplification.
The editors and the publishers are proud to add, with this book,
another important volume to the series "Materials Research and Engineering".
They express the i r confi dence that it wi 11 recei ve the resonance wh i ch it
merits within the community devoted to the science of advanced engineering
materials.
B.
Iischner
(N.J. Grant) - by permission
Author's Preface
Within the framework of fracture research, this book covers the area
temperature
fracture
with
of
high-
a particular emphasis on theoretical modeling. The
book is intended to evaluate the state of the art critically, primarily from
scientific
point
of
view.
Of course, scientific work in a subject area like
high-temperature fracture must be related to practical questions. For

it
should
example,
contribute to the development of better design codes and inspection
procedures in
plants
or
high-temperature
applications
such
as
electricity-generating
gas turbines. To some extent, the book also aims at the improvement
of high-temperature alloys by identifying the
microstructural
features
which
influence the fracture properties beneficially or adversely. Thus, the book has
been written mainly for researchers in material science, metallurgy and
nical
engineering,
but
mecha-
also for design engineers and persons responsible for
the safe operation of high-temperature equipment. In an attempt to give a

plete
com-
and coherent picture of what is known about high-temperature fracture, I
may have sacrificed the degree of simplicity which would be required in

graduate
courses.
On
the
under-
other hand, postgraduate readers will prefer to be
taken in large steps from the underlying assumptions of a model
to
the
final
results, as I have chosen to do.

The book is organized in three parts and 28 chapters. Part I summarizes the deformation and fracture behavior of materials in a qualitative manner and introduces the equations of solid mechanics and of
most
difficult
growth
and
nucleation
part
to
coalescence
process
write
of
was
grain
withstood
stress-directed
diffusion.
boundary
cavities.
In
particular,
the
all attempts to link theories quantitatively to
the observed behavior. I have tried to fill gaps in the existing knowledge
to
utilize
information
from
intergranular fracture, stress

embrittlement.
neighboring
relief
subject
cracking,
areas
hydrogen
such
attack
as
or
and
brittle
helium
Several sections owe their existence to these efforts. Finally,
it turned out to be necessary to retreat to an

nucleation
The
Part II, which describes the nucleation,
stage.
Fortunately,
cavity
growth
empirical
description
of
the
was a less difficult subject.
VII
Among the many models proposed in the literature, some could be

applicable
identified
as
to a given material under given testing conditions. Measured cavity
growth rates, for example in commercial
materials,
could
then
be
explained
quantitatively.
The following example represents a possible, though somewhat ambitious application
of
cavitation
models.
Many
parts of coal-fired electricity-generating
plants operate at high temperatures at which failure by cavitation is a

tial
poten-
danger. To avoid catastrophic failures, as have occurred occasionally, it
is increasingly becoming industrial practice to take replicas from
etched
and
polished surfaces of critical parts during the regular inspections. If cavities

have developed they can be detected by a microscopic examination of the
cas.
At
present,
however,
there
is
no
common
agreement
as
repli-
to what the
occurrence of cavities means for the remaining life of the part. With a
understanding
of
cavity
better
nucleation and growth one should be able to evaluate
the degree of damage more quantitatively and to make more accurate estimates of
the remaining lifetime.
In Part III, theories and
fatigue
crack
growth
experimen~s
relating to creep crack growth and creep-
are comprehensively described. Cracks, as distinct from
cavities, are understood to be larger than the typical microstructural
lengths
of the material such as the grain size. Cracks may be present in an engineering
structure from the beginning in the form of fabrication defects,
or
they
may
develop during service as a consequence of fatigue loading, thermoshock, corrosion or some other problem. Depending on the circumstances, a crack may
the
load-carrying
capacity or the lifetime of a structure conSiderably, or it
may be relatively harmless. Under ambient-temperature conditions, the

having
cracks
in
risk
of
a structure can be successfully assessed using the fracture
mechanics approach. For relatively

factor
reduce
brittle
materials,
the
stress
intensity
characterizes the behavior of cracks within the limits laid down in the
ASTM-E 399 rule of the American Society for Testing and Materials. Under a wide
range
of
conditions, the stress intensity factor also describes fatigue crack
growth and stress corrosion cracking. The use of

testing
of
ductile
the
J-integral
in
fracture
materials is regulated by the ASTM-E 813 rule. So far, no
comparable standards exist for cracks in high-temperature components. In,

the
Boiler
and
Pressure
Vessel
Code
Engineers does not permit any crack-like defects in ferritic

under
fact,
of the American Society of Mechanical

steels
operating
creep conditions. This is unnecessarily restrictive, so that a realistic
basis for making decisions about repair, replacement or continued operation
of
VIII
a cracked part is lacking.

The aim of Part III is therefore to extend the applicability of
anics
methods
to
fracture-mech-
high temperatures. The complicating factor compared to room
temperature is the time dependence of the material response. A significant contribution
to the development of time-dependent fracture mechanics must be made
by theory. Theoretical reasoning plays a more central role

modeling
of
cavitation.
here
than
in
the
Without a careful solid-mechanics analysis one could
hardly identify the load parameters which allow a
macroscopic
description
of
creep crack growth. The presentation in Part III is grouped around" the C*-integral. Its meaning and its practical use are described and its
discussed
thoroughly.
Its
range
limitations
are
of validity, as well as those of other load
parameters, are displayed on load parameter maps.

Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to all my colleagues who supported this
work by discussions, typing the text, drawing the figures, or reading the chapters. The most important point, however, was that I had the freedom to invest a
great
fraction
of
my
working time at Max-Planck-Institut into this project.
Otherwise it would have been impossible to write
the
book
in
(nearly) satisfies the writer and, I hope, pleases the reader.
Dusseldorf, September 1986

Hermann Riedel
form
which
Contents
PART I. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS

ON DEFORMATION AND FAILURE UNDER CREEP CONDITIONS
SUMMARY OF THE DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR UNDER CREEP CONDITIONS
1 .1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
2
The Creep Curve

A Few Facts on the Micromechanisms Underlying the Creep Curve
Diffusion Creep
Inhibition of Diffusion Creep
Grain Boundary Sliding
1.5.1 The infinite grain boundary (an intrinsic sliding model)
1.5.2 Grain boundary sliding in polycrystals (extrinsic models)
Deformation-Mechanism Maps
3
4
6
7
8
8
10
11
INTRODUCTION TO CREEP FRACTURE AND OTHER FRACTURE MODES
14
2.1
2.2
14
15
16
18
18
21
21
22
23
23
23
24
24
26
2.3
The Nature of Creep Damage

Fracture-Mechanism Maps
2.2.1 Cleavage and brittle intergranular fracture
2.2.2 Ductile trans granular fracture by plastic hole growth
2.2.3 Necking and superplasticity
2.2.4 Intergranular creep fracture
2.2.5 Rupture by dynamic recrystallization
2.2.6 Fracture at very high temperature
Empirical Formulas for the Rupture Time in the Creep Regime
2.3.1 The Monkman-Grant rule
2.3.2 The Sherby-Dorn parameter
2.3.3 The Larson-Miller parameter
2.3.4 The Kachanov equations
2.3.5 The a-projection concept
3 THE CONTINUUM-MECHANICAL EQUATIONS

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4
The Equations for Equilibrium and Compatibility

The Material Law
The Equations for Antiplane Shear, Plane Stress and Plane Strain
General Features of the Continuum-Mechanical Fields
3.4.1 The elastic-viscous analogy (Hoff, 1954)
3.4.2 Scaling properties for power-law materials (Ilyushin, 1946)
3.4.3 Path-independent integrals: J and C*
3.4.4 The HRR crack-tip fields in power-law materials
Numerical Techniques in Solid Mechanics
27
27
28
29
33
33
33
34
36
39
STRESS-DIRECTED DIFFUSION AND SURFACE DIFFUSION
40
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
40
41
43
45
46
The Role of Vacancy Sources in Stress-Directed Diffusion

Stress-Directed Diffusion Along Grain Boundaries
Stress-Directed Diffusion Through the Grains
Surface Diffusion
Grain-Boundary Diffusion Combined with Power-Law Creep
x
Part II. CREEP CAVITIES
5
INTRODUCTION TO PART II
51
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
52
53
55
56
56
56
57
57
57
59
59
61
62
62
65
66
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
6
NUCLEATION OF CREEP CAVITIES I BASIC THEORIES
67
6.1
6.2
67
69
69
70
72
75
77
78
80
6.3
Experimental Techniques
Materials which Exhibit Intergranular Cavitation
Diffusion as the General Cause for Intergranular Cavitation
The Role of Grain Boundary Sliding
5.4.1 Experiments on bicrystals
5.4.2 The orientation of cavitating boundaries in poly crystals
Cavity Nucleation Sites
5.5.1 Slip bands
5.5.2 Grain-boundary ledges
5.5.3 Triple grain junctions
5.5.4 Grain boundary particles
Wedge Cra.cks
Some Observations on the Kinetics of Cavity Nucleation
5.7.1 The observed nucleation kinetics
5.7.2 Is there a critical stress for cavity nucleation?
Pre-Existing Cavities
Cavity Nucleation by the Rupturing of Atomic Bonds

Cavity Nucleation by Vacancy Condensation
6.2.1 Historical remarks and related subject areas
6.2.2 Cavity shapes
6.2.3 The free energy of a cavity
6.2.4 The nucleation rate according to Raj and Ashby
6.2.5 The Fokker-Planck equation
6.2.6 The steady-state nucleation rate and the nucleation stress
6.2.7 Transient solutions of the Fokker-Planck equation
and incubation times
Discussion of Cavity Nucleation Theories
6.3.1 A theoretical remark
6.3.2 On possible causes for the discrepancy between theoretical
and experimental nucleation stresses
6.3.3 The problem of continuous cavity nucleation
82
83
83
84
CAVITY NUCLEATION BY STRESS CONCENTRATIONS DURING CREEP
85
7.1
86
86
89
90
7.2
An Isolated Sliding Grain Boundary Facet (Shear-Crack Model)

7.1.1 ElastiC analysis of a sliding facet
7.1.2 A sliding boundary facet (shear crack) in creeping material
7.1.3 Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at a shear
crack by power-law creep
7.1.4 The time to build up elastic stress concentrations
The Triple Grain Junction in Polycrystals
7.2.1 The triple junction in elastic material
7.2.2 The triple junction in power-law creeping material
7.2.3 Stresses during Coble creep (rigid grains)
7.2.4 A cQmbination of power-law creep and grain-boundary diffusion
7.2.5 Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at triple
junctions by creep
7.2.6 Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at triple
91
92
93
94
96
98
99
99
XI
7.3
7.4
7.5
8
Concentrations at Particles on Sliding Grain Boundaries

Elastic stress concentrations at two-dimensional particles
Elastic stress concentrations at three-dimensional particles
Stresses at two-dimensional particles during power-law creep
Stresses at three-dimensional particles during power-law
creep
7.3.5 Diffusion and creep around particles during power-law
creep of the grains
7.3.6 Stresses at particles during (free and inhibited) Coble
creep
7.3.7 Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at particles
by creep
7.3.8 Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at particles
by diffusion
Stresses at Grain-Boundary ~edges
Summary of Stress Concentrations
THE ROLE OF IMPURITY SEGREGATION IN CAVITY NUCLEATION

8.1
8.2
Stress
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
11
108
110
112
113
114
115
i
16
Qualitative Observations
116
8.1.1 Grain-boundary brittleness at room temperature
116
(temper embrittlement)
8.1.2 Embrittlement by impurity segregation under creep conditions 117
8.1.3 Stress relief cracking or reheat cracking
119
Theories Related to Segregation and Cohesion
121
8.2.1 Segregation equilibria
121
8.2.2 Segregation kinetics
123
8.2.3 Calculation of interface energies from adsorption data
124
8.2.4 The relevance of segregation for decohesion
127
8.2.5 The effect of segregation on cavity nucleation by
129
vacancy condensation
CAVITY NUCLEATION ASSISTED BY INTERNAL GAS PRESSURE
131
9.1
131
132
135
136
138
139
9.2
9.3
9.4
10
102
102
103
105
107
Oxygen Attack and Related Phenomena

9.1.1 The equilibrium carbon-dioxide pressure in nickel
9.1.2 Carbon~oxides in nickel-chromium alloys
Hydrogen Attack
Helium Embrittlement
Kinetic Aspects
INTERNAL STRESSES DUE TO THE PRECIPITATION OF SOLID PHASES

AND THERMAL EXPANSION
140
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
140
142
144
145
146
147
The Flux of Carbon to the Carbide

Elastic Accommodation
Accommodation by Power-Law Creep
Accommodation by Grain Boundary Diffusion
Decohesion of Particles by Thermal Expansion
Grain-Boundary Decohesion by Thermal-Expansion Anisotropy
DIFFUSIVE CAVITY GROWTH
148
11.1
149
150
Diffusional Growth of Lens-Shaped (Equilibrium) Cavities

11.1.1 The stress distribution between the cavities
the cavity growth rate
XII
11.1.2
11.2
12
Rupture times by diffusive cavity growth neglecting

nucleation
11.1.3 The effect of the sintering stress on the rupture time
11.1.4 Removal of cavities by compressive loads or by surface
tension forces
11.1.5 The effect of impurity segregation on diffusive
cavity growth
11.1.6 The effect of gas pressure on the diffusive cavity
growth rate
Diffusional Growth of Non-Equilibrium Cavities
11.2.1 The procedure to solve the coupled problem of surface
diffusion and grain boundary diffusion
11.2.2 Re-formulation of the surface diffusion problem
11.2.3 A steady-state solution of the surface diffusion problem
in the crack-like limit
11 .2.4 Similarity solutions for the surface diffusion problem
11.2.5 The relation between growth rate and stress in the
crack-like limit
11 .2.6 Rupture times for non-equilibrium growth
11.2.7 Experiments on copper and silver containing water
vapor bubbles
11.2.8 Void-shape instability/finger-like cavity growth
154
155
156
158
159
160
161
161
163
164
165
167
169
170
CONSTRAINED DIFFUSIVE CAVITATION OF GRAIN BOUNDARIES
172
12.1
173
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
Cavity Growth Rates for Constrained Cavitation of an

Isolated Facet
12.1.1 A tensile-crac~< model for the calculation of
constrained growth rates
12.1.2 Comparison with measured cavity growth rates
12.1.3 Additional remarks on constrained cavity growth rates
The Time to Cavity Coalescence on an Isolated Boundary Facet
On the Irrelevance of Constrained Cavity Growth for Rupture
Lifetimes
Comparison of Calculated Times to Cavity Coalescence on Isolated
Facets with Measured Rupture Lifetimes of Pre-Cavitated Materials
12.4.1 Rupture lifetime of prestrained Nimonic 80A
12.4.2 Rupture lifetime of prestrained Inconel alloy X-750
12.4.3 Rupture time of a-brass with implanted water vapor
bubbles
Constitutive Behavior of Creeping Materials Containing Widely
Spaced Cavitating Grain Boundary Facets
12.5.1 The constrained limit (Hutchinson's model)
12.5.2 The unconstrained limit
12.5.3 The effect of cavitation on diffusion creep
Interaction Between Closely Spaced Cavitating Boundary Facets
12.6.1 Self-consistent models for constrained cavitation
12.6.2 The penny-shaped crack in a finite cylinder
12.6.3 Interactions between closely spaced facets in the
presence of grain boundary sliding
Time to Rupture for Interacting Facets
12.7.1 Failure by large strains
12.7.2 Rupture lifetimes for continuous nucleation of
cavitating facets
12.7.3 The combined effect of necking and continuous nucleation
Conclusions on Constrained Cavitation
173
175
179
181
181
182
182
183
184
185
185
186
187
188
188
190
191
193
193
194
196
197
XIII
13
INHIBITED CAVITY GROWTH
13.1
13.2
14
14.2
201
202
204
206
209
210
212
215
15.1
215
215
218
220
220
Cavity Growth by a Coupling of Diffusion and Power-Law Creep

15.1.1 Models for the interactive growth mechanism
15.1.2 Comparison with experiments
Diffusive Cavity Growth with Elastic Accommodation
15.2.1 Elasticity effects in the growth of equilibrium-shaped
cavities
15.2.2 Crack-like cavity growth with elastic accommodation
221
THE CAVITY SIZE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION FOR CONTINUOUS CAVITY

NUCLEATION. RUPTURE LIFETIMES AND DENSITY CHANGES
225
16.1
16.2
225
16.3
16.4
17
Hole Growth by Creep Flow of the Grains

14.1.1 The growth of isolated holes in linearly viscous
materials
14.1.2 An isolated circular-cylindrical void in nonlinear
viscous material
14.1.3 Spherical voids in nonlinear material under axisymmetric loading. Comparison with penny-shaped cracks
14.1.4 Strain to failure neglecting void interaction effects
14.1.5 Void interaction effects
Cavity Growth by Grain Boundary Sliding
CREEP-ENHANCED DIFFUSIVE CAVITY GROWTH AND ELASTIC ACCOMMODATION
15.2
16
198
200
CAVITY GROWTH BY CREEP FLOW OF THE GRAINS OR BY GRAIN BOUNDARY SLIDING 201
14.1
15
Inhibited Cavity Growth Rates

Time to Cavity Coalescence and Time to Rupture for
Inhibited Growth
198
The Cavity Size Distribution Function

The Cavitated Area Fraction and the Rupture Lifetime
16.2.1 Lifetimes for diffusive cavity growth and continuous
nucleation
16.2.2 Crack-like diffusive growth and continuous nucleation
16.2.3 Constrained diffusive growth and continuous nucleation
16.2.4 Inhibited cavity growth and continuous nucleation
16.2.5 Plastic hole growth and continuous nucleation
Comparison of Calculated Rupture Times with Experiments
Involving Continuous Nucleation
16.3.1 Rupture lifetimes of ferritic steels
16.3.2 Lifetimes of austenitic steels
16.3.3 Rupture lifetimes of astroloy
Density Changes During Cavitation
227
228
231
231
233
233
234
234
237
239
240
SUMMARY OF RESULTS ON CAVITY NUCLEATION AND GROWTH
242
17.1
17.2
242
243
17.3
Nucleation
Cavity Growth Rates and Rupture Lifetimes for Instantaneous
Nucleation
Rupture Lifetimes for Continuous Nucleation
246
XIV
18
GRAIN BOUNDARY CAVITATION UNDER CREEP-FATIGUE CONDITIONS
247
18.1
18.2
2"47
248
249
Micromechanisms of Creep-Fatigue Failure

Theories of Cavitational Failure for Slow-Fast Fatigue Loading
18.2.1 Cycles to failure for unconstrained diffusive cavity
growth
18.2.2 Cycles to failure for plastic hole growth
18.2.3 Cycles to failure for unconstrained growth
18.2.4 Summary of fatigue lifetimes for different cavity growth
mechanisms
18.3 Comparison with Results of Slow-Fast Tests
18.3.1' Low-cycle fatigue tests on Al-5:Mg
18.3.2 Low-cycle fatigue tests on nickel
18.3.3 Low-cycle fatigue tests on copper
18.3.4 Low-cycle fatigue tests on austenitic steel
18.4 Why Do Cavities Grow under Balanced Cyclic Loading?
18.5 Discussion
251
252
253
254
254
255
256
257
258
259
PART III. CREEP CRACK GROWTH AND CREEP-FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH

19
20
21
22
INTRODUCTION TO PART III
263
19.1
19.2
19.3
263
264
265
265
266
The Relevance of Cracks

The First Aspect: Deformation Fields in Cracked Bodies
The Second Aspect: Mic~omechanisms
19.3.1 Grain boundary cavitation ahead of the crack tip
19.3.2 Corrosive processes at the crack tip
NONLINEAR VISCOUS MATERIALS AND THE USE OF C*
267
20.1
20.2
267
268
269
271
Definition of the C*-Integral

Stress Fields and the C*-Integral in Power-Law Viscous Materials
20.2.1 The C*-integral in power-law viscous materials
20.2.2 Crack-tip fields in power-law viscous materials
C*-CONTROLLED CREEP CRACK GROWTH BY GRAIN-BOUNDARY CAVITATION
272
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
273
277
279
280
281
281
283
285
Creep Crack Growth Based on a Local Critical-Strain Criterion

Strain-Controlled Cavity Growth and Stress-Controlled Nucleation
Diffusive Growth of a Constant Number of Cavities
Diffusive Cavity Growth and Stress-Controlled Nucleation
Comparison with Experiments
21.5.1 Tests on a lCr-1/2Mo steel
21.5.2 Comparison of the data with models
21.5.3 Conclusions
SPECIMEN SIZEREQUlREHENTS FOR C*-TESTING CAUSED BY CRACK-TIP BLUNTING 286

AND BY 3-D EFFECTS
22.1
22.2
Limitations to C* Set by Blunting

The Third Dimension in Fracture Mechanics and its Practical
Consequences
22.2.1 The C*-integral in three dimensions
286
288
289
xv
22.2.2
22.2.3
22.2.4
22.2.5
22.2.6
22.2.7
22.2.8
22.2.9
23
292
293
295
296
297
298
301
23.1
301
302
23.3
23.4
25
290
290
ELASTIC/NONLINEAR VISCOUS MATERIALS. APPLICABILITY OF KI AND OF C*
23.2
24
Crack-tip fields in specimens of finite thickness

The singularity at the intersection of the crack front
with the surface
Ranges of validity of singular fields in parallel-sided
specimens with straight crack fronts
Conditions for plane strain near the crack tip
Thumbnail-shaped crack fronts
Shear lips
Crack-tip fields in side-grooved specimens
The compliance and C* in parallel-sided and side-grooved
specimens
Stationary Crack under Step Loading

23.1.1 Similarity solutions in the small-scale creep, or
short-time, limit
23.1.2 The crack-tip field in the short-time limit
23.1.3 The complete stress field in the short-time limit
23.1.4 The creep zone
23.1.5 A characterisitc transition time
23.1.6 Interpolation formulas for the transient regime
23.1.7 Possible generalizations and related work
Stress Fields at Growing Cracks in Elastic/Nonlinear Viscous
Material
23.2.1 Derivation of the singularity at growing cracks for
Mode III
23.2.2 The growing crack~ingularity: results for Mode I
23.2.3 Fields for steady-state crack growth under small-scale
creep conditions
23.2.4 Steady-state crack growth during extensive creep of the
whole specimen
23.2.5 The evolution of the asymptotic field under non-steadystate conditions
Crack Growth in Elastic/Nonlinear Viscous Material Subject to
a Critical-Strain Criterion
23.3.1
rHR < Xc and a-a o < rcr
23.3.2 ~~:~~S~O~~ht~~b~:~~ to a critical-strain criterion for
small-scale creep
Application to Experiments
23.4.1 The appropriate load parameter
23.4.2 A 1Cr-1/2Mo steel
23.4.3 Nimdnic 80A
304
305
306
308
309
311
312
312
314
315
316
317
319
319
321
324
324
324
325
INSTANTANEOUS PLASTICITY
327
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
328
329
330
331
Deformation Fields in Elastic/Plastic Material

Growth of a Creep Zone in an Initially Fully-Plastic Body
The Special Case N = 1/n
An Experimental Example for J-Controlled Creep Crack Growth
PRIMARY-CREEP EFFECTS
25.1
Strain-Hardening Model for Primary Creep

25.1.1 Primary creep of the whole specimen
25.1.2 Growth of a primary-creep zone in an elastic field
332
332
333
334
XVI
25.1.3
25.2
25.3
26
336
338
338
340
341
342
346
26.1
26.2
346
346
Constitutive Law
The Effect of Diffusion Creep on the Deformation
Fields in Cracked Bodies
Crack Growth Rates Assuming a Critical-Strain Criterion
A DAMAGE MECHANICS APPROACH TO CREEP CRACK GROWTH

21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
21.1
28
335
DIFFUSION CREEP
26.3
21
Growth of a secondary-creep zone in a primary-creep

field
25.1.4 Summary and introduction of a load parameter map
Hardening/Recovery Model for Primary Creep
25.2.1 The constitutive equations
25.2.2 Solutions for crack geometries
25.2.3 Elasticity effects and load parameter map
Analysis of an Experiment in the Transition Range Between
J, CI\. and C*
Introduction
21.1.1 The constitutive model
21.1.2 The relation between fracture mechanics and damage
mechanics
Small-Scale Damage in Extensively Creeping Specimens
21.2.1 Similarity solutions
21.2.2 Crack growth rates
21.2.3 Approximate and numerical methods in small-scale damage
21.2.4 The process zoq~
The Range of Validity of the Small-Scale Damage Approximation
in Extensively Creeping Specimens
The Evolution of Damage and Crack Growth for Small-Scale Creep
21.4.1 Crack grows faster than creep zone
21.4.2 Creep zone grows faster than process zone
Primary-Creep Effects
21.5.1 Small-scale damage in a specimen which creeps in the
primary stage
21.5.2 The transient from elasticity over primary to secondary
creep
The Evolution of the Crack Length and the Lifetime
Discussion
348
349
349
349
350
352
352
352
353
354
355
356
351
358
359
359
359
359
362
CREEP-FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
364
28.1
365
365
28.2
28.3
28.4
Micromechanisms of Fatigue Crack Growth

28.1.1 The alternating slip model (also called the crack-tip
blunting model
28.1.2 Fatigue crack growth by grain boundary cavitation
28.1.3 Corrosive effects in creep-fatigue crack growth
Fatigue Cracks in Viscous Materials
28.2.1 Growth rates by the alternating slip mechanism
28.2.2 Growth by cavitation in viscous materials
Fatigue Cracks in Elastic-Plastic Materials
28.3.1 Elastic-plastic deformation fields
28.3.2
The cyclic J-integral, Z
28.3.3 Z-controlled crack growth rates by alternating slip
Fatigue Cracks in Elastic/Nonlinear Viscous Materials
28.4.1 Stress fields in elastic/nonline~r viscous material
after a load step
361
368
310
310
310
311
312
312
312
313
313
XVII
28.4.2
28.5
28.6
28.7
Gradual load variations in elastic/nonlinear

viscous material
28.4.3 Stress fields for rapid cyclic loading
28.4.4 Crack growth rates by the alternating slip mechanism
28.4.5 Fatigue crack growth by cavitation ahead of the crack
The Combined Effects of Elastic, Plastic and Creep Deformation
on Fatigue Crack Growth Rates
28.5.1 An approximate general expression for the crack growth
rate by alternating slip
28.5.2 Creep-fatigue crack growth rates in fracture mechanics
specimens
28.5.3 Fatigue lifetimes of initially smooth specimens by
microcrack growth
Discussion
Summary
374
376
377
378
379
379
380
381
384
385
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: MATERIAL PARAMETERS
389
APPENDIX B: ELASTIC STRESS FIELDS AT NOTCHES, CRACKS AND GRAIN

BOUNDARY TRIPLE POINTS
391
B.l
B.2
Stress Fields at Sharp Notches and Cracks

B.1.1 The eigenvalue eqUation for sharp notches
B.l.2 Crack-tip fields
The Stress Singularity at a Triple Junction of Sliding
Grain Boundaries
392
392
393
395
APPENDIX C: CALCULATION OF C* FOR TEST SPECIMEN CONFIGURATIONS
396
REFERENCES
401
INDEX
417
Part I
Introductory Chapters
on Deformation and Fail
Under Creep Conditions
1 Summary of the Deformation Behavior Under

Creep Conditions
Deformation and fracture of materials under elevated-temperature creep

ions
are
time-dependent
condit-
processes. At temperatures below some 30 per cent of
the absolute melting temperature it is a reasonable and widely used
idealizat-
ion to consider the elastic-plastic behavior of metals as time-independent. The

strain developed instantaneously in response to a load is large compared to the
additional
strain which is accumulated within any practically interesting hold
time. Many technical applications, however, require temperatures far beyond the
time-independent
regime,
which
ends
at
some 400 0 C for ferritic steels, for
example. Then the continuing plastic deformation (creep) under sustained

which
load,
eventually leads to creep fracture, often becomes the determining factor
for the design of a structure.

The subject of the present
monograph
is
creep
fracture
rather
than
creep
deformation. However, the fracture mechanisms are usually intimately related to

the preceding deformation processes. Hence a brief account of
behavior
of
the
deformation
materials at elevated temperatures must be given. There are other
more comprehensive treatises of creep deformation available, for example

by
Ilschner
those
(1973), Gittus (1975), Langdon (1981), Lagneborg (1981) and Frost
and Ashby (1982).
1.1 The Creep Curve

The elementary test to study creep deformation
creep
test.
t.
failure
is
the
uniaxial
A smooth tensile bar is subjected to a time-independent load (or
stress a), and the elongation (or strain

time
and
Figure
1.1
schematically
E)
shows
is measured as a
function
of
a creep curve as it is obtained at
around half the melting temperature and at stress levels which are typical
creep
tests
the
for
in the laboratory. Immediately upon load application, there is an
elastic (plus, possibly, an instantaneous plastic) strain. Then, in the primary
1.
Creep Deformation
t
tertiary
secondary
time - -
Fig. 1.1. The creep curve (schematic).
stage of the creep curve, the creep strain rate (that is the slope of the creep
curve)
is
initially
large
secondary stage, which is

tertiary
stage,
the
and
decreases
alternatively
creep
until
called
it becomes constant in the
steady-state
creep.
In
the
rate accelerates until final fracture occurs. The
shape of the creep curve varies from material to material.
Pure
metals
often
have a pronounced primary stage, whereas in many structural alloys the tertiary
stage predominates. Several phenomenological descriptions of
the
creep
curve
will be introduced later in this book.
1.2 A Few Facts on the Micromechanisms

Underlying the Creep Curve
The primary and secondary stages of the
combined
action
of
strain
dislocation structure (Bailey, 1926,

strain
hardening
by
the
creep
curve
formation
Orowan,
of
1946).
balance
between
~train
requires
determined
by
the
In
the
primary
stage,
dislocation tangles or a dislocation
substructure predominates, whilst the secondary stage

dislocation creep is the
are
hardening and thermally activated recovery of the
is
characterized
by
hardening
and recovery. The rate-controlling step in
climb
edge
of
dislocations
over
obstacles.
This
the diffusion of vacancies and therefore takes place only at elevated
temperatures at a practically interesting rate. Having surmounted an obstacle a

dislocation can glide freely until it is impeded by the next obstacle.
Specific models of steady-state, secondary creep based on the
idea
of
climb-
1.2
Micromechanisms Underlying the Creep Curve
controlled dislocation motion have been proposed by Weertman (1955) and Friedel
(1967). Their common result is a power-law dependence of the strain rate
on
the stress, which is often called Norton's (1929) creep law:
B an ,
( 1.1)
where Band n are material parameters. For the stress exponent

predict
values
of
the
models
(Friedel, 1967) or 4 (Weertman, 1955). If the vacancies
diffuse predominantly along dislocation

through
n,
lines
(pipe
diffusion)
rather
the undisturbed lattice, the value of n is raised by 2, i.e., n
6 is predicted (Frost and Ashby, 1977). Further, the models for
than
5 or
diffusion-con-
trolled creep predict that the coefficient B should scale in the following way:
B ~ A*G 1- n (bD IkT),
(1.2)
where G is
constant,
the
elastic
shear
modulus,
k ~ 1.38.10- 23 J/K
is
Boltzmann's
T is absolute temperature, b is the magnitude of the Burgers vector,
A* is an empirical constant which accounts for details not properly included in

the models and
(1.3)
is
the
bulk
diffusion
coefficient
(or
the
pipe
coefficient,
diffusion
respectively) with the pre-exponential factor Dvo and the activation energy Qv;
R ~ 8.315 J/(molK) iA the gas constant. Numerical values for the parameters
have been reported by Frost and Ashby (1977, 1982) for a number of materials. A
selection of material parameters is also compiled in Table A.1 in Appendix A.
Several other relationships between strain rate and stress have
in
the
literature.
by
stress
in
eq.
(1.1)
is
o-oi. In precipitation-hardened alloys, the description by a back
stress is particularly successful (Peterseim and Sauthoff,

necessarily
proposed
The most widespread idea is to introduce an internal back
stress, ai' developed in the material such that the

replaced
been
1984).
It
is
not
assumed that 0i is a constant threshold stress, but it may vary as
a function of the dislocation structure and the precipitate structure. Gibeling

and
Nix (1980) have prepared a review on observations and models pertaining to
the concept of internal stress. The idea of a variable internal stress
is
em-
ployed also in the description of primary creep by Robinson (1978) and Pugh and
Robinson (1978) (Section 25.2), and in the constitutive model of Hart (1976).
1.
The acceleration of creep in the tertiary stage of the creep

fracture
are
generally
Creep Deformation
curve
and
final
ascribed to the progressive accumulation of damage in
the material during creep. Several possible mechanisms are briefly described in
Chapter 2, while the special mechanism of grain boundary cavitation is examined
in greater detail in Part II.
1.3 Diffusion Creep

So far we have only mentioned creep deformation by climb-controlled dislocation
motion.
Creep
can occur also by diffusional flow of atoms from parts on grain
boundaries (or other interfaces) where they

which
are
under
tension.
This
are
under
stress-directed
compression
flow
of
to
specimen longer in the tensile direction. Grain boundaries play a central

for
diffusion
creep
parts
atoms renders the

role
since they can accommodate or release atoms or, in other
words, generate or annihilate atomic vacancies. Within a perfect crystal
latt-
ice, the generation of a vacancy-interstitial pair requires far higher energies

than the generation of a vacancy at a grain boundary, and
such
high
energies
are usually not available from thermal lattice vibrations.

If grain boundaries
vacancies,
the
are
the
only
possible
sources
and
sinks
for
atomic
rate-controlling step of diffusion creep is the diffusion over
distances of the order of

represents
the
driving
the
force.
grain
size
d,
while
the
applied
stress
The fundamentals of stress-directed diffusion
will be outlined later. At this stage only the final result of
Nabarro
(1948)
and Herring (1950) for the diffusional creep rate is given:

(1 .4)
Here, Dv is the diffusion coefficient in the grains, g is atomic volume,

grain
is
size
and a v is a dimensionless numerical factor whose magnitude depends

on the shape of the grains. For equi-axed, hexagonal grains is av = 24. If the
atoms diffuse along grain boundaries rather than through the grains, then
(1. 5)
(Coble, 1963). The factor ~ has a value of around 50, and 6Db is the grain
boundary diffusion coefficient, which has the physical dimension m3 /s and has
the
usual
temperature
dependence
of
thermally
activated
process,
1.3
Diffusion Creep
6Db = 6Dboexp(-Qb/RT). Numerical values for the activation energy and the
pre-exponential factor are given in Appendix A for a few materials.
As eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) show, diffusion creep
relationship
between
strain
rate
and
is
characterized
stress.
Coble
by
linear
creep predominates at
intermediate temperatures and small grain sizes, while Nabarro-Herring creep is

preferred
at
higher
temperatures and larger grain sizes. The ranges in which
different deformation mechanisms dominate will be shown systematically
on
the
deformation-mechanism maps introduced in Section 1.6.
1.4 Inhibition of Diffusion Creep

Experimentally, the predictions of eqs. (1.4) and
creep
rates
(1.5)
for
the
diffusional
have been confirmed for a great number of metals and other mater-
ials. At very low stresses, however, there seems to
be
threshold
behavior
such that a in eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) must be replaced by O-Oth where 0th is a
threshold stress. In pure metals at around half the melting temperature, the
threshold
0th
role
stress
is
generally
well
below
1 MPa
except
for
silver where
1.25 MPa (Towle and Jones, 1976). These small threshold stresses play
in
no
usual creep tests and their measurement requires a special technique,
namely, the creep of helical spring specimens.

in metals which contain high-melting particles on
threshold
stress
may
be
larger
and
the
grain
boundaries,
diffusion creep may even be suppressed
altogether, since at higher stresses dislocation creep intervenes. The

has
been
reviewed
by
the
subject
Burton (1977), by Gibeling and Nix (1980) and by Arzt,
Ashby and Verrall (1983). Sritharan and Jones (1980) and several other
authors
observe an increase in threshold stress in commercial stainless steels as carbide precipitation on grain boundaries progresses. However, the threshold stress
never
exceeds
2.6 MPa.
(The
value of 40 MPa quoted by Arzt et aI, 1983, for
stainless steel is not a threshold stress for diffusion creep according to
the
paper by Evans and Knowles, 1980, which Arzt et al refer to). For oxide-dispersion strengthened superalloys, Arzt et al report values up to 0th
,The inhibition
of
difficulty
accommodate
to
diffusion
creep
atoms
has
been
ascribed
to
1976).
Each
of
52 MPa.
conjectured
in grain boundaries (Ashby, 1969) or in the
interface between hard grain boundary particles and the matrix

Harris,
the
(Burton,
1973,
these authors suggests a mechanism how the inhibited
1.
Creep Deformation
plating of atoms can be enforced by stresses exceeding the threshold stress. An

alternative
model,
in which the inhibition is bypassed by power-law creep, is
described as a by-product of the analysis in
Section
7.3.6.
The
subject
of
inhibition is taken up in that section since it is important in relation to the

nucleation and growth of
cannot
creep
cavities.
If
the
particle/matrix
interface
accommodate atoms, high stresses on the particles may result, which can
possibly promote cavity nucleation.
On
the
other
hand,
the
inhibition
of
temperatures
is
diffusion may impede cavity growth (Chapter 13).
1.5 Grain Boundary Sliding

A typical degree of freedom which becomes active at
grain
boundary
elevated
sliding. The process has at least three different aspects each
of which is related to a different size scale. On an atomic scale, the

ance
resist-
against sliding is determined by the mobility of grain-boundary dislocat-
ions. It is generally believed that in engineering high-temperature

this
materials,
intrinsic sliding resistance is negligible compared to the effect of hard
second-phase particles in the boundary. If the particles are effectively rigid,

grain boundary sliding cannot progress unless the particles are circumvented by
diffusional accommodation processes or by dislocation creep as described below.
Models
which
refer to either the dislocation level or the particle level were
jointly termed 'intrinsic sliding models' (Langdon

trinsic
models',
in
the
same
terminology,
are
and
Vastava,
those
individual grain boundary facets is constrained by the
1982).
'Ex-
in which sliding of
surrounding
polycryst-
alline array (Section 1.5.2).

1.5.1
The infinite grain boundary (an intrinsic sliding model)
An atomically planar grain boundary would slide

motion
of
actual rate of sliding is controlled by some

necessary
comparatively
easily
by
the
grain boundary dislocations. According to Raj and Ashby (1971), the

in
order
to
avoid
separation
accommodation
process
which
is
or overlapping of material, if the
sliding boundary contains hard particles or is irregular in shape. Probably the

most
important mechanism by which the accommodation is achieved is diffusional
flow of matter. Atoms are removed (or vacancies are depoSited)

tends
where
material
to overlap, and atoms are deposited where the motion of the grains tends
to open up gaps (Fig. 1.2). Rate-controlling is the diffusion of

irregularities
or
particles
atoms
around
in the grain boundary. Under these premises, Raj
1.5
and Ashby (1971) show that the sliding rate, u b '
is
related
to
the
applied
shear stress Tb in a linear viscous manner,

( 1 .6)
The viscosity, or friction coefficient, n, depends on the shape

icles
or
of
the
part-
of the irregularities. For a grain boundary having a sinusoidal form
with wave-length A and amplitude h/2, for example, n takes the form
(1.7)
If grain boundary sliding is obstructed by rigid, cube-shaped particles of size

p and spacing Ap in the boundary, as shown in Fig. 1.2b, then the result is
( 1 .8)
oD i is the diffusion coefficLent

which is, however, rarely known.
where
(a)
/ r?
Tb. Ub
along
the
particle/matrix
interface,
(b)
diffusive flux
(d) /
~
A
Tb b
shear crack
in an infinite body
Fig. 1.2. Sliding of grain boundaries having a sinusoidal form (a) or

containing hard particles (b). Sliding in a polycrystal (c) and
idealization by a shear crack model (d).
10
Creep Deformation
1.
It should be mentioned that measurements compiled by Evans

stronger
which
dependence
follows
sliding
will
from
be
of
the
sliding
diffusive
(1984)
indicate
rate on stress than the linear relation
accommodation.
Nevertheless,
grain
boundary
described as a linear viscous process below. For the present
purposes, the intrinsic sliding properties of
grain
boundaries
need
not
be
in great detail, since most frequently the limiting case of free slid-
modeled
ing will be considered anyway.

1.5.2
Grain boundary sliding in polycrystals (extrinsic sliding models)
It is clear that a polycrystalline array can generally not be deformed by grain

boundary
sliding alone without deformation of the grains, i.e. sliding is con-
strained by the surrounding material. The possibility to accommodate sliding by

crack formation in grain boundaries is excluded in this section.
If the grains deform by diffusional flow, the effect of grain boundary
is
sliding
merely a slight modification of the numerical factors in the rate equations
for Nabarro-Herring creep and Coble creep (Raj and Ashby, 1971).
The situation is more complex if grain
power-law
creep
of
the
grains.
The
boundary
sliding
is
accommodated
by
rate of sliding may then be controlled
either by the intrinsic viscosity of the grain boundary or by the accommodation

process.
At high stresses, accommodation by power-law creep occurs readily and
the boundaries behave comparatively rigidly. At low stresses, however, the rate
of
sliding
is
controlled
by creep accommodation, while the boundaries slide
effectively freely.
The weakening effect of grain boundary sliding on
creeping
polycrystal
is
conveniently expressed by the stress-enhancement factor, f, defined as follows.

If ~ = Bon is the creep rate for a material with non-sliding grain
boundaries,
the same material with freely sliding grain boundaries creeps at a greater rate
( 1 .9)
Crossmann and Ashby (1975) and Gharemani (1980) analyze a two-dimensional array
of
hexagonal grains as in Fig. 1.2c using the finite element method. Gharemani
finds that the stress-enhancement factor, f, ranges from 1.16 to 1.19 for n = 1
to
4. Later in this book, a shear-crack model for grain boundary sliding (Fig.
1.2d; Riedel, 1984b) is described which, for hexagonal grains, leads to
1.5
11
[1 + (n/8)(n/3)1/2]1/n
or
(1.10)
[1 - (n/8)(n/3)1/2]-1/n.
The first form is obtained if the material surrounding the shear crack has
creep
E=
properties of the grains,
Ban, whereas the second is obtained if, in
the spirit of self-consistent methods, the

properties
of
the
material
is
given
the
effective
polycrystal with sliding grain boundaries described by eq.
(1.9). Equation (1.10) approximates the finite

well.
the
element
results
of
Gharemani
Beere (1982) summarizes approximate results of previous workers, e.g. of
Chen and Argon (1979) who find somewhat greater

1.43 for n
1 to
values,
namely,
1.33
to
factor
is
m.
For three-dimensional
arrays
of
grains,
the
stress-enhancement
greater. The shear crack model, in its self-consistent form, leads to

(1 _
8 sin(2a)
)-l/n
3n (1+3/n)1/2
'
(1.11)
where a is the angle of the grain boundary defined in Fig. 1.2c. For n = 1
a
30 0 ,
eq.
(1.11)
yields
= 1.58,
a value which compares well with other
estimates for n = 1: Chen and Argon (1979) calculate f

and
and
1.67,
while
Anderson
Rice (1985) find.f = 1.63 and 2.9 for two different geometrical grain con-
figurations (for details of the latter paper, see Section 12.6.3).

The characteristic stress to distinguish between high stresses where the
boundaries
behave
slide effectively
effectively
fre~ly
grain
rigidly, and low stresses where the boundaries
is given by
=
(B
n d)-l/(n-l),
(1. 12)
where n is the grain boundary viscosity coefficient and d is grain size.
1.6 Deformation-Mechanism Maps

Deformation maps are diagrams in the stress-vs.-temperature plane in which
areas
are
indicated
where
the
a particular creep mechanism predominates (Ashby,
1972). The idea is that different
mechanisms
operate
independently
and
the
1.
12
fastest
one
determines
the
deformation behavior and occupies the respective
regime in the stress-temperature plane. The boundaries

regimes
are
Creep Deformation
between
the
different
usually calculated (rather than measured) by comparing the strain
rate equations for the different mechanism. Figure 1.3 schematically shows such
a
deformation
map.
The
boundary
between Coble and Nabarro-Herring creep is
calculated by equating the creep rates given in eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) for
these
two mechanisms, which leads to

( 1.13)
Because of the same (linear) stress dependence of
mechanisms,
eq.
at
two
diffusional
creep
(1.13) is represented by a vertical line in Fig. 1.3, and the
mechanism with the greater

dominates
the
higher
activation
temperatures.
energy,
i.e.,
Similarly,
yields the boundary between Nabarro-Herring
creep
Nabarro-Herring
creep,
equating eqs. (1.1) and (1.4)

and
the
dislocation-climb
controlled regime, viz.

(1.14)
(JIG
Since now the temperature dependencies of both mechanisms are the same (that of
lattice
self-diffusion),
eq.
(1.14)
is
represented
by
a horizontal line.
Finally, Coble creep is separated from the dislocation-climb regime by the line
10 -/ - - - -ideal strength- - dislocation glide

l----~----~--~--~
yield
stress
elastic strain
predominates
dynamic
recrystallisation
NabarroHerring
~-....,...--t creep
for long times

10- 6 ' - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _---'-__________.....
0.5
homologous temperature TITm-
Fig. 1.3. Deformation-mechanism map (schematic).
1.6
13
Deformation-Mechanism Maps
defined by equating eqs. (1.1) and (1.5) which leads to

(1.15)
The regime of dislocation climb is subdivided by
which
runs
more
or
strain
rate,
dashed
lines.
The
one
less horizontal, represents eq. (1.12). It separates the
low-stress regime where grain boundary

total
two
from
behave as if they were
the
rigid.
sliding
high-stress
The
vertical
contributes
markedly
to
the
regime where the grain boundaries

dashed
line
separates
vacancy
diffusion along dislocation lines (low temperatures) from diffusion through the
lattice (high temperatures).
Towards high stresses, the range of validity of the creep mechanisms is cut off
by
the onset of extensive dislocation glide. The plastic strain in this regime
is attained
very
quickly
after
load
application
and
can
practically
be
described by instantaneous, rate-independent plastic yielding in many cases.

The greatest practical advantage of the deformation maps probably lies
guidance
which
they
provide
in
in
the
the extrapolation of creep data. Most creep
tests in the laboratory are done within a year or less, sometimes within a
few
years, whereas engineering structures like electric power-generating plants are

designed to last for at least 25 years. The laboratory data can be extrapolated
to
the in-service conditions with some confidence only if both lie in the same
regime of the deformation map. The maps also are useful tools for the
designer
to choose the proper ,constitutive law for the stress analysis of a given part.
The most comprehensive collection of material data that are
construction
relevant
the
of deformation maps has recently been compiled by Frost and Ashby
(1982). They give deformation maps for over 40 materials covering pure
commercial
for
alloys
and
metals,
ceramics. Material parameters have also been compiled,
e.g., by Frost and Ashby (1977), Needleman and Rice

Ashby (1981). Table A.1 in Appendix
convenient use in thi$ monograph.
(1980)
and
Swinkels
and
A gives a selection of these data for
2 Introduction to Creep Fracture

and Other Fracture Modes
2.1 The Nature of Creep Damage

The acceleration of creep in the tertiary stage of the
caused
by
the
formation
and
creep
curve
is
often
joining of micro-cavities on grain boundaries.
Creep fracture is therefore generally intergranular. The cavities may be nucleated early in the creep life, possibly even during the primary stage. Initially
their effect on the creep rate is negligible but, as their number and size
crease,
in-
they weaken the material progressively and finally induce failure. The
nucleation and growth of cavities is studied extensively in

book.
Part
II
of
this
Accelerating creep rates can also be caused by a degradation of the microstructure
of
the material. Many engineering alloys contain second-phase particles,
which serve as obstacles against dislocation motion and therefore provide creep
strength
to
the
material.
In
long-time service, the possible growth of the
larger of these particles and the disappearance of the smaller ones leads to
gradual loss of
cr~ep
In practice, this may be as important as grain-boundary cavitation, but,

it
is
resistance or, in other words, to increasing creep rates.

since
not the subject of this book, only a few pertinent references are given
here. Particle coarsening and concommittant softening of the material
are
ob-
served in creep-resistant CrMo steels (Williams and Wilshire, 1977, 1981; Williams and Cane, 1979; Pizzo and Mandurrago, 1981), in
many
Y'-hardened
nickel
base superalloys (Burt, Dennison and Wilshire, 1979; Stevens and Flewitt, 1981;
Dyson and McLean, 1983), and in aluminum alloys (Claeys and Jones, 1984). Dyson
and
McLean (1983), point out that the pronounced tertiary stage of superalloys
cannot be explained by particle coarsening alone. At least part of the accelerating
creep rate must be ascribed to grain-boundary cavities and cracks and to
changes in the dislocation microstructure. Henderson and

propose
that
McLean
(1984,
1985)
the dislocation structure developing in the interface between Y'
particles and the matrix is of primary importance.
2.1
The Nature of Damage
15
Another possible cause for accelerating creep rates in the
tertiary
stage
is
corrosive damage at or below the surface, such as internal oxidation, sometimes

selectively along grain
initiation
by
boundaries,
and
subsequent
crack
formation.
Crack
corrosion has been observed, for example, by Schnaas and Grabke
(1978) in an austenitic steel. Also, some superalloys fail
by
the
growth
of
oxidized surface cracks (Burt, Elliott and Wilshire, 1981). The role of chemical environment in high temperature fracture is an important subject area
cannot
be
which
covered systematically within the scope of this book. Only effects,
which are closely related to grain-boundary cavitation, like hydrogen attack or

oxygen
attack are described in Chapter 9. A brief overview on other effects of
high-temperature corrosion is given by Ashby and Dyson (1984).
2.2 Fracture-Mechanism Maps

Crystalline solids can fracture by one
subject
of
this
of
several
mechanisms.
good to remember which alternative mechanisms exist and

temperature
regime they
predomina~e.
Ashby,
1977).
In
analogy
to
in
which
stress
fracture-mechanism
map
and
(Wray,
the deformation maps, fracture maps are
diagrams with tensile stress on one axis and temperature on the other.
stress-temperature
the
In a somewhat simplified picture, many of
the important mechanisms can be displayed on a

1969,
Although
book is high-temperature fracture at low strain rates, it is
In
the
plane, the regions are indicated within which the different
fracture modes are found to prevail.

Figure 2.1 schematically shows such a fracture map. The location of the boundaries
between the different mechanisms depends on the material, its heat treat-
ment, the chemical environment and on the other stress components

tensile
besides
the
stress. The applied load is assumed to be constant, i.e. fatigue fail-
ure under cyclic loads is not considered. Actual fracture maps
have
been
put
together by Ashby et al (1979) and by Gandhi and Ashby (1979a) for face-centered cubic metals and alloys using observations of the fracture modes reported in
the literature. Gandhi and Ashby (1979b) give maps for a great number of materials which are capable of cleavage, i.e.,
metals
body-cenetred
cubic
and
hexagonal
as well as covalent ceramics and ionically-bonded materials like ice or
rock salt. Fracture maps have been constructed for iron and steels by Fields et
al
(1980), and for titanium alloys by Krishnamohanrao et al (1986). The mecha-
nisms appearing on the fracture map will be described briefly below.
2.
16
slip - induced
'0-2 cleavage
"
orB/F
Tt
insittntaneous fracture
....
T
cleavage or
10-3
BIFfrom
largest crack
lJ..J
Introduction to Creep Fracture
intergranular
creep fracture
10-'
no fracture
10- 5
0
--
0.5
TITm
Fig. 2.1. Fracture-mechanism map (schematic).
2.2.1
Cleavage and brittle intergranular fracture
Many materials such as the body-centered cubic and

well
as
most
ceramics
the
hexagonal
metals,
as
and ionically bonded materials, fracture in a brittle
manner at low temperatures and high stresses. Brittle fracture in this range is
brought
about
by
the formation of cracKs and their propagation along certain
crystallographic planes. This mode of fracture is called cleavage.

for
fracture
An
example
surface with cleaved grains is shown in Fig. 2.2a. Most face-
centered cubic metals do not cleave, for reasons which are plausible from
siderations
con-
of the balance between cleavage and dislocation formation at crack
tips (Rice and Thomson, 1974).

Cleavage fracture of ferritic steels has been the subject of extensive investigations
(see Chapter 7 of Knott's textbook, 1973; for a more recent paper, see
Riedel and Kochend6rfer, 1979). It was found that cleavage fracture is

initiated
a coarse carbide particle. At very low temperatures, cleavage

ready
formed,
cracks
are
al-
when plasticity is still confined to single, favorably oriented
grains. At somewhat higher temperatures

plastic
usually
by plastic slipping or twinning, often where a slip band impinges on
cleavage
occurs
only
after
general
yielding of the whole polycrystal. This means that the strain to fail-
2.2
17
Fig. 2.2. a) Cleavage fracture surface of a coarse-grained carbon steel

fractured at -100 0 C. b) Brittle intergranular fracture of a low-alloy
NiCrMoV turbine rotor steel containing 0.048%P, tempered 816 h at 400 0 C,
fractured at -100 0 C (courtesy Moller, Erhart and Grabke).
ure increases from below 1% to sometimes over 10%. Because

low
ductilities
of
the
relatively
associated with cleavage fracture, it is usually necessary in
engineering applications to avoid temperatures where cleavage predominates.

In ceramic materials it is common that cleavage fracture starts from pre-existing
microcracks before the stress for plastic yielding is attained. The almost
inevitable brittleness of ceramics must be taken into account in the design
of
structural parts.
Instead of fracturing by transgranular cleavage, many metals and ceramics
by
fail
brittle intergranular fracture (BIF) at low temperatures. The balance betw-
een these two modes seems to be a delicate one, so that both can occur simultaneously
in
the same specimen. Small impurity additions may shift the fracture
path from transgranular to intergranular. In ferri t ic steels,

is
known
at
phenomenon
as temper embrittlement (cf. Section 8.1.1). A typical fracture sur-
face is shown in Fig. 2.2b. Ordered intermetallic compounds

BIF
this
high
temperatures
sometimes
exhibit
such as Ni3Al at 600 to 800 0 C (Liu, White and Lee,
1985). This has been ascribed to an environmental interaction with oxygen.
18
2.
Fig. 2.3. Dimpled fracture of a structural steel at room temperature.
2.2.2
Ductile transgranular fracture by plastic hole growth
Above the brittle-to-ductile

changes
from
tran~ition
temperature, Tt , the fracture mode
cleavage, or brittle intergranular fracture, to a ductile trans-
granular mode. Here, separation of the specimen halves is brought about by
the
growth and coalescence of holes, which are nucleated at second phase particles,
such as MnS-particles in steels, and which grow by plastic flow of
ial.
This
fracture
mode
is
dimpled fracture surface is shown

engineering
alloys
the
mater-
called dimpled, or fibrous, fracture. A typical

in
Fig.
2.3.
At
room
temperature,
most
fail by this fracture mode, and an extensive literature on
the subject exists. For reviews see, for example, Goods
and
Brown
(1979)
or
applied
stress
is
Chapter 8 of Knott's textbook (1973).

Fracture by hole growth may occur instantaneously, if
high
enough,
or
slowly
by
creep
flow
if
temperature is relatively high. Hole growth by
the
the stress is lower, and if the

time-dependent
creep
flow
is
discussed also in Chapter 14 of this book.

2.2.3
Necking and superplasticity
The strain to failure permitted by the plastic hole growth mechanism is

ally
gener-
high. Theoretically, strains of well above 100% are expected (cf. Chapter
14). In tensile tests, however, there is the possibility of a necking instabil-
2.2
19
QJ
bJ
Fig. 2.4. (a) Partial and (b) complete necking of a round bar
in a tensile test.
ity which may develop at smaller strains and which may terminate the test prior
to void coalescence in the uniformly strained parts of the specimen (Fig. 2.4).
Necking is not a microscopic fracture mechanism like the
the
fracture
map.
mechanisms
shown
on
Rather it is a macroscopic instability of the tensile test
which may intervene, whenever the microscopic mechanism allows for sufficiently
high
strains.
This
is
the case in the plastic hole growth regime and in the
regime of dynamic recrystallization (Section 2.2.5). A necking

commonly
observed
when
which the material response

temperature.
instability
is
ductile metals are tested in the temperature range in

is
essentially
rate-independent,
e.g.
at
room
The onset of necking is then described by the classical Considere
criterion (see, e.g., Hart, 1967).

At higher temperatures, the material response is
idealized
as
nonlinear
viscous
creep,
as
time-dependent,
and
can
be
described by eq. (1.1). For such
power-law viscous materials, Hart's (1967) analysis predicts that
the
necking
instability should commence directly at the start of the test if the stress
exponent is n > 1. In reality, however, one does not observe necking at small
strains
under
creep conditions. Hutchinson and Obrecht (1977) point out where
this comes from; the time constant for the neck to develop
is
so
large
that
strains of the order 100% can be achieved before necking leads to failure.
If the stress exponent n is not very much larger
than
unity
(practically
it
20
2.
suffices
that
2),
the
material can even become sijperplastic. This means
that in a slow tensile test at elevated

hundred
temperature,
elongations
of
several
per cent can be reached without necking. The vast literature on super-
plasticity has been reviewed, for example, by Padmanabhan and Davies (1980) and
by Gittus (1982). If a viscous material having a stress exponent n
develop voids, it can still sustain strains of more than 100%
2 tends to
(Langdon,
1982;
Stowell, Livesey and Ridley, 1984).

Following Hoff (1953) and Hutchinson and Obrecht (1977), we now
time
after
which
calculate
necking leads to failure of a tensile specimen under a con-
stant load. The material is assumed to be nonlinear viscous and to

internal
damage
such
develop
to
no
as voids. The specimen is cylindrical, small deviations
from the ideal cylindrical shape being admitted if they have a long
compared
the
wavelength
the diameter of the specimen. Such nonuniformities may be present
from the start of the test or may develop during straining. As long as the nonuniformities
have
a long wavelength, the stress state is locally uniaxial and
uniform over the section of the specimen.
It
is
clear,
then,
that
rupture
occurs when the minimum initial cross section has been strained to zero area.
If A(t) is the current cross sectional area of the
specimen
at
its
thinnest
location, and if P is the applied load, the stress in the minimum cross section
is
0 =
P/A(t), and the strain rate, from Norton's law, is
(2.1)
In the second form, the initial minimum area, Ao' and the- initial strain
ES =
B (P/Ao)n,
the steady-state, or secondary, strain

sectional
area
rate,
in the minimum cross section are used; the subscript s denotes

becomes
marked.
rate
before
the
reduction
Another relation between A and
E is
of
cross
obtained
from the requirement that the material is incompressible:

E =
- AlA.
Equating from eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) gives a
(2.2)
differential
equation
for
A(t)
which can be solved by separation of the variables:

(2.3)
Fracture occurs when A(t)
0, i.e. when
2.2
21
(2.4)
lin,
where t f is the time to rupture, and Estf is called the Monkman-Grant product
(see Section 2.3.1). The strain to failure at the minimum cross section is
infinite
in
elongation
the
of
no-damage
the
material
considered
here,
while
overall
the
specimen depends on the initial nonuniformity of the cross
section.
2.2.4
Intergranular creep fracture
At lower stresses and elevated temperatures, hole growth by

or
by
creep
flow
plastic
straining
becomes so slow that fracture by grain-boundary cavitation
intervenes. The strain to fracture is then relatively low. This mechanism

be
described
will
extensively in Part II. On the fracture map, the field of inter-
granular cavitation is bounded on the left and below by a regime
in
which
no
fracture occurs within any practically interesting time. This may be so because
cavity growth, which is often diffusion-controlled, becomes exceedingly slow at
lower temperatures, or because no cavities are nucleated at very low stresses.
2.2.5
Rupture by dynamic recrystallization
At very high temperatures, diffusion becomes so rapid that

dynamic
recrystallization
commences.
In
at
high
stresses,
this regime it is favorable for the
metal to resolve dislocation tangles by forming new grains in heavily

regions
rather
than
deformed
by the recovery processes operating in the creep regime.
Since grain boundaries can now migrate, cavities, if they are nucleated at all,
are
continuously
cut off from the supply of vacancies arriving by grain boun-
dary diffusion. In addition, dynamic recrystallization is strongly

pendent
and
depends
de-
tensile specimen is therefore prone to necking before cavities
can coalesce. The boundary between rupture by recrystallization and

failure
stress
cavitation
strongly on the cleanliness of the materials. Precipitates on
grain boundaries, which are usually present in commercial materials to minimize

grain boundary sliding, also prevent grain boundary migration. In addition,
precipitates tend to favor cavitation by nucleating cavities.
2.2.6
Fracture modes at very high temperature
The regime of rupture by recrystallization may be interrupted once

times
by
ductility-dips.
or
several
In steels, for example, aluminum nitride or niobium
2.
22
carbo-nitride particles can be precipitated at high temperatures. The particles

pin
the
grain
boundaries
thus
increased strength, but also to

ductility-dip
near
1000 0 C
inhibiting
brittleness.
recrystallization. This leads to

Another
possible
between iron sulfide and iron (Melford, 1980). This phenomenon

shortness
and
may
play
cause
for
is the formation of molten phases like an eutectic
role
is
called
hot
in fabrication processes such as continuous
casting.
As the solidus temperature of the alloy
is
approached,
grain
boundaries
or
interdentritic material start to melt. This bounds the region of recrystallization rupture towards high temperatures. Welding defects may sometimes
liquidation
be
such
cracks caused additionally by thermal stresses which accompany the
welding process (Robinson and Scott, 1980).

It should be kept in mind that the fracture map shown
include
effects
in
Fig.
2.1
does
of the chemical environment such as stress corrosion cracking
and hydrogen embrittlement at lower temperatures, hydrogen attack at

iate
temperature
not
intermed-
and effects like carburization or internal oxidation at high
temperatures. Further, Fig. 2.1 is valid for static load. Cyclic loading
leads
to new failure modes. In the following, interest will be focussed on the regime
of intergranular creep fracture with a few excursions to environmental
effects
and to fatigue loading.
2.3 Empirical Formulas for the Rupture Time in the Creep Regime
There are several empirical formulas in
sophistication,
describe
the
use
which,
on
different
levels
of
dependence of the rupture time on stress and on
temperature.
2.3.1
The Monkman-Grant rule
Monkman and Grant (1956) observed that the product of
the
steady-state
creep
rate, ~s' and the rupture time, t f , is approximately independent of the applied
stress and of temperature:
(2.5)
Later work has confirmed that the
Monkman-Grant
'constant'
is
indeed
inde-
2.3
23
Empirical Formulas for the Rupture Lifetime
pendent
of stress and temperature over a wide range of conditions. Feltham and
Meakin (1959), for example, demonstrate its approximate

between
~OOoC and
of data by Evans
750 0 C
constancy
for
copper
and lifetimes from 1 minute to 10 hours. A compilation
shows that for different materials CMG typically lies

in the range 0.03 to 0.3. In the light of the many possible mechanisms of creep
(198~)
rupture, the approximate constancy of the Monkman-Grant product is

ingly
simple
surpris-
observation, which may serve as a guideline to select the models
having most practical relevance.

The practical advantage of the Monkman-Grant
creep
rule
is
that
the
steady-state
rate can be measured early in the creep life. Provided that the value of
CMG has been determined in relatively short-term tests, the lifetime in a longterm test can be predicted from t f = CMG/ES once the steady-state creep rate
has been established. This means a substantial reduction of testing time. Of
course, to utilize this possibility, the range of validity of the Monkman-Grant
rule must be known. The modeling of the mechanisms should
contribute
to
that
knowledge.
The Monkman-Grant rule is closely
r~lated
to a critical-strain criterion. Often
the
strain to failure is some fixed multiple of CMG The Monkman-Grant product

represents the strain which would be accumulated if steady-state creep predominated
during
the whole creep life, while the total strain to failure also in-
cludes primary creep and tertiary creep, as well as the effect of necking if it
OQcurs.
In
engineering
alloys
the
greatest
accumulated in the tertiary stage. It should be
amount of strain is frequently

noted
that
also
failure
by
complete necking leads to a constant Monkman-Grant product having the value lin
[eq.
In a tensile test, this represents an upper bound for CMG , whereas

damage such as grain boundary cavitation reduces that value. A com-
(2.~)J.
internal
parison of observed values of CMG and lin (Evans, 198~) shows that in materials
developing cavities is indeed CMG < lin, whereas in others is CMG = lin.
2.3.2
The Sherby-Dorn parameter
Orr, Sherby and Dorn (1954) suggest that the rupture

temperature T are related by
time
tf,
stress
-Q/RT
a(a) ~ t f e
,
where Q is a fittable activation energy, R is the. gas constant and the
a and
(2.6)
Sherby-
24
2.
Dorn
parameter,
9(0), is an empirical function of stress but not of temperat-
ure. Once 9(0) and Q have been determined, eq. (2.6) can be used to interpolate
and extrapolate to other stresses and temperatures.
2.3.3
The Larson-Miller parameter
Similar in principle but different in its functional form is

Larson
and
Miller
the
approach
of
(1952) who assume the following relation between lifetime,
stress and temperature:

P(o) = (20
log t f ) T/1000.
(2.7)
Here P(o) is the Larson-Miller parameter whose dependence on stress is

ined
empirically,
determ-
t f is in hours and T in Kelvin. The Larson-Miller parameter
is widely used to characterize the rupture behavior of engineering materials.

There are other related approaches, most of which are also useful to
measured
data
in
concise
form.
temperatures than those covered experimentally, however, are

is
easy
to
imagine
examples
represent
Extrapolations to longer times and lower
where
questionable.
It
different approaches lead to completely
different lifetime predictions.

2.3.4
The Kachanov equations
Another type of phenomenological description of the rupture behavior is due
to
Kachanov (1960) and Rabotnov (1969). Here, the evolution of a damage parameter,
w, is conSidered, which is not meant to be a physically identifyable
although
it
is
somehow
related
to
the
cavitated
boundary. The damage parameter varies from w = 0 for

w= 1
at
failure.
area
the
quantity,
fraction of grain
virgin
material
to
It is an internal variable (i.e. not directly measurable),
which is assumed to obey the kinetic law
D aX
(2.8)
(l+~)(l-w)~ ,
and which affects the relation between the
measurable
quantities
stress
and
strain rate according to

(2.9)
2.3
Empirical Formulas for the Rupture Lifetime
25
The superposed dot denotes the time derivative, and B, D, n, X and

justable
parameters
which
depend
are
ad-
on temperature. Numerical examples will be
shown in Table 27.1 in Chapter 27.

For time-independent stress, eq.
resulting
(2.8)
can
readily
be
integrated.
If
the
w is inserted into eq. (2.9), the strain rate can also be integrated
with the result that the strain increases in time according to

(2.10)
which is plotted in Fig. 2.5. Here, the time
to
failure
and
the
strain
to
failure are given by

(2.11)
(2.12)
The initial, or steady-state, strain rate is s
Multiplying
with
the
rupture
time
from
Ban, since
at
O.
eq. (2.11) gives the Monkman-Grant
product
(2.13)
o.
0.5
t/t, --Fig. 2.5. Normalized creep curves from Kachanov model, eq. (2.10).
26
2. Introduction to Creep Fracture
Thus the Kachanov equations imply a

n
X and
Band
D have
Monkman-Grant product is
the
the
constant
same
Monkman-Grant
product
only
if
temperature dependence. In any case the
following
stress-independent
fraction
of
the
strain to failure
(2.14)
This fraction, as well as the shape of the normalized creep curve shown in Fig.
2.5,
depend
only
on the ratio n/($+1). Obviously, the Kachanov equations are
designed to model secondary and tertiary creep, whereas primary
creep
is
not
described.
In Chapter 27, a generalization of the Kachanov equations to
states
of
stress
will
be
described.
Together
with
three-dimensional
the
equilibrium
and
compatibility conditions they form a basis for what is called damage mechanics.
These equations will be applied to model creep crack growth.
2.3.5
The a-projection concept
The a-projection concept by Evans, Parker and Wilshire (1982) is an attempt

represent
creep
curves
mathematically
shape of the creep curve is described by

empirical
functions
over
an
a wide range of conditions. The

expression
which
contains
rupture,
another
four
parameters
are
parameters, the deformation and rupture behavior can be

and
it
is
four
of stress and temperature each of which can reasonably be
described using four fit table parameters (Evans, Beden and Wilshire, 1984).
incorporate
to
required.
described
To
With these 20
accurately,
claimed that the range of validity includes very long times, where
measurements are rare and expensive.
3 The Continuum-Mechanical Equations
Many of the quantitative models

fracture
mechanics
equations
of
equation,
the
concepts
solid
for
to
mechanics.
compatibility
the
be
creep
presented
These
condition
equations
and
failure
mechanisms
and
in this book are based on the

comprise
the
equilibrium
the material law for multi-axial
states of stress. The presentation of the basic equations in this chapter

be
concise,
and
the
reader
1966)
or
will
who is not familiar with solid mechanics at all
might wish to consult one of the textbooks on

Lifshitz,
the
the
subject
(e.g.
Landau
and
on elasticity theory (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1951; Love,
1952; Leipholz, 1968; Muskhelishvili, '977) or on plasticity theory (Prager and

Hodge, 1951; Hill, 1956a).
3.1 The Equations for Equilibrium and Compatibility

In the context of this book, body forces and
mass
inertia
can
generally
be
neglected. Then equilibrium of the volume elements of a stressed solid requires

that the stress
tenso~
obeys the partial differential equation
(i,j
1 to 3),
where 0ij are the components of the (symmetric) stress tensor
in
Cartesian
coordinate system x"x 2 ,x 3 and Vj = o/OXj is the gradient operator. The

Cartesian tensor notation is employed including the summation convention for
repeated indices. On the boundary of the body, the stress field must satisfy
the boundary condition nj 0ij = Ti' where nj is the outward normal unit vector
on the boundary and T. is the surface traction vector, which may of course
1
vanish on part of the surface. The analysis in this book is based on the
assumption
of
infinitesimally
small
strain and displacement. This implies a
linear relationship between the strain Eij and the displacement field uj ' viz.,
3.
28
The Continuum-Mechanical Equations
(3.2)
A strain field that is derivable from a displacement
field
according
the
displacement
to
eq.
(3.2) obeys the compatibility relation
:he same relations hold for the strain rate, ij'
and
rate,
uj .
3.2 The Material Law

The set of continuum-mechanical equations is completed
Different
forms
will
be
considered
with
by
the
material
law.
the common feature that the total
strain rate is a sum of the elastic strain rate and the nonelastic strain rate
+
(ne)
ij .
(3.4)
The superposed dot denotes the time-derivative. The elastic strain
is
related
to the stress by Hooke's law, which, for isotropic material, takes the form
(3.5)
Here, E is Young's modulus, v is Poisson's ratio, 0 .. is the unit tensor, and

lJ
0kk is the trace of the stress tensor; the summation convention for repeated
indices implies 0kk = 0" + 022 + 033. The elastic strain rate is related
the stress rate in the same way as elastic strain is related to stress.
The form of the nonelastic strain rate depends on which
range
temperature
where climb-controlled
is
considered.
dislocation motion
description
form, i(ne)
Under
predominates,
creep
the
conditions,
simplest,
commonly
of
used
stress
to
and
constitutive
of the nonelastic strain rate is Norton's creep law. The uni-axial

=
B on, in which Band n are material parameters, is generalized to
multi-axial states of stress using von Mises' J 2 -flOW theory. To account for
the incompressibility of creep flow, this theory assumes the strain rate to be
proportional to the deviator of the stress tensor, ij = ij - ijOkk /3 , and to
depend otherwise only on the second invariant of the
stress
tensor,
3.3
29
The Equations for 2-D Problems
Ge = (3GljGlj/2)1/2,
which is
Norton's law takes the form:
called
the
equivalent
tensile
stress. Then
e: (ne)
(3.6)
ij
This is a special case of nonlinear viscous material laws, which are characterized
by
the
fact that the nonelastic strain rate is a unique function of the
stress tensor.
More complex material laws will be introduced and applied
including
the
effects
in
later
the effect of damage on tertiary creep. Damage mechanics equations

be
introduced
chapters,
of strain hardening and recovery on primary creep, and
empirically
as,
for
example,
can
either
in the Kachanov model (Section
2.3.4), or one can try to derive them from models
for
cavity
nucleation
and
growth. The reader who is especially interested in the constitutive description

of the deformation behavior of materials is referred to the
book
Constitutive
Equations in Plasticity, edited by Argon (1975), (especially to the articles by

Rice, Hart et aI, Ilschner, and
Git~ys),
and to the papers by Pugh and Robinson
(1978), Schmidt and Miller (1981), and Estrin and Mecking (1984).
3.3 The Equations for Antiplane Shear, Plane Stress and Plane Strain
The constitutive equations presented in the
partial
(even
differential
numerically)
specialize
the
equations
for
general
preceding
are
nonlinear
three-dimensional
problems.
Therefore
we
equations for the two-dimensional problems illustrated in Fig.
3.1 using the crack geometry as an example. The

all
section
for stress and strain which are hard to solve
characterized
by
vanishing
derivatives
two-dimensional
of
stress
and
problems
strain
x3 -direction, i.e., parallel to the crack front. Three-dimensional
are
in the
aspects
in
fracture mechanics will be discussed in Chapter 22.

a) In antiplane shear the only non-zero components of displacement, stress
are
u3 '
G13 ,
and
e: 13 , e: 23 , respectively. Such a field develops if the

applied surface tractions, have x3-components only (Mode-III loading) and are
strain
G23 ,
independent of x 3 The dimension of

X"3-direction. Then the equations for
material law take the form
the
body
must
equilibrium,
be
infinite
compatibility
in the
and
the
3.
30
Fig. 3.1. Mode I and Mode II can occur in plane strain and plane stress.
Mode III corresponds to antiplane shear.
(3.7)
(3.8)
2 )(n-1 )/2
0 23
where G = E/[2(1+v)] is the shear modulus and

law
has
been
body is ann!
0 23 = O.
B = /3 n + 1
(3.9)
1,2)
i3'
B. Here, Norton's power
inserted for the nonelastic strain rate. On the boundary of the

T3 . On
the
traction-free
crack
faces
this
specializes
to
It is sometimes convenient to replace the set of equations (3.7) to (3.9) by
single
equation for a stress function. In antiplane shear, a stress function
is defined such that the stress components are given by the derivatives
(3.10)
Inserting eq; (3.10) into eq. (3.7) shows that
stress
components
derived
in
this way from a stress function automatically satisfy the equilibrium equation.
If now the material law, eq. (3.9), is inserted into the compatibility
condition
for
the strain rate, eq. (3.8), and stress components are expressed
by the stress function through eq.
(3.10),
the
resulting
equation
for
the
stress function takes the form
o.
(3.11)
3.3
31
This equation will be applied to crack problems in Section 23.2.1.

b) Plane stress is characterized by zero x3-components of stress, 03i = 0,
further
13 = 23 = O.
Such
stress
and
and
strain field develops in a plane
specimen that is infinitely thin in x3 -direction and is loaded only in the x1and x2 -directions, i.e. T3 = O. The compatibility relation is then Simpler than
in the general three-dimensional case, viz.,
(3.12)
The equilibrium condition retains its general form,
indices
i,j
take
eq.
(3.1),
however,
the
the values 1 and 2 only. In the material law, the vanishing
stress and strain components can be deleted. The equivalent tensile stess is
(3.13)
As in Mode III, the equilibrium equation can be satisfied identically,
if
the
stress components are derivatives of a stress function, which is now called

Airy's stress function and is denot~d by ~. In plane stress (as well as in
plane strain to be introduced shortly) is:
(i,j
The governing equation for
(3.4)
1,2).
is obtained by inserting the
(3.14 )
material
law,
eqs.
to (3.6), into the compatibility condition, eq. (3.12), using the stress
function representation for the stress. If Norton's creep law is
employed
for
the nonelastic strain rate, there results

(3.15)
For plane stress, the equivalent tensile stress is given by
(3.16)
For purely elastic problems, where the term multiplying B can be
neglected
in
eq. (3.15), the governing equation simplifies to

(3.17)
32
3.
Solutions for both, linear elastic and nonlinear problems will be developed
in
later chapters.
c) A plane deformation field with 3i = 0 and 0'3 = 023 = 0 is called a plane
strain field. Such a field prevails in a specimen which is very thick in the
x 3-direction and which is subjected to boundary tractions (T"
T2 ), which are
of x3 The compatibility and equilibrium equations are the same as
those for plane stress. The equivalent tensile stress now takes the form
independent
= (
M) [(
'IY2
2 J' 12 .
0,,-022 ) 2 + ( 0"-033 ) 2 + ( 022-033 ) 2 + 6 '2
As in plane stress, the in-plane stress components are

the
derivatives
of
Airy stress function according to eq. (3.'4). If again the material law is
inserted
into
representation
~
second
(3.'8)
the
compatibility
condition
using
the
stress
function
of stress, the resulting equation contains two unknowns, namely
and the deviatoric stress component 033' A second
inserting the plane-strain condition, 33
equation
is
obtained
by
0, into the material law. Thus, for
plane-strain deformation of an elastic-nonlinear viscous material
one
obtains
the coupled equations:
(3.' gal
(3.,gb)
where
(3.20)
For linear elastic problems, this reduces to the

stress,
v4~
O.
Hence,
same
equation
as
in
plane
in the linear elastic case the stress fields are the
same for plane stress and plane strain if the boundary tractions are the same.
The situation where 33 is independent of all co-ordinates Xi but
called generalized plane strain.
non-zero
In both, plane stress and plane
and
loading
plane
(Fig.
(X 2
= 0)
3.').
If
and
the
the
strain,
we
distinguish
Mode-I
is
Mode-II
specimen is symmetric with respect to the crack
boundary
tractions
obey
the
symmetry
relations
3.3
33
T1 (x 1 ,x 2 ) = T1 (x 1 ,-x 2 ) and T2 (x 1 ,x 2 ) = -T 2 (x 1 ,-x 2 ), this is called Mode-I

and
loading. For this tensile mode of loading, the stress components all'
a33 are symmetric with respect to the crack plane whereas a12 is antisymmetric.
Mode II (in-plane
shear)
is
characterized
by
symmetric
T2
and
a12 , and
antisymmetric all' a22 , a33 and T1 A linear superposition of Mode-I, Mode-II,
and Mode-III fields is only possible for linear material.
3.4 General Features of the Continuum-Mechanical Fields

Throughout the following chapters, a few arguments of general validity will
be
referred to repeatedly. They are listed below.

3.4.1
The elastic-viscous analogy (Hoff, 1954)
Comparing a (generally nonlinear) elastic material described by ij = f(a ij )

with a nonlinear' viscous material obeying the same functional relationship for
the strain rate, ~ij s f(a ij ), one recognizes that the constitutive equations
for the two materials are identical if strain rate in the viscous case is
identified with strain in the elastic case. Therefore the stress fields in
two
materials
the
must be the same if the applied loading is the same. Strain and
displacement in elastic material correspond to
their
time
rates
in
viscous
material.
3.4.2
Scaling properties for power-law materials (Ilyushin, 1946)
If strain rate (or strain) is a power-law
function
of
stress,
Ban,
the
stress field scales with the applied load, P, according to

(3.21 )
where W is a length representing the
specimen
dimensions,
represents
the
spatial coordinates and a ij is a dimensionless function, which depends on the

specimen shape but not on its size nor on the magnitude of the load. The
independence
of the specimen size holds for all material laws which contain no
characteristic length, but the independence of the load is unique for power-law
materials.
To prove the validity of eq. (3.21), insert it into the equilibrium
condition,
3.
34
and into the boundary condition for the tractions. Obviously, P/W 2
(3.1),
eq.
is a common factor to all terms and can therefore be deleted. Analogously, if
2 n the strain rate field, Eij = B (P/W) Eij(r/W), which follows from eq. (3.21),
is inserted into the compatibility condition, the common factor B (P/W 2 )n can
be deleted. There remains a system of equations for 0ij and Eij which is indeed
independent of the load and of the absolute specimen size.
The scaling properties defined by eq. (3.21)
elastic
power-law
and
viscous
are
materials.
not
confined
Rather,
they
incremental, power-law plasticity as long as the loading is

no
unloading
(i.e.,
the
applied
loads
increase
parameter). Even under cyclic loading, the

that
the
hysteresis
loops
obey
as
measured
from
the
upper
also
apply
proportional
properties
to
with
hold
provided
power-law relation, OE
B(oo)n,
independent of the loading amplitude, where OE and 00

differences
power-law
in proportion to a scalar
scaling
unique
to
or
are
lower
strain
reversal
and
stress
pOints of the
hysteresis loop. Other classes of power-law materials exhibit the same
scaling
properties, too, as will be shown in later chapters.

For all classes of
distribution
is
materials
the
same
having
as
that
these
in
scaling
properties,
the
stress
power-law elastic material since the
governing equations reduce to the same form. Advantage can then be taken of all
the
favorable
problems
properties
there
are
of
nonlinear elastic fields. For example, in crack
path-independent
integrals,
the
crack-tip
fields
are
available, and tabulated solutions for many specimen geometries exist.

3.4.3
Path-indepelluent integrals: the J-integral and the C*-integral
The stress and strain fields in elastic materials (not

power-law
elastic
materials)
obey
necessarily
linear
or
certain conservation laws. In relation to
two-dimensional crack problems (Fig. 3.2), the most important of these laws can
be expressed as follows. The contour integral defined by
(3.22)
is independent of the path r as long as r starts at an arbitrary point

lower
crack
and no other singularities besides the crack tip

1968b).
In
on
the
surface and ends at an arbitrary point on the upper crack surface

are
enclosed
eq. (3.22), ds is the differential arc length of
ward normal unit vector on
r,
(Rice,
1968a,
r, n i is the out-
3.4
35
General Features of Fields
p
Xl
J=jF((J.E,U)ds
C=jF(o,iiJ)ds
1-----
W -----to!
Fig. 3.2. Integration path for the evaluation of J and C*
(3.23)
is the strain energy density, and
fields
around
the
crack
0 ..
lJ
and u. are the

1
stress
and
displacement
solving the continuum-mechanical equations for non-
linear elastic material. The value
~f
J can be measured at the load points of a
pair of specimens which have incrementally different crack lengths, a and a+da,
but are otherwise identical. If P1 denotes the load per
ness, J is given by
unit
specimen
thick-
(3.24)
where d is the load line deflection.
As a consequence of the elastic-viscous analogy, the
repeated
for
above
If in eqs. (3.22) to (3.24), ij' u i and d are replaced by

the
viscous
arguments
can
analogue
their
time
Some
From eq. (3.24) it is clear that J can be measured at
pOints
At
the
the
load
authors
of
same time, due to its path-independence, it also determines
the severity of the crack tip fields as will be shown explicitly for
materials
rates,
of the J-integral is obtained, which is often called C*
(Landes and Begley, 1976; Ohji et aI, 1976; Nikbin et aI, 1976).
use the notations J', j or J* instead of C*.
specimen.
be
nonlinear viscous material (not necessarily power-law material).
power-law
shortly. This property of J forms the basis of fracture mechanics in
rate-independent elastic-plastic materials. Analogously,
C*
plays
central
3.
36
role
in
the
fracture
mechanics
of
creeping
bodies
and
it
will be used
extensively in the fracture mechanics part of this book. Alternative methods of

measuring J, or C*, will also be described there.
3.4.4
The HRR crack-tip fields in power-law materials
Rice and Rosengren (1968) and Hutchinson (1968a,b) (often jointly

as
HRR)
have
analyzed
the
referred
to
crack-tip fields in power-law elastic materials.
Here, the analogous power-law viscous results will be presented. The derivation
starts
from
shear,
eq.
Considering
the
equation
(3.15)
for
for the stress function [eq. (3.11) for anti-plane
plane
stress
and
eq.
(3.19)
plane
strain].
nonlinear viscous material means that the elastic terms must be
deleted in these equations. (In fact, they would be

near
for
negligible
asymptotically
the crack tip if they were taken into account). Now it can be verified by
insertion that the equation for the stress function has solutions of
(power
the
form
of r) (function of 6) where rand 6 are polar coordinates centered at
the crack tip as in Fig. 3.2. Working out these factorized solutions
leads
the following so-called HRR fields, which are valid near a crack tip as r
C*
n
B r
)1/(n+1)
aij (6)
dimensionless
factor
parameter
same and
0:
(3.25)
For power-law elastic materials, characterized by

the J-integral and the material
quantities in eq. (3.25) remain the
to
= Ban,
C* is replaced by
o
B is replaced by Bo' The other

are defined as follows: the
a..
is chosen such that the dimensionless function

(6)
_ _
1/2
lJ
is normalized, the maximum of a = (1.5a i' .a i'.)
being equal to 1. For Mode
e
J J
III (anti-plane shear) , closed-form solutions are available from Rice (1967a)
n
or, more explicitly, from Riedel (1978). The expressions for

are
complicated
In
~(n+1)/n.
and
will
not
For plane strain
be
and
reported
plane
here,
stress,
while
alJ..(6)
in Mode III
In takes the form
numerical
solutions
are
available from the papers of HRR, and Shih (1974, 1983). Table 3.1 and Fig. 3.3
contain a few examples.
The HRR-field was originally derived for Mode-I loading, but the Mode-II fields
have the same general form with different values for In and
and Fig. 3.3 show results which were taken from Shih (1974).
aij (6).
Table 3.1
3.4
37
General Features of Fields
Values of I n for:
n =
Plane strain,
Mode I
Plane stress,
Mode I
Plane strain,
Mode II
Plane stress,
Mode II
I In
1I(n+1)/n, Mode III
--- --- --- --- --- --2
5.94
5.51
5.02
4.71
4.19
3.77
==
4.77
10
...
4.54
3.72
3.46
3.14
------- --- - - - --4.22

2.98
2.49
3.86
3.41
3.17
--- --- ----- --- --0.61
0.84
0.74
1.12
0.78
0.97
--- --- --- --- - - - --0.80
1.47
1.26
1.01
0.95
1.09
--- --- --- --- --- --3.59
Table 3.1. Values of the factor In appearing in the HRR-fields.
......
ct>
......
,ti:::0
t 05
......
ct>
......
.ti:::-
-05
l5
......
120
180
8 in degrees __
n=3
t 05
ct>
......
60
plane f1, Mode II
- 1
60
120
60
120
180
8 in degrees - - 8 in degrees - Fig. 3.3. Dimensionless functions characterizing the angular distribution
of stress in the HRR-field.
3.
38
It should also be noted that for n=1, the HRR-field reduces to

linear
elastic
crack-tip
field
with
the
well-known
the characteristic inverse square root
singularity:
KI
0iJ.
(3.26)
= - - f .. (8).
/211l'
IJ
Note that the stress fields for plane strain and plane stress are identical
in
the linear elastic case. The angular distribution of stress is expressed by the
function f ij (8), which is conventionally not normalized in the linear elastic
case, and which is given in Appendix B in closed analytic form for Mode I and
Mode II. For linear elastic material, the asymptotic crack-tip stress field
usually
expressed
in
terms
of
the
subscript indicates Mode-I loading.
For
stress
intensity
Mode-II
and
is
factor KI , where the

loading, the
Mode-III
respective stress intensity factors are KII and KIll' In linear elastic material, the stress intensity factor is related to the J-integral through
for plane strain; for plane stress, the factor (1-v2 ) is deleted.
The stress intensity factor can be measured, in principle, by measuring J using
eqs. (3.24) and (3.27). In
tabulated handbook solutions
Cartwright,
1974 r.
practice, however, KI is usually taken from

Rooke
(Tada, Paris and Irwin, 1973 ;
and
For purely dimens ional reasons the stress intensity factor
in an arbitrarily shaped body must be proportional to the
applied
stress
and
the square root of the crack length, a:

KI = g(a/W) a
;mao
(3.28)
The dimensionless function g(a/W), or a similarly defined quantity, is tabulated
in
the above references for a great number of specimen geometries. In most
cases the results are based on numerical solutions. For

plane-stress
uniform stress
crack
0,
of
length
is g(a/W) = 1.
plane-strain
or
2a in an infinite body subjected to a remotely
3.5
Numerical Techniques
39
3.5 Numerical Techniques in Solid Mechanics

Most of the results in this book are based on analytic solutions, but
questions
such
specific
as the determination of the geometrical function g(a/W) in the
preceding section must be dealt with numerically.

By far the most advanced numerical method in nonlinear solid mechanics
in
two
and three dimensions is the finite element method. There are numerous textbooks
available, for example those by Zienkiewicz
Wilson
(1976),
(1971),
Oden
(1972),
differential
of
Owen
(1984).
equations
the
discretization
body
is
In
the
finite
conferences
on
of
element
method,
the
partial
of solid mechanics are discretized based on a discretinto
preceded
finite
by
elements.
In
nonlinear
problems
the
a linearization of the equations, so that the
full nonlinear problem is solved iteratively

sequence
the
Methods in Fracture Mechanics edited by Owen and Luxmoore (1980) and
by Luxmoore and
ization
and
Segerlind (1976) and Owen and Hinton (1980). Special questions
of fracture mechanics are addressed in the proceedings of

Numerical
Bathe
or
incrementally
by
solving
linear problems. This procedure is generally carried out on large
computers. Several program systems are available commercially, some of them
at
low cost for non-profit institutions.

A method which may offer computational advantages in certain
boundary
finite element method, and its advantages are

with
problems
is
the
element method. However, the method is less well established than the
substantial
specimen. For such
linear
a
elastic
problem
Banthia
probably
contribution
and
confined
to
to
problems
the deformation of the
Mukherjee
(1985)
have
recently
compared the computational efficiency of the two methods.

Another method which is sometimes a convenient tool to solve nonlinear problems
is
the
Rayleigh-Ritz
method, in which the solid mechanics equations are cast
into a variational prinCiple and a functional is minimized with
respect
to
finite set of parameters. This method is best suited for simple geometries such
as spherical holes or cracks in infinite bodies (see,
e.g.
Budiansky
et
aI,
1982, and He and Hutchinson, 1981).

Finally, the finite difference methods, which compete with the
finite
element
method but seem to be less flexible, and the boundary collocation method, which
is confined to linear elastic problems, should be mentioned.
4 Stress-Directed Diffusion and Surface Diffusion
Stress-directed diffusion of
atoms
is
the
relevant
process
not
only
for
diffusional creep and grain boundary sliding, which have already been described
in Chapter 1, but also for various aspects of void nucleation and growth.
4.1 The Role of Vacancy Sources in Stress-Directed Diffusion

In crystalline solids, the microscopic mechanism of diffusion
migration
is
usually
of atomic vacancies. Interstitials are exceedingly scarce in thermal
equilibrium because of their high formation energy. This is true not

diffusion
the
in
the
grains,
but
also
only
for
diffusion along grain boundaries can be
explained most satisfactorily by a vacancy mechanism (Peterson, 1980).

Phenomenologically, the diffusion properties of a material are described by the
self-diffusion
Dv ' and for the grain

boundary, oD b . These coefficients are measurable accurately by observing how
quickly
coefficients
radioactive
tracer
for
the
grain
interior,
atoms deposited on the specimen surface penetrate
into the substrate (Peterson, 1980). Measured values are given in Appendix A.
There is a remarkable difference between diffusion in these tracer
experiments
and stress-directed diffusion. In tracer experiments, there is only an exchange

of tracer and host atoms with no net influx of
atoms
specimen.
however,
During
regions on grain
vacancies
stress-directed
boundaries
preferentially
diffusion,
which
leave
are
these
experiencing
regions.
This
depletion of vacancies and a corresponding drop of the
into
any
part
of
the
atoms diffuse towards

tensile
stress,
possibly
leads
diffusivity
of
while
to
atoms,
unless new vacancies are generated fast enough thermally or by other processes.
Now it is often claimed that grain boundaries contain effective vacancy sources
such
as
jogs
in
grain-boundary dislocations (Balluffi, 1980), but it is not
quantitatively clear under which
circumstances
these
sources
are
effective
4.1
41
The Role of Vacancy Sources
enough
compared
to
the
drain of vacancies by stress-directed diffusion. The
observed threshold stress for diffusional creep, for example, (Section 1.3)
a
strong
indication
that
is
thermal vacancy production can be rate limiting at
very low stresses. A related phenomenon
is
the
inhibition
of
sintering
by
high-melting particles (Ashby et aI, 1980).

The rate at which vacancies are produced
boundary
thermally
per
unit
area
of
grain
is given by the area denSity of sources No times the Arrhenius factor
times a frequency factor,
\Ill. e
-Q/kT
( 4.0
where \Ill. is the lattice vibration frequency (- 10 14 s-1) and Q is the

activation energy for vacancy generation. It will depend strongly on the type
of source which is available.
prohibitively
example,
in
the
perfect
lattice,
Q is
large under creep rupture conditions since a vacancy can only be
produced together with an

(typically
For
6 eV).
interstitial
which
has
high
formation
energy
At a very favorable vacancy source, the activation energy Q
might become as low as the format i orr energy of a vacancy (typically 1 to 1.5 eV
in the lattice and less in the grain boundary). For quantitative estimates, eq.
(4.1) is only of limited value because of the uncertainty in Q.
Therefore the procedure in this book will be to
assumption
that
start
from
the
conventional
grain boundaries are good vacancy sources and sinks providing
the vacancies for
cavity
nucleation
and
growth
easily.
Inhibited
vacancy
production and its effect on cavity growth will be considered in Chapter 13.
4.2 Stress-Directed Diffusion Along Grain Boundaries

We now turn to the formulation of the equations
diffusion
assuming
granted by
their
transport
along
which
govern
stress-directed
that the thermal equilibrium concentration of vacancies is

sufficiently
grain
rapid
boundaries
is
thermal
generation.
considered.
In
First,
fact,
diffusion often dominates compared to volume diffusion under
diffusive
grain boundary
conditions
which
are typical for cavity growth processes.

The driving force for a diffusive flux of atoms is the gradient of the chemical
potential.
The chemical potential of an atom in a grain boundary is lowered by
II.
112
Diffusion
a normal stress, an' acting on the boundary such that

(11.2)
where ~o is the potential of the atom in the absence of the stress, and n is
atomic volume. The contribution of the stress to the chemical potential is
given by the negative work, -ann, which the normal stress does when an atom is
added to a boundary. (It is easier to visualize this if a whole plane of atoms
is plated on the grain boundary).
According to the principles of thermodynamics, the diffusive
flux
density
in
the grain boundary, j. (in atoms per unit time and unit length) is equal to the
1
negative gradient of the chemical potential times the atomic mobility. Thus, in
the
absence
of other driving forces besides stress, the flux density is given
by
(11.3)
where the subscript i
denotes
the
vector
component
and
the
first
factor
represents the atomic mobility.

Mass conservation requires that the negative divergency of this current density
is equal to the number of atoms plated per unit time and unit area on the grain
boundary. Hence
un
the
normal
displacement
rate
of
the
adjacent
grains
-n Viji' or with eq. (11.3):

n6D b
kT
- - - Va
(11.11)
Equation (11.11) above is our basic relation for stress-directed diffusion

grain
is
boundaries,
which
relates
the displacement rate due to the plating of
atoms to the second derivative of the normal stress

Equation
acting
on
the
boundary.
(11.11) is particularly simple to solve if the grains can be considered
as being effectively rigid, so that

connection
along
Un
is constant. Examples will be treated in
with cavity nucleation and growth. If the grains must be considered
as being deformable, eq. (11.11) represents a boundary condition for the

ation of the grains (cf. Section 11.5).
deform-
4.3
Stress-Directed Diffusion Through the Grains
43
4.3 Stress-Directed Diffusion Through the Grains

Stress-directed diffusion through the volume is more
complicated
to
describe
than grain boundary diffusion. The thermal equilibrium concentration of vacancies in the immediate neighborhood of a stressed grain boundary (which is
again
considered as an ideal vacancy source) is

(4.5)
where Co is the concentration in the unstressed solid and an is the normal

component of stress acting on the respective grain boundary (Nabarro, 1948). In
most cases, the second form of eq. (4.5) can be used, in which the
exponential
function is expanded up to linear order of ann/kT.

In a given stress field, differently oriented grain boundaries experience diff-
an. The resulting difference in vacancy concentration

These fluxes
obey the usual diffusion equation (see, e.g., Crank, 1956)
erent
normal
stresses,
near these boundaries causes diffusive fluxes through the grain.
(4.6)
The diffusion coefficient
for
vacancies,
Dvac'
is
related
to
the
volume
self-diffusion coefficient by Dvac = Dv/(cvfc)' where the dimensionless correlation factor fc has values around 0.5, the precise value depending on the type
of
the
crystal
lattice.
The
flux of vacancies from and to grain boundaries
implies a displacement rate between adjacent grains:
(4.7)
IJn
Here, n i is the unit normal vector on the boundary pointing into the upper
grain, Vic~ is the concentration gradient above the boundary and Vic~ is the
gradient taken from below the boundary. (In
symmetric
situations
is
+
Vic v = -ViCv )
Equation (4.7) couples the diffusion problem with
grain
deformation.
It
the
sets
the
problem
of
can be considered as a boundary condition for the dis-
placement rate field in the grains. If the grains are

(4.7)
mechanical
boundary
conditions
effectively
rigid,
eq.
for the diffusion problem with un being
given by the rigid-body motion of the grains. The analysis
of
this
diffusion
4.
44
problem
acv/at
Diffusion
is still not simple (Herring, 1950), but in the steady state, i.e. for
0, the displacement rate must take the form
(4.8)
simply for dimensional consistency. Here L is
the
characteristic
geometrical
length over which diffusion takes place (for example the grain size in NabarroHerring creep), and av is a factor which depends on the geometrical details
the diffusion problem (for example the grain shape).
of
Similarly the displacement rate by grain boundary diffusion can be written as

(4.9)
The contributions to un by volume diffusion and by grain boundary diffusion are

additive owing to the linearity of the problem provided that the linearized
form of eq. (4.5) is applied. Although eq. (4.8) holds for rigid grains and
steady-state
diffusion
grain-bo~~dary
diffusion to hold
equation,
only,
we
in
assume
other
the
cases
additivity
as
well.
of
volume
Then
the
and
basic
eq. (4.4), for stress-direction grain boundary diffusion is modified
to include volume diffusion such that
(4.10)
Within this approximation volume diffusion can be treated as a (not necessarily

small)
correction
to boundary diffusion. In practical cases, the contribution
of volume diffusion is in fact often found to be small. Raj

give
and
Ashby
(1971 )
approximate
values for the ratio av/ab in the range 0.2 to 0.3 for a few
configurations including diffusional creep of a polycrystal as well as sliding
of a grain boundary containing hard particles. For a ferritic steel, Frost and
Ashby (1977) repor.t measured values of Dv/6Db ~ 2.10 8 m- 1 exp(-8,OOO KIT). This
implies that the contribution of volume diffusion to eq. (4.10) reaches that of
boundary diffusion not before the a-Y
L > 70 ~m. For T = 5300 C and L
transition
temperature
(723 0 C)
unless
10 ~m, volume diffusion contributes only 2 per
cent to the displacement rate in eq. (4.10).
4.
Surface Diffusion
45
4.4 Surface Diffusion

Surface diffusion determines the shape
of
growing
cavities
and,
sometimes,
affects the cavity growth rate markedly (Section 11.2).

The driving force for surface diffusion is the tendency to
surface
energy.
minimize
the
free
For isotropic materials this means that free surfaces tend to
assume spherical shapes. The chemical potential of an atom on a curved
surface
is given by
(4.11)
(Herring, 1951). Here,
is the chemical
~o
potential
of
an
atom
on
flat
surface, Ys is the specific surface energy and K1 and K2 are the principal
curvatures of the surface measured positive for the surface of a round cavity.
The
atomic
current
density (in atoms per unit arc length of free surface and
unit time) is given by the negative gradient of
times
the
atomic
mobility,
i.e. ,
( 4.12)
where 60 s is the surface diffusion coefficient having the physical dimension

m3 /sec. For conservation of mass the divergency of ji must equal the number of
atoms plated per unit time and unit area on the surface. Therefore the normal
displacement
rate
of
the
surface caused by the deposition of atoms from the
surface diffusion flux is given by
with Vn being
positive
(4.13)
for
growing
void.
Combining
the
preceding
two
equations gives the governing equation for surface diffusion,

!l 60 s Y
2
--k"';T"--'::'s V (K1
(4.14)
2)
fn analogy to the equation for boundary diffusion,
eq.
void growth problems will be worked out in Section 11.2.
(4.4).
Solutions
for
4.
46
Diffusion
4.5 Grain-Boundary Diffusion Combined with Power-Law Creep

The combined processes of grain-boundary diffusion and power-law creep will
considered
in
assumed to be nonlinear viscous as described by
Ban
be
problems involving cavity nucleation and growth. The grains are

eq. (3.6),
which
reduces
to
in uniaxial tension. Normal displacement rates at the grain boundaries
occur by diffusive transport according to eq. (4.4).

In such a model there are no time-dependent transients
for
constant
external
load since both, the strain rate in the grains and the displacement rate across
the boundaries are functions of the current stress only.
However,
the
Simple
scaling properties of the stress fields in power-law materials are not preserved in the presence of grain boundary
diffusion.
This
is
because
creep
and
diffusion have different stress dependences, so that at high stresses power-law

creep determines the stress
transport
becomes
distribution,
while
at
low
stresses
diffusive
predominant. The interaction between the two mechanisms can
be expressed in terms of a characteristic length,
~,
to be introduced next.
The governing equations, eqs. (.1.6) and (4.4), can be written in the dimensionless form
(3/2) l:n-1
(4.15)
l:!.
IJ
(4.16)
with the characteristic diffusion length,
kT
Un
e:i/(Ba )
(4.18)
un/(Ban L)
(4.19)
l: ..
IJ
is
(4.17)
E
n
EIJ
..
and the normalized quantities:
{l6D b a )1/3
Here,
~,
characteristic
a . ./a
IJ
(4.20)
x/L.
(4.21)
geometrical
length
of
the
problem
under
4.5
47
Grain-Boundary Diffusion and Power-Law Creep
consideration
(for
example,
grain
size
average stress acting on that size
scale
strain
the
rate.
parameters,
The
~/L
equations
for
or
cavity
and
size), a represents the
Ban
is
the
corresponding
normalized quantities contain only two
and n, the latter being less important. Therefore the character
of the stress and strain distribution is determined primarily by

If the diffusive length
~/L.
defined by eq. (4.17) is large compared to the length
L, the displacement rate u by diffusion is large and creep deformation can be

n
neglected. The grains behave effectively rigidly. For ~/L 1, on the other
hand, the displacement rate by diffusion goes to zero, and the deformation
field is determined by creep of the
points
grains
except
possibly
near
particular
where V2 an is large, for example, at a triple junction of sliding grain
boundaries. At such
singularities,
grain
boundary
diffusion
smoothens
out
stress concentrations.
Numerical values for
Inspection
stresses,
of
~
a = 6 MPa),
their
have
been
tabulated
by
Needleman
has usually values of many micrometers

so
and
Rice
(1980).
table shows that at half the melting temperature and low
that
diffusion
is
the
dominant
34
(~=
~m
for
a-iron
lengths as large as typical grain sizes. For ten times greater stresses at
same
temperature,
drops to the order of a micrometer
(~ =
0.4
~m
so that diffusion is important for stress relaxation at second-phase

which
have
typically
if
deformation mechanism over

the
for a-iron)
particles
such a size or for cavity growth. Higher temperature as
well as higher stress reduce the effect of grain boundary diffusion compared to
dislocation
creep.
The
temperature
dependence
occurs
since the activation
energy for grain boundary diffusion is usually smaller than that for
creep.
power-law
Part II
Creep Cavities
5 Introduction to Part II
It has long been known that at elevated temperatures metals and alloys fracture
with
relatively
low
ductility when loaded to moderate stress levels for pro-
longed times. The strain to failure drops from typically 50% to 10% or less
the
test
duration increases from a few minutes to a few months or years. This
loss in ductility is usually caused by

shows
as
var i ous
intergranular
cavitation .
Figure
5.1
stages of creep cavitation. Single isolated cavities can be de-
tected in the secondary stage of the creep curve, sometimes even in the primary
stage . Theoretically, the cavity size at nucleation should range from less than
10 to 100 nm (Section 6.2). Figure 5.1a shows a later stage, in which
start
cavities
to coalesce on grain boundary facets to form grain-size microcracks . The
stage of well-developed microcracks -is shown in Fig. 5.1b.
(These
two
micro-
graphs were taken from areas near a macroscopic crack, but in uniaxial tension,
creep damage exhibits a similar appearance). Finally, coalescence of the cavities leads to a dimpled, intergranular fracture surface as shown in Fig . 5.1c.
Fig. 5.1 . a) and b) Grain boundary cavitation in 1 12Cr-112Mo-1/4V steel

tested at 540 0 c (courtesy V. Detampel) . b) Intergranular fracture surface
of a 1%CrMoV steel tested at 550 0 C (courtesy D. Horstmann) .
5.
52
Introduction to Part II
Qualitative observations on cavity nucleation and growth are summarized in
the
present chapter, while the remainder of Part II is devoted to detailed analyses

of models and comparisons with experiments. Chapters 6 to 10 refer to the nucleation stage describing, in this order, the basic theories, the role of stress
concentrations, the effects of impurity segregation to grain boundaries and gas
bubble
formation. These investigations aid the understanding of the nucleation
process, but do not have a predictive capability in a quantitative

chapters
on
nucleation
are
sense.
cavity growth and coalescence mechanisms. The calculation of rupture

in
The
followed by Chapters 11 to 15 describing various

lifetimes
engineering alloys is complicated by the fact that cavity nucleation occurs
continuously. Therefore a theory for the evolution of the cavity size distribution function is developed in Chapter 16. Section 16.3 contains a detailed comparison of calculated and measured rupture lifetimes. Chapter 17 summarizes the
results
of
the
preceding
chapters. Finally, a chapter on cavitation failure
under cyclic loading conditions concludes Part II.
5.1 Experimental Techniques

Several experimental techniques have been
cavitation.
Accurate
density
employed
measurements
allow
total cavity volume (e.g., Hanson and Wheeler, 1931;

1961;
Johannesson
to
study
Boettner
total
cavity
boundary
and
Robertson,
and Tholen, 1969; Dunlop, Twigg and Taplin, 1978; Hanna and
Greenwood, 1982). Small-angle neutron scattering is another

the
grain
for a determination of the
volume
and,
under
favorable
means
to
measure
conditions, the cavity size
distribution (e.g., Saegusa et aI, 1978; Nilsson and Roth, 1981; Page, Weertman
and
Roth,
1982;
Yoo et aI, 1982). The method is sensitive to small cavities,
but the signal arising from precipitates, which usually also grow during
of
structural
materials,
cannot be resolved. Similar problems are expected to obstruct

of
other
the
to
distinguish
Further, high voltage electron microscopy has been used to study the
and
application
non-destructive testing techniques, like ultrasonic or micromagnetic
methods, whose response to cavities is difficult

response to changes in the precipitate structure.
size
creep
may be dominant, so that the scattering by cavities
from
the
location,
shape of very small cavities (e.g., Fleck, Taplin and Beevers, 1975;
Svensson and Dunlop, 1979) or of gas bubbles (Braski et
aI,
1979).
Also
the
scanning electron microscope is a widely used tool to observe cavities and, together with energy dispersion analysis, to identify particles at which cavities
5.1
53
Experimental Techniques
may have nucleated. Chen and Argon (1981a) combine scanning electron microscopy
with a two stage creep technique; by a
strain
after
polishing
small
additional
increment
by
ion
beam
small
the
polished
cavities
etching of the polished sections. A method which is now
well established for the field inspection of power plants is to

from
creep
the specimens, they open up small cavities, which may
have been closed by polishing. Needham and Gladman (1980) make

visible
of
take
replicas
and etched surface of critical parts such as welds or pipe
bends and to inspect the replicas for creep damage in the optical
or
scanning
electron microscope (Neubauer, 1981; Neubauer and Arens-Fischer, 1982).

Another class of methods consists in interrupting creep tests at various stages
and
fracturing the crept specimens in a brittle manner along the grain bounda-
ries, so that the cavities are exposed and can be observed. Brittle intergranular
fracture
can be achieved in magnesium alloys, ferritic steels and even in
certain austenitic steels by impact loading at

Wingrove,
1967;
Cane
and
Greenwood,
low
temperatures
(Taplin
and
1975; Pilkington, Miller and Worswick,
1981; Chen and Argon, 1981 a). Other mater ials can be made to cleave along their
grain
boundaries
by
liquid
metal
embrittlement (Reiley, 1981) or by stress
corrosion cracking (Elliott and Wilshire, 1979).
5.2 Materials which Exhibit Intergranular Cavitation

The first systematic study on cavitation, which is known to the author, is that
of
Hanson
and Wheeler (1931) on aluminum alloys, which was probably motivated
by the need of understanding the long-term performance of aircraft engines.

Large engineering structures such as electricity-generating plants are
built
usually
of the relatively cheap ferritic steels. Around the turn of the century,
steam engines operated at steam temperatures of 200 0 C. The turbines of the late
1920's
used
superheated
steam of around 400 0 C, temperatures which were still
achievable with the conventional carbon steels. Pushing the temperature
beyond
400 0 C required new concepts in alloy design. This led to the development of the
bainitic low-alloy chromium-molybdenum steels in the 1930's, in particular
applications
based on the same ideas (Khare, 1983). The maximum operating

the
low-alloy
for
in power plants. Many of today's creep-resistant steels are still

steels now range from 530 to
565 0
temperatures
for
C. Steels with higher chromium
content, for example the 12%CrMoV steels with tempered martensite
microstruct-
ures, retain a sufficient creep resistance (and oxidation resistance) up to 600
5.
54
to 650 0 C. Under service conditions, many of these steels develop

creep
cavities
interest in cavitation in creep-resistant steels. Examples are

Johannesson
intergranular
which can lead to failures. Hence, there has been a continuous
and
Tholen
(1969),
the
papers
of
Tipler and Hopkins (1976), Cane (1976, 1979,
1981), Lonsdale and Flewitt (1981), Sklenicka et al (1981), Needham and Gladman
(1982,
1984),
and
Needham
(1983). In parallel, grain boundary cavitation in
pure a-iron has been studied by Taplin and Wingrove (1967), Cane and
(1975)
Greenwood
and Player and Brinson (1975). For an evaluation of creep rupture tests
on ferrous alloys see Sections 12.1.2, 16.3.1 and 16.3.2.

Austenitic steels can be applied at higher temperatures than
up
to
800 0
some
c,
ferritic
for example in the chemical industries. Also the pressure
vessels of fast breeder reactors are made of austenitic steels. Some

not
cavitate
steels,
heats
readily (Abou Zahra and Schroder, 1982) while others do (Dunlop,
Twigg and Taplin, 1978; Needham and Gladman, 1980; Chen and Argon, 1981;
deman
et
do
Swin-
aI, 1981; Gandhi and Raj, 1982). The pronounced heat-to-heat variat-
ions are ascribed primarily to differences in the carbide morphology, which, in

turn, is affected by the presence of trace elements (Swindeman et aI, 1983).
Another impetus to study intergranular cavitation came from failures of nuclear
reactor fuel rods which, in the gas-cooled Magnox reactors, are made from magnesium alloys. Greenwood, Miller and Suiter (1954) studied cavitation in magnesium
(and
also
in
copper and a-brass). They were among the fjrst who clearly
established that the loss of ductility at elevated temperatures and slow strain
rates was a consequence of grain boundary cavitation. Subsequent work on magnesium and its alloys was reviewed by Perry (1974).
More recently, the development of nickel-base superalloys added
of
commercial
conditions.
materials
Superalloys
applications
and
for
which
are
jet
may
used
another
class
fail by cavitation under typical service

in
gas
turbines,
both
for
stationary
engines, and also for pipes and sheet materials in
high temperature reactors. Perry (1974) has thoroughly reviewed published

on
cavitation
of
superalloys.
work
More recent papers are, for example, those by
Dyson and McLean (1977) and by Shiozawa and Weertman (1983).
Tests
on
nickel
and its alloys are evaluated in Sections 12.4.2, 12.4.3 and 16.3.3.
Copper and its alloys have been convenient materials to study
cavitation
the
physics
of
starting with the work of Jenkins et al (1943) on a Cu-Ni-Si alloy.
Other measurements on copper and brass will be described
in
Sections
11.1.2,
5.2
Materials Exhibiting Cavitation
55
11.2.7 and 12.4.3. Observations of cavitation in titanium alloys are summarized

by Krishnamohanrao et al (1986). Among the less common metals,
1966),
silver
(Price,
tungsten (Stiegler et al, 1967) and zirconium (Snowden et aI, 1981) are
known to cavitate under appropriate conditions, whereas lead does
not,
unless
specific impurities are present (Greenwood, 1978).

Other classes of materials some of which fail by
inter granular
cavitation
at
high temperatures are the ordered intermetallic compounds like C0 3Ti (Takasugi
and Izumi, 1985) and the structural ceramics (Davidge, 1979; Porter et aI,
1981; Hsueh and Evans, 1981; Evans, 1982).
Although cavitation is a widespread failure mechanism, it is by no
means
uni-
versal. Pure aluminum (Chang and Grant, 1953), lead and titanium do not exhibit
cavitation nor do some of the low-alloy creep-resistant steels nor some austenitic
steels.
nickel-base superalloys Nimonic 105, Nimonic 115 and IN 100

fail by the growth of oxidized surface cracks at temperatures around 900 0C
(Dennison
et
The
aI, 1978) and changes in microstructure during creep play an im-
portant role. However, Nimonic 105 cavitates when pre-strained at room

ature
(Burt,
Elliott
and
Wilshi~,
temper-
1981). The occurrence of cavitation also
depends on details of the heat treatment (as in ferritic and austenitic steels)
and
on
minor
changes
in
alloy composition. For example, small additions of
zirconium to a Ni-20%Cr alloy can suppress cavitation (Schneibel et
aI,
1983)
to
inter-
in favor of ductile transgranular failure.
5.3 Diffusion as the General Cause for Intergranular Cavitation

The general cause for the transition from voidage within the grains
granular cavitation is that atomic vacancies become mobile at elevated temperatures. At typical service temperatures
along
of
creep-resistant
alloys,
diffusion
grain boundary predominates. Vacancies diffusing in grain boundaries can
aggregate to form cavity nuclei. Further, grain boundaries are considered as

effective vacancy sources (Balluffi, 1980) so that enough vacancies are supplied to feed cavity growth. Finally, the mobility of atoms leads to the possibility
of grain boundary sliding. Associated with sliding are stress concentra-
tions at obstacles like second-phase particles or triple grain junctions.

may
enhance
cavity
nucleation.
At
This
even higher temperatures, however, rapid
dIffusion enables grain boundary migration and recrystallization to take place,

which terminates the range in which cavitation prevails.
5.
56
5.4 The Role of Grain Bonndary Sliding

5.4.1
Experiments on bicrystals
The importance of grain boundary sliding for cavity nucleation in a pure

has
been
convincingly
demonstrated
by
metal
Chen and Machlin (1956, 1957) and by
Intrater and Machlin (1959, 1959/60). They performed
creep
rupture
tests
on
copper bicrystals and found that no cavitation takes place when the grain boundary is subjected to normal tension only, but that cavitation
if
becomes
profuse
a shear force is applied to the grain boundary prior to tensile loading. On
the other hand, Raj (1975) obtained cavitation of bicrystal grain boundaries in
copper
under tensile loading alone. In this case, nucleation occurred at oxide
particles. Possibly no such particles were present in the

Chen
material
tested
by
and Machlin. Gandhi and Raj (1982) observed cavitation in stainless steel
bicrystals under normal tension. Thus at least in pure metals,

sliding
seems
to
play
grain
boundary
an important role in cavity nucleation, but it is not
always a necessary prerequisite.

5.4.2
The orientation of cavitating boundaries in polycrystals
That grain boundary sliding can hardly be the overriding factor
in
cavitation
is also demonstrated by the common observation that in polycrystals grain boundaries which are oriented normal to the applied tensile stress,
slide
the
least,
and
therefore
cavitate preferentially. This was shown by Davies, Williams
and Wilshire (1968), by Johannesson
and
Tholen
(1969),
by
Chen
and
Argon
(1981a) and by Chen and Weertman (1984). In some cases, the orientation distribution of cavitated boundaries depends on the testing
(1973),
for
conditions.
Rao
et
al
example, observe preferred cavitation of inclined boundaries only
in fine-grained material of an austenitic steel. Further, cavitation on inclined
boundaries
seems
to predominate at high strain rates, while at low strain
rates normal boundaries cavitate (Wingrove and Taplin, 1969a, on iron;
Gittins
and Williams, 1967, on copper). However, this dependence on strain rate was not
observed by Davies, Williams and Wilshire (1968) for pure copper. In summary,
cavitation
appears to be more pronounced on normal boundaries than on inclined
boundaries. Even if this were due

preferred
to
faster
cavity
growth
rather
than
to
nucleation, cavitation of normal boundaries is probably the relevant
process that leads to fracture.
5.5
51
5.5 Cavity Nucleation Sites

It is very unlikely that cavity nucleation can occur at an
arbitrary
location
in a grain boundary. In pure metals, cavities are often initiated at the intersection of a slip band with a grain boundary or
at
ledges
in
the
boundary.
Commercial materials usually contain second-phase particles on grain boundaries

in order to prevent or to minimIze grain boundary sliding. These particles
are
prone to nucleate cavities, and in this respect they effect the mechanical properties of materials adversely.
5.5.1
Slip bands
Dislocation motion during plastic deformation is concentrated in more

pronounced
slip
bands
within
the
or
less
grains. If such a slip band impinges on a
grain boundary, it causes a stress concentration which might nucleate a cavity.

Indeed,
Watanabe
and Davies (1918) present evidence that cavities are located
where slip bands intersect the grain boundary in a copper bicrystal. Similarly,
Nieh and Nix (1980b) find that in copper polycrystals the cavity spacing is
equal to the slip band spacing. Both-vary in proportion to 1/0 in the stress
range 10 to 100 MPa at 500 oC. Sklenicka et al (1981a,b), on the other hand,
deny such a correlation, although their
testing
conditions
were
similar
to
those of Nieh and Nix.

In nickel-base superalloys the slip character is usually
slip
coarse
intense
bands. Cavities are often found at places where a slip band hits a grain-
boundary carbide, and the cavity spacing is approximately

band
with
spacing
equal
to
the
slip
(Shiozawa and Weertman, 1983). An analysis of the stress concen-
tration at a slip band will be described in Section 1.1.

Instead of nucleating a cavity, the stress concentration at
initiate
slip
in
the
neighboring
slip
band
can
grain. This leads to a ledge in the grain
boundary as indicated in Fig. 5.2. Subsequently, grain
boundary
sliding
con-
centrates stress on such a ledge.

5.5.2
Grain-boundary ledges
In the early papers of Chen and Machlin (1956, 1951) and

idea
of
cavity
initiation
Gifkins
(1956),
the
at ledges in grain boundaries was favored. McLean
(1963) supported the idea on theoretical grounds, but Harris (1965) showed that
5.
58
aJ
compressive
cavities
ledge
tensile ledge
compressive ledge
Fig. 5.2. Cavity nucleation at grown-in and slip-induced ledges
and at a triple junction.
McLean's conclusion would have been different, had he used a correct value
for
the diffusion coefficient.

The ledges can be grown-in features of the boundary, or they
slip
can
result
from
in the adjacent grains, which intersects the boundary (Fig. 5.2). Depend-
ing on the orientation of the ledge with respect to the sliding direction,
ledge
the
experiences tensile or compressive stresses, and only the tensile ledges
are expected to initiate cavities. Incidentally, slip-induced ledges tend to be

of
the compressiye type, for geometrical reasons, which are apparent from Fig.
5.2b. Application of an external compressive load,
however,
leads
to
ledges
which experience tensile stresses in a subsequent tensile creep test. In agreement with this expectation, Davies, Williams and Wilshire (1968) found a higher
incidence
of cavitation on inclined, i.e. sliding, boundaries if the specimens
were compressed before the tensile creep test. Watanabe and Davies
port
(1978)
re-
cavity formation at slip-induced compressive ledges in copper bicrystals,
but these cavities may have been nucleated already by the slip band rather than
by grain boundary sliding focussing stress on the ledge.
Further experimental evidence for cavity nucleation at ledges was presented
Watanabe
(1983)
for an iron/tin alloy. In this case, rather large ledges were
produced by grain boundary migration. The defects generated by

sliding
by
grain
boundary
at these ledges were microcracks rather than typical cavities. Similar
5.5
59
results were obtained by Presland and Hutchinson (1963/4) on magnesium in which

a
high
percentage
of the cavities initiated on cusps in grain boundaries re-
sulting from intersection of a sub-boundary. In summary, cavity

ledges
seems
probably less important, since

Stress
nucleation
at
to occur in pure metals. In engineering alloy, this mechanism is

there
nucleation
at
particles
predominates.
concentrations at ledges during grain boundary sliding will be analysed
in Section 7.4.
5.5.3
Triple grain junctions
If grain boundaries slide easily, as they do in pure metals, they focus

on
triple
grain
stress
junctions (see Fig.5.2). These stress concentrations will be
described in Section 7.2. In fact, cavities at triple junctions have
been
ob-
served frequently. An early study of triple-point cracking is that of Chang and

Grant (1956). Cavities at triple junctions sometimes have
the
form
of
wedge
cracks (Section 5.6) as distinct from the usual, rounded cavity shapes.
5.5.4
Grain boundary particles
In commercial materials, the most common cavity nucleation

phase
sites
are
second-
particles in grain boundaries. Numerous investigations show that in low-
alloy steels, cavities are often associated with carbide particles (Johannesson
and
1969;
Thole~,
Cane,
1976;
Miller
and
Pilkington,
1978; Lonsdale and
Flewitt, 1979). In a detailed study, Needham (1983) observes cavities at grainboundary carbides, preferably of the type Mo 2C, in two low-alloy bainitic Cr-Mo
steels. In vanadium-bearing steels, VC-particles are known to nucleate cavities.
Besides the carbides, there are other inclusions at which cavities can be
formed. Gooch (1982) reports cavity nucleation at sulfide, silicate

inclusions
and
oxide
in a 12%Cr steel, where carbides act as secondary nucleation sites.
If MnS-particles are precipitated to grain boundaries, which may happen in

heat-affected
zone
of
weld,
they
the
nucleate cavities readily (Cane, 1981;
Middleton, 1981; Cane and Middleton, 1981; Needham, 1983). This may give rise
to stress relief cracking (Section 8.1.3) and to poor creep rupture properties.
In a-iron, cavity formation was found to occur at sulfides, but not at carbides
(George,
1985). Oxides decohere from the iron matrix only if sulfur is present
in the particle/matrix interface. Older papers simply state that oxides act
cavity
nucleation
sites
as
in a-iron containing 200 ppm oxygen (Taplin and Win-
grove, 1967) or 2.8 ppm oxygen (Player and Brinson, 1975) with no reference
to
5.
60
a possible effect of sulfur.

In austenitic steels cavities nucleate at grain-boundary carbides (Argon,
and
Lau,
1981;
Swindeman,
Farrell
Chen
and Yoo, 1981). The same is true for the
formation of helium bubbles during creep of irradiated material (Braski et
aI,
1979; see also Section 9.3). After long-time exposure to high temperature, when
sigma phase has been prectpitated, cracks sometimes nucleate at the sigma-austenite
interface (Williams, Harries and Furnival, 1972; Lai and Wickens, 1979).
Cavity formation at sigma-phase particles was shown

(1979)
to
be
responsible
by
Chasterl
and
Flewitt
for the premature failure of a Type 316 stainless-
steel superheater tube in a power station. Finally Rao, Rao and
Pandey
(1973)
observed cracking along the interface between the matrix and Cr 2N-precipitates
within the grains of a manganese-nitrogen austenitic steel.
In nickel-base superalloys, coarse M23 c6 -carbides have been identified as cavity nucleation sites (Law and Blackburn, 1980), often in conjunction with a slip
band impinging on the particle from the grain interior (Shiozawa and
Weertman,
1983).
In copper, there are often small oxide particles (Si0 2 or CuO) which nucleate
cavities (Raj, 1975; Pavinich and Raj, 1977; Chen and Weertman, 1984). By highvoltage electron microscopy, Fleck, Taplin and Beevers
(1975)
observe
cavity
nucleation in a copper alloy exclusively at (unspecified) particles.

Harris (1965) shows that in commercially pure magnesium and
alloy
in
the
magnesium
Magnox AL80, cavities nucleate at particles, the nature of which was not
identified.
There are several possible reasons why grain-boundary particles act as preferred cavity nucleations sites. First, because they resist grain boundary sliding,
they experience stress concentrations, which will be calculated in Section 7.3.
Second, they may be weakly bonded to the matrix. While this is conceivable for
sulfide and oxide particles, carbides are generally assumed to be well bonded,
since they do not easily decohere during room temperature straining. Therefore,
a third possibility may be important, namely, that cavity nucleation
icle/matrix
at
part-
interfaces may be relatively easy via vacancy condensation even if
the interface has a high strength as will be shown in Section 6.2.
5.6
61
Wedge Cracks
5.6 Wedge Cracks

Intergranular cracks often emanate
shown
in
from
grain-boundary
triple
junctions
as
Fig. 5.3. Their wedge-type shape suggests that they are opened up by
the sliding of inclined grain boundaries. These wedge cracks are preferentially
observed
after creep testing at high stresses. In nickel-base superalloys, for
example, McLean (1956/7) finds that wedge cracks predominate at stresses above
150 MPa in the temperature range 700 0 C to 950 oC. Lai and Wickens (1979) observe
wedge cracking in austenitic steel above 200 to 250 MPa at temperatures between
500 0 C and
675 0 C.
The
transition
from the occurrence of rounded cavities to
wedge cracks has been called Stroh/McLean transition.

sidered
Stroh
(1957)
has
con-
brittle cracking in connection with cleavage fracture, and wedge crack
formation is sometimes envisaged as a brittle decohesion of the grains.

In many cases, however, wedge cracks are obviously a result of cavity
ence
rather
than
coalesc-
one of brittle cracking. Sometimes their origin is apparent
from their serrated edges (Chen, 1956; Chen and Argon, 1981a).
Experimentally,
the distinction between brittle decohesion and cavity coalescence is not simple
as exemplified by the study of Mullendore and Grant (1961) (quoted by Grant,
1971) on an AI-5%Mg alloy. After a certain preparation of the polished sections
of crept specimens, wedge cracks were observed which appeared
to
have
smooth
edges. A further light etching, however, revealed numerous small rounded cavities on boundaries which had not yet cracked. Most probably the
have
linked up to form wedge cracks,
cavities
had the test been continued.
a)
Fig. 5.3. Wedge cracks having smooth or serrated edges.
would
A possible
5.
62
example for brittle decohesion is the brittle mode of

discussed
by
stress
relief
cracking
recently by McMahon (1984) (Section 8.1.3). Brittle cracking is cer-
tainly sensitive to impurity segregation to grain

shown
boundaries
as
was
already
McLean (1956/7) for nickel-base superalloys. An effect of impurities
is plausible since it is known that elements like phosphorus or
sulfur
reduce
the cohesive strength of grain boundaries (Section 8.2.4).

If cavity coalescence is the prevailing mechanism for wedge-crack formation,
separate
discussion of wedge cracks is not necessary. The kinetics of the pro-
cess would then be determined by the nucleation and growth of cavities, and the
difference
to
homogeneous
cavitation on the boundary facet would probably be
inSignificant. Brittle decohesion of the grain boundaries, however,
will
obey
different kinetic laws. Attempts to model wedge-crack growth have been based on
Stroh's (1957) and Cottrell's (1958) elastic analysis of a wedge
and
Williams,
1970,
1971;
Burton
stable, time-dependent crack growth. However, this is

artefact,
for
crack
(Heald
and Heald, 1975). Such models indeed give

probably
theoretical
Smith (1966) has shown that a slip-induced micro-crack together
with the nucleating slip band is not a mechanically stable configuration, i.e.,
the
crack would propagate unstably once it propagates at all. Smith's conclus-
ion is based on the analysis of a configuration

boundary
and
the
microcrack
plane
which
the
sliding
grain
are coplanar. Riedel (1976) generalized Smith's
analYSis by examining a triple junction with an

crack
in
angle
of
135
between
the
and the sliding boundaries. This model gives a very limited range
of crack stablility which, however, cannot account for
the
stable
growth
of
wedge cracks over appreciable fractions of a grain facet. Thus the relevance of
existing models (most of which have
fracture)
is
questionable
in
originally
relation
to
been
developed
wedge-crack
for
growth
cleavage
under creep
conditions. Therefore, they will not be presented here.
5.7 Some Observations on the Kinetics of Cavity Nucleation

5.7.1
The observed nucleation kinetics
Numerous investigations agree on that cavity nucleation generally starts

and
continues
early
over an appreciable fraction of, or over the whole, creep life.
Quantitative measurements of the cavity nucleation rate have been made by counting
the
number
densities of observable cavities at various fractions of the
lifetime. These counts are usually made at cavity sizes of 0.5 to 1
~m,
whereas
5.7
Observations on
cavity
nuclei
Nu~leation
63
Kinetics
are much smaller, say, 20 nm. Therefore the apparent nucleation
kinetics may be distorted by cavity growth. Dyson (1983), however,
points
out
that small cavities tend to grow rapidly and therefore the counting of cavities
having a size of 0.5
reflects the kinetics of cavity nucleation sufficiently
accurately in many practical cases.

As Dyson (1983) further noticed, a common result of many
is
that
the
number
of
cavities,
experimental
studies
N, per unit grain boundary area increases
approximately in proportion to creep strain with a
factor
of
proportionality
which, to a first approximation, is independent of stress. This observation can

be expressed as
a' e:
or
(5.1)
J*
a'
E,
where J* is the cavity nucleation rate per unit grain boundary area, a'
empirical
factor
is
an
of proportionality having the physical dimension [m- 2 ] and
is strain rate. By agreement, the number of cavities is referred to those grain

boundaries
only
whose
normals
deviate by at most 30 0 from the tensile axis,
because these boundaries cavitate preferentially.

Such a linear dependence of cavity density
slight
modifications)
by
Greenwood
on
(1969)
strain
has
been
found
(with
and by Fleck, Taplin and Beevers
(1975) for copper, and by several authors for steels
and
for
superalloys.
selection of measured data for the material parameter a' is shown in Table 5.1,
the values for which are partly taken from a diagram compiled by Dyson
The
table
material.
shows
There
1/2Cr-1/2Mo-1/4V
that
is
and
(1983).
the number of cavities varies greatly from material to

substantial
1Cr-1Mo-1/4V.
difference
even
between
the
steels
Further, the cavity density in overheated
material (austenized at 1300 0 C to simulate the heat affected zone of a weld) is

much
higher
than in material which was austenized at lower temperatures. This
is probably so because the overheated material contains finely dispersed sulfides
on
grain
boundaries,
at which cavities nucleate easily. By reducing the
content in trace impurities (Cu, As, Sb, S, 0 and N), Tipler and Hopkins (1976)
optained very low cavity densities as shown by the data for high purity steels.
Nickel-based alloys exhibit a similar sensitivity to trace impurities,
observed, for example, by Thomas and Gibbons (1984).
as
was
5.
64
Material
Source
a' in m- 2
21/~Cr-1Mo
steel
(austenized at' 1300 0 C)
Cane (1979)
Dyson (1983)
4.10 12
2.7
lCr-1Mo-1/4V steel
(austenized at 1300 0 C)
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
1.4.1012
0.2-1
1 12Cr-l 12Mo-1/4V steel
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
1.5.1012
2.2
lCr-1Mo-1/4V steel
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
4.10 10
high purity steels
Tipler and
Hopkins (1976)
Type 347 stainless

steel
Dyson (1983)
Needham and
Gladman (1980)
8.10 11
NimoniQ 80A (in tension)
Dyson (1983)
4.10 10
25
Ef
(2-10) .10 9
in %
6-19
Table 5.1. Cavity nucleation rate (per unit strain) and strain-to-fracture.
Not surprisingly, the materials with the lowest cavity

highest
ductilities.
For
the
between the strain to failure,

E
f
materials
Ef
densities
exhibit
the
included in Table 5.1, the relation
, and a' can be approximated by
1250 a,-0.4
(5.2)
although the scatter around this relation is considerable.

Needham (1983), by comparing smooth and notched specimens, examined the
of
the
effect
stress state on the nUCleation rate in two Cr-Mo steels. He found that
it is the principal tensile stress, aI'
which
controls
the
nucleation
rate
according to N O~ with m = 4 to 7. The von Mises equivalent stress, 0e' is

usually less important except at high stresses in 21/~Cr-1Mo steel where
Needham
finds
oi
a!. The predominance of the principal tensile stress was
also found by Dyson and McLean (1977) who carried out tests on Nimonic
80A
in
tension and torsion.

The proportionality of the cavity density to strain sometimes holds until
very
5.7
Observations on Nucleation Kinetics
close
65
to final failure (see, e.g., Dyson and McLean, 1972). In other cases, in
particular in the overheated Cr-Mo steels studied by Cane (1979, 1981), by Cane
and
Middleton
(1981) and by Middleton (1981), the cavity density saturates at
some fraction of the lifetime with a saturation value, which increases with
stress as Nsat 0 1 3 Apparently, the sulfide particles which are the primary
nucleation sites in the overheated condition tend to nucleate cavities early in
creep
life.
In
Type
304
stainless
steel, the cavity density also tends to
saturate to a stress-dependent maximum value (Chen and Argon, 1981a).

Another deviation from the nucleat10n kinetics given in eq. (5.1) is an
ional
stress
for a-iron and by Dyson and McLean (1972) for Nimonic

may
be
addit-
dependence of a' which was reported by Cane and Greenwood (1975)
critical
cavity
80A.
Especially,
there
nucleation stress, which will be discussed in the
following subsection. Further, a small offset strain is occasionally found such

that N = a'(-)
(Greenwood, 1969). Finally, the experiments of Shiozawa and
o
Weertmann (1983) on the nickel-base superalloy astroloy revealed a slightly
different
kinetic behavior than eq. (5.1) the difference being possibly due to
inaccuracies in the measurements. They found that the inverse spacings of cavities,
A,
and of coarse slip bands both increase in proportion to strain. This
means that the cavity density, which is N = 1/A 2 , increases

strain
squared.
in
proportion
to
Evans (1984) quotes a few other papers containing information
on the increase in cavity number with strain. Rationalizations of the
observed
behavior will be given in the following chapters, especially in Section 6.3.3.

5.7.2
Is there a critical stress for cavity nucleation?
In copper, Fleck, Taplin and Beevers (1975) observed cavities at stresses down
to 8 MPa, but none below 8 MPa. In a-iron at 700 oC, the lowest stress applied
by Cane and Greenwood (1975) was 9 MPa
Dyson
and
McLean
and
they
still obtained cavitation.

0
(1972) observed cavities at 750 C in Nimonic 80A at applied
stresses between 92 and 385 MPa. It is possible, however, that cavitation would
have
occurred at lower stress as well. In ferritic steels, design stresses for
long-time service are typically 50 MPa at 550C. Often cavities

under
these
are
developed
conditions. In the laboratory, Cane (1979) and Cane and Middleton
(1981) found cavities in overheated 2 i /.Cr-1Mo steel at stresses between 62 and

147 MPa at 565 0 C. In the same material, Needham (1983) did tests down to 92 MPa
at 550C. He found cavitation failure in overheated material (austenized at
1300 oC), while material austenized at 950C failed in a mixed intergranularl
transgranular ductile mode at 92 MPa. At 132 MPa the material failed completely
5.
66
by
intergranular
cavitation. This observation might be taken as an indication
that cavity nucleation becomes difficult below 100 MPa in the

finely
absence
of
the
dispersed sulfides which characterize the overheated material. In aust-
enitic steels, the minimum stresses applied by Needham and Gladman

by Chen and Argon (1981) ranged from 277 MPa at
550 0 C
In summary, cavities
metals
are
nucleated
in
pure
to 76 MPa at
below
(1980)
and
700 0 C.
10 MPa,
whereas
engineering alloys usually do not fracture within a reasonable time at stresses

below 50 to 100 MPa. Whether this extended lifetime is due to
tbe
suppression
of cavity nucleation or to excessively slow growth, remains to be clarified.
5.8 Pre-Existing Cavities

Cavities may be present in materials even before a creep test has been started.
For
example,
rapid cooling from the melt may cause decohesion of second-phase
particles if the thermal expansion coefficients of the particle and the
matrix
are sufficiently different and if the material is unable to accommodate the

difference by creep or some other deformation mechanism (Section 10.5). Similarly,
the growth of precipitates during a heat treatment of the material leads
to misfits, which might also cause decohesion (Sections 10.1 to 10.4).

In other cases, pre-existing cavities are introduced intentionally in order
bypass
to
the nucleation stage and to obtain information on growth alone. A first
method is to implant gas bubbles by heat treatments in

spheres.
These
appropriate
gas
atmo-
bubbles drastically reduce the creep life and creep ductility,
which in this case reflect the growth kinetics exclusively. Pertinent references are given in Sections 9, 11.2.7 and 12.4.3.
Further, the nucleation stage has been bypassed by prestraining at room temperature,
and a subsequent annealing treatment at higher temperatures. In nickel-
base superalloys this procedure produces cavities, probably by

boundary
interactions,
which
creep test (Dyson, Loveday

Shiozawa
and
slip-band/grain
cause a great loss in ductility in a subsequent

Rodgers,
1976;
Parker
and
Wilshire,
1980;
and Weertman, 1981, 1983; Burt, Elliott and Wilshire, 1981; Nazmyand
Duerig, 1982; Loveday and Dyson, 1983; and Pandey, Mukherjee and Taplin, 1984).
The results of some of these tests are evaluated in Section 12.4.
6 Nucleation of Creep Cavities/Basic Theories
Two mechanisms for cavity nucleation are described

rupturing of atomic bonds by high local stresses,
below,
namely,
especia~ly
first
the
across grain boun-
daries or other interfaces, and second the condensation of atomic vacancies.
6.1 Cavitiy Nucleation by the Rupturing of Atomic Bonds

The ideal cohesive strength of solids, aid' is determined by the forces between
neighboring planes of atoms. The following analysis relates aid to Young's
modulus of elasticity, E, and to the free surface energy, Ys ' In order to
establish
this
relationship the force per unit area between two atomic planes
is assumed to vary as
a(u) = (Eu/b) F(u/uo )'
(6.1)
when the planes are pulled apart. Here, u is the relative displacement
planes
of
the
(u = 0 corresponds to the equilibrium distance; see Fig. 6.1), b is the
atomic spacing,
the
atomic
Uo is an adjustable parameter which characterizes the range

of
forces, and F is an as yet unspecified dimensionless function with
F(O) = 1. The form of eq. (6.1) has been chosen such that it gives
elastic
behavior
the
linear
for small u (note that u/b is the extensional strain so that
a = EE). Further, the integral over a(u) is the mechanical work expended during
the
separation
of
the specimen halves. It must be equal to twice the surface
energy, since two new surfaces are created. This requirement determines
Uo
once
the form of F has been specified:
J a(u) du
o
where x
(E/b) u 2 J xF(x) dx
o 0
(6.2)
u/u o ' The ideal strength is the maximum of a(u) which is found to be
6.
68
Nucleation of Cavities
01
~
b
as to
u/b
Fig. 6.1. Interatomic forces for two hypothetic functions F(u/U o )
with uo/b
0.316.
where the dimensionless factor m is defined by

~
(2 I f xF(x) dx)1/2 Max[xF(x)].
x2 )-2, the value of m is

respectively. For E = 1.5.10 5 MPa,
If F is chosen as F(x) = exp(-x), exp(-x 2 /2), and (1

obtained
as
(6.4)
m = 0.52,
0.86
and
0.65,
Ys = 1.5 J/m 2 and b = 2 10- 10m, eq. (6.3) gives the ideal strength in the order
of magnitude of E/l0 in accord with results of Orowan (1948) and Kelly (1966).
0
Thus the ideal strength is of the order of 10,000 MPa, whereas typical stresses
applied
under
creep
rupture conditions are lOa-fold lower. Hence it is clear
that the rupturing of atomic bonds in the perfect crystal lattice cannot be expected to occur unless very high stress concentrations are built up locally.
Usually cavities are nucleated at interfaces, which are weaker than the lattice
and,
possibly,
have
other
properties
that favor cavity nucleation. For the
decohesion of a grain boundary, the grain boundary energy Yb is available and

need not be expended by the loading system. Hence, 2Ys in the above formulas
must be replaced by 2Ys -Yb Since typically Yb
= Ys/3,
this
substitution
im-
6.1
Nucleation by the Rupturing of Atomic Bonds
69
plies no great reduction of the ideal strength. A particle/matrix interface has

an interface energy Yi before separation and the energy Ys + Yp afterwards,
where Yp is the surface energy of the particle. Hence, one must replace 2Ys by
Y +Y -Y i in eqs (6.2) and (6.3). Without knowing these specific energies, it is
s p
clear that certain inclusions are weakly bonded, such as oxides or sulfides in
steels. On the other hand, carbides in steels are considered to be well bonded,
so
that
they
do
not
decohere easily by the rupturing of atomic bonds. From
tests on a spheroidized carbon steel and on a maraging steel at room

ure,
combined
the strength of the carbide/matrix interface to be E/100

tests,
the
so
1,500 MPa. In
creep
applied stresses are usually much smaller than in room-temperature
tests, but the stress concentrations by grain

higher,
temperat-
with a continuum-mechanical analysis, Argon and 1m (1975) infer
boundary
sliding
are
possibly
that it cannot be excluded that a local stress of 1,500 MPa can be
achieved under creep conditions, too.

An effect which cannot be neglected in the discussion of decohesion
of
inter-
faces is the segregation of impurity atoms. The role of impurities is described

in Chapter 8. One of the conclusions will
be
that
impurity
segregation
can
hardly reduce the cohesive strength by more than 50%.

In summary, the rupturing of atomic bonds can only occur at weakly bonded
par-
ticles or by stress concentrations which are probably not achievable under lowstress creep conditions as we shall see. An alternative
me"chanism
for
cavity
of
atomic
nucleation is described next.
6.2 Cavity Nucleation by Vacancy Condensation

6.2.1
Historical remarks and related subject areas
As we have seen in the preceding section,

bonds
the
athermal
rupturing
requires rather high stresses. At elevated temperatures, thermally acti-
vated processes might nucleate cavities at lower stresses, a possibility

is
which
now examined. Early in the history of research on creep cavities, Greenwood
(1952) and Greenwood, Miller and Suiter (1954) proposed
that
voids
could
be
nucleated by the condensation of atomic vacancies. The idea was first dismissed
since theoretical arguments seemed to indicate that vacancy precipitation
voids
into
was very unlikely under creep-rupture conditions (Machlin, 1956, McLean,
1958). Therefore, for about 15 years, void nucleation by the rupturing of atom-
70
ic
6.
bonds at stress concentrators was favored. The idea of vacancy condensation
has been revived successfully by Raj and Ashby (1975) and Raj (1978b). In their
analysis,
the driving force for vacancy condensation is the mechanical stress,
whereas earlier workers had considered the supersaturation of vacancies
caused
by dislocation reactions to be the driving force for vacancy precipitation.

The work of Raj and Ashby (1975) and Raj (1978b) is based on a
treatment
of
rather
general
thermally activated nucleation phenomena developed by Volmer and
Weber (1926), Becker and Doring (1935) and Zeldovich (1943). It has been adopted
for
the
Anglo-Saxon literature in the English version of Frenkel's (1946)
book, by Fisher (1948), by Turnbull and Fisher (1949) and by Turnbull (1956). A
more
recent
review has been prepared by Russell (1970). Besides the classical
applications of the general theory to the nucleation
of
droplets
in
vapours
(Feder et aI, 1966), to the precipitation of second phases in solids and to the
cavitation of fluids under negative pressure (Volmer, 1939, Fisher,
has
1948),
it
also been applied to cavity formation in solids. Resnick and Seigle (1957)
examined pore formation in bi-metallic diffusion

and
couples
(Kirkendall
effect)
during diffusion in binary alloys. Here, a supersaturation of vacancies is
created by unequal diffusion velocities of the constituents of the alloy.

A similar effect is observed when, for example, nickel-chromium alloys are oxidized
at
high temperatures (Weber and Gilman, 1984). Chromium diffuses to the
surface to form a Cr203-scale, while Ni, being a slower diffuser, cannot fill
the vacant lattide sites fast enough, so that the supersaturation of vacancies
may lead to cavity nucleation on grain boundaries near the oxidized surface.
Another example where cavity nucleation
vacancies
is
the
phenomenon
of
is
driven
by
cavitational
supersaturation
swelling
during
or
of
after
irradiation with fast neutrons. Brailsford and Bullough (1972) have developed a
comprehensive
theory
for
caused by irradiation, while
the
concentrations
Russell
(1971,
of vacancies and interstitials

1978)
considers
the
thermally
activated nucleation of cavities due to the co-precipitation of impurities,

vacancies and self-interstitials which result from the irradiation damage.
6.2.2
Cavity shapes
One of the reasons that cavity nucleation occurs at distinct

in
the
nucleation
sites
grain boundaries, rather than homogeneously in the crystal lattice, is
that special cavity shapes may greatly reduce the
nucleation
barrier,
as
we
6.2
Nucleation by Vacancy Condensation
71
shall see. A variety of possible nucleation sites is now examined.
A cavity on a grain boundary, tends to assume the lenticular form shown in Fig.
6.2a. The angle ~ at the tip of the void is dictated by equilibrium between
surface tension forces, in this case by the balance of
the
specific
energies
per unit area of the free cavity surface, Ys ' and of the grain boundary, Yb
This balance leads to an angle of
Typically, the void tip angle is ~
70 0
Since a sphere minimizes the
surface
area for a given volume, the cavity surface consists of spherical caps provided
that the anisotropy of the surface energy can be neglected.
Similarly, the void shape at a second-phase particle in a grain boundary
(Fig.
6.2b) is characterized by the angles

(6.6)
cos cp
(6.7)
where Yp is the energy of the free surface of the particle and Yi is the energy
of the particle-matrix interface (always per unit area).
For self-similar cavit,y shapes, the cavity volume V, its surface S, the
of
length
its perimeter in the grain boundary, P, and the grain-boundary area that is
replaced by the cavity, B, can be expressed by powers of the radius of
curvat-
ure, p, of the spherical caps:

V = p3 f
(~),
(6.8)
...-/cav~fy~
...-/
grain
-----boUndary
21/1
2J.L
Fig. 6.2. Cavities on grain boundaries and at grain-boundary particles.
6.
72
For the lenticular cavity in a grain boundary shown in Fig. 6.2a,
the
dimens-
ionless functions appearing in eq. (6.8) are given by

(2n/3) (2 - 3cosw
cos 3 w)
4n (1 - COSw)
(6.9)
2n sinw
For the cavity nucleus at a particle, of course,

depend
on
the
angles $ and
geometrical problem and find that the

approximated to within a factor of two by
f (W')
W'
with
be
(W
+ $ -
~)/2.
the
dimensionless
functions
as well. Raj and Ashby (1975) have analysed the

volumetric
(4n/3) (2 - 3cosw'
function
fv
cos 3 w')
W'
which
cannot
0, the void surface has a negative
curvature (if the curvature shown in Fig. 6.2 is defined to be positive).

implies
that
void
This
can be formed spontaneously, or, in other words, such a
particle when precipitated on a grain boundary

Similarly,
be
(6.10)
The exact expression involves integrals
solved in closed analytic form. For
can
would
be
called
non-wetting.
Raj and Ashby (1975) find that the curvature of a cavity surface at
symmetric triple,or quadruple grain junctions
vanishes,
function f (w) goes to zero when the void tip angle is

v
i.e.
the
volumetric
W= 30 0 or 36 0 , respect-
ively. This means, as we shall see, that for sufficiently small void tip angles
no
barrier
exists
for
cavity nucleation at grain junctions. Of course, this
cannot be the usual situation, since otherwise real polycrystals would spontaneously disintegrate or even could not be produced at all. However, this extreme
case illustrates the importance of the wetting angles for cavity nucleation.
6.2.3
The free energy of a cavity
The free energy of a cavity plays a key role in the theory

nucleation.
of
thermal
cavity
In the classical theory, the free energy of a cavity is written as
the sum of a surface term and a volume term. When the

energies
of
cavity
is
formed,
the
the surfaces which are freshly exposed must be expended while the
energies of the grain boundary and of the particle-matrix interface are gained.
6.2
73
Thus the surface-related part of the free energy,
~G,
is given by
where fi is the geometrical function for the newly exposed area of the inclusion, analogous to eq. (6.8). However, this form of the surface-related free
energy can be replaced by a much simpler one. For
clear
in
the
reasons
which
will
become
paragraph following eq. (6.13) the surface-related term must be
equal to 3 p2 Ys fv(w'), although the author found it difficult to

directly from geometrical considerations.
prove
this
The volume term of the free energy is either given by the (negative) work
done
by
the applied stress during void enlargement or it can arise from a supersat-
uration of atomic vacancies. The stress-related case will be discussed first. A

grain
boundary
containing atomic vacancies at the thermal equilibrium concen-
tration is subjected to a normal stress a. Now let a cavity grow by accepting a

vacancy
and
let
the
equilibrium
number of vacancies be restored by thermal
generation at sources such as jogs in grain boundaries. Then the volume of
the
solid increases by the atomic volume 0, and the applied stress does the work an
for each vacancy absorbed, i.e., the stress-related part of the free energy
a
cavity
with
volume
of
V is equal to -aVo Therefore the total free energy
change due to the formation of a cavity is given by

(6.11)
~G
It should be mentioned that also the elastic elongation of
the
specimen
upon
cavity formation contributes to the free energy (Brinkmann, 1955; McLean, 1958;
Hirth and Nix, 1985). However, the elastic
work
can
generally
be
neglected
since it is by a factor of the order alE smaller than aVo

From the functional form of
voids
(subcritical
~G(p)
shown in Fig. 6.3
it
is
clear
that
small
vacancy clusters) tend to shrink since they then gain free
energy, whereas large (supercritical) ones tend to grow

The critical radius of curvature is found by setting
to
a~G/ap =
macroscopic
size.
D, which leads to
( 6.12)
The associated height of the nucleation barrier is
74
6.
<.!)
~
........
<.!)
0.5
1.5
0.5
Fig. 6.3. Free energy vs. radius of curvature of the cavity nucleus.
(6.13)
L'.G*
This equation shows that the nucleation barrier decreases with stress
1/02
as
surfaoe energy as y3. In the limiting case of non-wetting

s
particles, is fv(w') = 0, and the nucleation barrier vanishes.
and
increases
with
Now the reason is given why the surface-related terms of the free
the
energy
have
simple form Used in eq. (6.11). If the dependences of the surface term and
the volume term on the wetting angles differed from one another, the result for
the
critical
radius,
p*,
would have to depend on these angles. However, eq.
(6.12) must be generally valid independent of

equilibrium,
thermal
wetting
angles,
since
in
chemical potential of an atom in the stressed grain
the
boundary at the v0id tip,
the
].I
-an
[see eq. (4.2)], must be equal to that on the
cavity surface, ].I = -ys n(K1+K 2 ) = -2Ys n/p [see eq. (4.11)]. I f the
chemical potential were not continuous at the transition from the grain bound-
spherical
ary to the cavity surface, an infinite diffusive flux of matter to or from the
cavity would result. Equating the two chemical potentials gives eq. (6.12),
which
proves
that
the surface-related terms of the free energy have the form
assumed.
We now turn to the case that a supersaturation of vacancies provides the
ing
force
for
vacancy
kT in(cv/co )' where
Cv
precipitation.
The
driv-
free energy of a vacancy is then
and Co are the concentration of vacancies and its
equi-
6.2
librium
value,
force if
an
75
respectively. Supersaturation and stress give the same driving
kT In(c Ic ). Thus a stress of 100 MPa corresponds to a supersatv
uration of cv /c o -l ~ 10% (for T s 1000K). Such a large supersaturation does

generally not occur except in situations in which a Kirkendall effect occurs or
under
irradiation. Therefore we proceed assuming that under creep-rupture con-
ditions, stress is the primary cause for cavity nucleation.

Incidentally, the free energy changes originating from stress and
saturation
from
super-
are not additive: precipitation of vacancies into a cavity does not
increase the volume of the specimen and is therefore not associated with mechanical
work,
unless
new
vacancies
are formed at vacancy sources. As long as
there is a vacancy supersaturation, thermal equilibrium
does
not
demand
the
generation of vacancies to replace those which have been absorbed in cavities.

6.2.4
The nucleation rate according to Raj and Ashby
The time rate at which subcritical clusters are pushed
across
the
nucleation
barrier by thermal fluctuations to form stable cavities is proportional to the

Arrhenius factor exp(-AG*/kT). The pre-exponential frequency factor must be
determined
from the kinetics rather than from the (equilibrium) thermodynamics
of vacancy cluster formation. The simplified approach of Raj and

to
determine
the
frequency
factor
will
be
presented
Ashby
first
presentation requires elementary mathematics only. A more precise
(1975)
because
its
analysis
of
the kinetics will follow in the next sub-section.

Raj and Ashby (1975) argue that there are cmax potential nucleation sites per
grain boundary area, c of which are already occupied by supercritical cavities
so that cmax - c remain for subcritical vacancy clusters. The area
critical clusters is then assumed to to be
N~
density
= (c max - c) exp(-AG*/kT).
(6.14)
This expression would be correct if the vacancy clusters were in thermal

librium,
of
equi-
i.e., if there were no drain of clusters towards supercritical cavit-
ies. Further, Raj and Ashby (1975) assume that the nucleation rate
(number
of
cavities generated per unit time and area) is given by the product
J*
B*N~,
(6.15)
16
6.
where 6* is the rate (per unit time) at which single vacancies are absorbed
a
by
critical cluster. The possible emission of vacancies is neglegted, which may
cause substantial numerical errors as we shall see. The absorption rate

calculated
subject
6*
is
to the assumption that vacancies are available directly at
the edge of the cavity at their equilibrium concentration, i.e., that effective
vacancy
sources
prevent a depletion near the void. Further it is assumed that
the vacancies approach the void through the grain boundary only. Then 6*
takes
the form
(6.16)
The first bracketed term is the number of atomic sites along the
the void in the grain boundary where f
perimeter
of
was defined in eq. (6.8) and 0 is grain
boundary thickness. The second term in brackets represents the concentration of

vacancies in thermal equilibrium on a grain boundary subject to a normal stress
o. The first two terms together represent the number of
atomic
distance
vacancies
within
one
from the void perimeter. The third term is the jump frequency
of a vacancy expressed by the vacancy diffusion coefficient in a grain boundary

2
(in m Is), using the Einstein relation for two-dimensional diffusion. The
vac
factor 1/4 accounts for the fact that only one out of four in-plane jumps leads
from
the edge into the cavity. The vacancy diffusion coefficient is related to
the grain boundary diffusion coefficient through oD b = Co oD vac ' In most cases
is 00 kT so that the exponential function in the expression for ~* can be
expanded in a power series. Eventually, the final
result
for
the
nucleation
rate is obtained by combining eqs. (6.12) to (6.16), which leads to:
J*
2 f p (1jJ') Ys
04/3
(1
00 ) oD b (c
-c) exp[kT
max
4 y3 f
(1jJ')
J.
(6.11)
kT
The most important part of this result is the exponential factor. It makes
nucleation
rate
a very sharply increasing function of the stress
the
so that at
low stresses, cavity nucleation occurs at a few random nucleation sites whereas
at
high
stresses
all
nucleation sites are activated quickly. A quantitative
evaluation is deferred until a better model has been discussed in the following
subsections.
The
dominant
influence
of the exponential function will not be
altered, but a different pre-exponential factor will be obtained.
6.2
6.2.5
77
The Fokker-Planck equation
The formulation of the nucleation problem due to Zeldovich (1943)
leads
to
deeper insight and to modified and extended results compared to the formulation
of Raj and Ashby (1975).
We
denote
the
area
density
of
vacancy
clusters
containing n vacancies by N(n), which is the unknown variable to be determined.

The independent variable, n, and the
served
as
the
radius
of
curvature,
which
previously
independent variable, are related through the requirement that
they must give the same cluster volume:

(6.18)
If cavity nucleation were suppressed by some intervention mechanism,
the
sub-
critical clusters would be in thermal equilibrium and their density would be

No(n) = (c
max
(6.19)
- c) exp(-AG(n)/kT),
where cmax - c is the area density of nucleation sites available for the subcritical clusters and the free energy of a cluster, AG, is given by eq. (6.11).
InCidentally, Raj and Ashby
assumption is now dropped.
(1975)
tacitly
assume
that
N(n)
N (n).
o
This
The net flux of clusters in size space, I n , from the size class containing n
vacancies to the class containing n+1 vacancies is given by the difference in
number density
betwee~
clusters of size n which absorb a vacancy and
those
of
size n+1 which emit a vacancy (per unit time):

J
n,
= 8(n)N(n) - 8 ' (n+1)N(n+1).
(6.20)
Here 8(n) and 8 ' (n) are the rates (in number per unit time and
which
cluster
unit
area)
at
of size n absorbs or, respectively, emits vacancies. The ab-
sorption rate is given by an expression analogous to eq. (6.16),

(6.21)
if eq. (6.18) is used to replace p by
expressed
n.
The
emission
rates
8 ' (n)
can
be
by the absorption rates employing the principle of detailed balance.
This principle requires that in thermal equilibrium the net flux

classes is zero. Setting I n = 0 and N
No in eq. (6.20) leads to
between
size
78
6.
(6.22)
Using this expression
in
eq.
(6.20)
and
replacing
finite
differences
by
differentials for convenience, gives the cluster flux in size space:

(6.23)
The cluster flux must satisfy the continuity condition in size space
aN(n)
(6.24)
at
This equation is
governing
sometimes
differential
called
the
Fokker-Planck
equation.
It
is
the
equation for the area density of clusters containing n
vacancies. The equilibrium density No(n) and the absorption rate S(n) are known
from eqs. (6.19) and (6.21). The partial differential equation is linear and
resembles the diffusion equation in one-dimensional space.
6.2.6
The steady-state nucleation rate and the critical nucleation stress
The steady state is characterized by a cluster flux which is independent of
n,
and that constant flux defines the cavity nucleation rate, J*. With I n = J*,
eq. (6.23) can be integrated by separation of the variables, Nand n. The integral extends from the smallest clusters(n
1) to the largest ones (n
= ~):
- Jd[N(n)/N (n)]
1
(6.25)
The lower limit of integration on the right-hand side is unity since the number
of
'clusters'
containing one
vacancy is equal to its equilibrium value. The
upper limit on the right is zero since, for large n, No goes to infinity
while
N remains finite. The value of the integral on the right is simply 1. The integral on the left-hand side is conventionally evaluated in an approximate way by
arguing that the greatest contribution to the integral comes from the region
where No has a minimum. The minimum of No exp(-~G/kT) occurs where ~G has a
maximum, i.e. at n = n*. Hence ~G is expanded in a power series up to quadratic
terms in n-n* at the maximum,
~G*;
and Sen) is assumed to be a
slowly
varying
function with a value S* at the critical point. Then eq. (6.25) gives
J*
Z S*
N~
(6.26)
6.2
79
with the so-called Zeldovich factor

(6.27)
which was missing in the result of Raj and Ashby (1975),

second
form
of
eq.
(6.15).
In
the
eq. (6.27), 6G was inserted from eq. (6.11). For 0
2
Ys = 1.5 JIm,
T = 850K and
fv(~')
100 MPa,
~
= 10 ,the Zeldovich factor is Z = 4.10- 4
Inserting eqs. (6.14), (6.21) and (6.27) for N~, B* and Z into eq. (6.25) leads
to the final form of the steady-state nucleation rate:
J*
fp(~')
0 /jD b (cmax - c)
exp(- 4 Y; fv(~') ).
1/3
2 0
[3w kT Ys fv(~,)]1/2
02 kT
(6.28)
Here, 00 was neglected compared to kT for simplicity. Since the stress
appears
in the exponent, this result is so strongly stress dependent that one can reasonably, albeit not in a .strict sense, speak of a
critical
stress
for
cavity
nucleation, 0nuc
This nucleation stress can be calculated by the following
argument. Practically all nucleation sites are activated within a given testing
time,
t,
if J*
cmax/t. The stress at which this occurs is obtained from eq.
(6.28) by replaCing J* by cmax/t, setting c = 0 and resolving for the stress in

the exponential:
4 y3 f (~') IkT
s
o
nuc
(6.29)
The logarithm in this equation is a slowly varying function of its argument. It

assumes
values
between 30 and 40 for times between a day and a few years, for
temperatures around half the melting temperature, for 0 between 10 and 1000 MPa
and for material parameters of a-iron. Taking the long-time value, 40, gives
(6.30)
In the second form, Ys = 1.5 J/m 2 and T = 850 K were inserted as representative
numerical values. At an arbitrary location in the grain boundary, the volumetric function of a lenticular cavity is f (70 0 ) = 2.1. Cavity nucleation by vacancy
condensation
would therefore require a stress of 0nuc = 7,800 MPa, which

is far greater than the stresses at which nucleation is observed to take place
80
6.
(below
100 MPa in engineering alloys and below 10 MPa in pure metals). This is
a problem, which will be taken up again repeatedly starting in Section 6.3.

Two alternative interpretations of the nucleation condition,
(6.30)
are
as
follows.
First
it
eqs.
(6.29)
and
is interesting to calculate the number of
vacancies which constitute a critical cluster.
From
the
critical
radius
of
p* = 2Ys /o, and from eq. (6.18), the number of vacancies follows to
be n* = f (2Y 10)3 /U The uncertain value of f is eliminated using eq. (6.29).
v
s
v
If the logarithm in eq. (6.29) is again chosen as 40, there results
curvature,
n*
Since generally kT
80 kT/(oU).
(6.31 )
oU, a critical cluster is predicted to contain at least a
few
hundred vacancies. Alternately, the condition for cavity nucleation can be

interpreted in terms of the nucleation barrier bG*
4 y3f 102 Then eq. (6.30)
implies that nucleation occurs if bG* < 40 kT.
6.2.7
s v
Transient solutions of the Fokker-Planck equation and incubation times
At the very beginning of a creep test, vacancy clusters
still
have
the
size
distribution of the unstressed state. Therefore, a certain incubation time, t i ,

must elapse until the cluster size distribution N(n) has adjusted itself to the
new,
stressed state. Not before the new equilibrium state is reached, nucleat-
ion can take place at the steady-state rate J* calculated above.

The basis for calculating the transient behavior quantitatively is the
Planck
Fokker-
eq. (6.24). No exact closed-form solutions are available, but upper and
lower-bound estimates for the incubation time, t i , can be made. An upper

is obtained if
eq~
bound
(6.24) is written in the form
aN
at
and the second term on the right-hand side is neglected.
(6.32)
Since
this
term
is
positive in the interesting range of nand t, the first term alone under-estimates the time rate aN/at of approach to the steady state. The
is
incubation
time
therefore obtained too large. With this approximation made, eq. (6.32) is a
diffusion equation for NINo with an n-dependent 'diffusion coefficient',
Sen).
With Sen) ~ n 1/3 as in eq. (6.21), the diffusion equation has similarity solut-
6.2
81
ions of the form N(n,t)/No(n) = f(n/t 3/5 ), where the function f is obtained by
substitution into eq. (6.32) truncated after the first term on the right-hand
side. The resulting ordinary differential equation for f can be solved by separation of the variables. The cluster current, from eq. (6.23), is found to be
(6.33)
The numerical factor
cannot be determined Since, by
truncating
eq.
(6.32),
one looses the boundary condition that I n must approach J* for l0ng times.
Since the value of ~ is of no interest here, it is arbitrarily set equal to 1.
Back-substitution
of
eq.
(6.33) into eq. (6.32) shows that the ratio between
the first and the second terms on the right-hand side varies as 1/t,
first
term
is
i.e.
the
much larger than the second for short times. Hence, eq. (6.33)
r.epresents a short-time solution of the complete eq. (6.32).

With n
n* and B
B*, eq. (6.33) gives the nucleation rate, which is
plotted
in Fig. 6.4a. Time is normalized by the characteristic time

t(Ub) _ (9/25) n*2 /B *,
(6.34)
which appears in the exponential of eq. (6.33) and which is our upper bound for
the
.n*
incubation
=
time. Inserting the number of vacancies in a critical cluster,
f v (2Ys /o)3 /0 , and B* from eq. (6.21) with n
n* gives
t(Ub)
(6.35)
A lower-bound estimate was derived by Trinkaus and Yoo (1986), who solved the
full eq. (6.32) making the approximations to expand ~G(n) at the critical point
up to quadratic terms in (n-n*) and to consider the reaction rate as a constant, B(n) = B*. Since B(n) is actually smaller than B* for subcritical
clusters, this approximation overestimates the nucleation rate, particularly at
short times. The non-steady nucleation rate is then obtained as
J*(t)/J*(m) ~ (1 - e)-1/2 expf(1-1/e)-1~G*/(3kT)},
where J*(m) is the steady-state nucleation
abbreviation defined for local use only, and
t (R.b)
i
3 kT n*/(o 0 B*)
rate,
(6.36)
(R.b) )
e = exp(-2t/t i
is
an
(6.37)
6.
82
is the lower-bound estimate for the incubation time. It differs from the upperbound estimate given in eqs. (6.34) and (6.35) by a factor 4.2 kT/AG*, which is
typically 0.1. Figure 6.4b shows the nucleation rate given by eq. (6.36).
Interestingly, the characteristic time given in eq. (6.37) was also obtained by
Binder
and Stauffer (1976) who analyzed the asymptotic approach of the cluster
size distribution function to the steady state. Thus, the lower-bound
estimate
of ti refers to the long-time behavior, while the upper bound was obtained from
a short-time analysis. Less accurate upper and lower-bound estimates than those
given here were reported by Raj (1978b).
Numerically, incubation times are generally short compared to the duration of a
creep test. For Y = 1.5 J/m 2 , a = 100 MPa, f2 If = 10-4 and for the grain
v p
s
boundary diffusion coefficient of ferritic steel given in Appendix A, the upper
1 sec at T = 850K and ti = 20sec at T = 750K,
1
while the lower bound gives ten times smaller values.
eq.
bound,
(6.35),
yields t.
6.3 Discussion of Cavity Nucleation Theories

There are two apparent discrepancies between the observed
and
the
nucleation
behavior
basic theories of cavity nucleation. First, the calculated nucleation
stress is substantially higher than observed ones. Second, theory predicts that
0.1,
t a3
0.75
.....8
-...
.8
f;-
~ a2
.....
....
:::f;-
f;""")
b)
0)
a5
""")
0.1
025
o
,
tlt.(ub)
Fig. 6.4. Transient cavity nucleation rate: a) Short-time solution,

eq. (6.33) with n = n* and a = 13*; b) eq. (6.36). AG*/kT = 40.
6.3
Discussion of Nucleation Theories
83
nucleation occurs more or less instantaneously once the
nucleation
stress
is
applied (apart from the incubation time which was found, however, to be small),
whereas actually nucleation occurs continuously throughout the creep life,
and
the nucleation rate is controlled by the strain rate rather than by stress.
6.3.1
A theoretical remark
The classical nucleation theory described above has been criticized for several
reasons,
in
particular for the use of macroscopic quantities such as the sur-
face energy on an almost atomistic scale. More advanced models have been worked
out
(for example, Feder et aI, 1966; Binder and Stauffer, 1976) the outcome of
which has been that classical nucleation theory cannot predict absolute nucleation
rates
correctly but the onset of profuse nucleation as a function of the
driving force (in our case: stress) is predicted well. Indeed, some
phenomena,
such as the nucleation of droplets in supersaturated vapor, can be described by

the classical theory (Volmer, 1939). In the case of
creep
cavities,
however,
even the observed nucleation stress cannot be predicted reasonably accurately.

6.3.2
On possible causes for the discrepancy between theoretical and experimental nucleation stresses
According to eq. (6.30), the theoretical nucleation stress is typically of
the
fv 1/2
order anuc = 5,360

MPa. A first possibility to reconcile this prediction
with the low observed nucleation stresses is that the wetting angles at the
cavity
nucleus
could
be such that fv(w') takes values very much smaller than
unity. If nucleation is to occur at a stress level of 10 MPa, eq. (6.30) requires f = 3'10-6 , which means practically non-wetting particles. It is difficult
v
to believe that such small values of fv are a general phenomenon
in
materials
which cavitate, even if impurity segregation is taken into account (Chapter 8).
Second, the theoretical nucleation stress calculated above is
local
stress
acting on a size scale comparable to the void nucleus dimensions. Compared to

the applied stress, the local stress may be enhanced by grain boundary sliding
or
by
slip
bands. This possibility will be considered in Chapter 7, although
grain boundary sliding is most pronounced on boundaries inclined to the applied

stress, while cavitation preferentially occurs on transverse boundaries.
Third, a gas pressure developing in the cavity n,ucleus may promote
There
are
certainly
special
situations
nucleation.
in which a gas pressure plays a key
84
6.
role, but in other cases it cannot be of great importance (Chapter 9). Finally,
stresses around growing precipitates will be considered in Chapter 10.
6.3.3
The problem of continuous cavity nucleation
Considering the smallness of the incubation times calculated in Section

it
6.2.7,
can be excluded that the incubation time, together with its possible varia-
tion from one nucleation site to another, can

occurs
continuously
over
explain
why
cavity
likely that continuous cavity nucleation 1s a consequence of some

centration
process
nucleation
substantial fractions of the creep l1fe. It is more
which
stress
con-
occurs throughout the creep life and which triggers
cavity nucleation. In nickel base superalloys, there is relatively clear
evid-
ence what this triggering event might be. Shiozawa and Weertman (1983) found an
almost perfect one-to-one correlation between the cavity spacing and the
ing
spac-
between coarse slip bands, which are typical for these alloys. The density
of both increases in linear proportion to strain.

cavity
Thus,
in
these
materials,
nucleation is continuous since the slip bands which initiate the cavit-
ies are formed continuously.

Argon, Chen and Lau (1981) propose that the triggering
cavity
events
for
continuous
nucleation come from the spasmodic nature of grain boundary sliding ob-
served by Chang and Grant (1953) in coarse-grained high-purity aluminum.

from
the
lack
of
Apart
evidence that sliding occurs intermittently in engineering
alloys as well, this suggestion does not explain how cavities are nucleated
on
transverse boundaries which hardly slide but nevertheless cavitate.

Evans (1984) argues that the observed increase in cavity
number
might
be
an
artefact the real situation being as follows. All cavities are nucleated virtually instantaneously and grow by a mechanism of grain boundary
the
rate
sliding.
Since
of sliding varies from boundary to boundary, the cavities become ex-
perimentally detectable at different times, and an observer would conclude that

nucleation occurs continuously. However, this explanation can hardly apply to
materials in which small cavities grow by diffusion, since in this case the
cavities
reach
the
detectability
limit quickly, as Dyson (1983) has pOinted
out. Further, Evans' assumption of growth by grain boundary sliding

only
to
situations
in
apply
which inclined boundaries cavitate preferentially. In
commercial materials, however, cavitation

important.
can
on
transverse
boundaries
is
more
7 Cavity Nucleation by Stress Concentrations

During Creep
The analysis of cavity nucleation in the preceding chapter indicates that local
stress
concentrations
by
grain boundary sliding or by slip within the grains
are necessary to initiate cavities. This aspect is now quantified. It should be

mentioned,
however,
that the theoretical calculation of stress concentrations
will not substantially improve our understanding of the nucleation process

yond
the
be-
facts described in previous sections: in commercial materials, cavi-
ties are formed preferentially at particles on boundaries normal to the applied

stress, which suggests that sliding does not play an exclusive role; nucleation
occurs at low stresses, which points to stress concentrations; and the nucleation
rate is approximately proportional to the strain rate, which suggests that
slip within the grains is involved in the stress concentration process.

This chapter is organized according to different configurations, starting
the
stress
stresses focussed on triple grain junctions and on particles by grain

sliding
with
analysis of a slip band impinging on a boundary. Subsequently, the
are
described.
Each
boundary
of these configurations is analyzed for elastic
material response, power-law creep and diffusion. In early papers, for
example
in that by McLean (1956/57), stress concentrations were calculated elastically,

using and extending results which Stroh (1954) had developed in the
theory
of
cleavage crack initiation at low temperatures. At elevated temperatures, however, diffusion and dislocation creep tend to relax stress concentrations. Nevertheless,
the
elastic
approach
will also be pursued, not only for historical
reasons but also because elastic stress concentrations are generally the severest and, in this sense, represent a limiting case. Furthermore, elastic material behavior cannot
a~ways
be excluded. For example, when grain boundary sliding
occurs spasmodically, as observed by Chang and Grant (1953) and by Intrater and
Machlin (1959/60), the elastic response of the material determines
field
at
short
times
the
stress
after such a sudden sliding event. Rupturing of atomic
bonds, which ensues instantaneously once a
critical
stress
is
reached,
intervene before stress relaxation by diffusion or creep has taken place.
can
7. Stress Concentrations
86
7.1 An Isolated Sliding Grain Boundary Facet (Shear-Crack Model)

The simplest configuration to be discussed here is
facet
of
length
d.
Depending
sliding
factor near unity from the grain size. Nevertheless, the same
for
both
quantities.
Due
grain
boundary
on the shape of the grains, d may differ by a

letter
is
used
to the presence of particles and ledges, the grain
boundary transmits a shear stress Tb , which possibly depends on the sliding

rate U
b ' At the ends of the facet, sliding is piled up against impenetrable
barriers representing, for example the triple pOints in a polycrystal (Fig.
7.1a). A similar configuration is that of a slip band within the grain piled up
against the grain boundary (Fig. 7.1b).
7.1.1
Elastic analysis of a sliding facet
The equations of elasticity must be solved subject to the

that
the
sliding
boundary
conditions
boundary transmits the shear stress Tb' while at infinity a
uniform resolved shear stress Tm is applied. Tensile stresses do not affect the
analysis in linear material. The problem is identical with a dislocation
pile-up problem (Bilby and Eshelby, 1968) or with a Mode-II crack,
ions
the
solut-
for which are well known (see, e.g. Rice, 1968a, or Appendix B). If rand
e are polar coordinates centered at the end of the sliding boundary segment,
~ress
field for rid
aeo
0)
/reo
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0 has the general form
(if uniaxial
tension)
b)
taco
8/tT,,;,
Fig. 7.1. a) Sliding grain boundary facet. b) Slip band.
7.1
A Sliding Boundary Facet
87
Kn
Y'21Tr
(7.1)
f. J.(6).
1
The dimensionless angular functions f .. (6) are independent of the outer speclJ
imen geometry, and they are given in Appendix B. The stress intensity factor
KII depends on the specimen geometry and on the load.
In
particular,
for
an
isolated crack (or sliding boundar'y segment) in plane strain or plane stress in
an infinite body is
(7.2)
For a penny-shaped crack (or boundary facet) of diameter d in an infinite body,
KII has the maximum value
The maximum of KII occurs at the pOints where the crack front is normal to
shear direction (Rooke and Cartwright, 1974).
For later use, the shear displacement across the penny-shaped crack
is
the
quoted
from Westmann (1965):

(7.4)
Here, p is the distance from the center of the circular crack measured
in
the
plane of the crack. It varies from 0 to d/2.

If the applied loadirtg is uniaxial tension with the tensile axis being inclined
at an angle a to the normal on the boundary facet, the resolved shear stress on
the boundary,
Tm'
is related to the uniaxial tensile stress,

Tm =
(1/2)
am
am'
through
sin2a.
(7.5)
The tensor transformations for general loading are not needed here.
In relation to cavity nucleation, the tensile stress occurring locally near the
end
of
the
sliding
boundary
stress is given in Appendix B as
is
of interest. The maximum principal tensile
7.
88
Stress Concentrations
1.322
The second form is for
(7.6)
121fT'
-103.2 0 where the maximum of aI occurs.
Next the question is examined whether this

cause
2.!.....
stress
concentration
suffices
to
rupturing of atomic bonds. This requires that the maximum tensile stress
exceeds the ideal strength of the material over one atomic spacing, b.
Setting
aI = aid with aid from eq. (6.3), r = b, 'b

0 and a = 45 0 , and taking KII
from eq. (7.3) for the penny-shaped facet (with v = 0.3) yields the critical
applied tensile stress for cavity nucleation:
Typical numerical values for metallic materials are E = 1.5.10 5 MPa, Ys

1.5 J/m 2 and d = 30~m. For m = 0.7 this gives the stress for cavity nucleation:
a~ = 245 MPa. Compared to the stress levels at which cavity nucleation is still
observed to occur, this is a rather high value, although the elastic stress
analysis gives an upper bound for the stress concentration and, hence, a
bound
for
the
applied
lower
stress which is necessary to nucleate cavities. Thus,
rupturing of atomic bonds at the end of a
sliding
boundary
facet
is
not
viable mechanism for cavity nucleation, unless the cohesive strength is reduced
substantially, say, by the presence of a weakly bonded particle.
Smith (1966) using an energy balance argument derived a result which is equivalent
to eq. (7.7) apart from a numerical factor. This coincidence is not fort-
uitous since the energy balance argument and the cohesive strength argument adopted
here are equivalent in relation to the rupturing of atomic bonds in ela-
stic square root singularities. The energy balance
can
be
expressed
by
the
following formula, which is well known in fracture mechanics (Rice, 1968a):
Cavity nucleation by vacancy condensation requires somewhat lower stresses

maintained
but
over a greater region having the size of the cavity nucleus. Taking
r = 10 nm in eq. (7.6) and d = 30
~m
in eq. (7.3) shows that the stress is
en-
hanced by a factor 13.5 compared to the applied tensile stress. In the light of
eq. (6.30), this is hardly sufficient to cause nucleation at
applied
stresses
around and below 100 MPa, unless the volumetric function fv is very small.
7.1
7.1.2
89
The sliding boundary facet (shear crack) in creeping material
A power-law creeping material is described by the nonlinear
which
(3.6),
reduces
to
E =
Ban
One
nonlinear
materials
viscous
have
been
the results is that the stress field at the end of a slip
of
plane is the HRR-field of a Mode-II crack, given in eq. (3.25). In a

material
eq.
in uniaxial tension. In Section 3.4, a few
general features of stress fields in

summarized.
law,
viscous
nonlinear
it is not a simple matter, however, to calculate the value of the C*-
integral as a function of the applied stresses a~. and of Lb. Due to the nonlJ
linearity of the equations, the components of the applied stress can enter into
the problem in a complicated
resolved
shear
stress
plays
(1981) have developed an
manner,
a
whereas
in
linear
material
only
the
role. For a tensile crack, He and Hutchinson
approximate
method,
which
has
turned
out
to
be
sufficiently accurate. Riedel (1984b) has applied the idea to a shear crack.
The idea is based on a linearization of the nonlinear viscous material law. The
linearization procedure conveniently starts from an initial state of stress for
which the stress analysis is trivial. Such a starting solution is obtained, for
example,
if only a shear stress is applied, and this shear stress is just bal-
anced by the tractions on the crack faces, LOO

shear
stress
field.
Lb. This simply gives a uniform
In the next step, Lb is allowed to deviate slightly from
LOO. The linearization around the initial state for small (Loo-Lb)la: leads to
problem of linear, anisotropic elasticity, which can be solved.
For plane
strain~ th~
final result for C* and for
the
sliding
rate
averaged
over the facet, Ub' are found in this way to be

(7.9)
C*
(7.10)
Here a
(/3/2) [(a;2-o~1)2 + 4L:]1/2 is the equivalent applied tensile stress
e
in plane strain and 00 = B(ooo)n. This linearized solution is exact for n = 1
e
e
and asymptotically exact for small (Loo-Lb)/o:. He (1983) has performed
numerical calculations for the shear crack with Lb
up to n
0 [i.e. (Loo-Lb)la:
10. Comparison with his results shows that the error
of
eqs.
1//3]
(7.9)
and (7.10) due to the linearized treatment of the problem is never greater than
3%. For Lb > 0, the situation should
Lb
become
Loo' the linearization becomes exact.
even
more
favorable
since
for
7.
90
A penny-shaped shear crack is a more realistic model for a grain-boundary facet

than
is
a plane-strain crack. In the literature, the penny-shaped shear crack
in nonlinear material has not been analyzed. The

ploying
the
to the problem of a circular shear crack in

problem
problem
can
which
is
em-
anisotropic
elastic
material,
transversely
iso-
materials, which would be directly useful for our problem. However, his
result is obviously incorrect, because it

limit
solved
a special case of an elliptic crack under arbitrary loading
considered by Hoenig (1978). He works out the solutions for

tropic
be
same linearization method as in the plane-strain case. This leads
correctly.
Since
does
not
reproduce
the
isotropic
re-calculation of Hoenig's results would be rather
time-consuming, the author proceeds by assuming that only the quantity S given
in Hoenig's eq. (17) is incorrect, whereas the general form of the solutions is
accepted. Now a supposedly correct value of S is obtained by adjusting Hoenig's
results
to
He
and
Hutchinson's (1981) solution for tensile loading. Since S
depends on material parameters only but not on the
loading
system,
the
same
value is used for the shear crack. In this way, one obtains the average sliding
rate across a circular, isolated grain boundary facet:
(7.11)
In the linear case, n
for
1, this coincides with Westmann's (1965)
exact
result
the limit of incompressible material [cf. eq. (7.4) with v=1/2J. It should
be noted that this result for the penny-shaped crack differs from that for
the
plane-strain crack only by an n-dependent numerical factor.

The viscous stress concentration is weaker than the elastic one.
For
example,
under
the
conditions where the elastic stress concentration is 13.5-fold

0
0
(t b = 0, a = 45, e = -103.2 , r = 10 nm, d
30 llm), eq. (3.25) with eq. (7.9)
gives a 3.6-fold vi~cous stress concentration if n = 5.
7.1.3
Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at a shear crack by creep
The elastic solution and the power-law viscous solution described in

ceding
pre-
subsections can be regarded as limiting cases occurring in elastic/non-
linear viscous material. Such a material is

(3.6)
the
which,
in
characterized
uniaxial tension, reduce to
E=
olE
by
eqs.
represents
the
long-time
limit.
discussed in greater detail in connection with
The
transient
cracks
to
Bon. The instantaneous
response of such a materlal to load application is elastIc, while

response
(3.4)
in
the
viscous
behavior
will be
fracture
mechanics
7.1
(Chapter
91
23). Without deriving the results here we use the characteristic time
for the transition from the initial, elastic behavior to the long-time limit:
2
KII (1-\1 )/E
(7.12)
(n+1) C*
Inserting the expressions for KII and C* given
leads to
in
the
preceding
subsections
for the plane-strain shear crack. In order to obtain a numerical estimate,
the
above
equation is divided by the lifetime, t f and the Monkman-Grant product,

Ee t f = CMG , is introduced (Section 2.3.1). Further, we set n = 5 and \I = 0.3
to obtain
'"
If ae/E
10 -3 and CMG = 0.03, this ratio is t1/tf = 11332. Thus the elastic
stress concentration is relaxed within a small fraction of the lifetime.
7.1.4
The time to build up elastic stress concentrations
In the preceding section, the relaxation of elastic

described.
On
the
other
hand,
it
requires
stress
concentration
a certain time to build up the
elastiC stress concentrations. This is so because the external loading rate

finite,
but
even
was
is
if the load is applied rapidly, the resistance of the grain
boundary against sliding implies a finite rise time for the elastic stress concentration. For an isolated grain boundary facet this is modeled in the following, approximate manner. The grain boundary is assumed to
slide
according
to
the linear viscous law

(7.15)
with the friction coeffiCient, n, of the grain boundary as discussed in Section
1.5.1.
The
surrounding material is elastic. Besides the geometrical idealiza-
tion of the grain boundary network in a polycrystal by an isolated

approximation
consists
in
employing
eq.
facet,
the
(7.15) averaged over the facet and
92
7.
ignoring the variation of the shear stress
~b
on the facet.
This
reduces
the
mathematical complexity substantially. Now, only ~b from eq. (7.15) needs to be

inserted into eq. (7.10). For the special case of elastic material (n = 1),
a:/E:
in eq. (7.10) must be identified with Young's modulus. There results the
following differential equation for Ub :

(7.16)
with
t
= (3w/8)
d n/E.
(7.17)
The solution of this ordinary differential equation is

(7.18)
Thus the characteristic time for the build-up of elastic stress
by
viscous grain boundary sliding is of the order tv
concentrations
dn/E. (The subcript, v,
indicates viscous sliding).

The friction coefficient, n, is often controlled by
around
grain-boundary
particles.
stress-directed
diffusion
It is then given by eq. (1.8). Depending on
the material parameters involved, the rise time, tv' for the elastic stress
concentration may be shorter or longer than the relaxation time, t 1 If tv is
found to be larger than tl' the elastic stress concentrations are
up.
The
same
is
true
if
diffusive
stress
never
built
relaxation occurs within times
comparable to, or shorter than, tv (Section 2.2.3).
7.2 The Triple Grain Junction in Polycrystais

In this section, the geometrical conditions at triple grain junctions are
con-
sidered more accurately than in the preceding section. This has two effects.
First, the stress singularities at triple junctions of sliding grain boundarief
are different from those at the end of an isolated sliding boundary facet. Second, grain boundary diffusion, which plays no role if an isolated grain
ary
facet
bound'
is considered, contributes to the deformation process and to stresl
relaxation in a contiguous network of grain boundaries. The relative importanci

of
grain
boundary diffusion, compared to power-law creep, can be expressed 11
terms of the diffusive length,
~,
defined in eq. (4.17). In Section
7.2.2
thl
7.2
limit
93
The Triple Junction
~/d +
will
be
considered
where diffusion is negligible compared to
creep. The opposite limiting case, in which diffusion predominates,
while
the
grains behave effectively rigidly, is described in Section 7.2.3.

Apart
from
the
consideration
of
possibility
contiguous
of
grain
networks,
boundary
instead
however,
diffusion,
of
isolated
the
grain boundary
facets, does not lead to basically new conclusions, as we shall see.

7.2.1
The triple junction in elastic material
Figure 7.2 shows a hexagonal array of grains and geometrical definitions
at
triple junction. Since the author does not know of a published solution for the
stress near a triple junction, the problem is worked out for
Appendix
B.
plane
strain
in
Starting from the equation for the Airy stress function, V4~ = 0,
one obtains the stress field near the junction in the form
(7.19)
Here gij(S) are dimensionless angular functions normalized such that gss(O) =
1. The dimensionless factor K is undetermined by the asymptotic analysis and
will be estimated from other arguments later. The exponent s is calculated
for
incompressible material in Appendix B and is determined by the relation:

(2-s) cos[(2-s)(n-2a)]
+ S
cos[s(n-2a)]
2 cosns.
(7.20)
Fig. 7.2. Hexagonal array of grains deformed in plane-strain tension.
94
7.
2a
s
180
160
0.191
120
0.449
109.5
0.500
20
0.832
60
0.689
Table 7.1. Exponent s of the stress singularity at a triple

junction of sliding grain boundaries in elastic material.
Table 7.1 gives the solution of this equation for a few values of the angle
Note that for 2a
a.
< 109.5, the stress field has a stronger singularity than the
whereas for 2a > 109.5, the singularity is
crack-tip singularity, r- 1/2 ,

weaker.
This
difference in the degree of the singularity has consequences for
the stability of a crack nucleated at the triple junction (Riedel,

obtuse
2a > 109.5,
angles,
1976).
the attainment of the ideal strength suffices to
initiate an unstable crack Since, once the crack nucleus is formed, the
singularity
rises.
For
2a
For
stress
< 109.5, the crack is formed readily, but, due to
the drop of the stress Singularity, it does not propagate, unless
the
applied
stress is increased.
The factor K can be estimated from a finite element analysis of
grid
of
grains (a
ions pertain to nonlinear viscous rather than

Extrapolating
their
the
results,
to
elastic
material
60 0
Unpublished
calculations
of
the
of
length
that
0.29
present author indicate that
K = 0.21 for a = 45. (These calculations were done for two

planes
behavior.
which will be given in eq. (7.21) below, to the
linear case and recalling the elastic-viscous analogy one finds

for
hexagonal
60) by Lau, Argon and McClintock (1983). Their calculat-
intersecting
slip
Which is geometrically similar to a network of grain
dll2,
boundaries albeit not identical).

Numerically, the stress concentration factors at triple junctions
to
those
at
the
end
of
occurs on the boundary normal to the applied

r
10 nm
cavity
similar
stress
(8
= 0).
At
distance
from the triple pOint, which corresponds approximately to the stable
nucleus
size,
088(8=0)/o~ = 9.2
was taken as d
7.2.2
are
an isolated slip plane. The maximum tensile stress
if
= 30~m
the
applied
stress
is
concentrated
a = 60, and by a factor 22.2 if a = 45 0

in this example.
by
factor
The grain size
The triple junction in power-law creeping material
The geometrical configuration is again the array of hexagonal
grains
deformed
in plane strain shown in Fig. 7.2. The grain boundaries slide freely, while the
7.2
The Triple Junction
95
grains are nonlinear viscous as described by
E = Ban
eq. (3.6),
simplifies
to
in uniaxial tension.
The asymptotic analysis of the stresses near the triple

the
which
governing
junction
starts
from
nonlinear equation for the Airy stress function , eq. (3.19a),
with the elastic terms deleted. This problem has factorized solutions of the
form ~ r 2 - s f(6). The angular distribution f(a) and the exponent s have been
determined numerically by Lau and Argon (1977). Their
results
will
be
shown
shortly. Because of the scaling properties of stress fields in power-law material (cf. Section 3.4.2), the asymptotic stress field must have the same form as
in
linear
elastic
material, eq. (7.19), but with sand gij(S) taken from the
nonlinear analysis of Lau and Argon

functions
are
shown
in
(1977).
Their
results
for
the
angular
Fig. 7.3. For the exponent of the stress singularity
they find s = 0.231 if n = 3, s = 0.150 if n = 5, and s = 0.112 if n = 7.

The determination of the factor K in eq. (7.19) requires a
of
numerical
analysis
the whole arl'ay of grains, rather than an asymptotic analysis only. Several
authors (Crossman
McClintock,
1983),
and
Ashby,
1975,
Gharemani,
1978,
and
Lau,
Argon
and
have performed finite element analyses of hexagonal grains
with sliding boundaries. Lau et al.
(1983)
lay
particular
emphasis
on
the
behavior near the triple points. They give the following interpolation formula,
which is based on finite element calculations for n
= 3 and n = 5:
Fig. 7.3. Asymptotic angular stress distribution at a triple grain

junction with an included angle of 120 0 under plane-strain tension.
7.
96
(1.11 - 0.017n) (1-s) (2/3)-s/f.
(7.21)
Here, f is the stress enhancement factor defined in
eq.
(1.9).
According
to
6 = O.
If
Gharemani (1978) is f - 1.2.

The maximum tensile stress occurs on the grain boundary lying along
r = 10nm
(=
size of stable cavity nucleus) is inserted into eq. (7.19), stress
concentration factors are obtained as a66(6=0)la~ = 9.2, 2.8 and 1.8 for n = 1,
3 and 5, respectively, if d = 30 ~. Thus, for power-law creeping material with
n
3, the local stress concentration at
triple
points
is
moderate.
It
is
further reduced by diffusion (Section 7.2.4).

7.2.3
Stresses during Coble creep (rigid grains)
In the stress and temperature range, where Coble creep dominates

map
of
deformation
on
an
Ashby
mechanisms, the grains are displaced as effectively rigid
blocks by the diffusive plating of atoms on grain boundaries. In
other
words,
the deformation by creep of the grains can be neglected compared to the deformation by grain boundary diffusion. This limiting case
mathematically.
is
particularly
simple
The only differential equation for the stress that needs to be
solved is the equation for grain boundary diffusion, eq. (4.4). For
two-dimen-
sional problems involving plane boundaries, this equation takes the form
(7.22)
where x is the co-ordinate along the
boundary
and
un
is
constant
(in
the
absence of grain rotation; otherwise un would be a linear function of x).

As an example, eq. (7.22) is solved for the hexagonal array of grains shown
Figs.
7.2
geometrical
rigid-body
and 7.4 for plane strain. If ~ denotes the extensional strain rate,
compatibility
displacement
and
rates
the
of
conservation
of
mass
demand
that
the
the grains have the form indicated in Fig.
7.4. Note that the strain rate in horizontal direction must be

pressible,
in
-E
for
incom-
plane-strain deformation. From the relative displacement rates, the
normal displacement rates across grain boundaries are found to be

u
u
on horizontal boundaries
n
n
(7.23)
-Ed/2
on inclined boundaries.
7.2
97
The Triple Junction
Fig. 7.4. Displacement rates of grains for incompressible plane-strain

deformation, and normal component of displacement rate at grain boundaries.
The displacement rates of the grains indicated imply that

must
slide
at
rate
Ed/l3.
inclined
boundaries
This reiterates the fact that diffusion creep
cannot progress without grain boundary sliding (Raj and Ashby, 1972).
For the constant values of
eq. (7.22)
is
un
on each of the
boundaries,
the
integration
straightforward giving the parabolic stress distributions shown
be~ow.
One of the constants of integration follows
about
the
from
the
symmetry
of
triple
an
center of each boundary segment. Further, the diffusive flux, which
is proportional to dan/dx, must guarantee the conservation of mass, so that

the
of
points
dan/dx
on
at
the horizontal boundary must be equal to twice
dan/dx on the inclined boundary. The normal stress must be continuous at the
triple points since discontinuities would cause infinite fluxes. Finally the
average of the horizontal stress component must be zero for global
equilibrium
since no stress is applied in this direction. These conditions determine all of

the constants of integration, and the solution of eq. (7.22) is found to be
[(d/3)2 -
x2 J
[x 2 /2 - d 2 /72J
on horizontal boundaries
(7.24)
on inclined boundaries
where x is measured from the center of the grain facets.

Global equilibrium in the tensile direction requires that the integral over
an
7.
98
on
horizontal
boundary
is
equal
to
am d1312
(the
average on inclined
boundaries has already been made equal to zero), a condition which connects the
strain rate and the applied stress
(7.25)
e:
Note that this is Coble's law for

(1.5).
When
the
diffusional
creep
authors it should be noted that Raj and Ashby

engineering
of
polycrystal,
eq.
numerical factor above is compared with the pesults of other

(1972),
for
example,
use
the
shear strain and the shear stress, which implies a 3 times greater
numerical factor (108 instead of 36). Inserting
eq.
(7.25)
into
eq.
(7.24)
gives the maximum tensile stress

(7.26)
which occurs at the center of the horizontal boundaries. The triple points
are
no singular pOints during diffusion creep.

7.2.4
A combination of power-law creep and grain-boundary diffusion
In the presence of diffusion,

power-law
creep
are
the
stress
singularities
which
occur
during
removed by the plating of atoms on those portions of the
grain boundary which experience high tensile
stresses.
Argon,
Chen
and
Lau
(1981) estimate the length, A~, over which diffusion relieves the stress
concentrations caused by power-law creep. They find:
A~ ~ d (~/d)1/[1-s(n-1)/3J
where
the
(7.27)
is the characteristic diffusive length defined in eq. (4.17) and
exponent
of
is
the stress singularity at the triple point in the absence of
diffusion. In the low-stress creep regime, ~ is generally not smaller than

0.2 pm (cf. Section 4.5) and tends to be larger in creep-resistant alloys.
Taking ~ = 0.2
concentrations
n = 5 and d ~ 20 pm gives A! = 60 nm. Therefore the stress

caused by power-law creep at triple junctions are relieved by
pm~
diffusion over distances of at least 60 nm. This means that the already
ate
stress
concentration
factors
expected
for
moder-
power-law creep are further
reduced by diffusion. Inserting r = 60 nm and d = 30 pm into eq. (7.19) gives a

stress concentration factor of a:~x/o~ = 1.32 for n
5.
7.2
The Triple Junction
7.2.5
99
Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at triple junctions by creep
The relaxation of the elastic stress
concentrations
at
triple
junctions
by
creep can be described in a manner analogous to stress relaxation at
power-law
shear cracks (Section 7.1.3) or at tensile cracks (Chapter 23). The details
the
less, the transition from the initial elastic behavior to long-time

be
of
analysis are different due to the different type of singularity. Neverthedescribed
creep
can
by the growth of a creep zone around the triple points as in the
case of cracks. The characteristic time for the transition, t 1 , must
have
the
same form as in eq. (7.13) apart from possibly n-dependent numerical factors.
7.2.6 Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at triple points by diffusion
At triple junctions, stress relaxation additionally
diffusion.
The
occurs
by
grain-boundary
process is described by the equations of elasticity within the
grains, while grain boundaries are assumed to
slide
freely
with
the
normal
stresses controlled by diffusion according to eq. (4.4).

If stress, strain, displacement, length and time are normalized by cr oo ' croo/E,
croo/(Ed) , d and kTd 3 /(EQOD b ), respectively, the relevant equations [Hooke's law
and eq. (4.4)] and the boundary conditions contain none of the
meters
(except
for
material
para-
Poisson's ratio) nor the applied load nor the grain size.
Therefore the normalized stress and strain fields cannot depend on these
para-
meters, while stress and strain themselves can depend on them only by virtue of
the normalization. Hence, the normal stress on
the
horizontal
boundary
must
have the form

(7.28)
For time t
elastic
0, the as yet unknown function Ln
field,
must
be
compatible
with
the
while for long times, Ln must exhibit the diffusion-controlled
parabolic behavior of eq. (7.24). The natural time scale for this transition is
defined by the second argument of the function Ln' More specifically, Raj
(1975) models diffusive stress relaxation in a regular polycrystal subject to
shear.
From
his
numerical
analysis, one finds that stress redistribution is
effectively completed after the time
7.
100
(7.29)
which we call the diffusive relaxation time.
Taking
material
(or a ferritic steel) from Appendix A and d = 30
a-iron
~m,
parameters
for
gives td = 70 h at
800 K and 16.h at 850 K.

Thus diffusive relaxation can take a considerable time. In relation
nucleation,
however,
it
which matters rather than

junction,
is
the
the
stress at small distances from the junction
relaxation
of
the
overall
field.
calculation
of
the
elastic
field
still
persists.
This
Near
allows
the
remote
for
stress field based on a boundary layer formulation of the
short-time problem: the remote loading and the grain geometry can
the
cavity
substantial relaxation is expected to occur within a short period of
time, when far away the
by
to
boundary
condition
be
replaced
that the stress field must asymptotically
KO m (d/r)s, eq. (7.19). This implies

that om and d can enter into eq. (7.28) only as the product 0mds. Hence the
the general functional form of the stress, eq. (7.28), specializes to
approach the elastic Singular field, 0ij
(7.30)
which is valid for times short compared to td as defined in eq. (7.29) and
for
distances from the triple point small compared to the grain size.
In order to determine the as yet
imately,
which
2a
it
is
occurs
109.5 0
convenient
if
the
The
unknown
included
factor
dimensionless
function
angle
between
K appearing
in
was
the
sliding
along
1/2,
boundaries
is
inverse
w rather
point
than
by
along
planar
=
configuration;
in
Fig.
7.5;
at
diffusion
wa. This simplified model can be
solved in closed form using a Fourier transformation technique. The

shown
square-root
modeled by Evans, Rice and Hirth (1980). As an approximation,
they replace the actual triple

occurs
approx-
the elastic starting solution, eq.
(7.19), is taken as 0.29. Diffusive relaxation of such an

singularity
Fn
to specialize the discussion to the case s
the triple point is Fn(O)
result
is
0.255. The maximum of Fn
occurs slightly ahead of the triple junction and exceeds Fn(O) by 19%.
Now the time can be calculated which elapses until the
junction
has
stress
at
the
triple
dropped to, say, 20 m, which is the maximum stress during steady-
state Coble creep. Setting on
20 m, S
1/2
and Fn = 0.255 in eq. (7.30) gives
7.2
The Triple Junction
0.1.
101
\ .,,- initial stress

\,
F := K sin2a
n
Fig. 7.5. Normalized stress, Fn'

vs. normalized distance from triple junction, p.
the diffusive relaxation time for the elastic

triple point
stress
concentration
near
the
(7.31 )
This is 2000 times smaller than the global relaxation time given in eq. (7.29).
For
a-iron
at
850 K, this means that the elastic stress concentration at the
triple junctions is relaxed within 29 seconds by diffusion.

short
time
compared
to
Although this is a
typical rupture lifetimes, cavities may be nucleated
during the elastic transient. Recall that the incubation time for cavity nucleation
given in eqs. (6.34), (6.35) and (6.37) is numerically of the same order
as td. Of course, elastic transients can only playa role if the piling
slip
against
up
of
the triple junction occurs faster than diffusion and creep relax
the elastic stress concentration. The rate at which grain boundary

piled
up
against
the
junction
is
sliding
is
limited by the viscosity of the boundary
provided that the applied load rises fast enough or internal slip instabilities
cause
rapid
loading
events
locally.
The
sliding, tv' was given in eq. (7.17). Taking
characteristic
the
friction
time
for viscous
coefficient
of
grain boundary, n, from eq. (1.8) and td from eq. (7.31) gives
(7.32)
7.
102
Thus, the ratio td/tv depends only on grain size, particle size and particle
spacing. For large, closely spaced grain boundary particles, this ratio is
smaller than unity, i.e., elastic stress concentrations are relaxed before they
are built up.
7.3 Stress Concentrations at Particles on Sliding Grain Boundaries

Engineering alloys usually contain hard second-phase particles such as carbides
which
are
precipitated on grain boundaries in order to prevent grain boundary
sliding. These particles transmit the shear stresses which the
grain
boundary
would otherwise not be able to support at elevated temperatures. Creep cavities

are frequently nucleated at the particle/matrix interfaces. The
of
stress
concentrations
in
the
nucleation
process
is
possible
role
described in this
section.
7.3.1
Elastic stress concentrations at two-dimensional particles
In a first attempt to model elastic stress concentrations at
particles,
Smith
and Barnby (1967) considered an infinite grain boundary subjected to an applied

shear stress '= and containing two-dimensional (cylindrical) particles with
diameter p and spacing A.
Both the particles and the matrix are modeled as
p
isotropic elastic
materials
having
the
same
elastic
moduli.
Between
the
particles, the grain boundary is assumed to slide freely. In other words, Smith
and Barnby solve the elastic problem of an infinite periodic array of
coplanar
shear cracks of length Ap-P separated by uncracked material of length p. Such a

geometry leads to the stress intensity factor at the edge of the particles:
(7.33)
(Rooke and Cartwright, 1974), where the second form is an
for small particles, p
approximation
valid
Ap.
Cavity nucleation is assumed to occur once the stress intensity
factor
satis-
fies the energy criterion, eq. (7.8). Combining eqs. (7.33) and (7.8) gives the
applied shear stress which is necessary to nucleate cavities
the rupturing of atomic bonds:
at
particles
by
Stress Concentrations at Particles
7.3
103
(7.34)
oo
The second form is approximately valid for small particles, p

It is clear from eq. (7.34)
nucleation
that
for
widely
spaced
Ap.
particles,
the
cavity
stress becomes small. If an unusually small value (in comparison to
engineering alloys) for the particle size is assumed, p = 0.1

AP = 311m, Y = 1.5 Nlm and
s
found to be T = 93 MPa. I f
unchanged, there results Too
<II
E
p
150 GPa, the

1.5 IJffi whith
~,
together with
nucleation stress in shear is

the other parameters being
406 MPa, which is far greater than the stresses

at which nucleation is observed to occur.
If a finite, rather than an infinite grain boundary facet in a
considered,
part
polycrystal
is
of the applied shear stress is supported by the triple grain
junctions, so that the stresses on the particles are reduced. To a first approximation, the importance of the finiteness of the sliding facet can be assessed
by considering a finite number of
for
coplan~~r
shear
cracks.
Numerical
solutions
this problem are shown by Rooke and Cartwright (1974). Their Fig. 93 shows
that the number of cracks has no great effect on the stress
intensity
factor.
For large particles (p ~ Ap)' the difference in KII between infinitely many and
a finite number of cracks vanishes. Even for relatively small particles,
= 0.1
and 10 particles interspersed between 11 shear cracks, the stress

intensity factor at the central particles is reduced by only 10% compared to an
.piA p
array
of
infinitely
difference becomes
many
greater
particles. Only for extremely small particles, the

and
diverges
logarithmically
as
A Ip
goes
to
infinity. Thus, in the two-dimensional case, the finiteness of grain boundaries

generally plays no
do~inant
role. For the more realistic case of
three-dimens-
ional particles, however, the effect is greater.

7.3.2
Elastic stress concentrations at three-dimensional particles
The three-dimensional problem of more or less

grain
boundaries
in
polycrystals
equi-axed
particles
on
finite
can only be treated in an apprOXimate way.
Most of the assumptions, however, have been discussed
by
Riedel
(1984b)
and
have been shown to be justified.

The first assumption is to model the grain boundary facets as isolated,
penny-
shaped shear cracks of diameter d, i.e. we apply the shear crack model of grain
7.
104
boundary sliding in polycrystals introduced in Section 7.1.1. This

not
model
does
describe the conditions near triple junctions accurately, but the -stresses
on particles some distance away from the triple pOints are
obtained
approxim-
ately correctly. The stress transmitted by the facet, 'b' whose origin was not
specified in Section 7.1.1, is now ascribed to the presence of hard particles,
each
of
2
which carries a shear force 'bAp'
If the particles are well separated
from one another, i.e. if p Ap , each of them can be considered as a circular

junction of diameter p connecting two elastic half spaces. This is a configuration which has been treated in the literature. According to
Westmann
(1965),
the shear force transmitted by the junction, 'bA~' is related to the relative
shear displacement across the boundary by
(2-v) (1+v) 'b
A~
The next approximation made is to distribute

discrete
particles
continuously
stress is assumed to be uniform.
(7.35)
(p E).
the
forces
transmitted
by
the
over the grain boundary. The resulting shear

This
implies
an
inconsistency,
since
the
displacement calculated from eq. (7.35) with a uniform 'b is also uniform,
whereas eq. (7.4) gives a p-dependent, i.e. non-uniform, displacement. Therefore
compatibility
of the displacements calculated from eqs. (7.4) and (7.35)
can only be achieved in the average sense that
the
averages
of
ub
must
be
equal. This requirement determines both u b and 'b:
'b
From 'b the average

calculated as
= '",
shear
,p
2
311 (2-v)
[ 1 + -6
1
1-v
stress
"10.
(7.36)
p ]-1
-pd
transmitted
by
particle,
can
be
(7.38)
Along the circumference of the particle the stress intensity factor varies and,
according
to Westmann (1965), the maximum Mode-II stress intensity factor at a
7.3
105
circular junction is
(7.39)
Assuming that
cavity
nucleation
occurs
once
the
stress
intensity
factor
satisfies the energy criterion, eq. (7.8), one obtains a critical applied shear
stress for cavity nucleation
C7.40)
where tb was replaced by
t~
through eq. (7.36). The
second
term
in
brackets
accounts for the finiteness of the grain boundary and, correspondingly, vanishes for d
well
~ ~.
as
As eq. (7.40) above shows large and closely spaced particles,
as
small grains are beneficial in preventing cavity nucleation caused by
grain boundary sliding.

v = 0.3,
150 GPa,
As
p = 0.5
numerical
~m,
Ap = 3
example,
and
~m
assume
d = 30
~m.
Ys = 1.5 N/m, E =
Then the stress for
cavity nucleation is predicted from eq. -(-7.40) as t~

85 MPa. This is a relatively high value compared to observed nucleation stresses; (note that the
tensile nucleation stress is 2t~ if uniaxial tension is applied
sliding boundary is inclined by 45 0 to the tensile axis).
7.3.3
and
if
the
particles
are
Stresses at two-dimensional particles during power-law creep
As in the linear
calculated
ela~tic
depend
on
case, the methods by which stresses on
whether the particles are two- or three-dimensional.. In
this subsection the two-dimensional case

briefly
described
following
work
of
an
infinite
grain
boundary
is
of Lau and Argon (1977) and Lau, Argon and
McClintock (1983).
These authors consider an infinite
particles
on
an
otherwise
periodic
freely
array
sliding
of
grain
rigid,
boundary
diamond-shaped
subjected
to
plane-strain shear. Toe geometry is the same as that shown earlier in Fig. 6.2.
The
particle/matrix
interface
is assumed to transmit no shear tractions. The
matrix is modeled by Norton's creep law [eq. (3.6), which reduces to
E=
Ban in
uniaxial tension]. Elastic deformation and diffusion are neglected.

Before details of the calculations are described, it should be mentioned that a
continuum-mechanical
description
of
the
material
on
the size scale of the
7.
106
particles (typically 1
ions
~m)
is questionable. On this scale, individual dislocat-
start to playa role. But in an average sense, the analysis appears to be
reasonable, and it will be found that it is primarily the average stress
on
particle which matters rather than local details.

For power-law creeping material, the stress field at the apex of the
in
the
sliding
grain
particles
boundary is singular. Lau and Argon (1977) analyze the
singularity starting from the
equation
for
the
Airy
stress
function
Ceq.
(3.19a)
with the elastic terms deleted]. They obtain factorized solutions having the form 0ij r- s gij(B). For the exponent, they give s = 0.192 and
s = 0.101 for n = 3 and 7, respectively, for a particle angle of ~ = 60 0 . Lau,
Argon and McClintock (1983) report values of s = 0.225 and 0.152 for n = 3
and
5, respectively, for ~ = 45 0 The particle angle ~ was defined in Fig. 6.2.

In the analysis of the singular field at the particle, a factor
termined.
remains
unde-
This factor was calculated by Lau, Argon and McClintock (1983) using
the finite element method. Based on calculations for ~ = 45 0 , p/Ap
1/3, n = 3
and 5 they infer the following formul~ for the normal stress, 0p' acting on the
particle/matrix interface near the apex of the particle:
where p is the diameter of the particle in

nonlinear
material
the
grain
boundary.
Although
assume that in plane-strain tension, Tm must be replaced by om/13 for

boundaries.
Using
in
generalization to other stress states is not simple, we
the
special
values
5 and ~
inClined
45 0 , eq. (7.41) gives a
stress concentration factor at particles of

C7.42)
In connection with cavity nucleation by

distance
from
the
apex
must
be
the
condensation
of
vacancies,
the
chosen to be of the order of the cavity
nucleus size. For r = 20nm and p = 1~, eq. (7.42) becomes op /0 m = 0.65 Ap /p.
It is interesting to compare this stress concentration occurring in the
Singular field with the average shear stress transmitted by
two-dimensional
particle, Tp = Tm(Ap/p). Obviously, the difference between the average shear

stress on a particle and the stress at a small distance from the singularity is
small
(12%
in
the
present
example).
This
means
that
the
local
stress
7.3
concentration in the
singular
field
107
is
numerically
to the fact that particles occupy an area fraction of

ensional case), but carry the whole shear load.
7.3.4
moderate
in
power-law
with n > 3. Stress concentrations at particles are then primarily due
material
piA
[in
the
two-dim-
Stresses at three-dimensional particles during power-law creep
The three-dimensional case is modeled in close analogy to the elastic

of
analysis
Section 7.3.2; a sliding grain boundary is described as an isolated, penny-
shaped shear crack. Grain boundary sliding is restrained by circular

which
represent
the
hard
particles
between
the
grains. The junctions are
treated as if they were well separated from one another. In the

shear
forces
stress,
~b'
slides
freely
which
they
transmit
are
analysis,
the
smeared out to give an average shear
transmitted by the boundary. Outside

but
junctions
the
junctions
the
boundary
transmits normal tractions. The grains deform by power-law
creep according to eq. (3.6).

To transfer the linear elastic results to power-law viscous
place
material,
we
re-
displacement by displacement rate recalling the elastic/viscous analogy,
set v
1/2, and replace Young's modulus by ae/~e. This provides the linear
viscous solution. Finally, the generalization to arbitrary stress exponents,
n > 1, is aChieved by using the
Hutchinson
linearization
method
introduced
by
He
and
(1981). For the shear crack as a whole this has been carried out in
Section 7.1.2. The analogous calculation for a circular junction connecting two
power-law creeping half-spaces has not yet been worked out. Instead of performing such a calculation, it is assumed that the displacement rate of the
ion
has
the same n-dependence as the circular shear crack. For n = 1, the ex-
pression is fitted to Westmann's (1965) result for a junction, eq.

this
way
junct-
(7.35).
In
one obtains the sliding displacement rate across a circular junction
loaded by a shear force
~bAp:
Here, ae is the equivalent tensile stress acting near the grain

example ae = l3~b for pure shear.
boundary;
for
As in the elastic case, global compatibility demands that the average displacement
rate
calculated for the whole grain-boundary facet must be equal to that
of the single junctions. Equating Ub from eq. (7.11) with Ub
from
eq.
(7.43)
7.
108
gives the average stress transmitted by the facet:

Lb
Lm 1 [1
+ (27n/32)
A~
1 (pd)].
(7.44)
Here it was assumed that the equivalent stress near the sliding facet is
to
the
remotely
applied
a:.
equal
equivalent stress, which is a good approximation if
either Lb + Lm or Lm
Equation (7.44) is independent of n [since in eq.
(7.43) the same n-dependence was assumed as in eq. (7.11) l, and is therefore
identical with the linear elastic result given in eq. (7.37) for-v
The two-dimensional analysis showed that in
n
power-law
viscous
= 1/2.
material
with
> 3 the local stress concentration beyond the average shear stress acting on
the particle is usually negligible. Therefore a good estimate for

stress
the
maximum
acting on a particle is provided by the average shear stress carried by
the particle:
(7.45)
Just as in the elastic

particles
lead
to
case,
small
small
stress
grains
and
concentrations
coarse
and
and
should
beneficial in preventing cavity nucleation as far as stress
closely
spaced
therefore
be
concentrations
by
grain boundary sliding are crucial for nucleation.

It should be noted that the stress concentration
factor Lp/Lm given by eq.

not very large: if O/p)2 is small, Lp/Lm is small in any
case; if O/p)2 is large, the denomi,nator becomes also large except when the
grain size is also very large. Thus in commercial alloys, the stress
(7.45)
is
usually
concentration factor at particles can hardly exceed a value of 10 or 20.

7.3.5 Diffusion and creep around particles during power-law creep of the grains
If both,
power-law
creep
and
grain-boundary
diffusion,
take
place
in
polycrystal, diffusion is the dominant transport mechanism over short distances

while power-law creep dominates on a larger scale. This
characteristic
is
expressed
the
diffusion length 1, defined in eq. (4.17). Here we consider the
case where power-law creep determines the deformation behavior of

i.e.
by
the
grains,
this section refers to the power-law creep regime on an Ashby deformation
map. On the scale of the particles, however, grain-boundary diffusion is
taken
7.3
109
into account in addition to creep.

Sliding of a particle-strengthened grain boundary in the presence of
and
creep
diffusive
accommodation is described by adding the sliding rates due to creep
flow Ceq. (7.43)] and due to diffusion around the
particles
[eqs.
(1.6)
and
(1.8)]. Such an additive superposition can be only an approximation, but it reproduces the limiting cases of creep-controlled or diffusion-controlled sliding
if
is
very large or very small, respectively, compared to t. Otherwise the
additive superposition provides an interpolation formula between
the
limiting
cases.
Equating the sliding rate obtained in this way to the sliding rate of the grain
facet
as
whole,
eq.
(7.11),
gives the average shear stress carried by a
particle:
(7.46)
Here, the definition of the diffusive length, t, is based on the diffusion
co-
along the particle/matrix interface, 6D i , which usually differs from

oD b (Burton and Beere, 1981), and on the bulk diffusion coefficient, Dv ' which
may contribute to the diffusive flux around the particle:
efficient
Equation (7.46) is an extension of eq. (7.45) by the diffusion term

term
in
last
the denominator), which reduces the stress concentration on particles
substantially if the diffusive length is large, i.e. if the applied

relatively
(the
low.
In
this
case,
the
stress
is
applied shear stress is focussed on the
triple grain junctions, while the particles are circumvented by diffusion.

In the presence of diffusion,
particles,
the
stress
singularity
at
the
apex
of
the
which was a weak singularity anyway, is removed so that the average
shear stress carried by the particles is definitely a
good
approximation
for
approximations
and
the maximum local stress.

The problem analyzed above was so
idealizations
had
to
be
complex
that
numerous
invoked. However, most of the approximations become
exact in at least one well defined
limiting
case
(the
linearization
method
7.
110
applied
Tb
in the shear crack model, for example, becomes exact for n
~ T~)'
particles
as
flat,
were
of
circular junctions, which are well separated from one an-
other) are intuitively expected to be appropriate. Some of

involved
1 and for
while the geometrical idealizations (for example, the description
checked
the
approximations
globally by Riedel (1984b) who applied the shear crack
model to grain boundary sliding
in
creeping
polycrystal
having
linearly
viscous grain boundaries. The closed-form results of the model agreed well with
finite element results of Gharemani (1980).
7.3.6
Stresses on particles during (free and inhibited) Coble creep
In this section, situations are considered in which the applied stress

or
enough,
the
is
low
grains are small enough, that the deformation rate of a poly-
crystal is carried by diffusive fluxes of atoms, while power-law creep is

ligible.
neg-
If diffusion occurs along grain boundaries, which it does at moderate
temperatures, this is called Coble creep (cf. Section 1.3).

If diffusion around the particles is not strongly retarded or inhibited, it
clear
that
the
stresses
at
particles
is
are relaxed since diffusion over the
particle size can easily keep pace with diffusion over the whole
grain,
which
controls the rate of Coble creep. If, however, diffusion in the particle/matrix
interface is much slower than in the grain boundary, oDi oD b , interface
diffusion may become rate controlling, the whole shear force being focussed on
2
the particles. The stress on the particles is then of the order crp/a~ = (Ap/P)
simply because the area fraction of the particles is of the order (A /p)2. This
limit is approached when oD./oD b
1
(p2/A d)2. For a more

p
detailed
discussion
of this case, see Burton and Beere (1981).
The inhibition of diffusion creep at low stresses is often ascribed to the fact
that
the plating of atoms onto the particle/matrix interfaces may be inhibited
as described in Section 1.4. In this case, the plating of atoms on clean

of
parts
the grain boundary (i.e. diffusion creep) can only continue if the thicken-
ing of the boundary is accommodated at the particles by some
other
mechanism,
for example by power-law creep.
A simple model of inhibited diffusion creep with power-law creep

near
the
inhibiting
particles
is presented next. It resembles the parallel-
fibre model proposed by Hart (1967) for

boundary
normal
to
an
accommodation
similar
applied tensile stress,
problems.
a~.
Consider
grain
The average stress trans-
7.3
11 1
mitted by a particle is denoted by ap ' whereas outside the particles, the average stress is abo There are two requirements that determine these two stresses.
First, the displacement rate by the diffusive plating of atoms during Coble
creep,
(7.48)
must be compatible with the displacement rate by creep near the particles:
(7.49 )
Equation (7.49) must have the form shown due to the scaling properties of
er-law
viscous
pow-
fields. The factor a can be estimated by conSidering the part-
icle as a circular junction connecting the grains, just as in the case of rigid
particles
in
otherwise
freely
sliding grain boundaries (Section 7.3.4). The
linear elastic solution for a junction under
tension
(Rooke
and
Cartwright,
1974) is extrapolated to power-law viscous material by assuming the same dependence on the stress exponent n which holds for the penny-shaped crack (He and
Hutchinson, 1983). This results in a = (3~/4)'(1+3/n)-1/2. (Recently, Cocks,
1985, has proposed an alternative model in which he models the
particle
as
plane-strain punch). The second condition for the determination of ap and ab is

that they must together balance the applied stress taking into account the respective area fractions on which ap and ab act. Combining the equilibrium condition with the compatibility of eqs. (7.48) and (7.49) one obtains:
(7.50)
For arbitrary n, this equation cannot be
limiting
becomes
cases.
small
For
and
small
all
applied
stress
is
resolved
stresses,
for
We
consider
two
the second term in eq. (7.50)
concentrated
on
the
particles,
i.e. ,
In this limit, the rate of deformation is controlled by

localized creep of the grains near the particles. The strain rate, i = UId,
ala""
then
(4/~)(J..lp),
follows
as
power
function of stress,
pB[(J.. IP)2 a ]n /d At high

P
""
stresses, on the other hand, the second term in eq. (7.50) dominates compared
to the first. This generally leads to an only moderate stress concentration. In
this limit is ab
Coble
creep.
The
a"" so that the strain rate is the usual strain rate of
inhibiting
effect
power-law creep near the particles.
of
the
free
particles is overcome by rapid
7.
112
Figure 7.6 shows the behavior of the strain rate as calculated from eq. (7.50).
(The strain rate follows from ap by = a p B ~ / d). Apparently, there is no
real threshold to diffusion creep in this model, but the steep decrease of at
low
stresses,
if
observed
experimentally,
might
well
be interpreted as a
threshold. This quasi-threshold occurs approximately where the two terms on the
left-hand side of eq. (7.50) are equal. This gives a 'threshold stress' of
n-1
aeD
As an example, eq. (7.51) is
if p2 is neglected compared to A2.
p
evaluated
for
the melting temperature with ~ = 50, n = 6.9, p = 1 ~m,

A = 3 ~m and d = 20 ~. Then eq. (7.51) gives a threshold stress of 1.3 MPa,
P
which is compatible with the order of magnitude observed in experiments (cf.
a- iron
at
half
Section 1.4).
7.3.7
Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at particles by creep
Relaxation of the initial elastic stress concentration at particles by creep is

similar
to stress relaxation at triple grain junctions and at cracks (Sections
7.1.3 and Chapter 23). In particular, the relaxation time must be of the order
n-1 -1
t1 '" (E B 't p )
eq.(7.51)
Fig. 7.6. Strain rate in diffusion creep wnen inhibited by particles

(schematic).
(7.52)
7.3
113
in analogy to eq. (7.13) when all numerical factors

(7.52)
it
are
neglected.
From
eq.
is apparent that local stress concentrations are relaxed the faster
the higher the average stress on the particle, ~p' is. Numerically, t1 is
usually only a minute fraction of the lifetime, and it is questionable whether
elastic stress concentrations can be built up
fast
enough
compared
to
this
relaxation time.
7.3.8
Relaxation of elastic stress concentrations at particles by diffusion
In addition to
concentrations.
creep,
As
also
one
diffusion
reduces
the
initial
elastic
stress
would expect, the global relaxation time of the whole
stress field around a particle is given
by
an
expression
analogous
to
eq.
(7.29), which was derived for stress relaxation on the scale of the grains. Now
the grain size, d, must be replaced by p and, as Koeller and Raj (1978) show in
detail, the numerical factor in the denominator is 37 instead of 130.
As in the case of the triple junction, however, it is not the global relaxation
time, but rather the relaxation time at a small distance from the stress Singularity, which is of primary interest for the cavity nucleation process. Diffusive
stress
relaxation
near
the
particle/grain boundary intersection can be
treated in close analogy to the analysis of the
triple
junction.
Again,
the
stress field has similarity solutions, eq. (7.30) with d replaced by p and with
Fn having a different functional form. Other than at the triple
junction,
the
normal stress on the interface, and therefore Fn' must now be zero at any time
t > 0 directly at th~ intersection because of the symmetry of the problem.
Figure
7.7
schematically shows the behavior of the normal stress on the part-
icle/matrix interface. At very small distances, r, from the

the
grain
boundary,
the
form
intersection
with
of the similarity solutions requires that the
stress decreases according to

(7.53)
where a is numerical factor of order unity
Similarity
which
cannot
be
determined
from
arguments alone. Now we define the diffusive relaxation time as the
time after which an as calculated from eq. (7.53)

average shear stress on the particle,
~p.
has
dropped
to,
say,
the
This leads to:

(7.54)
7.
114
~---------r---------'
____ initial elastic singularity
diffusive flux
OL---------~--------~
p/1I2
r-
Fig. 7.7. Normal stress, an' on particle/matrix interface vs. distance from
apex, r. Diffusive relaxation of an elastic stress singularity (schematic).
If r is taken as the cavity nucleus size, typically r

time
is
second if
extremely
20 nm, this
relaxation
to
be
Since elastic stress concentrations at particles are relaxed so quickly, it
is
cD i
the
small. For a-iron at 800 K, for example, td is less than a
unknown
oD b , and p
unlikely
that
~m
interface
and a
diffusion
coefficient
is
they playa general role in cavity nucleation. Usually the rate
of loading is much slower than the rate at which elastic stress

are
relaxed
assumed
1.
by
creep
concentrations
and by diffusion. Only if a grain boundary is stressed
very rapidly, say by some sliding instability in an adjacent grain, the time to
pile
up
sliding
against
the
particles
relaxation time depending on the intrinsic

between
mayor may not be shorter than the

viscosity
of
the
grain
boundary
the particles which is, however, rarely known. For details, see Argon,
Chen and Lau (1980).
7.4 Stresses at Grain-Boundary Ledges

The author does not know of a stress analysis of ledges in sliding grain boundaries in elastic or creeping materials. However, the configuration is geometrically similar to two-dimensional particles except that now the sliding boundary
segments are offset by the ledge height h rather than separated by the particle
diameter, p. Hence, until a detailed analysis is available, it is
proposed
to
use the results derived in the preceding section for two-dimensional particles.
7.5
Summary
115
7.5 Summary of Stress Concentrations

The local stresses at triple grain junctions and
at
particles
due
to
grain
boundary sliding were found to depend on the predominant deformation mechanism,

and this in turn depends on time and on stress. For short times after load application,
the
stress distribution is elastic, while for long times, diffusion
and creep predominate. Figure 7.8 summarizes the

occur
stress
concentrations
which
in the steady state after elastic stress concentrations have been relax-
ed; 0p is the average stress focussed on a particle by grain boundary sliding

or by inhibited Coble creep. At high stresses, the polycrystal is deformed by
power-law creep, and also the particles are circumvented by creep.
The
stress
concentration factor at the particles is then given by eq. (7.45). For somewhat
lower stresses, the particles start to be circumvented
that
by
diffusion
provided
diffusion is not inhibited. As long as power-law creep still dominates on
the size scale of the grains, the stress concentration factor is then given
eq.
(7.46).
At
by
even lower stresses, one enters the regime of Coble creep. If
diffusion is inhibited by particles, the stress concentration factor
rises
to
values of the order (A /p)2 during Coble creep. On the other hand, the stresses
p
themselves are small in that range. In summary, the stress concentration
fact-
ors in the power-law creep regime of engineering alloys, are moderate. Only for
widely spaced, small particles and large grains can
factor
the
stress
concentration
exceed a value of 10. During elastic transients, the stress concentrat-
ion may be larger on a small scale due to the relatively severe elastic
stress
singularities.
(~p~z f---___... particle - irhibited

J
diffusion
eq. (7.50)
_ad
n
eq. (7.45\
-----~------''-f
-- eq. (7.46)
power-law
creep
Coble creep
Ga>
(log scale)
Fig. 7.8. Stress concentration factor at particles vs. applied stress.
8 The Role of Impurity Segregation

in Cavity Nucleation
8.1 Qualitative Observations

The presence of trace levels of impurities like sulfur, phosphorus, arsenic and
others has a strong, and often deleterious, effect on the mechanical properties
of metals and alloys. If such
material
tends
elements
segregate
to
grain
boundaries,
the
to fail by brittle intergranular fracture at low temperatures,
probably due to a reduction of the cohesive strength. Observations relating
to
this phenomenon, which is called temper embrittlement, are described in Section

8.1.1, and the theory of cohesive strength in the
presence
of
impurities
is
developed in Section 8.2.4. Impurities also influence the ductility under creep
conditions.
If
embrittlement.
they
do
so
in
an
adverse
manner
this
is
called
creep
This may be caused by a reduction of the cohesive strength, but
the precipitation
of
(Section
Not
8.1.2).
nonadherent
all
particles
elements
which
also
are
plays
present
quantities are harmful. Some elements such as carbon
or
an
important
in
alloys in small
zirconium
are
role
added
deliberately to improve an alloy's properties.

8.1.1
Grain-boundary brittleness at room temperature (temper embrittlement)
If materials which exhibit segregation of impurities to grain boundaries

low-alloy,
creep-resistant
steels)
are
(e.g.
tempered or crept in the temperature
range where segregation occurs (350 0 -600 0 C in steels), a drastic loss of ductility is observed in impact testing at room temperature. The phenomenon has long
been known as temper embrittlement. The subject has been
for
reviewed
repeatedly,
example by McMahon (1968), by Guttmann (1980) and by McMahon et al (1985).
Fracture in temper embrittled materials occurs by a rapid separation
of
grain
boundaries. It has nothing in common with intergranular cavitation, except that

both phenomena are influenced by impurity segregation.
A remarkable observation related to segregation has recently been made
by
Liu
8.1
117
et al (1983) on the intermetallic compound Ni 3Al. Such ordered alloys have good
high-temperature mechanical properties but at room temperature they usually
fail
intergranularly
in
an
extremely
impurity level, adding 200 to 500

slightly,
ppm
fashion.
and
By controlling the
increasing
the
Ni-content
Liu et al were able to produce completely ductile Ni 3Al-allOYs. The
gain in room temperature ductility

cohesion
brittle
boron
due
to
the
segregation
is
ascribed
to
improved
grain
boundary
of boron to grain boundaries. Later it was
found that the boron-doped material exhibits brittle inter granular fracture
temperatures between 600 and
800 0
at
in oxygen-containing atmospheres (Liu, White
and Lee, 1985). This effect is probably not related to segregation and
can
be
should
be
avoided by the addition of chromium to the alloy.

For completeness, the embrittlement of grain boundaries by hydrogen
mentioned.
It
plays
a role, for example, in 'cold cracking' of welds, but at
elevated temperatures cracking

author's
knowledge.
by
atomic
hydrogen
does
not
occur
to
the
However, at elevated temperatures hydrogen can react with
carbon to form methane bubbles on grain boundaries in carbon-bearing alloys

('hydrogen attack'). This is related to cavitational failure and is described
in connection with the effects of other pressurized gas bubbles in Chapter 9.
8.1.2
Embrittlement by impurities under creep conditions
Apart from affecting the room temperature ductility, impurities can also impair
the
creep
rupture properties (creep embrittlement). Progress in understanding
the role of different impurities has been made in the past few years by examining
freshly exposed cavity surfaces and grain boundaries employing Auger spec-
troscopy and, more recently, field ion microscopy. These

ques
experimental
techni-
allow one to determine the degree of segregation of various elements. The
correlation with the creep rupture properties is rather complicated

completely clear to date. A few examples will be described next.
and not
Examples on nickel and its alloys containing traces of P, As, Sb
Sn
been
reported
by
Bieber
and
and
have
Decker (1961), White and Padgett (1982, 1983),
Schneibel et al (1983) and Thomas and Gibbons (1984). A comprehensive review of

beneficial
and
detrimental trace elements in nickel-base superalloys has been
given by Holt and Wallace (1976). Schneibel et al (1983) show that small additions of Zr restore the creep ductility of a Ni-20%Cr alloy, which was previously embrittled by trace levels of sulfur. They suspect a twofold effect, namely,
part of the zirconium preCipitates as sulfides in the matrix thereby preventing
118
8.
Impurity Effects on Nucleation
the segregation of sulfur to grain boundaries, and part of

resulting
in
reduction
of
order of magnitude. Such a reduction would have little

nucleation
stress
the
Zr
segregates
the grain boundary diffusion coefficient by an

effect
on
the
cavity
given in eq. (6.29), but diffusional cavity growth would be
retarded in proportion to 6Db . In any case, the beneficial effect of small additions of Zr and B on the creep rupture properties of nickel-base superalloys
has long been known and utilized. Oxygen has an
boundaries
in
nickel
and
embrittling
effect
on
grain
of its alloys. Bricknell and Woodford (1984)
some
discuss several causes for this; the possibility of gas bubble
formation
will
be studied in Section 9.1.

Impurities have a great effect on the creep rupture
stainless
steels
properties
of
austenitic
(White et aI, 1981; Swindeman et aI, 1981, 1983). The under-
lying mechanisms do not seem to be altogether clear. Indirect effects

an
influence
on
the
carbide
morphology
such
as
are important. Hence, the observed
interactions between impurity content and processing history are conceivable.

The greatest amount of work on the effects of impurities on creep ductility has
been performed on ferritic and bainitic steels. Generally, it is beneficial for
the creep ductility to keep the impurity level very low. In high-purity steels,
the
cavity
nucleation
rate
is
considerably reduced compared to commercial-
purity steels (see Table 5.1 in Section 5.7.1 and Hopkins, Tipler
and
Branch,
1971; and Tipler and Hopkins, 1976). However, the mechanism by which impurities
be easily identified in later
lead to enhanced 'cavity nucleation could not

studies
(e.g.
Tipler, 1980; Needham and Orr, 1980; Yu and Grabke, 1983; Jager
et aI, 1984). Often it was found that deliberately

severe
temper
addea
impurities
lead
creep ductility. Under special circumstances, the addition of phosphorus to

alloy,
which
(Takasugi
had
and
to
embrittlement at room temperature, but had little effect on the

been
Pope,
embrittled
1982,
1983),
by
sulfur,
although
an
restored the creep ductility

is
known
to
cause
temper
embrittlement. These seemingly conflicting observations on the effects of

impurities on the creep ductility of steels were reviewed and interpreted by
Pope and Wilkinson (1981), Chen, Takasugi and Pope (1983) and Pope (1983).
At least three different effects are conceivable by which impurities
the
influence
creep ductility. First, they can reduce the cohesive strength of interfac-
es. Although this is probably not a generally dominant factor in creep embrittlement,
it
plays
a role in special cases. George (1985), for example, showed
that oxide particles decohere from the iron matrix only if sulfur
is
present.
8.1
119
This
observation
suggests
that
sulfur
segregation weakens the oxide-matrix
interface. Second, impurity segregation affects the

coefficient.
As
grain
boundary
will be shown in Section 8.2.5, this has an only small effect
on cavity nucleation, while the effect on cavity growth will

Section
be
discussed
serve
as
heat
boundaries,
effective cavity nucleation sites and thereby reduce the creep
ductility. The size and the distribution of the sulfides

the
in
11.1.5. The third effect is often the most important one; sulfur tends
to form sulfides, and, if these sulfides are preCipitated on grain

they
diffusion
treatment
depends
strongly
on
and on the presence of other elements, which leads to the
complicated behavior observed. Since this effect has been investigated primarily
in
connection
with
stress
relief
cracking, it will be described in the
following section.
8.1.3
Stress relief cracking or reheat cracking
A particularly harmful distribution of sulfides is generated by a

ment
which
is
often
zone of a weld in steels (King, 1980; Middleton, 1981; Hippsley

1982;
heat
treat-
applied to simUlate the conditions in the heat affected

et
al,
1980,
Gooch, 1981; McMahon, 1984). In the part of the heat affected zone which
say, 1100 oC, sulfides, which are normally
experiences temperatures above,
precipitated as large MnS particles within the grains are dissolved. During the
rapid cooling after the welding pass, the sulfides are
preferentially
re-pre-
cipitated as finely dispersed (Mn,Cr)S particles on austenite grain boundaries,

where they nucleate cavities in a subsequent creep
stress-relief
heat
treatment
after
welding.
test
or
even
during
the
Besides an unfavorable sulfide
distribution, welding also produces undesirable residual stresses in
the
heat
affected zone of the parent material. Therefore after welding, the structure is
reheated to some 700 0 C in order to remove the internal stresses by creep relaxation. Materials Which are susceptible to stress relief cracking cannot sustain
these strains. This susceptibility often arises from cavity
formation
at
the
finely dispersed sulfides. The coarse grain structure, which is also obtained
in that part of the heat affected zone and Which is known to lead to a reduced
ductility
at low temperatures, is probably less important for creep embrittle-
ment and for stress relief cracking. As for the effect of other impurities,
is
observed
that
it
small additions of boron, in the range of a few ppm, affect
the sulfide distribution adversely thus aggravating the problem. Cerium, on the
other
hand,
seems
to
retain
sulfur in the grains and therefore removes the
problem. Boron itself, in the presence of Ce, i.e. in

boundary
sulfides,
the
absence
of
grain-
is innocuous. Phosphorus seems to have a beneficial effect
8.
120
on the sulfide distribution (Takasugi and Pope, 1982, 1983).

There is yet another, even more drastic effect of impurities
ture
cracking
which
has
been
on
cracking. Under certain conditions, the cavitational mode of

replaced
by
high-tempera-
investigated in connection with stress relief

cracking
may
be
a very brittle, but slowly progressing, separation of grains. The
fracture surface is practically featureless

particular,
the
characteristic
dimples
down
of
to
scale
of
10 nm.
In
cavitational failure are absent.
Hippsley et al (1980, 1982) show that the occurrence of this brittle mode in
21/~Cr-1Mo
steel
multiaxial
states
depends
of
on the presence of S, P, Sn or Sb and is favored by
stress
and
by
medium-temperature
conditions.
To
rationalize their observations they assume that the cohesive strength is reduced sufficiently by grain boundary segregation to allow for
brittle
separation
of the grains. Indeed, Hippsley, Rauh and Bullough (1984) show by high-resolution Auger spectroscopy that sulfur is enriched near
interfacial
the
tip
of
the
brittle
crack. McMahon (1984) and Shin and McMahon (1984) propose that the
sulfur enrichment stems from grain boundary sulfides which might release sulfur
atoms quickly to the newly created surfaces of the interfacial crack.
An alternative explanation would be that segregation reduces the dihedral
tip
angle
which
facilitates
cavity
nucleation
void
by vacancy condensation and
enhances the cavity growth rate. In fact, there is evidence in Hippsley et aI's
(1982)
paper
that this could be the case. Their Fig. 9b shows a cavity at the
carbide/matrix
interface
located
at
triple
grain
junction.
As
shown
schematically in Fig. 8.1, the cavity has a concave radius of curvature against
the matrix.
For such a cavity shape,
there would be no nucleation barrier and
cavity with
negative
positive curvature
carbide - decorated
grain boundaries
Fig. 8.1. Cavity formation at a triple junction of carbide-decorated
grain boundaries. After Hippsley et al (1982).
8.1
121
spontaneous nucleation and growth would be predicted even

stress.
The
concave
without
an
applied
cavity shape is a consequence of the small wetting angle
where the cavity surface intersects the
carbide
and
this
could
be
due
to
impurity enrichment in the interface.

It should be mentioned that creep cracKing near welds is not necessarily related
to creep embrittlement caused by sulfide precipitation. In practice, cracKs

780 0 e and
also develop in the zone which has experienced temperatures between

900 0 e.
In
this two-phase (ferrite-austenite) regime, carbides coarsen rapidly
so that the material looses its creep resistance. Therefore, large deflections,
which
can
occur,
for
example, as a consequence of thermal strains in piping
systems, are accommodated primarily in these
weak
zones.
The
material
then
fails because of the large strains imposed on it.
8.2 Theories Related to Segregation and Cohesion

8.2.1
Segregation eguilibria
The reason why substitutional impurity atoms are segregated to grain boundaries
is
that
sites
on
grain
boundaries
are energetically favorable compared to
lattice sites. This is in part a consequence of the
size
misfit
of
impurity
atoms which can be accommodated more easily in the grain boundary (Seah, 1975),
but the state of chemical bonding also plays a role (Wynblatt and Ku, 1980). At
high temperatures, entropy tends to favor a homogeneous distribution of impurity atoms with no enrichment on grain boundaries.
The first type of theory relevant for segregation effects deals with this thermodynamic
between energy and entropy. In the simplest case, it is

assumed that there is a gain in free enthalpy, - flG i , if a mole of atoms of
species i is segregated. A negat i ve flG i implies a tendency towards segregation.
The number of impurity species present is denoted by m (so that i = 1,2 m)
each
equilibrium
having a dilute molar fraction xi in the grains. The segregation free en-
thalpy is assumed to be independent of the number of atoms which

segregated,
i.e.,
there
is
no
have
already
energetic interaction between the segregated
atoms. However, there is site competition since only a limited number of sites
is available. The total coverage, Lei, cannot exceed unity, where e i is the
partial coverage of the available sites with atoms of species i, and
summation
sign.
Of
course,
it
is
the
would be conceivable that different Kinds of
8.
122
atoms segregate to different kinds of sites. This would complicate the formulation
slightly.
Similarly,
if impurities can be segregated in several layers,
the theory needs to be modified. Assuming, for simplicity, that only

and
one
one
type
layer of segregation sites is available, the coverage is given by the
so-called Langmuir-McLean isotherm (McLean, 1957, Guttmann and McLean, 1979):

(8.1)
-I~
J
Segregation enthalpies have been determined from Auger

phosphorus
segregating
to
electron
studies.
For
grain boundaries in iron, Erhart and Grabke (1981)
find AGb = - (34.3 + 0.0215T/K) kJ/mol, which is consistent with Hondros's

(1965) indirect measurement at 14500C, AGb = -67 kJ/mol. Moller et al (1984)
obtain AGb = -46.5 kJ/mol for a commercial steel between 400 0C and 500 oC, which
also
lies
in
the
same range. (Subscripts indicate the location where segre-
gation occurs, i.e. b

note
the
spe~ies
grain boundary and s
surface, while superscripts
de-
of atoms which segregate). For the segregation of phosphorus
to a free iron surface, Hondros's (1965) data give an estimate of AG =

s
-101 kJ/mol at 1450 0C (Asaro, 1980) which is slightly higher than the value
obtained by Hartweck (1979) at lower temperatures, AG = -(75 + 7.10-3 T/K)
s
kJ/mol. The segregation of tin in iron has been studied by Seah and Hondros
(1973) and by Seah and Lea (1975). At 550 0C they obtain AGb = -45.3 kJ/mol for
the grain boundary and AG = -76.6 kJ/mol for the free surface. Sulfur seems to
s
playa special role in that its segregation enthalpies are so large that even
at
sulfur
bulk concentrations of as little as 0.01 ppm and at temperatures up
to 850 0 C, iron surfaces are completely

1977).
An
indirect
estimate
Grabke (1978), gives AG

estimate is available.
for
like
and
with
sulfur
(Grabke
et
aI,
sulfur on iron surfaces, due to Tauber and
= -165 kJ/mol, while for
An obvious extension of eq. (8.1) would

between
covered
be
to
grain
admit
boundaries
energetic
no
such
interactions
unlike segregated atoms. This has been proposed by Guttmann
(1975) in order to explain why temper embrittlement occurs in low-alloy
steels
but does not occur in plain carbon steels even in the presence of high phosphorus levels. According to Guttmann,
phosphorus
due
elements
like
chromium
cosegregate
to an attractive interaction. Recent work of Erhard and Grabke
(1981), however, has shown that the effect of alloying elements is an

one:
In
carbon
with
steels,
indirect
carbon displaces phosphorus from grain boundaries by
simple site competition which is already included in
eq.
(8.1).
Addition
of
8.2
chromium,
molybdenum
or
vanadium
123
drastically reduces the carbon activity by
carbide formation so that phosphorus is free to segregate to grain

where
it
causes
embrittlement.
In
other
boundaries,
cases, cosegregation by energetic
interactions apparently occurs, as Gas et al (1986) show for Ni and Sb in Fe.

8.2.2
Segregation kinetics
A second class of theories is concerned with the kinetics of segregation.
This
is important in cases like the following example. The heat treatments of steels
are usually done at relatively high temperatures, at which impurity
dissolved
in
the
grains
due
quenching, impurity atoms start to diffuse to

establish
the
new
equilibrium
associated
within
practically
Therefore, only upon
are
grain
boundaries
interesting
tempering
above
in
order
to
with the lower temperature. Below
350 0 C however, diffusion of substitutional impurities

that,
atoms
to thermodynamic equilibrium, eq. (8.1). After
times,
in
steels
segregation
350 0 C,
is
the
is
does
phenomenon
so
slow
not
occur.
of
temper
by
McLean
embrittlement observed.
Theoretically, diffusion-controlled segregation
has
been
modeled
(1957). He solved the diffusion equation for the impurity atoms, subject to the
boundary condition that the concentration at the
local
equilibrium
then found
with
the
grain
boundary
must
be
in
current grain-boundary coverage. The coverage is
increase according to
~o
(8.2)
where
is the time normalized as
thickness,
D is
the
complementary
t
= O.
9~,
error
from
function.
4 Dt (x B I 9 0)2,
is the grain boundary
coefficient of ;he impurity, xB is its molar
diffusion
fraction in the grains far

value,
the
grain
boundary
and
erfc
denotes
the
For long times, 9 saturates to the equilibrium
which can be calculated from eq. (8.1); 90 is the initial
value
at
For short times, eq. (8.2) can be approximated by the leading term of a
series expansion, which gives the square-root of time dependence:

(9-9 ) I (9 -9 )
4 (Dt/~)1/2 x B I (9_0)'
Figure 8.2 shows the grain boundary coverage at

plotted
as
(8.3)
fixed
time
of
tempering,
function of tempering temperature according to eq. (8.2), where
the temperature-dependent quantities are D and
9~.
At
high
temperatures,
the
8.
124
(I.,
e
s~
O'i
5
kinetic / ;
control
@
o
..Q
8<x.Vl5t'
O'i
o~--~~~~~~~~--~--~~
1,00
600
800
1000
tempering temperatureTinK ___
a predicted by eqs. (8.2) and (8.1)

after a fixed time of tempering. Impurity contents in weight %.
After Hippsley et al (1982).
Fig. 8.2. Grain boundary coverage
area coverage is low since impurity atoms are dissolved in the lattice
at
whereas
low temperature equilibrium cannot be aChieved because of low diffusivities
so that the area coverage is again low.

M61ler et al (1984) confirmed the validity of eq. (8.2) by measuring the segre
gation
kinetics
of P in a commercial steam turbine steel using Auger electron
spectroscopy. Hippsley et al (1982) also obtained good
agreement
between
the
observed and calculated segregation kinetics of phosphorus.
8.2.3
Calculation of interface energies from adsorption data
A third class of theories is strictly thermodynamic. It

that,
as
rule,
is
intuitively
clean
impurities with a strong tendency towards segregation will
reduce the grain boundary energy
strongly.
Quantitatively,
the
decrease
in
grain boundary energy due to segregation, dYb , can be calculated from the Gibbs
adsorption equation
(8.4:
which, for Simplicity, is given here
pressure;
ri
for
constant
temperature
and
constant
is the number of atoms per unit area of grain boundary and ~i is
the chemical potential of species i. The summation in eq.
(8.4)
includes
all
8.2
125
constituents
of
the
alloy, including the matrix atoms. A brief derivation of
eq. (8.4) is given, for example, by Guttmann

(1980).
Its
meaning
is
that
if
the
(1975)
chemical
and
by Hirth
and
Rice
potential of an impurity is
increased by increasing its concentration, the grain boundary energy
decreases
in proportion to the area coverage ri.

In order to evaluate the Gibbs adsorption equation it is necessary to know
area
coverage
the
as a function of the chemical potential. As a simple example we
consider an ideal solution of an impurity with an atomic fraction xB in a solid

matrix having an atomic fraction x A = 1 - x B. In an ideal solution, the
chemical potentials of a host atom, ~A, and of an impurity atom, ~B are
given,
respectively, by
(8.5)
(8.6)
(apart from additive constants which play no role here).- The area coverages, r A
and r B, are related to the fraction of grain boundary sites occupied by host
and impurity atoms through
(8.7)
(8.8)
where Nb is the number of available sites per unit grain boundary area
is
given
byeq. (8.1) setting
a =
~aJ
and
aB
= a for a binary alloy. Inserting the
expressions for ri and ~i into the Gibbs

integrating on xB from 0 to xB leads to
adsorption
equation
(8.4)
and
(8.9)
where Ybo is the grain boundary energy of the clean material and the abbreviation e = exp(6G b /RT) is defined for local use. For strong segregants, is usually
-6Gb RT so that e can be neglected compared to unity. In this case, eq.
(8.9) simplifies to
(8.10)
8. Impurity Effects on Nucleation
126
The last form involves the additional approximation of low grain-boundary coverage, i.e., the logarithm is expanded for arguments near 1. Seah (1980) obtains
a similar result except that he writes the gas constant, R, where k belongs.
Equations (8.9) and (8.10) were derived
surface
for
grain-boundary
is the same with Yb , Ybo ' Nb and 6Gb replaced by their

surface, viz., Ys ' Yso ' Ns and 6Gs ' respectively.
The utility of theoretical formulas like those above
grain
segregation;
for
segregation a completely analogous procedure is applicable. The result

values
lies
in
for
the
the
free
fact
that
boundary energies and surface energies are difficult to measure directly
at moderate temperatures. On the other hand, segregation enthalpies have become

available
during
the
past few years [see the paragraph following eq. (8.1)].
Also the structure of the adsorbed layers has been clarified so that the number
of adsorbtion sites, Nb , is known. The distance between adsorption sites is
often equal to the size of the unit cell of the host lattice (- 0.3 nm) so that
19 2
Nb = (0.3 nm) -2 ~ 101m.
Inserting this value together with 6Gb = -50 kJ/mol
(which is characteristic for grain-boundary segregation of phosphorus in iron
and steel at 500 0 C) and Ybo = 0.9 J/m 2 into eqs. (8.9) and (8.10), leads to the
grain boundary energy plotted in Fig. 8.3 as a function of the bulk phosphorus
content xp At xP = 0.4% the grain boundary energy is found to be reduced by
some 30% compared to pure iron.
1.0
'"E
"'.......
.~
.1G=-50 k)/mo/e
09
T=773K
0.8
07
~.Q
06
/inear approximation
0.5
0
01
02
0.3
04
impurity content x P in %
--0.5
0.6
Fig. 8.3. Decrease of grain boundary energy due to equilibrium segregation

of an impurity. Numerical values are representative for P in Fe at 773 K.
B.2 Theories Related to Segregation and Cohesion
127
Similar evaluations have been performed by Yoo et al (19B5) for

alloys
and
tures
where
copper-bismuth
by Asaro (19BO) for iron-phosphorus alloys at much higher temperaexperimental
data
on
interface
energies
are
available.
The
agreement of the computed curves with the experiments is found to be fair.
B.2.4
The relevance of segregation for decohesion
In the preceding subsection the reduction of grain-boundary and
surface
ener-
gies by segregation was calculated. Now the results are applied to the cohesive
strength of interfaces. The reduction of the cohesive strength is important for
temper embrittlement and sometimes also for creep embrittlement.
In order to separate a solid along an interface
bonds
mechanical
loading
device must do the
by
the
wor~
rupturing
of
atomic
Y per unit area of newly
created surface. The magnitude of this specific work depends on whether or
not
the impurity atoms have enough time to segregate to the free surface during the
process of separation. Two limiting cases will be considered. The
is
that
of
first
tained (constant chemical potential). The other limit is that of fast

ion
limit
slow separation in which an equilibrium surface coverage is mainseparat-
which implies that each free surface just inherits half of the impurities,
which had been present on the interface before separation (constant coverage).
Hirth and Rice (19BO) analyze these limiting cases carefully. For the slow-separation limit the work of separation is
(B.ll )
where Ys is the energy of the free surface with equilibrium segregation and Yb
is the energy of the contaminated grain boundary. This is a result which one
would naively expect: the work of separation is twice the surface energy (since
two surfaces are created) minus the energy of the grain boundary which had been
present before separation occurred. Both, Ys and Yb can be calculated from eq.
(B.l0) with the mOdifJcations for Ys indicated. Insertion into eq. (B.ll) gives
For small coverages, (6 b and 6s )
1, expansion of the logarithms leads to

(8.13)
128
8.
where rs = Ns 6s and rb = Nb6b are the numbers of impurity atoms per unit area
of surface and grain boundary, respectively. For strongly segregating impurities, the linear approximation, eq. (8.13), is usually not accurate enough.
The loss in cohesive strength by segregation,
~(2Y) = 2Y - (2Yso -Y bo )' is shown

in Fig. 8.4 for sulfur and phosphorus in steel according to eq. (8.12) with the
material parameters given in the figure caption.
For the clean material is

2Y = 2Yso - Ybo ' which has values of typically 3 J/m 2 for metals. As the figure
shows, the decrease in cohesion, ~(2Y), may reach 30% of that value if
0.1 at-ppm
sulfur
or 0.1 at% phosphorus are added (at 800 K). Clearly, sulfur
is much more effective than phosphorus
in
embrittling
grain
boundaries.
In
steels, however, the atomic fraction of sulfur in solid solution is limited due
to the presence of manganese, which precipitates together with sulfur
The
solubility
product
as
MnS.
of Mn and S in 3.25% silicon iron is given by Ainslie
and Seybolt (1960) as

[Mn].[S]
5.25 exp(-12,818 KIT),
(8.14)
where the brackets mean concentration in weight per cent. This formula is based
on
measurements
above 1,300 K. The dashed line in Fig. 8.4a represents the so
calculated sulfur concentration in solid solution in
the
presence
of
1%
by
weight manganese. As the figure shows, the presence of 1% Mn limits the loss in
cohesive strength
by sulfur
segregation to at most
~(2Y) ~ 0.7 J/m 2 ,
nearly
0
0) Sulphur
'"E
b) Phosphorus
-0.5
"'-,
.;
---
;0.,.
-1.0
850K
0
0.05
0.1
x S, at-ppm 5 -
0.15
0.1
0.5
xP,at-% P
Fig. 8.4. Loss of cohesive strength, ~(2Y), by equilibrium segregation

of Sand P in iron predicted from eq. (8.12) with Ns = Nb= 10'9/m'.
Free enthalpies (in kJ/mol) for S: ~Gs = ~~ = - 165 (~Gb assumed),
for P: ~Gs = -(75 + 710-3 T/K), ~Gh = -(34.3 + 0.0215 T/K).
8.2
129
independent of temperature.
The result in the fast separation (or constant coverage) limit is less
obvious
than eq. (8.11). It was given in eqs. (28) and (43) of Hirth and Rice (1980) in
general thermodynamic terms, and was evaluated for
(1980).
For
brevity,
ideal
solutions
by
Asaro
it is not reproduced here. It should only be noted that
the loss in cohesion is smaller in the fast separation limit than it is in
the
slow, equilibrium limit described above (Rice, 1976).

8.2.5
The effect of segregation on cavity nucleation by vacancy condensation
As an alternative to decohesion of interfaces, cavity nucleation can also occur

by
the
thermally
activated condensation of vacancies as described in Section
6.2. Now the interaction of impurities (or of deliberately added alloying elements)
with
the
process of vacancy condensation is considered. The nucleation
stress, which was given in eq. (6.29), varies as 0nuc y~/2. Hence, an
impurity which segregates to the surface of a vacancy cluster and reduces the
surface energy is expected to reduce the nucleation stress correspondingly.
However, the problem is complicated by the fact that the surfaces of the vacancy clusters mayor may not be covered with impurity atoms, depending on whether
the impurity atoms diffuse fast enough to
This
problem
the
fluctuating
vacancy
has been examined by Trinkaus (1983) and by Chen and Yoo (1984),
based on older work on nucleation in multi-component systems (e.g.

Stauffer,
clusters.
1976).
The
Binder
and
analysis starts from the Fokker-Planck equation for the
cluster density, which depends now on the
additional
variable
as'
the
area
coverage of the cluster surface with impurity atoms. Instead of one self-diffusion coefficient, oD b , there are now the diffusion coefficients of the host
A,
B
atoms, oDb , and of the impurity atoms, oDb The results are surprisingly
B
A
simple. Over a wide range of the ratio oDb/oDb , the free activation enthalpy
stays
within
1%
of
the free activation enthalpy of the equilibrium-coverage
case, even if the diffusivity of the

smaller
than
that
of
impurity
is
treated by Chen and Yoo (1984), the most important

rate,
exp(-~G*/kT),
is
many
orders
of
magnitude
the host atoms. This means that, at least in the model

nearly
independent
of
factor
in
the
nucleation
the mobility of the impurity
The kinetic factor in the nucleation rate must be modified such that oDb
replaced by the geometric mean, [a b OD~ (l-a b ) oD~ll/2. The dependence of
~toms.
is
the Zeldovich factor on oDB/oDA given by Chen and Yoo (1984) is neglected here.
b
8.
130
Impurity Effects on Nucleatior
Hence, in the presence of impurities, the cavity nucleation stress, eq. (6.29),
becomes
60 - (Q~
~)/(2RT)
A
B
Here, Qb and Qb are the activation energies for grain boundary diffusion of the
host and impurity atoms, respectively, and typical numerical values were
inserted in the argument of the logarithm appearing in eq. (6.29),
the
result
being insensitive to the choice of these values.

Based on eq. (8.15), the possible effects of impurities on cavity nucleation by
vacancy
condensation
can
clearly
be
demonstrated. If the surface energy is
lowered to, say, 10% of the pure material, the nucleation stress drops
to
59%
of the original value since anuc y;/2. For a-iron at 850 K this means
a
= 3,160 f v1/2 MPa, using the same numerical values as in eq. (6.30). This
nuc
is still a. rather high numerical value for the nucleation stress. In the
section on stress concentrations it was found that the local stress at
particles may be at most 20 times higher than the applied shear stress. In many
cases
the
stress
concentration
concentration
factor
of
20
will
be
much
lower.
Taking
stress
as an upper limit the applied tensile stress for
cavity nucleation must be at least a... - 316 f1/2

MPa, .where a... = 21:... was
v
assumed. In order to reconcile this with the observation that at 50 MPa
nucleation still occurs, it must be concluded that
= 0.025.
fv
~
+ ,
For
must
be
as
small
as
For the dihedral angles defined in Section 6.2.2, this means that
~ < 35 0 according to eq. (6.10). This does not appear to be impossible.
example,
the
combination
of
values
stress
concentration
factor
,= 30
10 0 ,
fv = 0.014. This allows for cavity nucleation at a...

shear
0 ,
10 0
gives
40 MPa provided that
is 20. However, no values for , and
generally available, particularly not in the presence of segregation,
so
the
~
are
that
this estimate remains somewhat unfounded.

Finally, segregation affects
thereby
the
the
cavity nucleation
grain
stress.
boundary
However,
diffusion
a
coefficient
reduction
of the grain
boundary diffusion coefficient by the relatively large factor of 60, which

occur
and
may
in iron due to phosphorus segregation (Stratmann et aI, 1983), increases
the nucleation stress by as little as 6% according to eq. (6.29).
9 Cavity Nucleation Assisted by

Internal Gas Pressure
Gases or solid phases which are precipitated in alloys may exert high pressures
on
the
surrounding
matrix.
The driving force for precipitation against that
pressure comes from the high chemical potential which the constituents
precipitate
equilibrium gas pressure, p, is

clusters,
of
the
may have in solid solution. If one assumes for the moment that the
established
within
the
subcritical
vacancy
the effect of the pressure on nucleation is exactly the same as that
of a tensile stress (Russell, 1978, Raj, 1982). This means that in the formulae
for
G +
ure
cavity
nucleation (Section 6.2) the normal stress,
G,
must be replaced by
p to account for internal pressure. The magnitude of the equilibrium pressis
calculated in Sections 9.1 to 9.3 below for a number of representative
examples. It is, however, a very difficult question whether the

pressure
~quilibrium
gas
is actually built up fast enough compared to the lifetime of the sub-
critical vacancy clusters. This kinetic aspect is addressed in Section 9.4. The
effect
of
a gas pressure on the growth of cavities, as distinct from nucleat-
ion, will be described in Section 11.1.6.
9.1 Oxygen Attack and Related Phenomena

Nickel and some nickel-base superalloys undergo considerable embrittlement when
heat treated in oxidizing environments at temperatures above 1,000oC (Bricknell
and Woodford, 1982, 1984; Pandey, Dyson and Taplin, 1984). Among
causes
for
this
the
possible
embrittlement we consider the formation of carbon-dioxide or
carbon-monoxide bubbles by the reaction of oxygen with carbon contained in

metal.
the
In subsequent creep tests, these bubbles, which are present in a typic-
ally 0.5 mm thick surface layer, lead to rapid grain boundary cavitation and to
brittle failure.
A related effect is the formation of water vapor bubbles in silver or copper by
tempering in hydrogen and subsequently in oxygen. This phenomenon was exploited
132
9.
Gas Pressure in Cavities
by Goods and Nix (1978), by Nieh and Nix (1979, 1980a) and by Stanzl, Argon and
Tschegg
(1983)
in
order
to
bypass the cavity nucleation stage and to study
cavity growth alone.

9.1.1
The equilibrium carbon-dioxide pressure in nickel
A chemical reaction is in equilibrium when the sum of the

of
the
chemical
potentials
reactants equals the chemical potential of the reaction product. It is
convenient to express the chemical potential by the fugacity, f (for gases), or

by the activity, a (for solid phases):
11
I1 g + kT In f
o
11
liS +
( 9.1)
kT In a.
(9.2)
Here, the fugacity is conventionally measured in atmospheres (1 atm
0.1 MPa) ,
and 11~ is the uhemical potential of a gas atom in the pure gas at f
1 atm. In
general, eqs. (9.1) and (9.2) can be considered as mere definitions of a and f,
and
insofar they do not contain any information. For ideal gases, however, the
fugacity of a constituent becomes equal

allows
to
pressure,
and
this
11
liS
by
definition.
For
ideal
solutions, the activity of a constituent is equal to its concentration.
The chemical potentials or

phases
partial
a calculation of the chemical potential. The activity, a, is dimension-
less. For the pure solid phase is a = 1 ~nd

dilute
its
have
equivalent
thermodynamic
functions
of
the
pure
been measured and tabulated (Landolt-Bornstein, 1961, Kubashewski
and Alcock, 1979).

A calculation of fugacities and activities is carried out now for the
carbon-dioxide
(ormation
in
nickel
and
nickel
case
of
alloys (oxygen attack). The
reaction to be studied is
(9.3)
For simpliCity, the possibility of CO-formation is disregarded. In
formation
is
fact,
CO 2 -
preferred in oxygen attack of nickel (Dyson, 1982; Bricknell and
Woodford, 1982). The equilibrium condition for the chemical potential demands
(9.4)
9.1
133
Here, the oxygen pressure (but not the

enough
to
CO 2-pressure)
is
assumed
to
be
low
permit the use of the ideal gas approximation, f = p. Resolving eq.
(9.4) above for p(C0 2 ) and replacing f by P through f = rp, which

fugacity coefficient r, gives
(1/r)
defines
P(02) a(C) exp(-6G/RT),
the
(9.5)
where the molar free enthalpy of the reaction is given by

(9.6)
These free enthalpies are also tabulated. For CO 2-formation
according
to
eq.
(9.3), Kubashewski and Alcock (1979) give

6G
396
0.84.10- 3 T/K) kJ/mol.
(9.7)
In order to obtain the gas pressure of CO 2 it remains to determine the pre-exponential factors in eq. (9.5), a(C), P(02) and r. The activity of carbon in
pure nickel is calculated by Dyson (1982) in the following way. According to
Hansen (1958), the solubility limit of carbon in pure nickel is
(9.8)
x~ = 0.5 exp[-39.6(kJ/mol)/RT].
Since no carbides are formed in pure nickel, the activity of carbon

at
the
solubility
limit
must
be
it
nickel
equal to that of pure solid carbon, i.e.,
a(C) = 1. If the atomic fraction of carbon, xC ,is

limit,
in
less
than
the
solubility
is plausible (because of the dilute carbon concentrations) that the
activity varies in proportion to xC:

a(C)
2 xC exp(4,762 KIT),
(9.9)
where the gas constant was inserted numerically.

The partial pressure of oxygen in the metal usually cannot
be
assumed
to
be
equal to the outer atmospheric oxygen pressure. This would only be so if oxygen
were an inert gas. In reality, however, Ni and O2 form an oxide
low oxygen pressures. Therefore the reaction
2NiO
even
at
very
(9.10)
134
9.
determines the oxygen pressure in the metal. Equilibrium of
the
nickel-oxygen
reaction in the presence of the pure phases Ni and NiO gives

P(02) -
(9.11)
exp(2~G/RT);
with a formation free enthalpy of one mole NiO (Dyson, 1982):

~G
= - ( 235 - 0.086 T/K ) kJ/mol.
Numerically, P(02) varies between 9.3.10- 22 Pa
at
(9.12)
2.7.10- 9 Pa
700 K and
at
1400 K according to eq. (9.11).

It remains to determine the fugacity coefficient
neither
theoretically
r, which is not a simple task,
nor experimentally. Therefore an approximation proposed
by Raj (1982) is adopted here. Based on a van der Waals description of

gas
and
on
some
additional
real
approximations, he obtains the universal result
valid approximately for all van der Waals gases:

In r
0.086 plpc
TlTc
where Pc and Tc are pressure and temperature,
(9.13)
respectively,
at
the
critical
point of the gas. For CO 2 is Pc = 7.3 MPa and Tc = 304 K according to textbooks
in physical chemistry. Raj
3.5 MPa, Tc
134 K) and for
(1982)
CH~
(pc
additionally
=
4.6 MPa, Tc
Well away from the critical point, a van der Waals
gives
=
values
for
CO
(pc
191 K).
gas
can
approximately
be
described by the following equation of state

(9.14 )
with a constant Vo. For this special case, Raj's (1982) analysis leads
alternative approximation for the fugacity coefficient:
to
the
(9.15)
With eqs. (9.7) to (9.13), the equilibrium pressure can be calculated from
(9.5).
eq.
The result cannot be resolved for p(C0 2 ) in closed form since r depends
on pressure, too. However, the equations can be solved for T, and in
this
way
9.1
the
result
shown
in
Fig.
9.1
was
135
obtained.
Obviously,
the
ideal
gas
approximation becomes very inaccurate at CO 2 -pressures exceeding 50 to 100 MPa.

Compared
to the ideal gas approximation the van der Waals description leads to
lower pressures. For example, the
pressure
at
Woodford (1982) did their experiments, is p
1273 K,
where
Bricknell
and
700 MPa for the van der Waals gas
instead of 4,740 MPa for the ideal gas. But still, the pressure calculated
the
van
der
Waals
gas
is
far
greater than the stresses which are usually
applied in creep rupture tests. The gas pressure should therefore play
in
cavity,
or
bubble,
for
nucleation
role
provided that the equilibrium pressure is
built up fast enough to stabilize subcritical vacancy clusters.

9.1.2
Carbon-oxides in nickel-chromium alloys
Dyson (1982) also examined the equilibrium
CO 2 -pressure
in
Ni-20Cr
alloy
containing enough carbon to form Cr 2 .C.-carbides. The effect of Cr is to reduce

the activity of carbon and oxygen, since Cr has
these
elements
much
greater
by
pressure
10
to
ttran has nickel. In the example considered by Dyson, the over-
whelming effect comes from the reduction of the oxygen partial

drops
affinity
to
in the
pressure
which
20 orders of magnitude. Correspondingly, the calculated CO 2 bubbles is vanishingly
small.
At these low
---T inK
1000
1250
Q,
CII
....
500
\
\-ideal-gas
500
~
S
750
1(1)()
200
100
approx imation
eq. (9.13)
::::J
I,/)
I,/)
CII
....
50
Q,
Nickel +
130 wt. -ppm carbon
0'"
lJ
20
\
~
(x c =5.35-1O-')
10~--~------~----~--~
1.5
1000K/T - - -
Fig. 9.1. Equilibrium pressure in CO 2 -bubbles in

carbon-bearing nickel exposed to oxygen.
oxygen
partial
9.
136
pressures, the formation of carbon-monoxide is preferred.

pressure
The
calculated
CO-
is much greater than that of CO 2 , but it is still below 1 MPa. Hence,
cavity nucleation is not substantially assisted by CO 2 - nor by CO-formation.

Contrary to this prediction, exposure of nickel-base superalloys to high-tempeair (1150 oC) causes some form of cavitational damage near the surface
rature
(Pandey, Dyson and Taplin, 1984). Pandey, Taplin and Mukherjee (1984) report
reduction
ductility of a super alloy if tested in air as compared to vacuum

in the temperature range 550 to 880 oc. These authors ascribe the embrittlement
to
in
CO/C0 2 -bubble
formation
on
grain boundaries near the surface. If this is
correct the oxygen partial pressure in the metal must be far greater
equilibrium
pressure,
maybe
than
the
as a result of Cr-depletion in a zone near grain
boundaries, or because carbon is much more mobile than chromium and reacts with
oxygen
before Cr 2 0 a can be formed (Dyson and Hondros, 1984). Another mechanism
which can account for sub-surface cavity formation during oxidation is

bed
by
Weber
and Gilman (1984): elements with a high affinity to oxygen, for
example chromIum, aluminum or rare earth metals, diffuse to the

they
surface
where
form an oxide scale. Nickel, which has a low affinity to oxygen, diffuses
into the material but, being a slower diffuser, cannot quite balance
ward
descri-
flux
of
the
out-
matter. This leads to a supersaturation of vacancies, which can
condensate into cavities.
9.2 Hydrogen Attack

A classical example for pressure-induced bubble formation
is
what
is
called
hydrogen
attack. If a carbon steel is exposed to high-pressure hydrogen (a few

MPa) in the temperature range 300 0 C to 500 oC, hydrogen diffuses into the metal
and reacts with carbon to form methane. This reaction provides the pressure for
the nucleation of methane bubbles, preferentially on grain boundaries. After
certain
time,
the
growing
bubbles interlink to form grain-boundary fissures
which deteriorate the strength and ductility of the material drastically.

Review-type papers on
hydrogen
example,
(1976,
by
Shewmon
attack
1985)
and
in
steels
have
been
prepared,
for
by Shih and Johnson (1982). Hydrogen
attack in nickel was described by Mancuso and Li (1979).
It
should
be
noted
that these papers place their emphasis on bubble growth rather than nucleation,
since growth seems to be rate controlling. Therefore the subject will be
up again in connection with cavity growth in Section 11.1.6.
taken
9.2
137
Hydrogen Attack
Hydrogen attack has been of concern primarily to the

also
to
other
industrial
processes
petroleum
industry,
but
which involve high-pressure hydrogen at
elevated temperatures. In the early days of the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia
synthesis, failures occurred which were caused by hydrogen attack. This problem
was avoided later by fabricating the pressure vessel from a low-strength
shell,
tent, jacketed in an outer shell, which had higher strength due to

content.
its
carbon
The outer shell was intentionally perforated by drilled holes so that
the hydrogen which diffused through the inner shell could escape and no
ure
inner
which was not susceptible to hydrogen attack due to its low carbon con-
could
build
press-
up in contact with the carbon steel. Nowadays the problem is
handled by employing low-alloy steels, which are less susceptible
to
hydrogen
attack than carbon steels for reasons which will become clear shortly.
The relevant reaction for hydrogen attack in a carbon steel is
Fe.C
2 H2
3 Fe
The pertinent equilibrium pressure of the

Shewmon
(9.16)
+ CH~.
CH~-bubbles
has
been
calculated
by
(1976) using the ideal-gas approximation, and by McKimpson and Shewmon
(1981) using a van der Waals description. Figure 9.2 shows the results. For
ideal gas,
one
would
predict p(CH~)
[p(H 2 )]2 (the
dashed lines),
an
but the
2000
1000
&
~
5
---
~~
100
50
30
20
10
03
as
2 3
p~)~M~
~~
Fig. 9.2. Hydrogen attack. Equilibrium CH~-pressure in iron containing carbon

in equilibrium with Fe.C (from Kimpson and Shewmon, 1981) and in 21/~Cr-1Mo
steel (from Parthasarathy et aI, 1985). Dashed lines: ideal-gas approximation.
9.
138
deviations
from ideality are substantial. Numerically, the equilibrium methane
pressures are large enough to be relevant for cavity nucleation.

In low-alloy steels containing Cr, Mo or V, the carbon activity
by
the
equilibrium
with
is
determined
carbides of these elements. This reduces the carbon
activity, and therefore the methane pressure, compared to the sole presence
FesC.
Parthasarathy,
Lopez
and
Shewmon
analysis for the special case of a

in Fig. 9.2.
(1985)
21/~Cr-1Mo
of
have carried out a detailed
steel. Their result
is
included
9.3 Helium Embrittlement

Another problem which arises from gas bubble formation is helium embrittlement.
Core
materials
of
fast
breeder reactors and, even more so, of future fusion
reactors, are exposed to high fluxes of fast neutrons. Several
of
the
atomic
nuclei contained in common structural materials (for example, saNi or SB) react
with fast neutrons and subsequently
These
(n,a)-reactions
emit
a-particles,
i.e.,
helium
exceed the solubility of He. At elevated temperatures (around 600 0 C in

less
nuclei.
produce helium concentrations in the metal which by far

stain-
steels), helium is therefore precipitated into small bubbles, preferenti-
ally at grain boundaries. This leads to a severe loss of ductility.
It
should
be mentioned that this is not the only form of material damage caused by irradiation. If helium embrittlement is to be studied in isolation, special
techni-
ques of helium injection are used (Braski et aI, 1979).

The driving force for helium bubble formation is not the potential of a chemical
reaction as in the previous examples, but rather a supersaturation which is
forced into the material by irradiation. The fugacity of helium is
related
to
the supersaturation according to

( 9.17)
in atm
by an argument analogous to that leading to eq. (9.9). Here xHe is

fraction
of
He,
the
atomic
and
x*
He is the solubility limit of He at 1 atm. Since the
solubility limit of He in iron is far less than 1 ppm and He concentrations of
several
hundred
ppm
are
easily
achievable
by
implantation, fugacities of
several thousand atmospheres are possible. From the critical data Pc = 2.26 atm
and
Tc
5.3 K,
and
from eq. (9.13) the fugacity coefficient is estimated as
9.3
Helium Embrittlement
139
r = 2.7 if P = 5,000 atm ( = 500 MPa) and T

pressures
are
of
the
1000 K.
Thus
the
equilibrium
order of a few hundred MPa, which may be sufficient to
nucleate bubbles.
9.4 Kinetic Aspects

Whether or not the equilibrium gas pressure is actually built up
critical
in
the
sub-
cavity nuclei depends on how fast the constituents of the gas diffuse
to the nucleation site and how fast the chemical reaction takes place. The
precipitation
of
vacancies
and
gas
atoms
(1978), Parker and Russell (1981) and Trinkaus

Planck
equation.
co-
has been investigated by Russell

(1983)
based
on
the
Fokker-
The formulation by Trinkaus includes both, the precipitation
of an inert gas, like helium, and the precipitation of a reaction product, like
methane.
However,
the
application
of
Trinkaus'
rather complicated. His own application to the

stops
theory to special cases is
nucleation
of
helium
bubbles
at the calculation of nucleation enthalpies, whereas the pre-exponential
factors
of
evaluation
the
nucleation
rate
are
not
explicitly
derived.
A complete
of the nucleation rate like that by Chen and Yoo (1984) for segreg-
ation-assisted nucleation is lacking.

A theoretical prediction by Russel (1978) is worth mentioning
that,
here.
He
finds
at least for the kinetic laws he uses, there exist metastable bubbles in
the subcritical size range. These bubbles are stable against small fluctuations
in
size
and in gas
~ontent.
Large fluctuations, of course, may take them into
the supercritical regime where they grow deterministically.

There is yet another complicating kinetic aspect of bubble formation
like
oxygen
in
cases
attack. It is possible that oxygen from the atmosphere and carbon
contained in the metal react at the specimen surface rather than at CO 2 -bubbles
formed
within the material. This happens if the outward diffusion of carbon is
much faster than the inward diffusion of oxygen. In iron and nickel for
example, Bohnenkamp and Engell (1962) find that the oxydation of carbon occurs
primarily on the surface of the
metal
with
the
effect
that
the
metal
decarburized near the surface without internal gas bubbles being formed.
is
10 Internal Stresses Due to the Precipitation of Solid

Phases and Thermal Expansion
The precipitation of solid second phases is often accompanied by an increase in

specific
volume.
If the matrix is mechanically soft, the excess volume can be
accommodated readily, while in a rigid matrix high stresses are built up around
the
particle.
Lopez
and
Shewmon
(1983) speculate that these stresses might
initiate cavities. They were led to their assumption by the occurrence of small
cavities
at
carbides in a bainitic steel directly after tempering, before the
material was exposed to creep or any other treatment which is known to initiate
cavities. They ascribe the cavities to the stresses caused by the precipitation
of carbides during tempering.
Lopez and Shewmon's idea will be examined in
principles
of
the
light
of
an
analysis
the
which are due to Hillert (1957, 1976). The analysis consists of
two steps. First the diffusion of carbon to a carbide is considered the carbide
being
under as yet unspecified, hydrostatic pressure, p. Second, accommodation
mechanisms are examined which, together with the influx
of
carbon,
determine
the pressure.
Mechanically similar is the effect
of
differential
thermal
strains
of
the
matrix and of particles, a possibility which is considered in Section 10.5. For

example, certain processing histories lead to a decohesion of manganese sulfide
particles from the iron matrix in steels.
10.1 The Flux of Carbon to the Carbide

The chemical potential of a carbon atom dissolved in the iron matrix is
(10.1)
where xC is the atomic
fraction
of
carbon
in
solid
solution,
x~
is
the
10.1
The Flux of Carbon to the Carbide
equilibrium
141
value in contact with (unstressed) Fe,C and Po is its potential in
unstressed Fe,C. If the carbide is under hydrostatic pressure, p, the
transfer
of a carbon atom from the matrix to the stressed carbide requires the work p6Q,
where 6Q is the increase in volume per carbon atom reacting with iron
to
form
Fe,C. According to Lopez and Shewmon (1983), the increase in specific volume by
Fe,C-formation is 10%, i.e. the increase per carbon atom is 6Q = 0.3 Q =
3.5'10-30 m3 , since each carbon atom increases the atomic volume of three iron
atoms. The chemical potential of carbon in the stressed carbide is
(10.2)
where we assume that the pressure dependence of Po is
p6Q, which is usually justified in solids.
negligible
compared
The difference in chemical potential between the supersaturated matrix and

stressed
carbide
to
the
drives a diffusive flux of carbon towards the carbide. For a
spherical carbide of radius HC as shown in Fig. 10.1, the solutions to the then
spherically symmetric diffusion problem can be taken from textbooks on
diffusion, or can be developed directly
result,
the
from
the
diffusion
equation.
As
rate at which excess volume is generated by the chemical reaction
in the carbide is obtained as:

(10.3)
outward
creep
~ \U
inward diffusion
of carbon
/
~B8
/'
FeJ C
'"
\
'"
outward
diffusion of
iron along
grain boundary
Fig. 10.1. Spherical grain boundary carbide, whose excess volume is

accommodated by creep of the matrix and by grain boundary diffusion.
10.
142
Stresses by the Precipitation of Solid Phases
where the term in brackets is proportional to the difference in chemical potential
far
from the carbide and in the carbide. This increase in volume will be
equated to that provided by several accommodation mechanisms (elastic deformation, creep and diffusion) to determine the pressure p.
Before the accommodation processes are studied, it should
be
noted
that
the
pressure is limited thermodynamically to the maximum value:

(10.4 ;
If the pressure grew greater than that, precipitation would stop and
reversed
according
to
eq.
(10.3).
This
upper
accommodation mechanism. Its numerical value
would
be
limit is independent of the
depends
on
the
supersaturation
xC/x~ which may be high directly after quenching from the austenitic regime, in
which a great amount of carbon is
soluble.
During
tempering
of
bainitic
steel, when carbides are already present and primarily undergo Ostwald ripening
(i.e., growth of larger carbides at the expense of smaller ones), the supersaturation
is
likely to be small. At 800 K, supersaturations of XC/X~
and 17.5% would be necessary to

respectively,
according
to
generate
eq.
(10.4).
pressures
of
50 MPa
and
1 = 1.61
500 MPa,
These are upper bounds which can be
reduced by accommodation processes.
10.2 Elastic Accommodation

Consider a spherical Fe 3 C-particle
An/(3n)
compared
to
whose
specific
volume
has
increased
the surrounding matrix, which is regarded as an i finite
body. The misfit of the particle is accommodated by elastic deformation of

particle
the
and the matrix, which are assumed to have the same elastic moduli. In
such spherically symmetric problems, one favorably uses spherical

r,~,e,
by
centered
at
the
component is the radial one, ur ' while

components arr and
related to ur by
co-ordinates
center of the sphere. The only non-zero displacement
aee =
and
a~~,
the
the
stress
tensor
has
the
non-zero
components of the strain tensor are
(10.5
The only independent
problems demands:
variable
is
r.
Equilibrium
in
spherically
symmetric
10.2
143
Elastic Accommodation
o.
(10.6)
Combining eqs. (10.5) and (10.6) with Hooke's law, and eliminating
stress
and
strain, leads to an equation for ur valid for spherical symmetry:
a ( a~
ar ar
+ 2
~ )
(10.7)
This ordinary differential equation is readily solved giving the two
solutions
-2
ur r and ur r
Within the particle, the singular solution can make no
contribution, because ur must be finite at the origin, while outside the
particle, the first of these solutions must have a vanishing coefficient, since
otherwise the stress at infinity would not vanish. Thus, the
solution
of
eq.
(10.7) for the spherical particle must have the form

inside the particle
(10.8)
outside the particle,
where a 1 and a 2 are constants of integration. They are obtainable from the
following two conditions. First, the misfit of the particle must be balanced by
the displacements at r
HC:
(10.9)
Second, the normal stress orr on the interface must be continuous, a
which
condition
is evaluated using Hooke's law and eq. (10.5). Thus, one finally obtains
the pressure exerted by the elastic matrix on the particle
- rr
2 E
lln
(the stress state in the particle being hydrostatic

calculated
pressure
is
greater
(10.10)
3 (1-\1) 9n
compression).
If
the
so
than the thermodynamically possible pressure
given in eq. (10.4), precipitation cannot take place unless other accommodation
mechanisms
become active. In relation to cavity nucleation, the hoop stress in
the matrix is relevant, which turns out to be

(10.11)
144
10.
10.3 Accommodation by Power-Law Creep

Now a spherical carbide is assumed to
described
by
eq.
which
(3.6) ,
analysis of stress and strain

Equations
(10.7)
and
grow
parallels
are
(10.8)
in
to
reduces
the
replaced
creeping
. a Bonpower-law
in uniaxial tension.
matri~
e;
elastic
by
the
case
described
requirement
The
above.
that
the
displacement rate in incompressible flow must decay as l/r2:
(10.12)
ur = a.3 I r
Here a.3 is a constant, which follows from the condition that the normal stress
on the interface be continuous, i.e. orr = -po This condition is evaluated
using the creep law, eq. (3.6), and leads to a volume growth rate of the
particle by creep of the matrix
(10.13)
The pressure in the particle is now defined by the requirement that the
growth
volume
rates given in eqs. (10.3) and (10.13) must be equal. This leads to the
implicit relation for p:

(10.14)
The numerator represents the thermodynamically admissible

denominator
describes
the
reduction
of
pressure
while
the
the pressure due to yielding of the
matrix by creep flow. Creep becomes effective in relaxing the pressure when the
second
term
in
the
denominator
becomes comparable to unity. As an example,
consider the following numerical values which are typical

tempering
temperature
of
Ashby, 1977, for a.-iron), x

second
term
pressure
is
xC/x* - 1
in
the
631 MPa.
39%
according
for
accommodate
steel
at
700 C: B = 710
MPa Is, n = 6.9 (from Frost and
C
-10 2
= 10 -3 ,DC
410
mis, RC = 0.1 ~m. Then the
denominator in eq. (10.14) becomes equal to unity if the

supersaturation
This
corresponds
to
a
of
to eq. (10.14). Therefore, only for relatively high
supersaturations and correspondingly high pressures, creep is

accommodation
-15-n
fast
enough
to
the excess volume effectively. For smaller supersaturations, creep

controls
the
rate
of
precipitation,
accommodation, which is described next, is faster.
unless
diffusi ve
10.3
Accommodation by Power-Law Creep
145
In relation to cavity nucleation it is important to note that the
hoop
stress
around the particle has the form:

aee
~ p
(RC / r ) 3/n [ 3/ ( 2n ) -1 ]
(10.15)
Interestingly, the hoop stress is negative (compressive) if n > 1.5,

usually
which
is
the case. Therefore, if creep accommodation prevails, carbide precipi-
tation does not lead to tensile stresses on
the
grain
boundary,
and
cavity
nucleation is not expected to occur as a result of carbide growth.
10.4 Accommodation by Grain Boundary Diffusion

The excess volume of the carbide can also be accommodated by diffusion of
iron
atoms away from the carbide. Here we are interested in grain boundary carbides.
Then, at intermediate temperatures, the
primarily
along
diffusive
transport
of
iron
occurs
grain boundaries. The driving force is the pressure p exerted
by the carbide on the grains. This is exactly the same problem as that of a
cavity growing by grain boundary diffusion under an internal gas pressure. The
analysis will be presented later (in Section
11.1)
and
the
result
for
the
growth rate is given in eq. (11.11):

(10.16)
with the abbreviation,
(10.17)
2
where OOc is defined as OOc = (2RC/AC) , and AC is the carbide spacing

grain boundary. A possible sintering stress due to the energy
in
of
the
the
carbide/matrix interface was omitted for simplicity.

Equating the growth
r~tes
from eqs. (10.16) and (10.3) gives
the
pressure
in
the carbide:
(kT/AO) In (xC/x~)
1
(10.18 )
2 (O/AO)2 6D b / (q RC xC DC) .
The numerator is the thermodynamically possible
maximum
pressure,
while
the
10.
146
denominator
describes
the
correction
due
to diffusive accommodation. As an
example, we again consider a steel tempered at 700 0 e with the numerical values
used in the preceding subsection and, additionally, oD b = 5.3'10 -22 m3 /s,
we = 0.1, i.e., q = 2. Then the second term in the denominator is 0.15, i.e.,
grain
boundary
diffusion reduces the maximum pressure by 15% in this example.
This also means that grain boundary diffusion of iron away

limits
the
carbide
growth
rate
to
from
the
particle
15% of the value which it had if carbon
diffusion were rate controlling and accommodation occurred readily.

In relation to cavity nucleation, it is important to realize how the stress
distributed
in
the
vicinity
of
the
growing
potential of iron atoms must be continuous across

stress
on
the
grain
boundary
directly
on = -p, which would prevent, rather
carbide.
the
Since
interface,
is
the chemical
the
normal
at the particle must be compressive
than
promote,
cavity
nucleation
at
growing carbide.
In conclusion, cavity nucleation at growing carbides is unlikely to occur under
all conditions examined in this section, except when elastic deformation is the
only possible accommodation mechanism. Only in the latter case
exerted
by
is
the
stress
the growing particle on the adjacent grain boundary tensile. There
is, however, no obvious reason why grain boundary diffusion or creep should not
occur
10.5 Decohesion of Particles by Thermal Expansion

During their processing
contractions.
Since
history,
materials
undergo
thermal
expansions
and
the thermal-expansion coefficient of particles is usually
different from that of the matrix, stresses will develop around the
particles,
and these might cause decohesion.

If Aa = a p - am is the difference between the linear expansion coefficients
the particle, ~p'
misfit develops is
and
the
matrix,
~,
of
the rate at which the thermal volume
(10.19)
where
is the rate of temperature change.
10.5
Decohesion of Particles by Thermal Expansion
147
The analogy to the growth of a misfitting preCipitate is obvious:

above
replaces
eq.
(10.19)
eq. (10.3), while the accommodation processes remain the same.
Thus for elastic accommodation, the pressure in the particle is found to be
2 E tJ.a tJ.T
3 (1-\)
(10.20)
where tJ.T is the difference between the current temperature and the
temperature
at which the misfit is zero.

For creep accommodation, the pressure in the particle is found by
from eq. (10.13) and
(2n/3) 12 tJ.a
t /
the
matrix
(10.21)
Bll/n sign(tJ.at).
If the pressure is positive, both the radial and the

in
~c
from eq. (10.19) which gives
tJ.~
= - arr
equating
circumferential
stresses
are compressive provided that n > 3/2 as shown in eq. (10.15),
and cavity nucleation is not expected to occur. For negative pressure, however,
the stresses are tensile, which might cause decohesion of the particle/matrix
interface or of the adjacent grain boundary.
10.6 Grain-Boundary Decohesion by Thermal-Expansion Anisotropy

If the crystal lattice has lower than
cubic
anisotropic
between
with
thermal-expansion
accommodated
difference
coefficients.
2tJ.a
If
the
symmetry,
the
resulting
and
expansion
the
is
minimum
incompatibilities
are
elastically in a polycrystalline aggregate, stresses of the order
EtJ.atJ.T arise. If the grain boundaries are able to slide,

are
thermal
maximum
concentrated
additionally
at
triple
grain
Evans, Rice and Hirth (1980) have investigated this

cavitation in ceramics.
the
thermal
stresses
junctions. Evans (1978) and

problem
with
respect
to
11 Diffusive Cavity Growth
Cavities in solids can grow by several mechanisms. The basic

under
creep
rupture
conditions
growth
mechanism
is probably the stress-directed diffusion of
atoms away from the cavity into the grain boundaries, where they can be deposited
(Hull and Rimmer, 1959). This process is described for rapid and slow sur-
face diffusion separately in Sections 11.1 and 11.2, respectively.
Rapid
sur-
face diffusion implies that a growing cavity preserves its equilibrium lenticular shape, while for slow surface diffusion, the drain
of
atoms
through
the
void tip by grain boundary diffusion leads to flat, crack-like cavities.

It will be found, however, that neither of the diffusive growth
for
an
models
allows
understanding of the creep rupture behavior of real materials as it is
commonly observed. Cavity growth rates are usually grossly

correspondingly,
overestimated
and,
rupture lifetimes of engineering materials are underestimated
by the diffusive growth models.

In the past few years, it has been recognized that the material
cavitating
grain
surrounding
boundary facet may exert a constraint on cavity growth rates
(Dyson, 1976, 1979). Indeed this constraint does reduce the cavity growth rates
to
level
which
is
compatible
with observed ones, but it is difficult to
understand how constrained growth can control the rupture lifetime, as will
be
pointed out in Section 12.3.

In Chapter 13, the effects of a possible inhibition of grain boundary diffusion
are examined. Whereas the conventional treatments of diffusional cavity growth
anticipate that atomic vacancies are always and everywhere available
thermal
equilibrium
concentration,
models
of
inhibited
constrained) diffusional growth admit that vacancies may

stress-directed
diffusion.
be
(as
at
their
distinct from
exhausted
during
Then the rate of vacancy generation at appropriate
sources may control the rate of cavity growth.
11.1
149
Diffusive Growth of Equilibrium Cavities
The growth of cavities by creep flow of the surrounding material

in
Section
14.1
(Hancock,
1976),
although
is
described
this mechanism is probably less
important under typical low-stress creep rupture conditions. Another mechanism

by deformation is cavity growth by grain boundary sliding (Section 14.2; Evans,
1971). Diffusive growth can interact with growth by creep in
an
approximately
additive way (Section 15.1; Beere and Speight, 1978). Also elastic deformation
can enhance diffusive cavity growth (Section 15.2).
Rupture lifetimes are calculated in the chapters on various cavity growth mechanisms assuming that cavities nucleate readily at the beginning of the test. If
nucleation occurs continuously, the calculation of lifetimes is a more complicated task (Chapter 16). The theoretical results will be compared with measured
rupture lifetimes of various materials including commercial alloys. Chapter
17
presents a summary of cavitational failure mechanisms, while Chapter 18 applies

the models to creep-fatigue conditions.
11.1 Diffusional Growth of Lens-Shaped (Equilibrium) Cavities

A cavity on a grain boundary can grow by the diffusive removal
the
edge
of
the
cavity
of
on
from
and deposition of these atoms on the adjacent grain
boundary. The driving force comes from the mechanical work done by
stress
atoms
the
normal
a Joundary if atoms are deposited. In other words, cavities grow by
accepting vacancies generated in the grain boundary.

In this section, several assumptions are made. First, the grains are considered
as being rigid so that there is no contribution to cavity growth by creep of
the grains. Second,
spherical-caps
shape
the
cavities
are
assumed
with a void tip angle
2~
to
have
their
equilibrium,
as shown in Fig. 11.1. Thirdly,
it is assumed that there is no depletion of vacancies in the grain boundary

the
cavities
grow.
as
Vacancies that have been absorbed by cavities are readily
replaced by the operation of vacancy sources. This is the same assumption on

which the usual treatment of diffusional creep is based (Nabarro, 1948,
Herring, 1950, Coble, 1963). Then the diffusion of atoms in the grain
is
governed
by
eq.
boundary
(4.4), which relates the normal stress distribution on a
grain boundary to the normal displacement rate:

(11.1)
11.
150
oj
b)
Diffusive Cavity Growth
0 0
o
J
,/0
Fig. 11.1. Equilibrium cavities on a grain boundary.

a) Section through grain boundary, b) plan view of grain boundary
In the rigid-grain approximation, un must
be
uniform
over
the
whole
grain
boundary. This.is val id as long as the diffusive length l defined in eq. (4.17)
is large compared to the cavity spacing. Cases with arbitrary l are
in
Chapter
15.
Finally,
the
average normal stress acting on the cavitating
grain boundary facet is denoted by 0b' and i t is noted that

this
stress
may
be
different
considered
from
the
applied
difference may be very large, and this is the idea of
stress
the
in
000.
polycrystal
In fact, the
constrained
growth
model to be described in Chapter 12.

11.1.1
The stress distribution between the cavities and the cavity growth rate
Equation (11.1) can be solved for two-dimensional (cylindrical) cavities, where
i-
a2 /ax 2 ,
and
for axisymmetric problems where'; = a2 /ar2 + (l/r)<l/<lr. The
cavity diameter in the grain boundary is 2R and the cavity spacing is

11.1).
The
axisymmetric
A (Fig.
case is meant to approximate the realistic case of a
distribution of more or less equi-axed cavities
in
the
grain
boundary,
al-
though, strictly speaking, the axial symmetry of the flow field is disturbed by
the arrangement of the cavities (square, hexagonal, statistical etc.). As
long
as the size-to-spacing ratio of the cavities is not too large, the aXisymmetric
approximation can be expected to work well.
The flux of atoms half-way between two cylindrical cavities must
symmetry.
Since
the
be
zero
for
flux is proportional to the stress gradient according to
eq. (4.3), this implies the boundary condition dOn/dX = 0 at
x = A/2.
In
the
11.1
151
axisymmetric
case the requirement of no net flux from one cavity to another is
modeled by requiring don/dr
0 on a circle with radius A/2. With
these
boun-
dary conditions, the solutions of eq. (11.1) are:
n
o
kT
t
21'l15D b
(x-R) (A-R-x)
(cylindrical cavity)
(11.2)
(axisymmetric cavity).
(11. 3)
The stress at the void tip, 00' is a constant of integration which follows from
the requirement that the chemical potential, ~, must be continuous, since the
transition of an atom from the cavity surface into the grain
expected
to
be
inhibited
boundary
is
not
so that local equilibrium is granted. Equating the
expressions for the chemical potential on the grain
boundary,
eq.
(4.2),
to
that on the cavity surface, eq. (4.11), gives

(11.4)
For equilibrium shapes the curvatures are geometrically related to R through:
K2
simp/R
for the axisymmetric cavity
(11.5)
for the cylindrical cavity.
(11.6)
The conservation of mass requires that the volumetric growth rate of an axisymmetric cavity is related to the displacement rate of the grains by
V=
(A/2)
un'
(11.7)
(For the cylindrical cavity only the final result for the linear cavity
rate,
R,
will
be given). The displacement rate ~
growth
of the grains is generally
unknown. It can be related to the normal stress acting on the
grain
boundary,
0b' by requiring that the average of on equals 0b for global equlibrium

2~
A/2
f rOn
where
dr
kT Ii A2
(l-w) 00 + _ _n::..:....._ q (w),
32 I'l I5D b
(11.8)
11.
152
00 = (2R/A)2
(11 .9)
is the area fraction of cavitated grain boundary and the abbreviation

defined by
q(oo)
- 2 1noo - (3-00) (1-00).
q(oo)
is
(11.10)
Resolving eq. (11.8) for un and inserting the result into eq. (11.7) gives
the
volume growth rate ~, as a function of 0b:

~ = 811" D c5Db [ob - (1-00) 00 ]
(11.11)
kT q(oo)
The sintering stress, 00 , from eqs. (11.4) and (11.5), is 00 - 2 Ys sinw 1 R. A

stress which equals 00 just equilibrates an isolated cavity against sintering.
For greater stresses the cavity grows, for smaller ones it shrinks.
The linear growth rate, ~, is geometrically related to
the
volumetric
growth
rate of a spherical-caps shaped cavity by

(11.12)
where
~(w)
is the cavity volume divided by the volume of a sphere
with
radius
R. It is related to the function f v (w) defined in eq. (6.9) and is given by

hew) =
~ fv(~) =
411" sin W
(1+cosw)-1 - (1/2) cosw

sinw
Typical numerical.values are h(70 0 )
0.61 and h(75 0 )
(11.13)
0.69. For very small
W,
is hew) = 3w/8 upon linearization.

Now the final result for the linear growth rate of an axisymmetric, equilibrium
cavity can be obtained using eqs. (11.11) and (11.12). There results
2 D c5Db [ob - 00 (1-00)]
( 11.14)
kT hew) q(oo) R2
For small, widely spaced voids (00
1) the result can be approximated by
11.1
153
(11.15)
2 kT h(W) ~n(A/4.24R) R2
For cylindrical cavities, the growth rate derived in an analogous way is:
3
cD b [ob - 00 (1-2R/A)]
(11.16)
2 kT f(W) (1 - 2R/A)3 A R
with the sintering stress for the cylindrical cavity 00
Ys sinW I R, and
(11.17)
The above results coincide with those given by Speight and Beere (1975) and
Needleman
and
Rice (1980) [except for a printing error in their definition of
h(W)J. Raj and Ashby (1975), Raj et al (1977) and

omitted
the
by
so-called
Chuang
et
al
(1979)
have
jacking effect in eq. (11.7) with the consequence that
their results must be divided by the factor 1-w or 1-2R/A for the
axisymmetric
and cylindrical void, respectively. Apart from the jacking factor, the paper of
Raj and Ashby (1975) contains a misprint which has been corrected by Raj et
(1977).
The
al
latter authors further claim that the surface stress (as distinct
from the surface energy) should be taken into account with a numerical value of
2Ys sinW I R. In this case, the factor 1-w adjoining 00 in eqs. (11.11) and
(11.14) can be deleted. Needleman and Rice (1980), however, point out that this
choice
of the surface stress is as arbitrary as the assumption of zero surface
stress implicit in our derivation. Fortunately, the

case.
In
earlier
work
(Hull
and
Rimmer,
effect
1959,
inappropriate boundary conditions have been used as
is
small
in
any
Speight and Harris, 1967)

pOinted
out
by
Raj
and
Ashby (1975). These older results are only approximately compatible with ours.
In all papers quoted in the preceding paragraph it was tacitly assumed that the
stress
0b acting on the grain boundary is equal to the applied stress, but the
reader is reminded that under many practically interesting conditions, the

material surrounding the grain boundary exerts a constraint on cavity growth
which reduces 0b compared to the applied stress.
Note that in the preceding analysis no use was made of
the
assumption
of
an
equili bri um voi d shape except in eqs. (11. 5) and C11. 12). Therefore many of the
equations can be used in the analysis of non-equilibrium void growth as well.
11.
154
11.1.2
Rupture times by diffusive cavity growth neglecting nucleation
If the time for cavity nucleation can be neglected,
the
time
to
rupture
is
given by the time for void growth from an initial radius Ro to A/2 when
coalescence occurs. The void growth law, ~ = ~(R,A), can be integrated by
separation of the variables Rand t if the void spacing is time-independent (no
continuing nucleation). Integrating eq. (11.14) between R = Ro
between t
and
i.e.
A/2,
0 and t f (time to fracture) gives
A/2
dR
(11.18 )
t f = R H(R)
o
if the sintering stress, 0 , is neglected. Further, in the term in brackets,
0
terms of order (RO/A) 5 and (Ro/A) 7 were omitted, since they are generally very
small.
If the stress on the cavitating boundary, 0b' is
identified
tentatively
with
the applied stress om' eq. (11.18) predicts t f ~ 110 m Such a linearly inverse
stress dependence of the rupture lifetime has hardly ever been observed. The
vast
majority
of creep rupture tests yields much stronger stress dependencies
often compatible with the Monkman-Grant rule, i.e., t f

is
1/0.
An
example
the study of Pavinich and Raj (1977) on copper polycrystals. In addition to
its unexpectedly strong stress dependence, the observed rupture time is

ally
much
greater
than
gener-
predicted by eq. (11.18). The only case in which the
linearly inverse stress dependence was approximately obtained is the investigation
of
Raj
(1978a) on copper bi-crystal speCimens. Four or five of his test
specimens failed in the range in which diffusive cavity growth can be
expected
to
dominate, and they exhibited a behavior close to t f ~ 1/0. For a more

detailed interpretation of Raj'S experimental results, see Chuang et al (1979).
The failure of the simple diffusive cavity growth model in
relation
to
creep
rupture of polycrystals has led to a long-lasting debate regarding the possible

reasons. In the remaining chapters of Part II, several
possibilities
will
be
examined, including the effects of the sintering stress, of the polycrystalline

constraint and of continuous nucleation.
11.1
11.1.3
155
The effect of the sintering stress on the rupture time
In this subsection it is to be demonstrated that the sintering

cavity
stress
in
the
growth law, eq. (11.14), may increase the rupture lifetime markedly. To
see this, consider the extreme case when the nucleation process provides nuclei
of
just
critical
size. For these cavities, the sintering stress balances the
applied stress, so that the growth rate is exactly zero and

would
be
the
rupture
time
infinite. Therefore it is necessary to consider the growth of nuclei
by thermal fluctuations slightly beyond the critical size before
deterministic
growth can take over. Hence the deterministic law will be applied from the time
on when it exceeds the growth rate by fluctuations derived next.
The average growth rate of a vacancy cluster by thermal fluctuations
by
n(B-B'),
~ =
where
is
given
Band B' are the vacancy absorption and emission rate,
respectively, defined in eqs. (6.21) and (6.22). Evaluating
these
expressions
near the critical cluster size gives the growth rate by fluctuations as
(11.19)
In the second form, the absorption rate at the
critical
pOint,
B*,
and
the
number of vacancies in the critical cluster, n*, were taken from Section 6.2.
Equating the growth rate due to thermal
growth
rate
given
in
eq.
(11.11),
fluctuations
yields
the
with
the
deterministic
cavity radius at which the
transition from statistical to deterministic growth takes place:

(11 .20)
critical
where R* = 2Yssinw/crb is the radius of the
cluster
and
is
the
abbreviation
(11.21)
which should be small compared
to
unity
if
the
above
calculation
of
the
statistical growth rate near the critical cluster size is to be justified.

Now
the
rupture
nucleation)
by
time
can
integrating
be
the
calculated
cavity
(ignoring
the
time
for
cavity
growth law, eq (11.14) including the

sintering stress, from R = Rt to A/2. Including the sintering stress renders
11.
156
the integration more complicated. The problem is simplified if the factor

adjoining Go in eq. (11.14) is deleted, a change
framework
of
the
present
which
is
justified
(1-00)
in
the
theory which does not distinguish between surface
energy and surface tension. Then the rupture time takes the form
(11.22)
Here, all terms of order 2R*/A and of order Et were neglected compared to
unity. The effect of the sintering stress is described by the term containing
tnE t Obviously, the effect becomes large if Et becomes small, i.e., if thermal
fluctuations push the cluster size only slightly beyond the critical size. The
logarithms in eq. (11.22) depend on quantities which do not vary a
for
different
constants
in
3/4 - tn(2R*/A)
replaced by
materials
order
to
deal
and temperatures so that they can be approximated b)

simplify
the
= 5 and tnEt = - 7,
2!ssin~/Gb'
great
further
and
if
discussion.
the
If
we
take
critical cluster radius is
eq. (11.22) reduces to

(11.23)
In this approximation the rupture time contains the well-known 11Gb-term, but
additionally a l/G~ -term is obtained which originates from the sintering
stress. The fourth-power term dominates for stresses smaller than
(11.24 )
With Ys - 1.5 J/m 2 , ~ = 75 0 and A = 1 ~m, this means that for Gb < 65 MPa the
cavities spend an appreciable fraction of the lifetime near the sintering
limit, and the lifetime is extended markedly by the sintering forces.
11.1.4
Removal of cavities by compressive loads or by surface tension forces
Despite the limited success of

model
in
the
unconstrained
diffusional
cavity
growth
predicting failure times, we apply eq. (11.14) to the calculation of
sintering times which are necessary to shrink existing cavities to zero size.
The closure of cavities is of interest in powder metallurgy during hot isostatic pressing and other sintering processes. Reviews on sintering have been
prepared by Swinkels and Ashby (1979), by Swinkels et al (1983)
and
by
Exnen
11.1
and
Arzt
(1983).
Sintering
of
treatments of used parts which
157
cavities is also one of the goals of re-heat
may
have
developed
cavities
during
service
some
initial
operation. A few examples are quoted below.

To calculate the sintering time, eq. (11.14) is integrated
cavity
size, R
from
Ri , to R = O. The integral can be evaluated in closed form if

either ao = 0, or ab = O. The first case corresponds to sintering under high
compressive stress, and the second to sintering by surface tension forces
=
alone. The resulting sintering time, t s ' has the form
o
s
(11.25)
0,
where R~ was neglected against A2. For n-iron at

and
1
0
2
A = 311m, Ys
1.5 J/m , $ = 70 and the other material parameters taken from
Appendix A, the sintering time is found to be t s = 4 mins for a compr essi ve
stress
of
ab = ~- 50 MPa i f ao is neglected. The time to close the cavities by

surface tension forces alone, Le. ab = 0, is predicted from eq. (11.25) as
ts = 13 mins. For Y-iron at 950 0 C, the corresponding sintering times are 19 sec
under 50 MPa compression and 63 sec under the action of surface tension forces
alone.
Considering the shortness of these
rejuvenile
sintering
is
appears
tempting
to
parts that have developed cavities in service by giving them a heat
treatment at a temperature well above their

stresses
times
accelerate
sintering
service
temperature.
Compressive
but even the surface tension forces suffice to
remove the cavities within relatively short times as long as the
cavities
are
still small.
To the authors knowledge, eq. (11.25) has not been
compared
with
experiments
quantitatively but it is well established that re-heat treatments substantially

prolong the creep life of gold (Davies and Evans, 1965), brass and some of
nickel-base
alloys
(Davies
et aI, 1966, 1967). In most superalloys, however,
re-heat treatments have a complex

structure
and
simultaneous
effect
on
both,
the
the
micro-
on the cavities (Davies et aI, 1973, Davies and Dennison, 1975,
Dennison and Wilshire, 1977), and this effect may be beneficial or

for
creep
detrimental
life. Further, surface-connected cavities are usually oxidized
and are therefore hard to remove (Dennison et aI, 1978). A gas pressure in
voids
or
the
surface
the
coverage by segregated impurity atoms may have a similar
11.
158
effect. Moderate improvements of the creep lives of two
austenitic
steels
by
interspersed heat treatments were reported by EI-Magd and Jager (1984).

11.1.5
The effect of impurity segregation on diffusive cavity growth
The effect of impurities on cavity nucleation was described in Chapter

their
effect
on
cavity
growth
is
8.
Now
considered. The grain-boundary diffusion
coefficient enters into the expression for the rupture
lifetime
in
the
form
t f 1/6D b Most segregants seem to reduce the self-dlffusivity along grain

boundaries which is beneficial to the lifetime. Zirconium addition to a Ni-20Cr
alloy,
for
example, reduces 6Db by a factor of ten at 800 0 C (Schneibel, White
and Padgett, 1983). The effect of several impurities and alloying
elements
on
6Db in iron is shown in Fig. 11.2 using data of Stratmann et al (1983). Grain
boundary diffusion in iron is also retarded by tin and antimony (Bernardini et
aI,
1982;
Gas
et
aI,
1986).
Data on other materials have been reviewed by
Gleiter and Chalmers (1972) and by Nix, Yu and Wang (1983).

The reduction of the grain boundary diffusivity by segregants can be
rational-
ized by an argument due to Borisov et al (1964). Since the atomic forces across
a grain boundary are reduced compared to the lattice, which is reflected in the
grain boundary energy,
the atoms should be more mobile.
Hence, the activation
- - T inC
700
800
t
$.
10-20
,,~
IO~ '~:,~
'
~v~
0-11
.s.,
600
:~:+400ppmN ~~
-13
10
"Fe + 120 ppm S

"- v,
+Fe + 90ppm C
"DFe +0.17% P
D "
- -Fe from Swinkels and Ashby'
10-2'
(1979)
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
10OOK/T---
Fig. 11.2. Grain boundary self-diffusion coefficient of iron containing

impurities (from tracer diffusion experiments by Stratmann et aI, 1983).
11.1
159
energy for diffusion along a grain boundary should
be
lowered
by
the
grain
boundary energy, Yb , compared to diffusion through the lattice. This leads to

(11.26)
where b is Burgers vector, Dv is volume diffusion coefficient and 6 is the
relative coverage of the grain boundary with impurity atoms. The factor (1-6)
was introduced here since impurity atoms occupy space in the grain boundary and
do
not
contribute
to
self-diffusion
energy which appears in eq.

accounts
for
(11.26)
is
of
now
the base metal. The grain boundary

taken
from
eq.
(8.10),
which
the effect of segregation. Normalizing the diffusion coefficient
by the value of the base material and eliminating the segregation
enthalpy
by
using eq. (8.1) gives the simple result

60 16D base metal
b
(11.27)
where Nb is the area density of available segregation sites, i.e., 2b2Nb ~ 1.

Of course, the Borisov argument is not a strict theory, but it predicts qualitatively correctly that 6Db decreases with increasing grain-boundary coverage.
In conclusion, the effect of impurity segregation is usually beneficial as
as
diffusive
cavity
growth
those which do not enhance cavity nucleation, or even impede

same
time
reduce
it,
and
at
the
the grain boundary diffusion coefficient strongly to retard
cavity growth. Of course, impurity elements additionally influence the

logy
far
is concerned. The optimum trace elements will be
morpho-
of carbides and of other precipitates, and this may often be the dominant
effect of impurities on the creep and rupture

beneficial
trace
el~ment
properties.
An
example
for
seems to be zirconium in nickel, which retards grain
boundary diffusion and forms stable sulfides within the grains thus
preventing
sulfur from segregating to grain boundaries.

11.1.6
The effect of gas pressure on the diffusive cavity growth rate
If the voids contain an internal gas pressure, p, the analysis

growth
problem
of
the
cavity
must be modi-fied. The gas pressure enters into the equilibrium
eondition, eq. (11.8), and into the chemical potential on the free surface, eq.
(11.4) (the gas does the work pO in removing an atom from the void surface). In
the final results for the cavity growth rate and for the rupture lifetime,
gas pressure is taken into account by replacing [Jb by [Jb
the
P (Raj et al, 1977).
11.
160
Diffusive Cavity Growtt
An illustrative application of these results to the growth of

during
hydrogen
attack
has
that at relatively low temperatures the chemical reaction

hydrogen
methane
bubbles
been given by Shih and Johnson (1982). They find

between
carbon
and
at the bubble surface is the rate-controlling step for methane forma-
tion using reaction rates measured by Grabke and Martin (1973). At higher temperatures
the
reaction is fast enough to build up the equilibrium pressure. In
response to the methane pressure, the bubbles

mechanism
grow
either
by
the
diffusive
or by creep of the matrix (see Chapter 14). Diffusive growth is pre-
ferred at high temperatures and low hydrogen pressures, while creep
predomina-
tes at lower temperatures and higher pressures.

In a review on hydrogen attack, Shewmon (1984) analyzed data by
Shewmon
(1981)
on
bubble
McKimpson
and
coalescence in carbon steel and found satisfactory
agreement with the diffusive growth model. The lifetime was found to depend
or
pressure as t f 1/p1.2, which is reasonably close to the predicted 1/p-dependence, and the observed temperature dependence agreed with that of grain boundary diffusion.
Another application of diffusive cavity growth under internal gas
that
of
pressure
is
Trinkaus and Ullmaier (1979) who analyze the nucleation and growth of
helium bubbles in stainless steel.
11.2 Diffusional Growth of Non-Equilibrium Cavities

Diffusional cavity growth under typical creep rupture conditions occurs predominantly by grain boundary diffusion rather than by volume diffusion. This means
that atoms leave the cavity through its perimeter in
surface
diffusion
along
atoms leads to flat, crack-like void shapes, rather

shape
assumed
in
the
the
grain
boundary.
If
the cavity surface is very slow, this local drain of

than
to
the
equilibrium
previous section. The conditions for the occurrence of
non-equilibrium shapes will be discussed
next.
In
fact,
flat
cavities
are
sometimes observed (Goods and Nix, 1978).

The theoretical discussion below starts from the set of equations for diffusion
in the grain boundary and along the free cavity surface given in Chapter 4. The
presentation follows a paper of Chuang et al (1979), which is based on
work
by
Chuang
earlier
and Rice (1973). A later numerical investigation by Pharr and
Nix (1979) substantiated the analytic results of Chuang et al.
11.2
11.2.1
Diffusive Growth of Nonequilibrium Cavities
161
The procedure to solve the coupled problem of surface diffusion and

grain boundary diffusion
The most convenient way to solve the coupled problem of surface

grain
diffusion
and
boundary diffusion during cavity growth is to start from an assumed cav-
ity growth rate, ACt). Although A is usually considered as the unknown quantity
to
be
determined,
it
is
easier to revert the procedure and to consider the
stress, 0b' acting on the boundary as unknown and the

Next,
the
surface
growth
rate
as
known.
diffusion problem is solved, which can be done for certain
simple growth rate histories. This gives the void shape, the chemical potential
and the flux into the void tip. The continuity conditions for the potential and
for the flux at the void tip link the surface diffusion problem
to
the
grain
boundary diffusion problem. The latter has already been solved in the preceding
section and the stress distribution only needs to be adapted
conditions
set
to
the
boundary
by the surface diffusion problem. The analysis is completed by
requiring global equilibrium, which relates the stress 0b to the initially prescribed growth rate ACt). The only difficult step in this procedure is to solve
the surface diffusion problem for a given growth rate. This will be done next.
11.2.2
He-formulation of the surface diffusion problem
In Chapter 4, the surface diffusion problem was formulated in terms of the curvatures and of the normal displacement rate,
vn ,
of the cavity surface. A form-
ulation which is more convenient here describes the cavity shape by the height,
w, of the cavity surface above the plane of the grain boundary as shown in Fig.
11.3. For the axisymmetric cavity, w is related to the old variables by:
r=O
equilibrium
v-O
transition
crack-like limit
11 _
CD
Fig. 11.3. Transition from equilibrium cavity shape to crack-like shape.

Definitions of geometrical quantities.
11.
162
1<:1
- w" ( 1
+ w,2)-3/2
(11.28J
1<:2
- w' ( 1
+ w,2)-1/2 1 r
(11. 29J
(w - Un /2)
(1 + w,2)-1/2,
(11. 30)
where the primes and the dots denote the derivatives with respect to r
and
t,
respectively. The rigid-body displacement rate of the grains, ~, is subtractec
from
since n is meant to originate from surface diffusion alone while ~
comprises the whole displacement rate of the surface. This jacking effect of
the atoms plated on the grain boundary can be neglected for small
to-spacing
ratios
cavity-size-
and has been omitted by previous workers. When expressed ir
(4.14),
terms of w, the fundamental equation for surface diffusion, eq.
takes
the form
Q 60 s
v2
w"
Ys V2 (
kT
(1+w,2)3/2
(11.31)
0,
= a2 /ar2
+ (l/r)a/ar for the axisymmetric cavity. For the cylindrical

2
= a /ax 2 , delete the second term in parentheses and let the prime
denote a/ax. The fourth-order partial differential eq. (11.31) must be solved
subject to a prescribed growth rate and to the symmetry condition w, = w'" = 0
where
cavity set V2
in the certer of the cavity and to w = 0 and w, = latter
condition
tan~
at the void
tip angle has its equilibrium value,
~,
impeded.
equilibrium
void
shape
Hence,
the
as defined in eq. (6.5).
A preliminary measure for whether or not surface diffusion is
an
The
is introduced since it can be anticipated that local thermo-
dynamic equilibrium of the surface tension forces is not
maintain
tip.
fast
enough
to
is given by the following dimensionless
velocity formed by the parameters of the surface diffusion problem:

v = kT R3
R 1 (n
60 s Y )
s
(11.32)
If this dimensionless growth rate is small compared to unity, the

grow at an equilibrium shape, while for v
Next two specific solutions of eq. (11.31) are presented. The first
steady-state
(v
solution
which
applies
cavi ty
will
1, crack-like shapes will prevail.

one
is
to rapid growth in the crack-like limit
1). The second one is a similarity solution for v
const, which
is
not
11.2
to either small or large growth rates, but v = const corresponds to
restricted
163
t- 1/4 , which is not a very realistic time dependence of
The surface diffusion problem for v
the
growth rate.
0 is trivial. Here the void has its equi-
librium shape.
11.2.3
A steady-state solution of the surface diffusion problem in the crack-
like limit
Chuang and Rice (1973) surmised that for fast cavity growth, steady-state
utions
to
sol-
eq. (11.31) exist. If the cavity grows very fast due to rapid grain
boundary diffusion, while surface diffusion is relatively slow, the diffusional

activity
on
the
cavity
surface
is confined to a small region near the tip.
Further away, the curvature and therefore diffusional flow become

the
region
to
Thus
of high surface-diffusion activity can be treated as if the cavity
were infinitely large. Only if

expected
small.
this
is
so,
steady-state
solutions
can
be
exist. In this case , the time derivative of w can be replaced by
= - R w, + U
n /2, where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to x (as
defined in Fig. 11.3), and derivatives of w must go to zero as x + -~.
The steady-state problem is readily solved
if
the
governing
eq. (11.31)
is
linearized by neglecting w,2 against unity. The linearized treatment is limited
W, but the solution will be generalized for arbitrary

W shortly. With the steady-state condition, w = - Rw, + Un 12, inserted the
to small void tip angles
linearized equation for w takes the form

kT R dw
d 4w
dx 4 - n 60 s Ys dx
(11.33)
This equation applies equally to cylindrical and aXisymmetric

the
steady-state
approximation
cavities,
since
requires that the cavity is so large that the
term w'/r in eq. (11.31) is everywhere small and can be neglected.

The ordinary differential
eq. (11.33)
has
-w
boundary
exponential
solutions.
With
conditions w = un/2 and dw/dx =

at x = 0 and dw/dx = 0 for x
one obtains the steady-state solution valid for small
dw
dx
- W exp [(
kT
n 60 s Ys
)1/3 x]
w:
the
+
-~
(11.34)
11.
164
w - un /2
iC 1
iC2
kT it
) 1 13 x]}.
g 60s 'Vs
(11.35)
kT R ) 1 13 exp[ (
kT it
) 1 13 x].
g 60 s 'Vs
goDs 'V s
( 11. 36)
g 60 s 'Vs
1/1
kT
d2w
-~=
dx
1/1 (
1/3
{1 - exp [(
The curvature determines the chemical potential, and its derivative
gives
the
flux according to eqs. (4.11) and (4.12). The continuity conditions at the void
tip for the potential and for the flux set
the
boundary
conditions
for
the
grain boundary diffusion problem to be considered in Section 11.2.5.

Chuang and Rice (1973) have solved the steady-state problem
without
resorting
to the linearization employed here. Comparison with their result shows that the
linear solution for the flux and the curvature at the void tip is
within
2%
for
accurate
to
arbitrary 1/1, if 1/1 is replaced by 2 sin(1/I/2) in eqs. (11.34) to
(11.36).
11.2.4
Similarity solutions for the surface diffusion problem
Dimensional considerations [or insertion of the expression for w below into the
governing equation (11.31)] show that
(11.37)
represents a family of self-similar solutions of eq. (11.31). The dimensionless
coordinate
is defined as
(11. 38)
for the axisymmetric cavity. From the form of the Similarity coordinate
clear
t 1/4 ,
that the cavity expands in proportion to
as R ~ t
ordinary
-3/4
or the growth rate varies
The
solutions
will
solved
linearized
it
reproduces
the
the
of
that
growth
rate
and
equilibrium and crack-like (steady-state) shapes for
small and large v, respectively. At intermediate values of

solution
version
not be shown here. It suffices to note that the
Similarity solution is valid for arbitrary magnitude of

that
is
,or v = const. The dimensionless shape function W(~) obeys the

differential equation, which follows by insertion of eq. (11.37) into
eq. (11.31). Chuang et al (1979) have

problem.
it
v,
the
similarity
acts as a smooth transition between .the limiting cases. The price for
11.2
165
this seemingly comprehensive solution is a rather artificial stressing
history
which follows for the similarity solutions (see Chuang et aI, 1979).
The stress associated with steady-state, crack-like cavity growth
is
expected
to be time-independent. Its magnitude will be derived next by coupling the surface diffusion problem with the grain boundary diffusion problem.
11.2.5
The relation between growth rate and stress in the crack-like limit
The partial problems of surface diffusion

linked
together
by
the
requirements
and
that,
grain
at
the
boundary
diffusion
are
void tip, the chemical
potential and the flux must be continuous. Continuity of the chemical potential
is
expressed
byeq. (11.4). Equating twice the flux on a surface, eq. (4.12),
to that along the grain boundary, eq. (4.3), specifies don/dr at the void
which is denoted by
tip,
0' .
(11.39)
The curvatures, K1 +K2 , at the void tip are known from eq. (11.36).
The distribution of the normal stress on on the grain boundary was
connection
with
equilibrium
cavity
valid; un is &pecified by the requirement that dOn/dr = o~

which gives
u
n
derived
in
growth. The result, eq. (11.3), is still

at
the
void
0'
tip,
(11.40)
The solution of the void-growth problem is completed by equating the average of

on to the stress, 0b' acting on the grain boundary. For the axisymmetric cavity
in the crack-like limit,
following
the
equilibrium
condition,
eq. (11.8),
form if eqs. (11.4), (11.39) and (11.40) are inserted for
takes
0 ,
the
0' and
o
un' respectively, and if Kl + K2 is taken from eq. (11.36):

(11.41)
with the abbreviations
(11.42)
11.
166
(11.43)
The normalized growth rate v, q(w) and w were defined in eqs. (11.32), (11.9)
and (11.10), respectively. Solving eq. (11.41) for v and using the definition
of v leads to the final result for the growth rate of an axisymmetric cavity in
the crack-like limit:
(11.44)
with the notation

(11. 45)
As in the case of equilibrium cavity growth, an internal gas
cavity can be taken into account by writing ab
pressure
in
the
p instead of abo
Depending on the value of the product Qr~, the growth rate given in eq. (11.44)
has two limiting ranges. For very slow surface diffusion, i.e. if Qr~ 1, a
power-series expansion of the square root in eq. (11.44)
up
to
linear
terms
leads to
(11.46)
This is a cube-law relation between Rand abo It is interesting to note that

the growth rate in this limit is controlled by surface diffusion alone while
the grain boundary diffusion coefficient does not appear in the result.
For very high stress, i.e. if
Qr~
1, unity can be neglected in the square
root in eq. (11.44), so that

f{
= _ _12_---,1"""7"<"
I(T
(y
c5D )172
s
s
3 c5Db ab
)3/2
2 A Q (1-w)2 sin(~/2)
In this range the stress exponent is 3/2. Surface
diffusion
(11.47)
has
retarding
effect since c5Ds appears in the denominator. The reason for this is that for an
increased rate of surface diffusion the void shape tends to a rounded, equilibrium shape so that more atoms must be removed through the grain boundary.
11.2
161
Which one of the limiting cases applies, depends on the normalized growth
rate
v defined in eq. (11.32) and on the product QtA. At low stresses, or alternately, low growth rates or high surface
vails.
At
diffusivities,
equilibrium
like mode. This regime is subdivided into a low-stress,

range,
in
growth
pre-
high stresses or high growth rates, the cavities grow in the crackslow-surface-diffusion
which the growth rate is proportional to the third power of stress,
and into a high-stress range, in which a (3/2) power law obtains. Chuang et
al
(1919) investigate the ranges of validity of the limiting cases in detail.

Finally, the growth rate of a cylindrical, as distinct
from
an
axisymmetriC,
cavity in the crack-like limit is quoted from Chuang et al (1919) to be:

21 D 60s 'Vs
( 1+ tAl 1 12 - 1
8 kT >.3 A3
- 2R/>.
(11.48)
where t has been defined in eq. (11.45) and A in eq. (11.42).

11.2.6
Rupture times for non-equilibrium grOwth
If cavity nucleation is assumed to occur readily at the beginning of a test, or

if pre-existing cavities are present, rupture times are obtained by integration
of the cavity growth law, eq. (11.44), from an initial cavity size,
coalescence, R = >'12. Thus, in analogy to eq. (11.18), one obtains:
Ro'
2 kT, >.4 A3
to
{11.49)
21 D 60 s 'Vs
Here Wo
(11.42).
(2R o l>.)2 and Q, t and A are

Since
defined
in
eqs. (11.43),
over
and
Q depends on w in a complicated manner, the integral cannot be
carried out in closed form. However, the value of Q does not vary
extent
(11.45)
the
entire
to
well if Q is set equal to 0.6 (Chuang et aI, 1919). If, furthermore,

neglected compared to 1, the result for the rupture time becomes
0.015
great
range of w, so that the integral can be approximated
D 60s 'Vs
(1 - 35 R 18>.) {
0
(1
A 172
}3
0.6tA)
- 1
Again, the result has two limiting ranges. First, if 0.6tA
Wo
is
(11.50)
1, i.e. for small
stresses and low surface diffusivities, a series expansion of eq. (11.50) leads
to the inverse cube law for the rupture time
11.
168
(11.51)
This result is approximately valid if

growth
prevails,
i.e. if v
Chuang et aI, 1979). Thus the
0.6L~ ~
1.5
and
if
crack-like
cavity
1. (How large exactly v must be was examined by

stress
range
within
which
the
inverse
cube
relation applies is determined by

(11 .52)
These inequalities can only be met simultaneously if oDb/oDs is rather large.

The range of validity of the inverse cube law as expressed by eq. (11.52) is
shown graphically in Fig. 11.4.
The opposite limiting range of the
Neglecting 1 against
rupture
time
is
defined
by
0.6L~
oDs Ys
(1 - 4.4 RIA) (
0
Y oDs sin(w/2) 3/2

s
).
A oDb 0b
100, the 3/2 power law prevails for stresses satisfying
200 r--,--,----.-----..----,
t
150
OC
l/a:rz
2.5x
'"
~ 100
""-
.-<
b
50
tf
OC 7/a
OL-.-..L..----'--------'-------'------J
1.
in eq. (11.50) leads to
kT A4
0.058
If oDb/oDs
0.6L~
20
1,0
60
80
100
Fig. 11.4. Range of validity of the inverse cube law, eq. (11.51).
(11.53)
11.2
169
(11.54)
For small 6Db/6Ds the inverse cube law does not obtain and the
occupies the whole crack-like limit, i.e. it is valid for
power
3/2
law
(11.55)
11.2.7
Experiments on copper and silver containing water vapor bubbles
Nieh and Nix (1980a) measured rupture lifetimes of copper

water
vapor
bubbles
had
specimens
in
which
been implanted on grain boundaries before the creep
tests in order to bypass the cavity nucleation stage. The stress and
temperat-
ure dependence of the measured lifetimes are in good agreement with the inverse
cube law t f ~ 1/03 , eq. (11.51), which exhibits the activation energy of surface diffusion. By doing tension and torsion tests on the same kind of material
(copper with water vapor bubbles), Stanzl, Argon and Tschegg
the
(1983)
confirmed
observations of Nieh and Nix, and they provided the additional information
that the rupture lifetime is determined solely by the maximum principal stress,
but not by the von Mises equivalent stress.
There is, however, a serious problem associated with
(11.51)
the
application
of
eq.
to the experiments of Nieh and Nix and of Stanzl et al. From Fig. 11.4
it. is clear that an inverse
cube
law
is
only
possible
if
o)./Ys
> 60 and
6Db/6DS > 30. Both requirements are violated in the experiments of Nieh and
Nix, at least at first sight. The bubble spacing is ). = 3.2 ~m, the surface
2
Ys = 1.7 Jim
for copper and the applied stresses range from 4 to
60 MPa. Hence o)'/Ys ranges from 7 to 110 with only two data points, out of 17,
energy
is
having
values
greater
than 60, which is required for the inverse cube law to
hold. If the surface energy were reduced by a factor 2 due to the

water
o)'/Y s
used
vapor,
which
is
an
> 60. Further the ratio
extreme
presence
of
assumption, 10 data pOints would satisfy
6D b /6D s has values near
unity if the commonly

grain-boundary diffusion coefficient of copper is employed. This value is
admittedly uncertain. Only if the actual value of 6Db were much greater, or
if
6D s were much smaller than the commonly accepted value, could the occurrence of
the inverse cube law for the rupture time be expected.
Goods and Nix (1978) have performed the same kind of experiments on silver containing
water
vapor
bubbles.
As in the case of copper, the measured rupture
11.
170
lifetimes approximately exhibit the inverse cube-law dependence on str.ess

dicted
by
pre-
the crack-like diffusive growth model in the slow-surface-diffusion
limit, eq. (11.51). However, the same problem arises as in the case of embrittled
copper.
As Chuang et al (1979) point out the available data indicate that
the surface diffusion coefficient is larger than the

coefficient
under
grain-boundary
diffusion
the conditions of Goods' and Nix' tests. But eq. (11.51) is
only applicable if the reverse is true. Goods and Nix (1978) suggest to resolve
the
contradiction
by
postulating that the diffusion coefficients in the pre-
sence of water vapor are very different from those usually measured.
Although such an assumption is not satisfactory, the idea that
by
diffusive
cavity
failure
occurs
growth is supported by experiments performed by Nieh and
Nix (1979). They also tested silver with implanted
water
vapor
bubbles,
but
they strengthened the silver matrix by a fine dispersion of magnesia particles.

Although the creep rate of the MgO-dispersion
orders
of
magnitude
strengthened
material
was
two
lower than that of pure silver, the rupture lifetime was
not affected. This precludes a cavity growth mechanism which is
controlled
by
creep
strain. Among the diffusion-controlled mechanisms only crack-like growth

leads to a strong stress dependence of the type t f 11a3
In conclusion, although the inverse cube law, eq. (11.51),
copper
and
fits
the
data
on
silver with implanted water vapor bubbles well, there remains some
doubt as to whether the inverse cube law should be applicable to these cases.
11.2.8
Void~shaBe
instability/finger-like cavity growth
Taplin and Wingrove (1967) and Wingrove and Taplin (1969b) have
observed
that
cavities in iron, when growing at a high rate, assume an irregular shape. Their
periphery in the grain boundary, which is usually circular, breaks
wavy
shape
and
up
into
eventually develops finger-like protrusions as shown schemat-
ically in Fig. 11.5.
Fields and Ashby (1976) have interpreted this observation
as an intrinsic instability of crack-like diffusive cavity growth. The phenomenon resembles the shape instability of a void in a thin
two
glass
plates
liquid
layer
between
which are pulled apart. The shape instability of crack-like
cavities arises from the interplay of surface tension forces and grain boundary
diffusion, which draws matter out of the crack. A protrusion of the crack front
implies that the surface is more strongly curved there, which is unfavorable in
terms
of
the
chemical potential. Hence surface diffusion tends to smooth out
the protrusion. On the other
hand,
the
protrusion
is
favored
for
kinetic
11.2
171
reasons:
the atoms leaving the cavity through a protrusion can spread into the
grain boundary along divergent flow lines, whereas the atoms leaving the cavity
through
an
intrusion
in the crack front must share the limited space between
the adjacent protrusions which retards the diffusive flux. Therefore the
of
atoms
is
stronger
drain
through the protrusion, so that the perturbance of the
cavity shape is enhanced. For rapid cavity growth and for slow surface
diffus-
ion, the kinetic aspect dominates leading to the shape instability, whereas for
slow growth and rapid surface diffusion, the cavities retain a regular shape.
The evolution of such shape instabilities from initially straight crack
was
fronts
investigated quantitatively by Fields and Ashby (1976). They superimpose a
sinusoidal perturbance on the cavity front and examine whether the
disturbance
increases or decreases during growth. There results that a disturbance grows if

its wavelength is greater than the critical value:
( 11.56)
"crit
Here,
as
w~
is half the height of the cavity at x = -
function
of
the
stress,
w~
and
R can
~.
If the result is
be taken from eqs. (11.35) and
(11.48), respectively. Of course, if the cavity is smaller than

wavelength,
the
desired
this
critical
instability cannot develop, but if the cavity size becomes of
the order of the critical wavelength, a shape instability is expected to occur.

Beere
(1978)
has considered the more general case of initially circular crack
fronts, which is more appropriate
to
describe
the
instability
of
cavities
having a finite size, but, on the other hand, the result is more complicated.
aj
bj
diffusion in grain
boundary
Fig. 11.5. Plan view on a grain boundary containing crack-like cavities.

a) Circular shape, b) inCipient instability, c) finger-like protrusions.
12 Constrained DitJusive Cavitation

of Grain Boundaries
Rupture lifetimes of engineering alloys are generally

would
expect
from
the
rate
of
diffusive
much
greater
than
one
cavity growth. Motivated by this
general observation, Dyson (1916, 1919) proposed his constrained cavity
growth
model, which is explained next.

Over a substantial fraction of the creep lifetime, cavitation
relatively
isolated
material. This is
cavitation
grain
so
-depends
boundary
because
on
its
the
confined
to
facets which are surrounded by undamaged

susceptibility
orientation
to
of
the
grain
stress
boundary
axis
orientations of the adjacent grains [Lim and Raj (1984a) for

Majumdar
is
and
nickel;
to
on
the
Don
and
(1986) for stainless steel]. If the material surrounding a cavitating
facet were rigid, the excess volume of the cavities could not be accommodated
and cavity growth would come to a standstill. Thus the rate of cavity growth
can be controlled by the deformation rate of the surrounding material. This
called
constrained
cavity
growth.
On
the
other
hand,
if the surrounding
material is relatively soft, the accommodation process occurs readily

rate
of cavity
~owth
cavitation
not enclosed
the
~n
constraint
the
In
bi-crystal
specimens,
is obviously not constrained since the grain boundary is
a cage of non-cavitating material. A useful

is
and
is controlled by diffusive transport as described in the
preceding chapter. This is the unconstrained limit.

diffusive
is
that
cavitating grain boundary
interpretation
of
the surrounding material exerts a back stress on the

facet.
The
resulting
stress,
Db'
on
the
grain
boundary adjusts itself such that the rate of the volume increase by diffusive
cavitation is compatible with the deformation rate of the surrounding material.
In
the unconstrained limit, the cavitating facet experiences the whole applied
stress, i.e. Db = D~, whereas in the constrained limit,

boundary is reduced to the order of the sintering stress.
the
stress
on
the
12.1
173
Constrained Cavitation of an Isolated Facet
12.1 Cavity Growth Rates for Constrained Cavitation

of an Isolated Facet
12.1.1
A tensile-crack model for the calculation of constrained growth rates
The idea of constrained cavity growth is nicely illustrated and quantified by a

model
proposed originally by Rice (1981), which was extended by Riedel (1983b)
and by Tvergaard (1984a). The model is shown in Fig. 12.1. A cavitating
bound-
ary facet is described as a penny-shaped crack of diameter d embedded in an infinite block of power-law creeping material characterized
by
material is stressed at large distances from the crack by
a;j.
below is carried out for aXisymmetric loading,

ponents
of
the
a;,
applied
i.e.
the
stress are the normal stress,
eq.
only
ai,
(3.6).
(The calculation
non-zero
com-
and the transverse
stress,
as shown in the figure). The crack transmits the normal stress
which is determined from the following compatibility argument.
The volume growth rate of all cavities in the boundary facet can be
in
two
independent
ways.
Under
the
action
the
number
ab ,
calculated
of a stress ab , the volumetric
diffusive growth rate of a single cavity is given by

with
The
eq. (11.11).
Multiplying
of cavities, (n/4)(d/A)2, gives the total growth rate of the
whole facet:
(12.1)
--
- - - (1r""
100----
----.j
Fig. 12.1. Cavitating grain boundary facet. The penny-shaped crack model
idealizes the cavitating facet as circular and ignores other boundaries.
12.
174
Constrained Diffusive Cavitation
where w is the cavitated area fraction of the boundary, q(w) was defined in eq.
(11.10) and ao is the sintering stress of an isolated cavity.
On the other hand, the opening rate of a
viscous
body
penny-shaped
crack
in
nonlinear
can be inferred from work of He and Hutchinson (1981), which was
already referred to in connection with the shear crack model of grain

sliding
in
Section
7.1.2.
Using
boundary
linearization method, He and Hutchinson
develop approximate solutions which turn out to be highly accurate under a wide
range
of
conditions
when
compared to numerical solutions. He and Hutchinson
consider the case ab = a only,

straightforward. Since He's and
is
but a generalization to finite ab
Hutchinson's method essentially consists of
reducing the nonlinear viscous problem to a linear

make
use
of
a;
replacing
linear
the
by
fact
a;-ab
approximation
that
normal
elastic
in linear elastic crack problems.

is
problem,
one
can
stress on a crack can be included by

The
accuracy
of
the
expected to increase for increasing abo In this way,
one obtains the volume growth rate of the facet by creep flow of the matrix
(12.2)
<II
where the applied equivalent stress for axisymmetric loading is ae

.CD
CD n
and the equivalent strain rate is Ee = B(ae )
For compatibility, the volume growth rates by diffusive cavitation and by creep
flow must be equal. Equating eqs. (12.1) and (12.2) defines ab as
(12.3)
where q'
w2 (1+3/n)1/2 is an abbreviation. Substitution of
eq.
(12.3)
into
eq. (11.14) gives the constrained cavity growth rate

(12.4 )
Equations (12.3) and (12.4) clearly show

surrounding
material
the
constraining
effect
which
the
exerts on cavitation on an isolated facet. If the strain
rate is large, the cavity volume produced by diffusive transport can easily
accommodated. Correspondingly, the
(12.3) and (12.4) vanish for large
second
be
terms in the denominators of eqs.
which. implies
that
the
full
applied
12.1
stress
acts
on
175
the boundary, and the growth rate, eq. (12.4), reduces to the
unconstrained limit, eq. (11.14). On the other hand, if the strain rate becomes
very small, 0b becomes small and approaches the sintering stress, while the
cavity growth rate becomes accommodation controlled and approaches
the
constrained limit:
(12.5)
where q' was approximated
by
12.5
and
h(~)
by
0.61.
The
grain
boundary
diffusion coefficient plays no role in the constrained limit. The cavity growth
rate now varies in proportion to the strain rate.
A condition for whether or not the constraint is effective for a
rate
is
obtained
by
given
strain
equating the two terms in the denominator of eq. (12.4)
which gives
(12.6)
For strain rates higher than this characteristic strain rate, cavity growth
unconstrained,
is
whereas for smaller strain rates, cavity growth is constrained.
Of course, eq. (12.6) can also be expressed in terms of a characteristic stress

by
virtue
of
B(o~)n. The transition is illustrated in the figures shown
E~
below, in particular in Fig. 12.3.

12.1.2
Comparison with measured cavity growth rates
An extensive investigation on cavity nucleation and growth was carried

Needham
and
co-workers.
The
results
out
by
on ferritic steels are summarized in a
report by Needham (1983) and by Needham and Gladman (1984).
In
this
section,
cavity growth rates from these studies are compared with theoretical predictions, while the pertinent rupture lifetimes will be given in Chapter 16. Figure
12.2
shows the growth rate of the i-th largest cavity (with i * 1000) observed
by Needham (1983) in two ferritic steels at 550 oC. The dashed lines represent
the
growth rate
expected
for
the
unconstrained diffusive growth mechanism
according to eq. (11.14). The sintering stress is neglected and the

q(w)h(~)/2
is
values for nand
approximated
oD b
by
expression
1 as a representative average value. With the
from Appendix A, eq. (11.14) then leads to
176
12.
10-10
55O"C
.s
------------
----R":02IJ.m
10-11
R=05/-L1JI_-------
------
III
"'E
10-12
R= 1JJ.T----
------
Q::
100
(J
150 200 250 300

in MPa __
Fig. 12.2._Cavity growth rates in two ferritic steels measured by Needham
(1983). Solid lines: Constrained growth, eq. (12.4). Dashed lines:

Unconstrained growth, eq. (11.14); (after Riedel, 1985c).
(12.7)
where strgss is in MPa, length in meters and time in
shows
the
unconstrained
diffusive
mechanism
seconds.
12.2
for
figure
solid
lines
in
represent the constrained growth rates according to eq. (12.4) with
the grain size d

formula
the
overestimates the growth rates
considerably and,leads to an incorrect stress dependence. The

Fig.
As
H,
18
~m
strain
Needham (1983), and the
as given by
rates
are
cavity
Needham
and
with
h(~)
= 0.61.
In
the
given the experimental values reported by
spacing
is
estimated
cavity
densities. The cavity density varies from (0.5 to 2.5). 1011 /m 2 in the 1Cr- 1/ 2 Mo
steel investigated and is by a factor 2.5 smaller in the

11 2
representative
values we take 1/), 2
101m,
l.e.
from
reported
steel.
21/~Cr-1Mo
).
3.2
for
~m,
As
the
1Cr-1/2Mo steel ~nd 1/).2 = 0.5'10 11 /m 2 , i.e. ). = 4.5 ~m, for the 21/~Cr-1Mo
steel. With this choice of the parameters, the agreement with the experimental
data is good, but it should be kept in mind that Rand
tests
substantially'
whereas
the
calculation
average values. Nevertheless, the agreement of

with
Needham's
data
strongly
suggests
constrained under these test conditions.
that
was
the
).
varied
during
the
done using representative

constrained
diffusive
growth
growth
is
model
indeed
12.1
177
A similar conclusion is suggested by experiments on 21/~Cr-1Mo steel

by
Cane (1979). The material was austenized at
grain size of d
act
as
1300 0 C.
This gives an austenite
= 150 pm and produces fine sulfides on grain boundaries, which
cavity nucleation sites. The cavity spacing was typically A = 4.5 pm,
and the cavities observed had radii of typically R = 1.8 pm.

the
565 0C
at
cavity
growth
rate,
are
~,
plotted
The
results
for
Ale
as a
in Fig. 12.3 in the form
function of stress. For comparison, the prediction of
the
constrained
growth
model, eq. (12.4),
ru:
(12.8)
A were
inserted numerically. (Units are m, sand MPa). Strain rate and stress were
taken from plots given by Cane (1979). At low stresses, cavity growth is
constrained
and
proceeds much slower than would be predicted by the
unconstrained diffusive growth model, which is represented by the dashed line.
Between 100 and 200 MPa a transition to unconstrained growth occurs, which
means a decrease in HI: since now diffusion becomes rate controlling. The
constrained growth model agrees with the measurements of Cane to within a
factor 2.3, which is satisfactory, while the unconstrained model exhibits a
totally wrong behavior at low stresses.
is also plotted, where the material parameters, as well as
In a later paper, Cane (1981) investigates cavity growth in

of the same steel.
For his
notch geometry is
150
a;la;
d,
R and
notched
specimens
= 2 so that, according to
\ unconstrai
E 100
(.onstrained \
:::t
.5;
.~
'0:::
50f----
Cane(exp
\
~
o~~~--~--~~
60
100
150
200
UinMPa ---
Fig. 12.3. Cavity growth rate in over-heated 2 1/.Cr-1Mo steel at 565 0 C

measured by Cane (1979). Constrained and unconstrained growth rates
from eqs. (12.4) and (11.14), respectively.
12.
178
Constrained Diffusive Cavitatior
the constrained growth model, eq. (12.4), the growth rate
is
expected
to
a;.
twice that of the uniaxial tension tests for the same value of
presents only four measurements on notched specimens. On the average,
data
lie
by
factor
1.5
above
the
data
bE
CanE
thesE
for uniaxial tension, which iE
reasonably close to the expected factor 2.

Finally, the constrained growth model is compared with data on Type 347
less
steel
measured
sults. The theoretical curves were computed using the grain boundary
coefficients
diffusion
given by Needham and Gladman, which agree with those reported for
other stainless steels and for Y-iron by Frost and Ashby (1982) and
given
stain-
by Needham and Gladman (1980). Figure 12.4 shows the re-
in Appendix A. The cavity radius was chosen as R
spacing as A = 6.3
~m,
0.6
been obtained in this range. The grain size is reported as d
are
and the cavity
~m
since the bulk of the experimental data
which
seems
12
~m.
to
have
The creep
rate can be described by = 2.10-35 all at 550 0 C and by E = 4.3.10-26 0 8 1 at

650 oC, where time is in seconds and stress in MPa. Again the expression
q(w)h(~)
was approximated by 2.
It is apparent from Fig. 12.4 that the constrained growth
model
overestimates
the growth rates in this case. However, the theoretical result is sensitive
10-
to
347 stainless steel
-I--
10- 17
I.
--f-~
650C
.s:
00:: 10-12
10-13
100
7
150
/.;
.I
200
(J
/
b 55OC
300
400
in MPa - -
Fig. 12.4. Cavity growth rates in rype 347 stainless steel, from Needham and
Gladman (1980). Solid lines: eq. (12.4). Dashed lines: Completely constrained
and unconstrained limits. Dashed-dotted line: Plastic hole growth mechanism.
12.1
179
the choice of R and A, and it is not exactly clear for which values of R and
Needham
and
Gladman
(1980)
give
their
experimental
A
growth rates. If, for
example, the theoretical curves had been plotted for A = 3 urn

they
and
0.8 urn,
would have approximated the experimental data closely. The calculation of
lifetimes does not involve these uncertainties and the agreement of theory
experiment
is
and
good, if continuous cavity nucleation is taken into account, as
will be shown in Chapter 16.

Figure 12.4 also shows the growth rate by the
mechanism
for
continuum
plastic
hole
growth
550 0 C (dashed-dotted line). The continuum hole growth mechanism
will be described in Chapter 14. This mechanism usually underestimates the

served
growth
rate
ob-
significantly and there are no uncertain parameters which
could account for the difference.

Mancuso and Li (1979) investigated the growth
under
of
methane
bubbles
nickel
the internal gas pressure and under an applied tensile stress. They show
that at high streSSes

diffusive
growth
the
model,
observed
eq.
growth
(11.14).
rates
are
compatible
qualitative
with
the
At lower stresses, the growth rate is
substantially less than predicted by the diffusive model. This

in
in
observation
is
agreement with the constrained growth model, eq. (12.4), but a
quantitative comparison cannot be made since the relevant creep
data
for
the
therefore
the
material used by Mancuso and Li are not available.

12.1.3
Additional remarks on constrained cavity growth rates
At very low stresses the

accommodation
of
the
deformation
cavity
power-law, dislocation creep.

viscous
flow
of
polycrystal,
and
volume,occur by diffusion creep rather than by

Diffusion
creep
can
be
described
as
linear
as in eqs. (1.4) and (1.5), at least on a scale greater than the
grain size. If this macroscopic description of diffusion creep is adopted, eqs.

(12.1) to (12.4) remain valid with n = 1 and with ~:/a: = ~ QoD b/(kTd 3 ), in
the range where Coble creep dominates.
A certain amount of cavity volume can also be accommodated elastically.
growth
progresses
Cavity
until
the stress on the boundary, ab , equals the sintering

stress, which we neglect here. For ab = 0, the elastic opening volume of a
penny-shaped crack is
(12.9)
12.
180
If (v/4)(d/A)2 cavities share this volume, their size-to-spacing ratio is

(12.10)
Greater
cavities
accommodation
v
0.3, h(tjI)
cannot
mechanism
=
be
accommodated
intervenes,
0.61, d/A
'"
10, aIlE
cavity
elastically,
growth
cavitation.
Nonlinear
strain-rate
viscous
which
relation
&~
is
sliding
is
grains
nonlinear
B(fa)n
sliding on
greater
other
0.17.
constrained
separated by freely sliding boundaries

viscous
also,
but
with
describes the grains.
If
stressl
grain
boundary
taken into account in this macroscopic way, the constrained cavity
growth rate retains its form given in eq. (12.4). Only the remote
is
no
where f is the stress enhancement factor de-
&= B~
scribed in Section 1.5.2 and
if
at this size. For
210 -4 ,eq. (12.10) gives 2RIA
A third remark refers to the effect of grain boundary

constitute a solid
and
stops
by
factor
fn
than
it
is
strain
rate
for non-sliding grain boundaries.
According to Rice (1981), who uses a different argument, grain boundary sliding
should enhance the volume growth rate of a penny-shaped crack by a factor of
about two. This is consistent with the estimate based on the stress enhancement
factor. It should be noted that for closely spaced as opposed to isolated cavitating facets, the effect of grain
(Section
12.6.3).
Also,
if
boundary
sliding
is
very
much
only a compressive transverse stress,
a;
stronger
< 0, is
applied, sliding plays a special role to be discussed in Section 14.2.

Finally, we remark that also non-equilibrium, crack-like cavity
growth,
which
was described in Section 11.2, may be constrained under certain conditions. The
volume growth rate of the facet for crack-like growth is
still
given
by eq.
(12.1), so that eq. (12.3) for ab remains valid, but now the stress at the tip
of the cavities, ao ' becomes dependent on the cavity growth rate. The further
analysis is complicated unless it is confined to the case where ao can be
negelected. This corresponds to the limiting range in which the
rate
increases
with
the
cavity
growth
power of stress. If ab is substituted from eq.

(12.3) with ao 0 into eq. (11.47), there results a cavity growth rate which
varies as A &3/2 a3n/2 in the constrained limit, and which exhibits the
3/2
transition to unconstrained crack-like growth at the characteristic strain rate

given in eq. (12.6).
12.2
Time to Cavity Coalescence
181
12.2 The TIme to Cavity Coalescence on an Isolated Boundary Facet

If cavity nucleation occurs early
coalescence,
tc'
can
be
in
the
creep
life,
the
time
to
cavity
obtained by integrating the growth law, eq. (12.4),
from time t = 0, when R = Ro' to t = t c ' when R = A/2 (cavity coalescence). If

is neglected, time integration of eq. (12.4) is elementary by separation of
0
the variables Rand t. If the radius at nucleation, Ro'
is
neglected
against
the cavity spaCing, A, there results

(12.11)
The first term represents the time to coalescence in the absence

straint,
of
the
con-
i.e. for diffusion being rate controlling. The second term represents
the constraint, and leads to greatly prolonged times to
coalescence
at
small
strain rates. At first sight, this seems to provide the desired explanation for
the prolonged rupture lifetimes of commercial alloys compared to
calculated
from
the
lifetime
unconstrained diffusive growth. However, an interpretation of
tc as the rupture time is incorrect, as the following section shows.
12.3 On the Irrelevance of Constrained Cavity Growth

for Rupture Lifetimes
In the previous literature, the time
identified
with
the
time
to
cavity
coalescence
has
often
been
to rupture. This assumption implies that, once the
cavities have coalesced thus forming grain-size microcracks, rupture occurs
by
some fast mechanism which joins the microcracks.

In the unconstrained limit, this assumption is not unreasonable. The cavitating
facets retain their strength, i.e. they transmit the full applied stress, up to
the point of cavity coalescence. Therefore the final joining of the
facet-size
microcracks will only commence after coalescence has occurred. In this case,
the time to cavity cOqlescence can be expected to control the lifetime, if the
additional time which is required for the joining of the facet-size microcracks
is small.
In the constrained limit, however, the situation is different as Riedel (1985c)
pointed
out.
Constrained cavity growth necessarily implies that the stress on
the cavitating boundary facet is relaxed to the level of the
sintering
stress
12.
182
which
is
often
negligible.
In
other
cavitation behaves mechanically like a

although
metallographically
words, a facet undergoing constrained

practically
traction-free
microcrack,
it may still look like a boundary which is barely
cavitated. It appears logical that the mechanism which leads to final

whatever
its
nature might be, will respond to the loss of mechanical strength
of the facet rather than to cavity coalescence on the

crystalline
failure,
constraint
may
facet.
Thus
the
poly-
well retard cavity growth, but once this happens,
further cavity growth and coalescence is irrelevant for
the
rupture
process.
The constrained growth model does not lend itself to the calculation of rupture
lifetimes. Rather, one is led to the conclusion that, in the constrained limit,
it
must be the joining process of the cavitating facets which is rate-control-
ling for the rupture lifetime, possibly together with the continuous nucleation
of
new
cavities.
Interaction
effects between the facets will playa central
role for the joining process. Lifetime estimates based on
this
idea
will
be
developed in Section 12.7.

Although the time to cavity coalescence is not obviously related to the rupture
lifetime, it will be found in the next section that the value calculated for tc
agrees well with the measured lifetimes of pre-cavitated materials.
12.4 Comparison of Calculated TImes to Cavity Coalescence on

Isolated Facets with Measured Rupture Lifetimes
of Pre-Cavitated Materials
12.4.1
Rupture lifetime of prestrained Nimonic 80A
Figure 12.5 shows rupture lifetimes measured by Dyson
and
Rodgers
(1977)
on
Nimonic 80A at 750 0 C. The material had intentionally been pre-cavitated by prestraining at room temperature followed by a suitable
high-temperature
anneal.
This treatment provides a uniform density of small grain boundary cavitie! from
the beginning of the creep test with a cavity spacing of
A = 1.5
~m.
The
ex-
perimental results are compared with the time to cavity coalescence calculated
from eq. (12.11). The following parameters were used: = 2.10- 17 0 4 2 (in MPa
3
and sec), 6D bo = 10 -14 mis,
Qb ~ 170 kJ/mole, d = 50~m, A - 1.5~m (from Dyson,
1979) and h(~) = 0.61. Note that the grain boundary diffusion coefficient deviates
from
that of pure nickel given in Appendix A. The dashed lines in Fig.
12.5 represent the limits of fully constrained and

viously
the
unconstrained
growth.
Ob-
data points fall within the range of constrained growth and agree
well with the theoretical curve.
12.4
Comparison with Measured Lifetimes
183
Nirnonic 80 A
750C
70 6
eq. (12.11)
70 5
-..:::::-..:::::
II)
s.....
70~
......
unconstrained
10 3
700
750
"
"""""- ""--
200
(J
""-
------~
in MPa
300
1,00 500 600
--
Fig. 12.5. Rupture lifetime of pre-cavitated Nimonic 80A

measured by Dyson and Rodgers (1977).
Dyson and Rodgers (1974) varied the cavity spaCing by applying varying
amounts
of prestrain at room temperature. Dyson (1979) evaluated the results and showed
that the strain to failure, E f , increases in proportion to the cavity spacing.
This is predicted by the constrained growth model, but not by other models.
12.4.2
Rupture lifetime of prestrained Inconel alloy X-750
Pandey, Mukherjee and Taplin (1984) measured rupture lifetimes

specimens
ing amounts of room-temperature prestrain gave

strain-induced
prestrained
decreasing
bracketed
spacing
of
the
cavities. Figure 12.6 shows the rupture lifetimes as a function
of cavity spacing. The data pOint for material which had not
is
of
of Inconel alloy X-750 at a stress of 400 MPa and at 700 oC. Increas-
been
prestrained
since this material failed by plastic instability rather than by
cavity coalescence. The solid line represents the time to coalescence calculated
from eq. (12.11) in the constrained limit. In this case, the first term can
be neglected. The second term of eq. (12.11) can be
approximately
written
as
t f = 0.32(A/d)/E.
The grain size is d = 160~m in this material and the minim~

creep rate is E = 7'10- 9 /s at 400 MPa, practically independent of prestrain. As
Fig.
12.6 shows, the model overestimates the rupture life by a factor two, but
the linear dependence on cavity spacing is qualitatively confirmed.
184
12.
..c:
(.)
300
0%
250
200
L /
3% prestrain
..? 5%
.!; T50
........
TOO
Inconel
~ 744%
50
9.5%
X-750,700e
0
0
cavity spacing
Ain I'm
TO
Fig. 12.6. Rupture lifetime of Inconel X-750. Various degrees of

prestraln give different spacings of pre-existing cavities.
Data from Pandey et al (1984). Solid line: eq. (12.11).
12.4.3
Rupture time of a-brass with implanted water vapor bubbles
Svensson and Dunlop (1981, 1982) have reported results of creep rupture tests
on a-brass at 700K (427 oC). Before the creep test, the material was given a
heat treatment which produced a distribution
typical diameters of 2R
0.3
~m
of
water
and a spacing of A = 6
vapor
~m
bubbles
having
in grain boundaries.
ct.-brass
T07
700K
10 6
I/)
.5::
........ 105
10'
10
20
40
fJ
uinMPa - -
Fig. 12.7. Rupture time of a-brass with implanted water vapor bubbles, from
Svensson and Dunlop (1981). Dashed lines: Unconstrained limit, eq. (11.18).
(After Riedel, 1985c).
12.4
185
Comparison with Measured Lifetimes
About 20% of the grain boundaries were cavitated. Some creep tests were
rupted
and
inter-
the specimens were sectioned in order to investigate the evolution
of the bubbles. Other specimens were crept to rupture giving the rupture
shown
times
in Fig. 12.7. Since the number of bubbles, or cavities was constant dur-
ing the tests, the lifetime should be given by eq. (12.11). All relevant material
parameters
and the strain rate are given by Svensson and Dunlop (1982) so
that eq. (12.11) can be evaluated. The result is

Svensson
and
shown
in
Fig.
Dunlop (1982) give void tip half angles, ~, between
both angles are inserted. Obviously the constrained model
12.7.
350
describes
Since
and 500
the
data
very well except at the highest stress, a = 63.7 MPa. The unconstrained diffus-
ive growth model leads to the dashed lines in Fig.
12.7,
which
underestimate
the rupture lifetime significantly at lower stresses.
12.5 Constitutive Behavior of Creeping Materials Containing Widely

Spaced Cavitating Grain Boundary Facets
Our primary interest so far has been to determine
function
of
the
cavities influences
called
the
applied
stress
the
macroscopic
and
growth
be
is
extended
which
response,
which
is
boundary
cavitation
is
described.
The
based on a theory proposed by Hutchinson (1983), which is valid

to
higher
dena
es
of
12.6,
the
theory
facets using Simple arguments of
self-consistency. This is a first approach to deal with

ions,
as
strain rate. Conversely, the growth of

stress/strain-rate
for a dilute concentration of cavitating facets. In Section
will
rates
constitutive behavior. In the following, the constitutive behavior
of solids undergoing diffusive grain

discussion
cavity
facet-facet
interact-
will control the final rupture process. Other constitutive models
are those of Harris, Tucker and Greenwood (1974), Skelton (1975), Crossland and
Harris (1979), Beere (1980a, 1981) and Raj (1983).
12.5.1
The constrained limit (Hutchinson's model)
In the limit of accommodation-controlled cavitation, the normal stress

cavitating
facets
has
dropped
to
the
order
on
the
of magnitude of the sintering
stress. Thus, if the small sintering stress is neglected, the cavitating facets
can
be considered as microcracks with traction-free crack surfaces. The effect
of microcracks on the overall moduli of elastic bodies
has
been
investigated
extenSively in the past (see, e.g., Mura, 1982, Horii and Nemat-Nasser, 1983).
186
12.
The constitutive behavior of nonlinear viscous solids

microcracks
has
been
studied
by
Hutchinson
containing
(1983).
He
penny-shaped
assumes
that the
cavitating facets are well separated from one another, so that interactions can
be neglected, and that they are aligned normal to the principal tensile stress,
or. For a matrix material obeying Norton's power law, eq. (3.6), Hutchinson
derives the following macroscopic stress/strain rate relation for the material
containing a dilute concentration of microcracks:
0i'J
p_
+ __
n+l
[( n-1) 0l!j ( -r)2 + -3

4 or m.. J}
0e
lJ
( 12.12)
The tensor mij is defined such that its components in the co-ordinate system of
the prinCipal axes of stress are zero except in the maximum pricipal stress
direction where mr = 1. The term containing the factor
the
microcracks
to the overall strain rate;
is the contribution of
is a measure for the density of
the microcracks and is defined by:

p
(1/2) d3 N (n+1) (1+3/n)-112,

mc
(12.13)
where d is the diameter of the microcracks and Nmc is the number of microcracks
per unit volume.
According to eq. (12.12), the presence
of
the
microcracks
adds
dilatant
component to the strain rate (the second term in brackets), but the response to
deviatoric stresses is also modified (the first
term
in
brackets',
and
the
latter modification is often the more important one.

For the following discussion, it suffices to consider Hutchinson's constitutive
model for uniaxial tension in which case eq. (12.12) reduces to
( 12.14)
Here,
is the steady-state strain rate which would prevail in the absence
the microcracks, s
12.5.2
Bon.
The unconstrained limit
Outside the constrained limit, cavitating grain boundaries

tensile
of
stress,
0b'
which
was
given
in
eq. (12.3).
transmit
finite
Hutchinson's
(1983)
12.5
Constitutive Behavior
187
constitutive model, which was originally developed for ab = 0, can be extended

to finite ab by replacing the maximum principal stress, aI' by aI-abo The unconstrained limit implies that ab + aI' so that [(aI-ab)la e ]2 can be neglected
compared to (aI-ab)la e Inserting ab from eq. (12.3) into eq. (12.12) and
taking the unconstrained limit leads to the constitutive law
( 12.15)
which is valid in the unconstrained limit, i.e.

tension, this reduces to
for
oD b
small
In
uniaxial
(12.16)
where, additionally, the sintering stress, ao ' was neglected, and p was replaced by the volume density of cavitating facets, Nmc ' according to eq. (12.13).
The result given in eqs. (12.15)
additional
extensional
and
(12.16)
above
simply
growth rate of the cavities contained in the unit volume of

constrained
limit
means
that
the
strain rate due to the cavities is given by the volume

material.
In
the
this was not so: the presence of the cavitating facets also
affected the deviatoric response of the material.

12.5.3
The effect of cavitation on diffusion creep
To explore the effect of cavitation on the rate of diffusion creep, we model

cavitating
grain boundary facet as a penny-shaped crack embedded in a linearly
viscous continuum.
continuum
T~is
process
ignores
the
fact
that
diffusion
creep
advantage
not
this
has
that diffusion creep becomes a special case of power-law creep,
and the constitutive equations for cavitating solids

preceding
is
on the size scale of single grain facets. If, nevertheless,
the continuum-mechanical description is adopted as an approximation,

the
sections.
Whereever
can
be
taken
from
the
the stress exponent, n, appears it must be set
equal to unity, while B is replaced by ~noDb/(kTd3) according
to
eq.
(1.5).
Equation (12.12) then becomes

(12.17)
12.
188
Apparently, the effect of cavitation on linearly viscous

augment
the
creep
is
simply
to
extensional strain rate by the volume growth rate of the cavities
contained in the unit volume of material. In eq. (12.17) above,
0b
is
under-
stood to be given by eq. (12.3) with n = 1, and p is defined in eq. (12.13).
12.6 Interaction Between Closely Spaced Cavitating Boundary Facets

If cavitating facets are relatively closely spaced, such that
from
one
their
distances
another are comparable to, or not much greater than, their diameter,
then the creep flow fields around the facets start to interact. In general, the
interaction
will
enhance
cavity
growth. The interaction can be viewed, very
roughly, as a consequence of the reduction of the load carrying area by
cavit-
ating facets, which, as we have seen, behave like microcracks in the constrained limit. Such a net-sect ion-stress argument, however, does not lend itself
to
a quantitative description of interaction effects. As the results derived below

indicate, a net-sect ion-stress argument overestimates the
substantially.
It
will
also
interaction
effects
be found that the importance of the interaction
effects depends greatly on whether or not the grain boundaries between the cavitating
facets
can
slide.
As an extreme example, consider a two-dimensional
hexagonal array of grains as shown earlier in Fig. 7.4. If in such a configuration,
all boundaries that are inclined to the tensile axis slide freely, while
all normal boundaries cavitate, it is obvious that there exists

on
no
constraint
cavitation since the volume increase of the cavitating facets can be accom-
modated by grain boundary

models,
sliding
alone.
More
realistic,
three-dimensional
however, exhibit a polycrystalline constraint even if grain boundaries
slide freely. Such models are described in Section 12.6.3.

12.6.1
Self-consistent models for constrained cavitation
An approximate way of including interaction effects is the well-known self-consistent method, which is applied here to the constrained limit, i.e. the cavitating boundary
crack
is
f~cets
analyzed
are idealized as penny-shaped
microcracks.
An
isolated
as in Hutchinson's (1983) model (Section 12.5.1). The sur-
rounding material, however, is not given the properties of the parent material,
but is described by the as yet unknown constitutive law of the solid containing
a not necessarily dilute concentration of microcracks. From the
deformation
field,
the
so
calculated
contribution of the crack to the overall displacement
rate can be obtained. Finally, the self-consistent argument is
closed
by
re-
12.6
Interaction Between Facets
Quiring
that
this
189
overall material response must be identical to that of the
cracked material assumed initially.

The self-consistent method is applied
now
in
way
which
is
not
exactly
correct. We ignore that the presence of microcracks introduces a dilatancy into

the overall material response and additionally an anisotropy since
are
the
cracks
aligned in Hutchinson's model. This means to describe the cracked material
as an incompressible, isotropic von Mises solid, which

cracked
parent
material
differs
from
the
un-
only by the coefficient B in Norton's creep law. The
self-consistency argument then implies that the contribution of the microcracks
PE
to the uniaxial strain rate is
instead of
PE s ,
E is
where
the overall strain
rate of the cracked material. With this substitution, eq. (12.14) resolved
for
~ takes the self-consistent form:
(12.18)
e:
For small p, eq. (12.18) reduces to the dilute limit, eq.

increasing
p,
(12.14),
cracked
mat"erial
described as an incompressible von Mises solid. The accuracy of eq. (12.18)
can be
assessed
(1984a,b)
p
for
eq. (12.18) can only be an approximation, since self-consistent
methods are necessarily approximate and, moreover, since the

is
while
has
by
comparing
carried
out
for
with
numeric
periodic
calculations,
arrays
of
which
cracks.
Tvergaard
For n
5 and
0.38, Tvergaard (1984b) reports a macroscopic strain rate which exceeds the
value predicted by eq. (12.18) by only 1%.

An alternative self-consistent approach is the differential scheme described by
McLaughlin
(1977)
and
by Duva (1984). If again the simplifying assumption is
made that the cracked material is an isotropic von Mises solid, one
from
the
can
start
uniaxial form of the material law for the dilute limit, eq. (12.14).
Differentiating eq. (12.14) with respect to p leads to

( 12.19)
If an increment in crack density, op, is added to an already
characterized
by a density p and a strain rate
E,
must have the form of eq.
(12.19) but with e:

s
substitution and with the boundary condition that
of eq. (12.19) yields the macroscopic strain rate
cracked
material
the increment in strain rate

replaced
E=
E.
by
for p
With
this
0, integration
12.
190
(12.20)
Beere (1980a) USing a different
method
analyzes
configuration of square
grains with all normal boundaries cavitating, i.e. with Nmc d 3 = 1. His result
(12.21)
is nearly identical with eq. (12.20). For n = 5, eq. (12.21) predicts that
the
strain rate is enhanced by a factor 12.6 due to cavitation .

The transverse strain rate,
from
ET,
occurring in a tensile test can
be
calculated
the condition that the trace of the strain rate tensor equals the rate of
relative volume increase, ~/V:

(12.22)
Inserting ~f from eq. (12.2) using the strain rate of the
gives
cavitating
material
(12.23)
The second term in the brackets accounts for the dilatancy
of
the
cavitating
material.
12.6.2
The penny-shaped crack in a finite cylinder
Cavitating facets are again idealized as penny-shaped microcracks. For

ience,
only
th~
completely
constrained
conven-
limit, 0b = 0, is considered. As an
approximate model for a distribution of cracks with an average center-to-center

spacing
A we consider a penny-shaped crack having diameter d and lying in the
center of a circular cylinder of finite

analyzed
diameter
A.
This
configuration
was
by He and Hutchinson (1983) numerically. Their results for the volume
growth rate of the crack can be approximated to within better than 10% by:
Vf
(facet in finite cylinder)
~f
(facet in infinite body)
exp [0.59 (n+1) (1+3/n)-1/2 (d/A)2j. (12.24)
The form of this approximation formula was

differential
self-consistent
scheme,
eq.
motivated
by
the
result
(12.20). The expression
of
(d/A)2
the
was
12.6
191
Interaction Between Facets
chosen instead of d 3Nmc ,since it is expected that

cylinder is a model for a co-planar array of
the crack in a finite

cracks rather than for a
three-dimensional array of cracks. The numerical factor 0.59 results from a fit
of the formula to the numerical results.
Numerically, the enhancement factor for the volume growth rate of the facet due
to
interaction effects is moderate. From He's and Hutchinson's (1983) results,
which are approximated by eq. (12.24), one obtains enhancement factors of 1.14,
1.45,
1.97
and
4.47 for n
1, 3, 5 and 10, respectively, and for d/A
i.e. for closely spaced facets. A net-sect ion-stress
argument
would
lead
1/2,
to
substantially greater enhancement factors. It is therefore considered to be an

inappropriate argument.
12.6.3
Interactions between closely spaced facets in the presence of grain

boundary sliding
Anderson and Rice (1985) consider the regular, three-dimensional

of
configuration
grains shown in Fig. 12.8. The grain boundaries are assumed to slide freely
and all boundaries which are normal to the maximum prinCipal
stress
cavitate.
The crack density in this configuration is Nmc d 3 = 0.5. The grains are modeled
as nonlinear viscous as described by eq. (3.6), which reduces to = Ban in
uniaxial
tension.
Based on a variational prinCiple, Anderson and Rice develop
the following approximation formulas for the volume growth rate of a cavitating
facet and for the macroscopic extensional and transverse strain rates
Strain rate
stress u
Fig. 12.8. Grain structure considered by Anderson and Rice (1985). First
orientation: hexagonal facets H are perpendicular to the applied stress and
are cavitated. Second orientation: square facets S are perpendicular to stress
axis and are cavitated.
12.
192
. 3.1 n d3
. 3.34 . 3.1 n .
. - 0.23
Vf
3.4
(12.25)
ES
(12.26)
ES
(12.27)
E.
ET
Here, Es is the strain rate of the polycrystal with sliding grain boundaries,
but with no cavitation, i.e. ~ = B (fa)n. The stress-enhancement factor, f,
s
due to grain boundary sliding was defined in Section 1.5.2. (Anderson's and
Rice's model can also be applied to the case of sliding boundaries with no cavitation giving f
with
the
1.3 1.25 1/n ). It is interesting
corresponding
expression
for
to
compare
eq.
(12.25)
the isolated facet, eq. (12.2). From
this, the enhancement factor due to interaction effects is found to be
Vf
(closely spaced facets)
Vf
(isolated facet)
(12.28)
For n = 5, the interaction enhancement

greater
factor
is
now
1228,
which
is
much
than the interaction enhancement factor for no grain boundary sliding,
which is about 2 according to eq. (12.24).

Anderson and Rice (1985) analyze the configuration shown in Fig. 12.8 also
an
orientation
in
which
the
facets) cavitate and are aligned normal to the stress axis.

ration,
N
mc
d3
the
crack
density
for
square grain facets (rather than the hexagonal

is
smaller
than
in
the
In
this
first
configu-
case,
viz.
0.125. Instead of eqs. (12.25) to (12.27) the result is now:
Vf
E
ET
. 1.7n 3 .
.
= 1.68 . 1.7 n
.
- 0.39
2.9
(12.29)
ES
(12.30)
ES
(12.31)
E.
The stress-enhancement factor due to grain boundary sliding
for
uration
is
not
reported by Anderson and Rice except for n
From eqs. (12.29) and (12.2) the

obtained as 52 if n = 5.
interaction
enhancement
this
config-
1 where f = 2.9.
factor
for
~f
is
12.7
193
12.7 TIme to Rupture for Interacting Facets

There is no obvious fracture criterion available which terminates
the
opening
of the facet-size microcracks and leads to final failure. Cavity coalescence on

the facets has already been ruled out as a feasible criterion in Section
Other
possibilities
will
12.3.
be examined in the following sections. Their common
feature is that they all lead to a stress-independent Monkman-Grant product. In

Section
12.7.1,
the plastic collapse of the cracked polycrystal at strains of
order unity is considered. Further, necking of the specimen combined

creasing
microcrack
damage
with
in-
may terminate the creep test (Sections 12.7.2 and
12.7.3). Finally, cavities can be nucleated on
inclined
boundaries
near
the
facet-size microcracks. The microcracks can then grow by coalescence with these
cavities, a process analogous to creep crack growth on a small scale.
an
application
However,
of the concepts of creep crack growth described in Part III to
the special situation at microcracks is still lacking.

12.7.1
Failure by large strains
When the opening of the facet-si 7o

spacing,
the
strength
min~n,~~nVQ
)~ycrysla~
honnmos
of the
order
of
oreaKS aown since the load-carrying
area vanishes; the microcracks link up to form a crack. In the case of

spaced
microcracks
such
as
in
criterion
closely
Fig. 12.8, the opening of the crack, 6, must
become of the order of the grain size, d, to achieve final

this
their
failure.
To
apply
to Anderson's and Rice's (1985) model (Section 12.6.3), we use
the geometrical relation Vf = (~/4) d 6 and require 6 = d. For the first configuration analyzed by Anderson and Rice, Vf is given by eq. (12.25) and
failure is found to occur at the following value of the Monkman-Grant product:
s f
= 0.23/3.1 n
( 12.32)
Recall that s is the strain rate of the uncavitated parent material
subjected
to the stress o. Equation (12.32) gives extremely small values for the MonkmanGrant product, e.g. Est f = 0.08% if n = 5. For the second configuration analyzed by Anderson and Rice (in which the square boundary facets cavitate), Vf is
given by eq. (12.29) and the Monkman-Grant product becomes 1.9% for n = 5.
Anderson and Rice (1985) have carried out their
analysis
within
small-strain
theory of deformation neglecting geometry changes. Hence, the gradual weakening

of the polycrystal as the contact area between grains becomes
smaller
is
not
12.
194
taken into account. This deficiency is avoided by Tvergaard (1985) who performs
a large-strain finite element analysis of an
cavitating
facet
is
aXisymmetric
conf"iguration.
The
modeled as a penny-shaped crack and the inclined, freely
sliding grain boundaries are conical surfaces through the crack front. A weakness
of this approach is that an axisymmetric model cannot accurately describe
a three-dimensional, more or less periodic array of cavitating facets. A creep

curve
computed by Tvergaard (1985) for uniaxial tension is shown in Fig. 12.9.
Up to strains of 40 to 80%, which corresponds to crack openings around 6

the
strain
rate
does
not
increase
beyond its initial value, i.e. geometry
changes do not reduce the strength of the

even
predicts
configuration
markedly
(the
within
model
small strengthening effect, i.e. a decreasing strain rate in
Fig. 12.9). At a certain strain, however, the structure starts to collaps

idly
d/2,
rap-
a short time, but with an additional increment of strain of 10 to
40%. Whereas the strain to fracture is rather large in Tvergaard's
model,
the
Monkman-Grant product calculated with the strain rate of the uncavitated material is relatively small. In the example shown in Fig. 12.9 is ~stf
12.7.2
6.6%.
Rupture lifetimes for continuous nucleation of caVitating facets
The number of grain boundary facets having relaxed normal stress is usually not
constant during a creep test. Lacking preCise information, we assume that their
number, increases in proportion to some power of strain
l.Or-----...,..------.----...........----,
a2
-----
O~~~~~------~--------~~
a02
aol,
a06
normalized time tst Fig. 12.9. Creep curve computed by Tvergaard (1985) for the axisymmetric
model shown in the insert. The dashed line characterizes creep of the
parent material with no grain boundary sliding and no cavitation.
12.7
or
195
a' Y
"
(12.33)
where p was defined in eq. (12.13). The dimensionless factor 6 and the exponent
Y reflect
the cavity nucleation kinetics; and 6' = (6/2) (n+1) (1+3/n)-1/2 is
an abbreviation. These parameters are related, albeit not uniquely, to the nucleation rate, a', of individual cavities which was introduced in Section 5.7.1.
The result of the
fracture
when
p =
self-consistent
model,
eq.
(12.18),
apparently
predicts
1. According to eq. (12.33), this condition is reached when
the strain reaches the critical value Ef = (1/6,)1/Y. By combining eqs. (12.18)
and (12.33), the creep curve for a solid with continuous cavity nucleation and
constrained growth can be determined. Integrating eq. (12.18) with eq.
inserted for constant
the form t = t(E):
(12.33)
ES ' i.e. for constant stress, gives the creep curve in
(12.34)
~ t
Figure 12.10 shows this result in the form E(t). The Monkman-Grant product is
Y
(12.35)
Y+1
Thus,
the critical strain and the
Monkman-Grant product are determined solely
0.12
t'
'S"
0.1
0.08
0.06
.!::
U)
00t.
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03 QOt.
normalized time
i, t
0.05
---
FIg. 12.10. Secondary and tertiary stages of the creep curve

according to eq. (12.34) for various sets of parameters.
12.
196
by the parameters
is
clear
that
and Y, which characterize cavity nucleation.
~'
the
described by a physical criterion such as cavity coalescence.

occurs
p
when
= 1.
the
Further,
it
occurrence of failure in the self-consistent model is not
denominator
Rather,
failure
in eq. (12.18) becomes equal to zero, i.e. when
Qualitatively, Fig. 12.10 describes tertiary creep of real materials.
The differential self-consistent

(12.20)
is
method
leads
to
combined with eq. (12.33), setting Y
similar
results.
If
eq.
1 for simplicity, the creep
curve is obtained as
In this model, rupture

tf
(~';s)-1,
the
occurs
when
+~.
The
rupture
time
is
given
by
strain to failure is infinite (i.e. necking will intervene
in practice), and the Monkman-Grant product is Est f = 1/~'.

12.7.3
The combined effects of necking and continuous nucleation
Hoff's (1953) analysis of necking which

extended
to
material
which
was
develops
(12.33) taking Y = 1 for simplicity. The

material
described
microcrack
in
Section
2.2.3
is
damage according to eq.
stress/strain-rate
response
of
the
is described by the differential self-consistent scheme, eq. (12.20).
Then the strain rate in uniaxial tension is:

(12.37)
where ES is the initial strain rate of the uncavitated material. Using the
factor (1 + E) implies that incompressibility is assumed. Since the material
develops dilatancy as p increases in
proportion
dilatancy
the
introduces
an
error
of
order
to E, the neglect of the

2 .
E
ES ln eq. (12.37). Since E
generally remains small over substantial fractions of the lifetime, this

appears
to
be
tolerable.
A proper
treatment
error
of the dilatancy renders the
analysis much more complicated.

Equation (12.37) can be integrated by separation of the
variables,
and
t,
giving the rupture lifetime, or the Monkman-Grant product as:

(12.38)
12.1
where En (8') is the exponential integral. Abramovitz

useful upper and lower bounds for En (8') such that
191
and
Stegun
(1968)
give
(12.39)
The upper bound is particularly simple illustrating how
necking
and
internal
microcrack damage combine to cause fracture. Recall that for necking alone, the
Monkman-Grant product is 1/n, while for internal damage alone, it is 1/8'.
12.8 Conclusions on Constrained Cavitation

1) Cavities in commercial materials grow at a rate which is compatible with the
constrained diffusive growth model.
2) Cavitating boundary facets behave like microcracks when
cavity
growth
be-
comes constrained. Therefore the further growth and coalescence of cavities,

after the constraint has become effective, are irrelevant
for
the
rupture
process.
3) Nevertheless, measured rupture lifetimes of pre-cavitated materials approximately agree with calculated times to cavity coalescence.
4) Despite this coincidence, other rate-controlling processes for
rupture
be-
sides cavity coalescence must be identified. Interactions between cavitating

facets are likely to play an important role in the failure process.
found
was
that interaction effects between closely spaced cavitating facets en-
hance constrained cavity growth rates by typically a

grain
It
factor
1.5
to
if
boundaries do not slide. Grain boundary sliding increases that factor
to values often greater than 100 the precise value depending strongly on the
stress
exponent
n and on the grain configuration analyzed. Increasing num-
bers of cavitating facets and their continuing opening,
sometimes
together
with necking, finally lead to a collapse of the polycrystal.

5) If it is true that the polycrystalline constraint is the cause for
observed
the
low
cavity growth rates, the number and size of cavities on cavitating
boundaries is not an appropriate measure for the state of damage in the material.
Rather the number of relaxed facets is important. For remaining life
assessments, one should attempt to determine this quantity experimentally.
13 Inhibited Cavity Growth
In this chapter, we explore the possibility that the low

observed
in
many
cavity- growth
alloys can be explained by an inhibition of stress-directed
diffusion, a phenomenon which is closely related to inhibited

(cf.
diffusion
creep
Sections 1.4 and 7.3.6). The inhibition of cavity growth may be caused by
the fact that vacancies which aggregate in the cavities are not
enough
rates
replaced
fast
by vacancy sources, as has been assumed so far. Second, experiments in-
dicate that high-melting particles in grain boundaries inhibit diffusion creep,

and may therefore also inhibit cavity growth. This is ascribed to a conjectured
difficulty to plate the diffusing atoms onto
the
particle/matrix
interfaces.
Both mechanisms will be treated by a common theory of inhibited cavity growth.
13.1 Inhibited Cavity Growth Rates

Ishida and McLean (1967) suggest that
cavity
growth,
as
well
the
vacancies
needed
in
of
the
grains
and
the boundary for a certain distance. Dislocation climb is associated
with the production (or annihilation) of vacancies.

thus
diffusional
as for diffusion creep, are produced by dislocations
which enter the grain boundaries during dislocation creep

climb
for
generated
The
number
of
vacancies
per unit time is assumed to be proportional to the strain rate
of the grains, ~. In terms of the thickening rate of the
grain
boundary,
un'
the maximum rate that can be maintained by this type of vacancy production is
u
(13.1)
and the volumetric and linear growth rates of a cavity that collects all vacancies from a grain boundary area A2 (A
2
V = A' A E.
cavity spacing) are

(13.2)
13.1
Inhibited Cavity Growth Rates
199
(13.3)
It remains to determine the constant of proportionality, A', which reflects the

nature
of
the vacancy production process. From models on a dislocation level,
Dyson (1979) concludes that A' should be

(1980b)
predicts
that
A'
should
of
order
grain
grain boundary. Since these microscopic models remain

prefer
to
relate
size,
while
Beere
scale with the spacing of particles in the

somewhat
ambiguous,
we
A'to the measured threshold stress for Coble creep, which
probably has the same microscopic origin as the inhibition of cavity growth
Free Coble creep is associated with a rate of grain boundary thickening, ~,

which is given by eq. (7.48). If that rate exceeds the rate allowed by vacancy
production, Coble creep starts to be inhibited. In analogy to Section 7.3.6, we
identify
the
threshold
stress for Coble creep, 0th' (although the inhibition

(13.1)
does not set-in discontinuously in this model) by equating un from eqs.

and (7.48). This gYves the desired expression for A' in terms of 0th:
(13.4)
AI
Here, the diffusion length,
~,
is calculated from
eq.
(4.17)
with
om = 0th.
Since 0th is nf the order of only 1 MPa, ~ is rather large, and A' is found to
be greater than the grain size in most cases.
If the inhibition of diffusion arises from the difficulty of plating atoms onto
the interface between high-melting particles and the matriX, and if the accommodation is achieved by power-law creep around the particles,
rate
is
the
displacement
given in eq.' (7.49). It has the same form as eq. (13.1), viz.
Iin
ex
e.
Hence, the above equations retain their validity. Further, the threshold stress
in eq. (13.4) above can be expressed by eq. (7.51), which gives:
AI
3 (~/4)2 (1 +3/n)-1 12 P/w~
= 1.5 p/w~
The stress range in which diffusive cavity growth is inhibited is

equating
the
free
diffusive
growth
(13.5)
obtained
by
rate, eq. (11.11), with the growth rate
allowed by vacancy production, eq. (13.2). This leads to a transition stress
(13.6)
200
13.
The sintering stress is neglected here and A' is
Inhibited Cavity Growth
expressed
by
the
threshold
stress through eq. (13.4). Taking ot = 50, w = 0.2, d/A = 10, Gth = 1.3 MPa and
n = 5, the stress at which cavity growth becomes inhibited is found to be
3 MPa.
Below that stress, growth rates are inhibited and they are proportional
to strain rate as in eqs. (13.2) and (13.3),

diffusive
growth
prevails
as
while
above
that
stress,
free
described by eqs. (11.11) and (11.14). If this
example is typical, the inhibition plays no role in most creep rupture tests.
13.2 Time to Cavity Coalescence and Time to Rupture

for Inhibited Growth
If all cavities are present from the beginning of the test, the time to
coalescence, t c ' is obtained by integrating eq. (1303) from R
0 to R
cavity
=
A/2:
(13.7)
Here it was assumed that rupture occurs once the cavities have
coalesced.
The
result exhibits the desired property that the Monkman-Grant product, ~tf' is
independent of stress.
Equation (13.7) is similar to the result of the constrained growth
model
[the
second term of eq. (12.11)]. The main difference is that eq. (13.7) contains A'
instead of the gr'ain size d. Since eq. (13.4) showed that A' is generally greater than d, we conclude that inhibited growth gives much shorter lifetimes than
does constrained growth. On the other hand, it was demonstrated in Section 12.4
that
eq.
(12.11) describes measured lifetimes approximately correctly. Hence,
the inhibited model will generally underestimate rupture lifetimes.

Despite the similarities between constrained and inhibited cavity growth
and
times
to
coalescence,
there
are
also
important
differences.
constrained growth, the stress on cavitating grain boundaries
is
rates
During
relaxed
but
this is not so during inhibited growth. Therefore the argument that constrained
growth cannot control the rupture lifetime (Section 12.3) does not
apply
to
inhibited
growth.
Another
difference
is
that
cavity
analogously
growth in
bicrystal specimens should not be constrained, whereas the inhibition should be

equally
effective in bicrystals and in polycrystals. Hence, the observation of
Raj (1978a) that cavity growth in copper bicrystals obeys
the
free
diffusive
growth law, while growth is greatly retarded in polycrystals, supports the constrained growth model, but is not explicable by the inhibited growth model.
14 Cavity Growth by Creep Flow of the Grains

or by Grain Boundary Sliding
Dimpled fracture at room temperature generally occurs by the initiation, growth

and
coalescence
of
voids at second-phase inclusions in the grains. The holes
grow by plastic flow of the surrounding matrix. Hancock

creep
cavities
(1976)
proposed
an idea is attractive at first sight since strain-controlled cavity

expected
to
lead
products
growth
is
to a stress-independent Monkman-Grant product. It will turn
out, however, that the plastic hole growth mechanism gives too
Grant
that
on grain boundaries could grow analogously by creep flow. Such
compared
to
measured
large
Monkman-
values. Nevertheless, the mechanism is
described in Section 14.1 below. In Section 14.2, a cavity growth mechanism
by
grain boundary sliding, which seems to have some relevance in metals with easily sliding boundaries, will be presented.
14.1 Hole Growth by Creep Flow of the Grains

To begin with, we consider an isolated hole in an infinite block
viscous
material
obeying
eq.
(3.6),
which
reduces
to ~
of
nonlinear
Bon in uniaxial
tension. Interaction effects between the voids will be analyzed later.

As a special case of a void growing in viscous material, the penny-shaped crack
was
analyzed
in
connection with constrained cavity growth. The volume growth
rate was given in eq. (12.2), which is a special case of eq. (14.1)
below.
In
fact, the volume growth rate of arbitrarily shaped voids in homogeneous stress
and strain-rate fields, for reasons of dimensional consistency, must have the
form:
~
A (411/3)
.CX>
R3 e
( 14.1)
Here, e is the equivalent tensile strain rate at large distances from the
void, R is the void radius as defined in Fig. 11.1, the factor 411/3 was intro-
202
14.
Cavity Growth by Creep Flow or Sliding
duced for convenience, since for spherical cavities

volume,
V,
and
(4~/3) R3
is
the
cavity
A is a dimensionless factor which depends on the current void
shape and on the ratios between the stress components. There are,
in
general,
five independent ratios for six independent stress components.

These dependencies are described in the following sections for various
cases.
The
aspect
of
solutions for the linearly viscous case are discussed.

closed-form
solution
special
the void shape is brought out in Section 14.1.1, where

In
Section
14.1.2,
for a two-dimensional void geometry is worked out, which
illustrates the effect of the stress exponent n. In Section 14.1.3, results for
spherical
voids
embedded
in nonlinear material and subjected to axisymmetric
stress fields are reported and compared with solutions for penny-shaped cracks.
Finally, in Section 14.1.5, a few remarks on void interaction effects are made.
The reader who is only interested in the void growth rate for the
rupture tests
usual
creep
under uniaxial tension is advised to proceed to the result given
in eq. (14.18) and the subsequent discussion. The results for triaxial
loading
of spherical voids and cracks are summarized in eqs. (14.17) and (12.2), and in
Fig. 14.1.
The shape of the voids is determined by the
growth
process
itself
and
surface
competition
diffusion.
maintain the equilibrium, lenticular void shape
between
Surface
the
diffusion
conserving
the
void
plastic
tends to
volume,
whereas creep flow leads to other void shapes and generally changes the volume.
Apparently, equiLibrium shapes will predominate for slowly growing
coupled
problem
of
plastic
void
growth
and
voids.
The
simultaneous shape changes by
surface diffusion will not be investigated, since it turns out
that
the
void
shape either has no great influence on the growth rate (as in uniaxial tension)
or that plastic flow does not lead to severe deviations
from
the
equilibrium
shape (as in the high triaxiality limit where growing voids remain approximately spherical).
14.1.1
The growth of isolated holes in linearly viscous materials
A comprehensive analysis of void growth in linearly viscous material

carried
out
has
been
by Budiansky, Hutchinson and Slutsky (1982). Exploiting the visc-
ous/elastic analogy, they apply Eshelby's (1957) solutions for the
deformation
fields around ellipsoidal voids in infinite elastic bodies. An important result

of Eshelby's analysis is that an ellipsoidal void in linear
material,
if
de-
14.1
formed
203
Hole Growth by Creep Flow
in a remotely uniform, but otherwise arbitrary stress field, retains an
ellipsoidal shape. However, the axes of the ellipsoid may rotate and
extend
at
different
rates.
This
implies
they
may
that the general solution for the
ellipsoid applies throughout the whole void growth history.

Budiansky et al (1982) consider the special case of a
spheroid
under
axisym-
metric loading with a~ being the tensile stress and a; being the transverse
stress as in Fig. 12.1. The remote strain rates are related to the stresses
-2E; =
through E~ =
described by
B (a~ - a;)
E; =
and
IE~I. The surface of the spheroid is
(14.2)
where R1 and R are the semi-axes in
the
tensile
and
transverse
directions,
respectively, and wand r are coordinates in these directions. The aspect ratio
of the spheroid is defined as A = R1 /R, i.e. A = 1 corresponds to a sphere.
The principal results for the volumetric void growth rate
change as expressed by
--=
Aare
and
for
the
(3/2) (a:la"") (2A2 +1) + 1 - A2
~"" V
2A2
shape
(14.3)
+ 1'>( 1-A2 )
(14.4)
where a:
tion for a""
(a;
2a;)/3 is the mean (or hydrostatic) stress, a is an abbreviaI a""I = ae'" , and I'> is defined as
"" i.e.
ar"" - aT'
if A <
I'>
if A
Because of the symmetFY of the void shape and

rotation
of
of
the
(14.5)
> 1.
loading
conditions
no
the void axes occurs. Note that eq. (14.3) is compatible with the
general form of eq. (14.1) with A being given by the
right-hand
side
of
eq.
(14.3)
and
(14.3) multiplied by A.
For a momentarily spherical void is A
(14.4) reduce to
1 and
I'>
= 2/3. Hence eqs.
14.
204
90:
40
ce V
...
...
...
01 + 20;
3
II
....
( 5/2) c
(14.6)
...
01 - T
(14.7)
Hydrostatic tension or compression is
degenerate
case
ce = O. The result for the spherical void then becomes
VIV
since
A=
0 and
(14.8)
(9/4) B
The limiting case of a penny-shaped crack corresponds to A
O. In
0, Il
this
case, eq. (14.3) gives

~.
v
[ c...e
(41[R3
13) ]
...
= ( 3 0...1 /1[0),
which agrees with eq. (12.2). For uniaxial tension

which
is
by
in
this
specializes
to
3/1[,
factor 4/1[ larger than the growth rate of a sphere having the
same radius Ceq. (14.6) with 0:/0'" = 113 for

that
(14.9)
uniaxial
uniaxial
tension].
We
conclude
tension the aspect ratio has no great influence on the void

V/[E; (41[R 3 /3)]. For hydrostatic tension, the com-
growth rate if normalized as

parison
of
eq.
(14.8)
with eq. (12.2) shows that the effect of the shape is
greater, i.e., the volume of a spherical void grows by
factor
31[/4
faster
Budiansky et al (1982) have studied the evolution of the volume and the
aspect
than that of a penny-shaped crack with the same radius.
ratio of an initially spherical void by integrating eqs. (14.3) and (14.4) over
the time. They find that, depending on the stress ratio 0;/0;,
the
voids
can
deform into prolate or oblate spheroids, including the asymptotic forms of long
cylinders, needles and cracks. In uniaxial tension, for example,
spherical
void
is
pulled
out
initially
into a needle. Its volume approaches a finite
value for large strains asymptotically, namely 1.264 times the

of
an
initial
volume
the undeformed sphere. If an arbitrarily small transverse tensile stress is
superimposed, the asymptotic void volume
tends
towards
infinity,
while
the
asymptotic shape is still a needle as long as 0;/0~ < 1/4.

14.1.2
An isolated circular-cylindrical void in nonlinear viscous material
For nonlinear material, Eshelby' s (1957) solution does no longer apply. Direct
integration
of
the
equilibrium
and
compatibility
conditions together with
14.1
205
Norton's power law is possible for circular-cylindrical voids under axisymmetric loading (Budiansky et aI, 1982). The radius of the cylinder is R. To be
compatible with the notation in the preceding section, the stress along the
axis is denoted by o~, while the radial, or transverse, stress is
cylindrical
CD
aT' According to Norton's law, eq. (3.6), the corresponding remote strain rates
.. ''I n- 1
....
...
ICDI
are e:...I - - 2'"
e: T B I aI-aT
(aI-aT)
and e:e
= e: I
In a cylindrical coordinate system (r,
axis
e, z) with the z-axis aligned with the
the cylindrical void, the only non-zero displacement rates are ur and
z The strain rates are calculated from the displacement rates according to
of
(14.10)
Incompressibility requires:
( 14.11)
In cylindrical coordinates, the equilibrium condition takes the form
(14.12)
Together with the material law, eq. (3.6), and the boundary conditions (orr
0;
at r = R, and orr =
at infinity) these equations can be integrated by
elementary algebraic operations to give the stress and strain-rate fields in
the
Whole
block.
In
particular,
radial displacement rate at r
the
void growth rate is obtained from the
R as:
(14.13)
where A is implicitly given by the relation

(14.14)
For linearly viscous material (n 1), the integral
can
be
evaluated
easily
giving
( 14.15)
14.
206
where the hydrostatic (or mean) stress om and 0

following
eq.
(14.4).
For
perfectly
plastic
were defined in the
paragraph
material (n = m), eq. (14.14)
reproduces McClintock's (1968) result:

(14.16 )
m
As the second form shows, the hydrostatic component of the stress, om' enhances
the
void
growth
rate
exponentially
in
the
perfectly plastic limit. Thus,
although the hydrostatic component of stress does not affect the remote
rate
(only
the
stress
deviator
strain
enters into the creep flow law), it greatly
enhances the void growth rate in nonlinear materials.

14.1.3
Spherical voids in nonlinear material under axisymmetric loading.

Comparison with penny-shaped cracks
A spherical void with radius R is embedded in an infinite

viscous
material
and
is
subjected
block
of
power-law
to axisymmetric loading, i.e. one of the
remotely applied principal stresses is 0; and the two others are 0;. This case
has been investigated by Budiansky, Hutchinson and Slutsky (1982). Following
Hill (1956b), they cast the constitutive equations
of
the
nonlinear
viscous
material into a variational principle and seek approximate solutions. Guided by

physical intuition they assume an analytical expression
rate
field
containing a set of unspecified parameters
for
~
with the requirement of incompressibility. In the spirit of
the
displacement
and being consistent

the
Rayleigh-Ritz
method,
the parameters a k are then determined by minimizing the functional of

the variational principle with respect to the parameters. In general, the mini-
mization procedure must be carried out numerically.

Numerical results for the normalized void growth rate are given
as
function
of
(14.4).
Uniaxial
implies
0"'/0'" = '"
m
represent the
0"'/0'"
to
and pure shear means o'"
tension
in
Fig. 14.1a
with aCIJ and at: as defined in the text following eq.
corresponds
om/o'"
m
1/3,
hydrostatic
tension
O. The dashed lines in Fig. 14.1a
limit (0"'/0'" ~ m). As this limit is approached,

m
spherically symmetric term, ~ ~ a Ir 2 , in the displacement rate
hi~h-triaxiality
all but the

r
0
field become negligbly small so that the minimization needs to be
carried
out
with
respect to a o only. This implies that the voids preserve their spherical
shape during growth in highly triaxial stress fields. The minimization can be
carried
out,
making
another algebraic approximation, in closed analytic form
(Budiansky et aI, 1982) with the result that
14.1
207
30
'e"
3'----"---'---r"T"""J"7"""T7JI
bJ
aJ
spherical
void
25
20
<1>'
..c::
~
15
c:
0
.iii
c:
10
uniaxial tension
c:
o~--~----~----~----~
1.5
05
aCIJ/a(X)= aoo/aOO +213 _

I
e
m
triaxiality, am(X)/ aOO_
Fig. 14.1. Normalized void growth rate A = ~/[(4~R3/3)~J as

a function of stress triaxiality for a) spherical void, and b) penny-shaped
crack. Dashed lines are analytical results, eqs. (14.17) and (12.2).
~ { 3 1a;1 + (n-1) (n+0.4319) }n .
2na
This result is valid for large positive a:/a~.

range
of
validity
depends
(14.17)
n2
(Recall
that
a; = la~I).
on n (cf. Fig. 14.1). For n = 1, it is exact. For
large negative a~/a~, the sign of the right-hand side must be inverted and
constant
0.4319
must
Fig.
14.1
bring
out
the
replaced by 0.4031. Depending on the sign of ~; and
be
a~/a~, eq. (14.17) describes growing or shrinking voids. Equation

m
Its
the
(14.17)
and
strong influence of the triaxiality of the applied
stress on the void growth rate for large n.

The limiting case of purely hydrostatic tension or compression is a
case
since
the
remQte
strain
rate
is
degenerate
zero. Equation (14.17) must then be
replaced by the following closed-form solution which was derived
by
Budiansky
et al (1982) for the spherically symmetric case:

(14.18)
In contrast to the other results described here, eq. (14.18) was derived for
14.
208
spherical
cavity in the center of a finite, spherical body having the diameter
A. To make contact with the rest of the section, in which infinite

considered, the limit AIR
bodies
can easily be taken. A finite sphere was analyzed
+ ~
by Budiansky et al as a model for interacting voids having an inter-void

ing
A.
Equation
(14.18)
shows
volume
fraction
of
voids
as
0.001 enhances the void growth rate by 37 per cent if n = 3
as (2R/A)3
and by a factor 4.2 if

hydrostatic
spac-
that interaction effects may be large in the
hydrostatic limit even for small RIA-ratios. A

small
are
n =5
compared
to
an
isolated
void.
However,
the
limit is an extreme case, and interaction effects are much smaller
under uniaxial tension, as will be shown in Section 14.1.5.

For comparison the volume growth rate of a penny-shaped crack is shown in
Fig.
14.1b. The dashed lines represent the analytic approximation, eq. (12.2), which
has been obtained by He and Hutchinson- (1981)
whereas
using
linearization
method,
the solid lines are numerical solutions developed by the same authors.
It is apparent that for uniaxial tension the volume growth rates
of
voids
Thus a Simple
and
cracks
of
having
the
same
radius
are
similar.
spherical
approximation formula, which is valid to within 35% in uniaxial tension for all
n and for all void shapes between a sphere and a crack, is
(14.19)
where E is the tensile Strain rate. In particular, this formula will be approximately valid for lenticular, equilibrium void shapes.
The case of a spherical void in a remotely uniform,
stress
but
otherwise
by Rice and Tracey (1969), but only for perfect plasticity (n

loading
case
for
that
for
spherical
irrelevant). The most convenient

however,
consists
The general
~).
spherical void can be characterized by three independent
stress components, for example, by the

(Note
arbitrary,
field, as distinct from the axially symmetric case, has been considered
of
the
void
remotely
the
triple
equivalent
applied
direction
of
of
independent
tensile
strain
principal
stresses.
the principal axes is

loading
rate
.=
Ee'
applied hydrostatiC stress to applied equivalent tensile stress,

so-called Lode variable
parameters,
the ratio of
0:/0:,
and the
(14.20)
.m
.~
where EI > Ell> EIII are the principal components of the remote
strain
rate.
14.1
209
The value of vL lies between +1 and -1. For aXisymmetric fields is vL
1 with
the plus sign for negative ;1 and the minus sign for positive ;1' In terms of
these three loading variables, the growth rate of a spherical void in a
perfectly plastic matrix is given by Rice and Tracey (1969) in the form
The result shows that under most loading conditions, the Lode variable
has
no
great influence on the void growth rate. For uniaxial tenSion, for example, the
first term of eq. (14.21) is 32 times greater than the second one
and
in
the
high-triaxiality limit this ratio is 1.674/0.024 = 70. It can be concluded that

the growth of a spherical void in a perfectly
determined
0:/0:.
by
axisymmetric
plastic
material
is
primarily
and by the ratio

In other words the analysis of the
is sufficiently general for most purposes. The third
case
variable, vL' can be neglected except for cases in which the hydrostatic stress
component is very small, say if
< 0.05. Also for arbitrary n, the Lode
variable
will have no great influence on the growth rate, since the
1:1/:
axisymmetric results for positive and negative o:/o m , which corresponds to

extreme values vL
14.1.4
the
1, are only slightly different.
Strain to failure neglecting void interaction effects
The volume gruwth rate of a void by creep flow is

equilibrium
void
shapes
(11.13), so that the
~inear
is
(4w/3) heW) R3
given
with
by
eq.
(14.1).
For
heW) as defined in eq.
growth rate becomes:

.m
R A Ee 1 [3 hew)] .
(14.22)
This can be integrated in time, which leads to

(14.23)
Here EO is the strain at which the void is nucleated and Ro is the void radius
at nucleation. The second form of eq. (14.23) applies if A is time-independent.
A time-independent A obtains for proportional loading and
does
not
if
the
void
shape
vary during growth. Rupture occurs when neighboring voids touch each
other, i.e. when 2R = A, where A is the void spaCing. Inserting this

into eq. (14.23) gives the strain to failure
condition
14.
210
(14.24)
In the second form, the strain to failure is expressed in terms of
the
voided
area fraction at nucleation, Wo0

If the strain EO' at which voids are
nucleated,
is
neglected,
the
critical
strain, E f , is independent of the stress level (A depends on stress ratios

only). This agrees qualitatively with the empirical Monkman-Grant rule. However,
the
absolute
values of the critical strain calculated from eq. (14.24)
are far too large compared with measured values. Assuming that A/2Ro
10 and
= 0.61, and using A = 1.1 for uniaxial tension, the critical strain is
h(~)
predicted to be 383%. Measured strains to rupture are typically a few per
cent
under cond1tions where 1ntergranular cavitation predominates.

Several hundred per cent strain to failure as predicted here
tests
in
are
typical
for
the superplastic regime. These high ductilities are achieved even in
the presence of voids (see, for example, Stowell, Livesey
and
Ridley,
1984).
The relevant difference to creep rupture tests is probably that the strain rate
in superplastic deformation, although low compared to usual tensile
higher
than
in
tests,
is
creep rupture tests, so that diffusion does not contribute to
cavity growth substantially. Since also necking does not occur
in
the
super-
plastic regime, it is conceivable that high strains are achieved.

Also dimpled fracture at room temperature is
growth.
This
fracture
mode
is
brought
about
by
plastic
void
often associated with high strains, and they
would be even higher did necking not intervene. Thus, the analysis presented in
this chapter possibly applies to superplastic materials and to dimpled fracture
at room temperature, apart from the necking instability, but
probably
not
to
typical creep rupture conditions.

14.1.5
Void interaction effects
As was indicated above, the growth of isolated voids by creep of the

ing matrix leads to ductilities which are too high compared to
in
creep
those
surroundobserved
rupture tests. One might suspect that void interaction effects could
explain the discrepancy. However, several analyses described next indicate that
void interaction effects are moderate under typical creep rupture conditions.
This point of view is supported by a finite element
analysis
carried
out
by
14.1
211
Needleman
and
Rice
(1980).
They model a planar distribution of axisymmetric
voids under uniaxial tension by imposing symmetric boundary
conditions
on
an
appropriate unit cell. Diffusive void growth is included in that model, but the
limit of void growth by creep flow alone can readily be evaluated. The
indicate
that
up
to
an area coverage of at least w
results
0.1 the interaction is
negligibly small. Thus the strain to fracture can hardly deviate markedly
from
eq. (14.24).
A simple, although not very well defined, approach to account for
action
effects
is
void
inter-
based on a net-section-stress argument. Here it is assumed
that, owing to the reduced load carrying area, the stress on a cavitated
boundary is enhanced by the factor 1/(1-w) where w
ion of voids. Therefore, after replacing
eq.
(14.28),
can
be
integrated
Wo
(2Ro/A)2, to coalescence, w
from
i em
an
initial
Wo
for
integer
n.
the void growth
law,
cavitated area fraction,
(14.25)
dw .
The integral on the right-hand side can be evaluated

functions
(2R/A)2 is the area fract-
i em /(1_w)n,
1, giving the Monkman-Grant product:
3 he lP) /1 (1-w)n
2 A
by
grain
Figure
in
terms
of
elementary
14.2 shows the result as a function of the
voided area fraction Wo at void nucleation.
Although the Monkman-Grant product
1.5 .------"T1rr-'C'"""T---,---,--.--""T'""-.,...-----,
L-~_-L_~
002
__
0.06
~_L-~
0.10
_ _~_~
a It,
Fig. 14.2. The integral shown is proportional to the Monkman-Grant product
according to eq. (14.25). The factor of proportionality is unity if

A = 1.1 and helP) = 0.73.
14.
212
can be reduced considerably by the net-sect ion-stress

the
effect
example, if n = 5, the initially voided area

Wo
(corresponding to 2Ro/A
0.16
argument
applied
here,
is insufficient to explain the low observed creep ductilities. For

fraction
must
as
be
large
as
0.4) if the Monkman-Grant product is to be
25~. If more realistic values for Ware chosen, say W < 0.01, then the
preo
0
dicted Monkman-Grant product is well above 100~. Again this is a result which
is appropriate for superplastic materials but not for creep rupture conditions.
Incidentally, self-consistent estimates of interaction
Chen
and
Argon
(1979)
lead
to
effects
like
that
by
similar result as the net-section-stress
argument employed above.

As a last analysis which shows
finite
element
analysis
that
of
Burke
interaction
effects
creeping
matrix.
Burke
size-to-spacing ratio of 2Ro/A

ally
high,
least
45~.
they
find
moderate,
the
and Nix (1979) is quoted. They consider a
square grid of cylindrical voids with initially circular

power-law
are
and
cross
section
in
Nix start their calculation at a void
0.25. Although this appears to be unrealistic-
that interaction effects are small up to strains of at
This is so although the two-dimensional model is expected
to
over-
Finally, it should be mentioned that the formation of shear bands, which
some-
estimate interaction effects.
times
ter~inates
the
deformability of cavitating metals at room temperature,
probably plays no role under creep rupture conditions, since shear bands do not
develop
until
the strain reaches values of typically more than
(see, for
100~
example, Pan, Saje and Needleman, 1983).
14.2 Cavity Growth by Grain Boundary Sliding

As is illustrated in Fig. 14.3, grain boundary sliding
growth
is obvious that sliding sheds load on a cavitating

remarked
contributes
to
cavity
in two different ways. The first possibility is shown in Fig. 14.3a. It

in
connection
with
constrained
boundary,
as
was
already
diffusive cavity growth in Section
12.1.3. Under normal tensile stresses, this only means that cavity growth rates
are
enhanced, but under a transverse compressive stress the cavities would not
grow at all unless sliding took place. Sliding transposes the transverse stress
into a wedging force pushing the grains adjacent to the cavitating facet apart.
This mechanism may have operated in the exper1-ments of Davies and Dutton (1966)
14.2
213
Cavity Growth by Grain Boundary Sliding
I O'l =0
0)
b)
d
boundary
Fig. 14.3. Cavity growth by grain boundary sliding.
a) Compressive transverse stress. b) Growth at a tensile ledge.
and Davies and Williams (1969). They applied tensile stresses to copper and
copper/aluminum alloys until the specimens developed cavities and reached the
tertiary stage. Then the stress was either reversed, which led to at least
partial closure of the cavities, or a compressive stress was applied at 90 0 to
the original tensile direction. In the latter case, the cavities
continued
to
grow, which is expected from Fig. 14.3a. To quantify cavity growth under transverse compression, we assume that diffusive growth occurs so easily that it
is
constrained. Then the analysis of the problem shows that the cavity growth rate
has the same form as the constrained growth rate in tension, eq. (12.5),
from
numerical
factor,
and
a~
apart
must be replaced by the shear stress IT~I
acting on the inclined boundaries.

The second mechanism by which sliding contributes to cavity growth is shown
in
Fig. 14.3b. A cavity located at a tensile ledge is pulled out by grain boundary
sliding. If surface diffusion is slow (which we assume), the cavity growth rate
is directly equal to the rate of sliding, 2R = U

b , and the cavities coalesce
when the sliding offset reaches the spacing between tensile ledges. This mechanism is expected to predominate on boundaries which are inclined to the tensile
direction. It was proposed by Gifkins (1956), Chen and Machlin (1956) and Evans
(1971,
1984).
Evidence for its occurrence results from the bi-crystal experi-
ments of Chen and Machlin (1956) andfrom the observation of

(1980)
on
copper
Sklenicka
et
al
showing that the average cavity growth rate and the average
sliding rate are very nearly equal.
14.
214
The kinetics of this cavity growth mechanism is determined
by
that
of
grain
boundary sliding. A grain boundary embedded in a power-law creeping polycrystal

slides at a rate given by eq. (7.11). If, further, the shear stress transmitted
nUb' with the viscosity n,
by the boundary obeys the linear viscous law Tb
the sliding rate, and hence the cavity growth rate, are found to be:
(14.26)
= 10,
The numerical factor 0.89 is valid for n = 5; for n

is
the diameter of the sliding boundary facet,
on the facet,
valent
T~
0.84;
is the resolved shear stress
a: is the applied equivalent tensile stress, and : is the
equi-
strain rate of the polycrystal. Equation (14.26) has two limiting rang-
es. For large strain rates, the second term in the

sents
it would be
the
polycrystalline
constraint
on
denominator,
sliding,
which
repre-
is negligible, while the
intrinsic viscosity of the boundary, n, dominates. For small strain rates,
the
constraint beeemes effective and the intrinsic viscosity becomes negligible. In

this limiting case, the sliding rate is controlled by the strain rate:
1.1
0.55
(14.27)
d.
The second form is valid for uniaxial tension and T~/a:
1/2.
It is not surprising that the result resembles that for the constrained
growth
cavity
mechanism described in Chapter 12. Both arise from polycrystalline con-
straints. Comparison of eqs. (14.27) and (12.5) shows that constrained
diffus-
ive cavity growth rates are larger by a factor of the order (A/2R)2 than growth
rates by constrained sliding. Therefore constrained diffusive
be
the
dominant
fracture
cavitation
will
mechanism except when no cavities are nucleated on
boundaries that are oriented normal to the applied stress.
15 Creep-Enhanced DitTusive Cavity Growth

and Elastic Accommodation
Diffusive cavity growth was analyzed in Chapter 11 under
the
assumption
that
the adjacent grains were rigid. Now the consequences of grain deformability for
the cavity growth rates are explored. In Sections
15.1
and
15.2,
power-law
creep and elastic deformation, respectively, are considered.
15.1 Cavity Growth by a Coupling of DitIusioD and Power-Law Creep

In the rigid-grain limit
Chapter
11,
atoms
of
leaving
diffusive
the
cavitation,
which was
described
in
growing cavities must diffuse halfway to the
neighboring cavities since only a uniform thickening of the grain
boundary
is
compatible with the assumption of rigid grains. If the grains are deformable by
creep, the diffusion distance may be shorter, since the then nonuniform
thick-
ening of the grain boundary can be accommodated by larger creep deformations in

the vicinity ot the cavity. The dimensional considerations described in Section
4.5
suggest
that
the
diffusion
distance in the presence of creep is of the
order of the diffusive length R. which was defined in eq. (4.1-7). If R.

smaller
than
the
cavity
half-spacing,
growth substantially, and the limit R./A

flow,
which
was
is
much
A/2, creep enhances diffusive cavity
0 corresponds to hole growth by creep
despribed in Chapter 14. If, on the other hand, R. is greater
than A/2, the possibility of creep does not reduce the diffusion
distance
and
therefore does not enhance diffusive cavity growth markedly.

15.1.1
Models for the interactive growth mechanism
A quantitative analysis of the combined processes of
diffusion
and
creep
in
cavity growth is not simple. Beere and Speight (1978) were the first to present
an approximate model of the coupling which turned out to yield reasonably accurate
results when compared with later numerical studies to be described short-
ly. Other approximate models were proposed by Edward and Ashby
(1979)
and
by
216
15.
Cocks
and
Ashby
(1982),
Diffusive Growth with Creep or Elastic Accommodation
which,
however, do not reproduce the limit of hole
growth by creep flow correctly and therefore deviate
from
the
numerical
re-
sults.
Such numerical finite-element solutions were developed by
(1980)
and
by
Sham
Needleman
and
Rice
and Needleman (1983) who analyzed an axisymmetric, equi-
A
prescribing appropriate boundary conditions on the surface of the cylinder.
Chen and Argon (1981c) found the following surprisingly simple interpolation
formula, which accurately reproduces Needleman's and Rice's finite element
results in the whole range from diffusive cavity growth to hole growth by creep
flow: the cavity growth rate is given by eqs. (11.11) or (11.14) (for Vor R,
respectively) with the only modification that the cavitated area fraction w is
interpreted as
librium-shaped cavity of radius R in a finite circular cylinder of
diameter
w = maximum of { (2R/A)2 and [R/(R+~)]2 }

with
rate.
(15.1)
calculated from eq. (4.17) using the remotely applied stress and
For
large
~,
eq.
(15.1) is identical with the definition of w as the
cavitated area fraction, eq. (11.9), and the growth rate is then the
growth
rate
obtained
in
the
rigid
grain
diffusive
limit. Surprisingly, and this is
fortuitous, the use of eq. (15.1) in eq. (11.11) leads to the correct
in
the
strain
behavior
cr.'eep-controled limit as well. A power series expansion for small
the function q(w) defined in eq. (11.10) with w from eq. (15.1) shows that
of
the
leading term is of order ~3. This means that V - R3 e is obtained. Moreover, the
coefficient is such that the factor A introduced in eq. (14.1) becomes A = 9/8,
which happens to agree with the result of the hole growth analysis given in eq.
(14.19).
For multiaxial loading it cannot be expected that the same accidental
of
q(w)
behavior
leads to the correct growth rates in the plastic hole growth limit as
well. In this case Sham and Needleman (1983) obtain an excellent representation
of their finite element results by adding the cavity growth rates by diffusion
Ceq. (11.11)] and by creep Ceq. (14.17)] in the following way:
(n-1)(n+O.4319)
n2
Here, w has the following meaning:
}~
(15.2)
15.1
217
Creep-Enhanced Diffusive Growth
maximum of { (2R/A)2 and [R/(R+l.51)]2 },

which deviates from eq. (15.1) by the
factor
1.5
(15.3)
multiplying
1,
and
is
and the
calculated from eq. (4.17) using the von Mises equivalent stress, om,
e
corresponding strain rate, ~m = B (om)n, which under axisymmetric loading is
e
e
equal to ~: = ~;. Since the high-triaxiality limit of plastic hole growth is
used in eq. (15.2), its validity is restricted to
0:/0:
corresponds to
0:/0:
> 1. (Uniaxial tension
= 113).
It should be noted that a linear superposition of cavity growth rates calculated
for
the
diffusive
and
the
creep
flow
mechanisms
separately,
with w
interpreted simply as the cavitated area fraction, also reproduces the limiting
cases and is accurate to within a factor of about 2 in the transition range.
From the preceding formulas it is clear that the transition from diffusive
cavity growth to hole growth by creep flow occurs when 1 becomes smaller than
the cavity radius, R. Typical cavity sizes are 2R
the
melting
temperature,
one obtains 1 = R
0.5
~m.
~m
In pure iron at
half
if the stress is 50 MPa.
For higher stresses growth occurs predominantly by creep flow, whereas at lower
stresses diffusion predominates. In creep resistant materials, owing to the relative smallness of ~/o, 1 is usually so large that diffusive growth
predomin-
ates over the whole range of conditions generally applied in creep testing.
Another remark on the coupled growth mechanism seems to be in
the
literature,
order
here.
In
hole growth by creep flow has been combined with non-equilib-
rium, crack-like diffusive cavity growth, which was described in Section
11.2.
The interaction was treated in complete analogy to the case of equilibrium void
shapes, i.e., in eq.
eq.
~11.44)
to (11.47) w was given the
meaning
specified
in
(15.1). Such a procedure, however, appears to be inappropriate in the case
of crack-like growth. The reason that a cavity may grow in a crack-like mode is
the
localized
drain
of atoms out of the cavity into the grain boundary. This
localized drain of atoms happens only in grain-boundary-diffusion controlled

growth, whereas growth by creep flow does not tend to deform the cavity into
crack-like shapes. Hence, the use of eq. (15.1) in eqs. (11.44) to (11.47)
leads
to
totally
wrong behavior in the creep controlled limit. Whether it
makes any sense near the diffusive

R;/l = 0), remains to be examined.
limit,
i.e.
for
small
R/l
(except
for
15.
218
15.1.2
Comparison with experiments
Creep-enhanced diffusive cavity growth plays no great role in commercial
creep
resistant materials at their usual operating temperatures. In these cases it is

commonly found that the diffusive length
is greater than the cavity size
and
spacing. Hence, diffusion is the predominant growth mechanism. Often the strain
rate is even so low that diffusive cavitation is constrained, which, in terms
of ~, means that ~3 > A2d, where d is grain size [cf. eq. (12.6)J. Therefore,
there are only a few experiments in which the creep-enhanced
can
growth
mechanism
be expected to dominate. Two examples, both referring to pure metals, will
be descr i bed.
Cane and Greenwood (1975) measured the size of
700 0 C.
cavities
growing
in
iron
For the largest cavity observed in each sample they find that the radius
expands according to R
oc 0 3/2
t 1/2 ,
which in terms of growth rate means

(15.4)
where lengths are in m, time is in sec and stress is in MPa. This

result
at
is
experimental
shown in Fig. 15.1 together with theoretical predictions. Diffusive
growth gives the straight line with slope 1 if the sintering stress is neglected,
which
is
justified
for the large voids considered by Cane and Greenwood
(1975). The absolute values of the diffusive growth rate were
calculated
from
eq. (11.14) using the material parameters for ~-iron at 700 0 C given in Appendix
10-1'
E
.~ 10-12
15
9 10
(J
20
inMPo - -
Fig. 15.1. Growth rate of largest cavity measured by

Cane and Greenwood (1975), compared with various models.
15.1
Creep-Enhanced Diffusive Growth
219
A, and setting w = 0.05. Then eq. (11.14) gives

units as above. In Fig. 15.1 R = 5
R= 5
10-25 a/R2
the
prediction
the
same
was assumed. The diffusive growth rate is
too small by a factor 250 to 1000 compared to the measured values.

is
in
Also
shown
of the plastic hole growth mechanism given in eq. (14.19).
Since the strain rate increases with the 7.3'th power of stress in the material
considered, one obtains a line with slope 7.3. The interactive growth mechanism
is treated in the simplest possible way by adding the growth rates of
the
two
basic mechanisms, which leads to the dashed line in Fig. 15.1.

The third-power of stress dependence of
suggest
non-equilibrium,
crack-like
the
experimental
diffusive
growth
growth
as
rate
might
described
by eq.
(11.46). However, Cane and Greenwood (1975) show that their cavities have equilibrium
shapes.
It
could
be argued that the cavities grew in the crack-like
mode and assumed the equilibrium shape only after the end of
the
creep
test.
However, since surface diffusion preserves the cavity volume, the volume growth
rate would have been measured correctly even if the cavities were
R,
after the creep test. Now, although the linear growth rate,
rounded
out
is higher in the
crack-like mode than it is in the equilibrium mode, the volume growth rate ~ is
smaller.
This
is clear from eq. (11.11) which is valid for both modes. In the
crack-like mode, ao is necessarily larger than in the equilibrium mode, and

hence the growth rate would be even lower than the straight line with slope 1
in Fig. 15.1 indicates. In spite of this conclusion, Miller (1979) claims
agreement
of
Cane
good
and Greenwood's data with the crack-like growth model, but
this is probably incorrect.

A polycrystalline constraint on diffusive growth should
Cane
and
not
be
if
con-
were effective, it would only reduce the calculated growth rate, which
is already too low compared to the experiments. Growth

ledges
in
Greenwood's experiments, since the creep rate, which they report, is
higher than the characteristic rate given in eq. (12.6). Moreover,

straint
effective
rates
of
cavities
at
by grain boundary sliding Ceq. (14.270] are even lower than constrained
growth rates.
In summary, the rates at which the largest cavities in a-iron are
grow
are
This may be due to the fact that the largest cavities tend to
~re
observed
located
at
be
those
junctions
which
stress concentrations. Cane and Greenwood (1975) report grain
boundary sliding in their material. Therefore it is conceivable that at

grain
to
higher than any of the growth mechanisms discussed here can explain.
the
stress
is
concentrated.
Because
triple
of the strong stress
220
15.
dependence of the plastic hole growth mechanism a stress
concentration
factor
of 1.4 to 1.8 suffices to raise the calculated growth rates to the level of the
observed ones.
Svensson and Dunlop (1981) evaluate Cane and Greenwood's (1975) data for the
growth rate of the average, rather than the largest, cavity. Since nucleation
was continuous in these experiments, the average size may not be indicative of
the cavity growth kinetics as will be pointed out in Chapter 16. Nevertheless,
Svensson and Dunlop report reasonable agreement of the data with the
growth model.
diffusive
The second set of experiments which refers to the range of creep-enhanced diffusive cavity growth are the tests of Wang, Martinez and Nix (1983) on copper
containing implanted water vapor bubbles. They compare the measured lifetimes
with lifetimes calculated from various models of creep-enhanced cavitation,
e.g. that by Chen and Argon (1981c). They find
that
the
model
exhibits
the
correct dependence of t f on stress and temperature, but the measured lifetimes

are two orders of magnitude smaller. This corresponds to the observation reported above that the cavity growth rates measured by Cane and Greenwood (1975)
exceed the predicted values substantially. As a possible
explanation
for
the
discrepancy, Wang et al offer the effect of grain boundary sliding.
15.2 Diffusive Cavity Growth with Elastic Accomodation

Just as creep deformation, also elastic deformation of the grains allows a nonuniform deposition of atoms on the grain boundary near the growing cavity. However, whereas creep strains can increase indefinitely, elastic strain remains
finite. Hence, only a limited amount of matter can be accommodated elastically.
It will in fact be found that elastic accommodation plays no great role under
typical creep rupture conditions in metallic materials, whereas in ceramics
crack-like growth with elastic accommodation might playa role.
15.2.1
Elasticity effects in the growth of equilibrium-shaped cavities
Consider a cavitating grain boundary between elastic grains. Suddenly, at

t = 0,
remote
tensile
stress is applied. In the first instant, the stress
distribution around the cavity is the elastic field with stress

near
the
void
tip.
In
time
concentrations
the stress gradients along the grain boundary, grain
15.2
Diffusive Growth with Elastic Accommodation
221
boundary diffusion commences as described by eq. (4.4). Diffusion converts
the
initial elastic stress distribution into the diffusion-controlled, steady-state

distribution, which exhibits no stress concentration at the
the
transient,
void
tip.
During
the cavity growth rate decreases from an initially high to the
steady-state diffusive growth rate given by eq. (11.14).

The transient problem was analyzed quantitatively by Raj (1975). He
two-dimensional,
cylindrical
cavities
with
diameter
2R
solved the coupled elasticity/grain-boundary diffusion
considered
and spacing A, and
problem
emplDying
the
Fourier transformation method. His numeric results indicate that the transition
from the initial elastic behavior to the final steady
state
occurs
within
characteristic time of
td
kT A3
0.01
(15.5)
E n &Db
Such a characteristtic time had already been obtained in

relaxation
of
elastic
stress
concentrations
at
connection
triple
with
the
grain junctions or
particles. Comparing this relaxation time with the rupture time for diffusional
cavity
growth, eq. (11.18), shows that elastic accommodation plays a role only
during a small fraction of the life since td/tf
30/E
and
alE
is
typically
less than 1/1000.

A slight deficiency of Raj's analysis is that he keeps the cavity size constant
while
the
stress distribution relaxes to the rigid grain limit. Vitek (1980),
on the other hand, considers an isolated cylindrical cavity growing at

stant rate,
R,
tions. Trinkaus (1978, 1979) considers an isolated axisymmetric cavity

at
a constant volume growth rate
V.
con-
growing
He notes that in this case, if the sinter-
ing stress 00 is neglected, the stress and displacement

the
and solves the problem numerically after making a few approxima-
fields
expand
around
cavity in a self-similar manner in proportion to the cavity radius,

1
t / 3 However, these solutions for the transient problem of a growing void
have
little
practical
relevance,
since
the transient occupies such a small
fraction of the lifetime.

15.2.2
Crack-like cavity growth with elastic accommodation
Vitek (1978) and Chuang (1982) modeled the growth of flat cavities by prescribing
traction-free
boundary
conditions on a mathematically sharp crack rather
222
15.
than on the actual cavity surface. This is a valid approximation if the

thickness,
2w,
is
small
cavity
compared to the zone ahead of the void tip in which
substantial diffusive activity takes place [see the length
defined
in
eq.
(15.7) below]. The coupled elasticity/grain-boundary diffusion problem is formulated in terms of an integro-differential equation for the normal stress an on
the
grain
boundary,
which is then solved numerically for steady-state cavity
growth. Here, steady state means that in a coordinate system

cavity
tip,
time
moving
with
the
derivatives can be replaced by alat = - Ra/ax. Far from the
void tip, the stress is required to approach the elastic singular field asymptotically, an
+ KI /(2nx)1/2. This remote condition is justified as long as grain

boundary diffusion is essentially confined to a zone which is small enough
compared
to
the
cavity
diameter 2R (small-scale diffusion), but still large
compared to the cavity thickness as already mentioned. The boundary
conditions
at the void tip for an (denoted by 0 0 at the tip) and for don/dx (denoted by o~
at the tip) are chosen differently by Chuang (1982) and by Vitek (1978), but as
long
as
00
and
we follow the
surface
o~
are not specified the two analyses essentially agree. Here,
~pproach
diffusion
of Chuang who chooses
problem
described
00
and
o~
in accordance
with
the
in Section 11.2. The resulting relation
between the stress intensity factor and the growth rate can be written
in
the
implici t form:
0.75 a
L1/2
where the growth rate is contained in

E
11
0.60 a' L3/ 2 ,
(15.6)
and
00
and in the abbreviation
1/2
cDb
4 (1-v ) kT
0'
(15.7)
] ,
which has the meaning of the diffusion zone size ahead of

linear
dependence of KI on
only numerical result. If
00
00
and
and
o~
o~
the
void
tip.
The
in eq. (15.8) is an exact, rather than an

are
taken
from
the
surface
diffusion
problem as indicated above, eq. (15.6) finally becomes

K = 0.5 Kmin [(R/R . )1112
I
I
mIn
(R/R . )-1/12].
mIn
(15.8)
For convenience the result was written in terms of the quantities

(1
5.9)
15.2
223
Diffusive Growth with Elastic Accommodation
[l
6D 4
8.13 ....:...-.::...
kT y2s
(15.10)
(1-v ) 6Db
which have the meaning of the minimum stress intensity factor and cavity growth
rate, for which eq. (15.8) has solutions. For smaller stress intensity factors,
the steady growth of isolated cavities by elastic accommodation
possible.
Fig.
15.2
shows the relationship between KI and
(15.8). Apparently the slope in a log-log plot varies from 12

intensities to
alone
Aaccording
at
high
is
not
to eq.
stress
near the minimum stress intensity.
As mentioned earlier, it is unlikely that the theory described above is applicable
to
metals.
Lewis and Karunaratne (1981), however, applied the theory to

their experiments on slow crack growth in Sialon ceramics at 1400 oc. Although
the crack length was much larger than what is usually considered as typical for
cavities, the micromechanism of crack growth in one of the ceramics tested
may
have been diffusive growth as assumed in the present theory. The pertinent data
are included in Fig. 15.2, using values for the unknown diffusion
and
surface
energies
which lead to a best fit of the data to the theoretical
curve. The slope of the curve, however, is independent of that fit

with the predicted slope 12.
a6
Near the minimum
t
10-2
lOB
.....,.
'0:
'uQ
~
.
~
.5
:'l::
where
3'
..
agrees
Kr inMPa.m"}_
.!:;
.~
and
stress intensity factor,
00E
coefficients
10-6
10'
....,
..
u
.,
..E
Q
c:
K/K min _
3'
r r
Fig. 15.2. Crack growth rate in Sialon ceramic from Lewis and Karunaratne
(1982) fitted to eq. (15.8).
224
15.
the present model ceases to be valid and some other mechanism
is
expected
to
become prevalent, the data start to deviate from the theoretical curve.
The assumptions of small-scale diffusion (L
(2w
Rand L)
are
R) and of a very flat void shape
not made in a numerical investigation by Vitek (1980). He
prescribed traction-free boundary conditions on an elliptical cylinder in order

to
approximate
the actual cavity shape more closely. The numerical result for
the steady-state cavity growth rate can be represented by the formula

( 15.11)
for (O-Oo)/E
Roberts
0.2 w/R, i.e. for relatively thick
(1978)
obtain
essentially
the
same
voids.
result
analytical model. Taking the cavity thickness, 2w, from

stress
at the void tip,
a relation between
Rand
00 ,
Speight,
from
eq.
an
Beere
and
approximate
(11.35)
and
the
from eq. (11.5) with eq. (11.36), then one obtains
stress
which can be resolved for
{( 1 +
1 .75 cSDb
)1/2
E cSDs sin(1/I/2)
R to
1
give:
I6 .
(15.12)
For ocSD b EcSD , eq. (15.12) gives R oc 0 3 while in the opposite limiting case
~
6
there results R oc 0 Correspondingly the rupture time exhibits inverse stress
dependences with exponents between 3 and 6.
Takasugi and Vitek (1981) compare the growth rate predicted by eq. (15.12) with
the
growth
rate obtained for rigid grains. They observe that under almost all
practically interesting circumstances, elastic accommodation does not

ate
of cSDs/cSD b , does elastic accommodation predominate. For example, in

of
acceler-
cavity growth markedly. Only at very high stress or extremely small ratios
Goods
and
the
tests
Nix (1978) on water vapor bubbles in silver, which were already
discussed in Section 11.2.7, elasticity effects might make a small contribution

R oc 0 3 . 7 , can be appro-
to the growth rate. The experimental stress dependence,
ximated by eq. (15.12) more closely than by the rigid grain model,
an
exponent
of
which
gave
3. However, the best fit of eq. (15.12) with the experimental

-5
0
data requires that cSDs/cSD b = 310
and 1/1 = 8 Both are unusually small values
which can only be accepted if it is admitted that the water vapor in the cavities affects the surface properties of silver strongly.
16 The Cavity Size Distribution Function for

Continuous Cavity Nucleation.
Rupture Lifetimes and Density Changes
As was pOinted out in Section 5.7, cavities usually nucleate continuously

substantial
fractions
of
the
creep
rupture
over
life of metals and engineering
alloys. Attempts to calculate the rupture lifetime must
take
this
fact
into
account.
16.1 The Cavity Size Distribution Function

A link between experimental data on one hand and theories on cavity
nucleation
and growth on the other is the cavity size distribution function. It is denoted
by N(R,t), where NdR is the number of cavities per
having
radii
unit
grain
boundary
between Rand R+dR. By agreement, we refer the cavity density to
those boundary facets only which are 'essential' for the rupture
failure
process.
For
by diffusive cavity growth, for example, it is convenient to refer the
density to boundaries. which have orientations

principal
area
stress
axis,
since
between
60 0
and
90 0
to
the
these boundaries cavitate preferentially. This
freedom in definition does not affect the results.

Cavities can pass from one size class, R, to the next,
growth,
R+dR,
only
by
cavity
if cavity coalescence during the late stages of the rupture process is
ignored. Then the distribution function must obey the continuity
condition
in
size space (Riedel, 1985c),

( 16.1)
where the superposed dot denotes the time derivative and R(R,t) is
rate
of
cavities
having
the
growth
a radius R at time t. The growth rate will be taken
from any of the models in the preceding chapters.
Its
time
dependence
stems
from its dependence on the cavity spacing, which decreases continuously as more
cavities are nucleated. Cavity nucleation enters into the problem in
the
form
16.
226
of
boundary
condition
to
Continuous Nucleation
eq. (16.1): the flux in size space, NR, at some
small cavity radius, which will be set equal
to
zero,
must
be
equal
to
prescribed nucleation rate,

NR
= J*
at R
O.
(16.2]
The nucleation rate is taken either from nucleation
theories
or,
as
in
th.e
following, from the observed nucleation kinetics.

Equations (16.1) and (16.2) have steady-state solutions,
the
nucleation
&= 0,
provided
that
rate is constant and R is not time dependent. In this case the
distribution function is directly given by N = J*/R. However, the prerequisites

for
the steady-state solution are usually not satisfied. Correspondingly, Chen
and Argon (1981b) remarked that the steady-state solutions are

with
the
size
distributions
observed
by
Cane
not
compatible
and Greenwood (1975) and by
Needham and Gladman (1980).

A more general class of solutions can be obtained if the cavity growth rate and
the nucleation rate have the the power-law forms
(16.3)
(16.4)
J*
where A1 , A2 , a, Band Y may possibly depend on stress and strain rate, but not
on time nor on the cavity size. Because of the power-law forms of the
equations,
one
solutions,
which one seeks in the form N(R,t) - tPf(R/t Q). The exponents P and
may
expect
that
eqs.
(16.1)
Q and the functioh f are obtained by inserting

eqs.
(16.1)
and
(16.2).
The
and
the
(16.2)
have
similarity
similarity
solution
into
resulting equation for f indeed depends on the
co-ordinate R/tQ only, but not on Rand t separately,
if
Q = (a-1)/(B+1)
and
P = BQ+a+Y. The ordinary differential equation for f(R/t Q) can be solved by

separation of the variables. The final result is:
1-a
RB+1
------]
(a+Y)/(l-a)
1+B A t 1-a
(16.5)
This solution is shown in Fig. 16.1. If a < 1, the distribution

be cut
off at a maximum R,
which is obtained by setting
function
must
the term in brackets
16.1
227
The Cavity Size Distribution Function
ex. = -5/4
~ = 2
1=0
c:n
ex. = 2
ex. = 0
~ = 2
1=1
30
P= 2
1 =0
10
2:
<D
t=1
C"")
10
R-
R-
Fig. 16.1. Evolution of the cavity size distribution function for A1
1.
equal to zero. If a > i, the distribution extends to infinite
the
first
cavities
nucleated
R,
because
infinitely fast if a > 1 is assumed. The case
grow
a = 1 is a degenerate one. Recalling the formula (1
= e for x ~
+ 1/x)x
gives
00
(16.6)
for a = 1. It is worth noting that in this last example,
size
distribution,
the
maximum
of
the
as well as the average size, remain at a fixed value of R,
while in the general case represented by
eq.
(16.5),
the
maximum,
and
the
average, can move to larger or to smaller sizes depending on the exponents a, S

and Y. Hence no conclusions regarding
cavity
growth
kinetics
can
be
drawn
directly from the observation of the evolution of the average cavity size.
16.2 The Cavitated Area Fraction and the Rupture Lifetime

The cavitated area fraction,
w,
of the
grain
boundaries
having
orientations
and
to the tensile axis is obtained by integrating the areas,
~R2, occupied by the individual cavities times their density, NdR:
between
60 0
90 0
f ~R2 N(R,t) dR
I(
a,,,,
0
y)
(16.7)
A A2/ (S+1) t a +Y+(1-a)(S+3)/(S+1)

2
where the second line was calculated with
N(R,t)
from
eq.
(16.5),
and
the
16.
2~
dimensionless factor I(a,B,Y) is the definite integral

w (1+B)(B+3)/(B+l) ~ xB+2 [1 - (l-a) x B+1 ](a+Y)/(1-a)dx
with U
(16.8)
= ~ if a> 1 and U = (l_a)-l/(B+l)
expressed
if
< 1. This integral can be
by the Beta function (Abramowitz and Stegun, 1968, pg. 258). Here it
suffices to remember that I is a number which is independent of A1 , A2 and t.

Rupture is assumed to occur when the area coverage- attains
denoted
by
chosen as wf
W=
wf
The
critical
value,
numerical value of wf is somewhat arbitrary, and will be
= w/4, since regularly spaced round cavities touch each other if
w/4. With the failure criterion,
W=
wf ' inserted, eq. (16.7) can easily be
resolved for t, which gives the rupture lifetime, t f

considered next.
16.2.1
Special
cases
will
be
Lifetimes for diffusive cavity growth and continuous nucleation
unconstrained diffusive cavity growth rates are given by eq. (11.14). Unfortunately
neither the sintering stress nor the function q(w), which was defined in
eq. (11.10), are exactly compatible with the
power-law
form
of
eq.
(16.3),
which is required for the similarity solutions to be valid. In order to be able

to apply the similarity solutions, we neglect the sintering stress and approximate
q(w)
by
some power funtion of w. The simplest choice is q(w)
approximates q(w) in an average, though admittedly

With
this
choice,
eq.
(11.14)
not
well
eq.
=
(5.1),
the
nucleation
1, which
sense.
assumes a power-law form compatible with eq.
(16.3) with a = 0 and B = 2. If, in agreement with the observations

in
defined,
rate
summarized
is assumed to be time-independent, i.e.
0, then the rupture lifetime follows to be

0.33 ( h(~)kT )2/5
06D b O
(16.9)
~ 1/0(3n +2)/5.
The second line shows the stress dependence of the lifetime predicted for the
case in which the nucleation rate is given by J* = a'E = a'Bo n according to eq.
(5.1) and to Norton's creep law. The activation energy is then predicted to
be
(2Qb+3Q)/5. where Qb and Q are the activation energies for grain boundary
diffusion and for power law creep. respectively. The result will be compared
16.2
229
Cavitated Area Fraction and Rupture Lifetimes
with experiments in Section 16.3.

Instead of approximating q(w) by unity, q(w) can be replaced by a power
funct-
ion, which is always greater than q(w). This leads to a lower-bound estimate of
t f In the rigid-grain limit, which is considered here, the volume growth rate
rather than on
of a cavity depends on the average cavitated area fraction,
w,
w = (2R/A)2 calculated with the individual cavity radius. This means that
should
be
approximated by a power function of
w.
q(w)
If, for example, one chooses
q(w) = 0.64/w1/2 , the requirement that the resulting
wmust
be consistent
with
(16.7) leads to a = -(3Y+5)/4. Then t f is obtained in a form like eq.

(16.9), but with a numerical factor 0.25 instead of 0.33 and with w~/5 instead
eq.
w~/5. Apparently, the result is relatively insensitive to the approximation
of
made on q(w).
This insensitivity of the result to changes in the cavity growth
why
Lonsdale
and
Flewitt
(1979,
1981)
law
explains
obtain a result very similar to eq.
(16.9), although they start from an incorrect cavity growth rate. Also
and
Gladman
(1980)
do
not
use
Needham
a correct expression for the growth rate of
axisymmetric cavities. Further, they assume that a critical volume fraction

cavities,
rather
Consequently,
than
they
critical
arrive
at
slightly
area
fraction,
different
leads
stress
to
and
of
fracture.
temperature
dependences of the rupture time and they obtain a grain size dependence.
In some cases, the cavity spacing is found to decrease in inverse proportion to
the
creep
strain,
A = 1 1(1ii"e:) , where a" is an empirical factor having the

physical dimension 11m2 This means that the nucleation rate has the form
2 a"
J*
~2 t,
(16.10)
which is a power law in time compatible with eq. (16.4)

with
the
diffusive
growth
rate,
with
and approximating q(w) by
Y = 1.
Together
as before, eq.
(16.7) then leads to a lifetime:

t
0.56 ( kT h(ljI) )1/4 (

QIiDb o
w~2 )3/8.
(16.11)
aile:
Together
tf
with Norton's law,

this
predicts
a
stress
dependence
(3n+1)/4
.
1/0
A comparison with experiments follows in Section 16.3.3.
Instead of employing an empirical relation for the
nucleation
rate,
of
Trinkaus
16.
230
and
Ullmaier
(1979)
take
the theoretical expression for J* derived from the
theory of thermally activated vacancy condensation.
They
use
eq.
(6.28)
to
calculate the nucleation rate, with c neglected against cmax . This assumption
requires that the possible nucleation sites are not exhausted during the rupture
lifetime,
and
it
gives
a constant nucleation rate, i.e. Y
cavity growth rate they use a result for the diffusive growth
cavity
with
elastic
accommodation.
exactly time-independent, so that R R

fact
that
In
-2
of
O. For the
an
isolated
this case, the volume growth rate is

,i.e. a = 0 and B = 2.
Ignoring
the
the validity of that solution is restricted to very short times, as
was pointed out in Section 15.2.1, one obtains the rupture time in the form
(16.12)
where NL is the Loschmidt number andt fo is the following abbreviation:
Here, the spacing of the potential nucleation sites, A ,is related to their
2
nuc
area density, c max ' by 1/Anuc = cmax For high stresses the first term in the
exponential of eq. (16.12) is small. Then the rupture time behaves similarly as
in
eq.
(11.18)
where
nucleation was assumed to occur instantaneously at the
beginning of the test, i.e., t f 1/(a6Db ). When the stress becomes smaller,
the first term in the exponential function starts to dominate. That means that
nucleation becomes difficult,
decreasing
and
the
rupture
time
increases
sharply
for
stress. At the same time, the effective activation energy for creep
rupture becomes strongly stress-dependent

(16.111)
For the effective stress exponent appearing in t f
1/am, eq. (16.12) predicts
m = -3(lnt f )/3(lna) = 1 + 24 y3 f (111)/(5

s v
kT).
(16.15)
For high stresses, m approaches unity, while it rises sharply for
stresses
the
Under
order
of,
and
smaller
than,
the
nucleation
stress.
of
which
circumstances such a stress dependence is observed experimentally remains to be

examined.
Certainly
the
predictions
compatible with the Monkman-Grant rule.
of
eqs.
(16.12)
to
(16.15)
are not
16.2
Raj and Ashby (1975) analyze a problem
of
231
continuous
cavity
nucleation
and
diffusive growth similar to that considered by Trinkaus and Ullmaier (1979). In

contrast to the latter authors, Raj and Ashby use an expression for the
sive
growth
rate
of
diffu-
cavities having a finite, as distinct from an infinite,
inter-cavity spacing. For the nucleation rate by vacancy condensation they

ploy
eq.
em-
(6.17), which neglects the Zeldovich factor, but they admit that the
potential nucleation sites may be exhausted, i.e. they do not
neglect
com-
pared to cmax . Otherwise their model, which they treat numerically, is the same
as that of Trinkaus and Ullmaier (1979). They find that for stresses which
exceed the cavity nucleation stress markedly, the rupture lifetime exhibits the
inverse stress dependence of eq. (11.18), while at
lower
stresses
nucleation
becomes difficult and the lifetime increases drastically.

16.2.2
Crack-like diffusive growth and continuous nucleation
The general result for the growth rate in the

cavity
growth
was
given
in
limit
of
crack-like
diffusive
eq. (11.44). Again, the growth rate has not the
power-law form assumed in eq. (16.3), which allows for similarity solutions for
the
cavity
size
diffusion where
R~
distribution function. However, in the limit of slow surface

0 3 , eq. (11.46), the growth rate is independent of Rand t
if the dependence on (1-w) is neglected, i.e. a
a=
O. For a time-independent
nucleation rate, the rupture time is found by solving

setting
W=
eq.
(16.7)
for
and
wf :
(16.16)
If J* ~
= Bon, the rupture time exhibits a stress dependence t f ~ 1/o2+n/3.
16.2.3
Constrained diffusive growth and continuous nucleation
The analysis of constrained cavitation in Chapter 12 has shown that constrained

cavitation
is
synonymous
Therefore it is
unlik~ly
continues
boundaries
on
with
small
stresses on the cavitating boundaries.
that cavity nucleation, which requires high

that
undergo
constrained
cavitation.
nucleation then means that new boundaries, which were not
previously
stresses,
Continuous
damaged,
develop cavities. The continuous nucleation of practically traction-free facets

was considered
in
Section
12.7.2
and
12.7.3,
and
that
is
probably
the
appropriate way of dealing with continuous nucleation in the constrained-growth

regime. Nevertheless, the less convincing approach,
which
assumes
continuous
16.
232
cavity nucleation on already cavitated boundaries, is briefly described next.

In the limit of creep-constrained cavity growth, the growth rate
eq.
is
given
by
(12.5). If the sintering stress is neglected, the growth rate has the pow-
er-law form,
(A/R)2. The cavity spacing, A, is determined by the number
of
cavities already nucleated,
1//
(16.17)
f J*dt
so that B = 2 and a = Y+1. For time-independent nucleation, Y = 0,
eq.
(16.7)
gives the time to cavity coalescence on isolated boundary facets, tc
where r(2/3)
the time to
3n(1+3/n)
c
J*
1/3
)
a; hew)
(a~
e; d)
2/3
wf
2r(2/3)
( 16.18)
1.354. It should be emphasized that tc cannot be expected to
r~ture
be
if cavity growth is constrained. An alternative form of the
result is obtained if the cavity spacing
at
coalescence,
introduced instead of the nucleation rate:
Ac = (J*t c )-1/2
is
(16.19)
wf = n/4 and uniaxial tension.

Comparison with the second term of eq. (12.11) shows that continuous nucleation
The second line is for
n = 5,
heW) = 0.61,
compared
to
instantaneous
1.7 w~/2
wf = n/4)
nucleation of all cavities at the beginning of the
increases the time to coalescence by a factor

test. Therefore, it is almost irrelevant
n~~erically
(=
1.2
for
whether cavity
nucleation
on boundaries undergoing constrained cavitation is continuous or instantaneous.

Another alternative to present the time to coalescence is
nucleation rate by J* = a'E. Equation (16.18) then becomes
to
express
the
(16.20)
with n = 5, hew) = 0.61 and a:la~ = 1 as above. The dependence on
nucleation rate, a', resembles the empirical relation given in eq. (5.2).
the
16.2
233
For later use we note that the whole problem, starting at eq.
formulated
(16.1),
sis parallels that in terms of time, but now no assumption as to the

of
the
can
be
using strain instead of time as an independent variable. The analy-
strain
constancy
rate is needed. The results remain the same if in eqs. (16.19)
and (16.20) the product Etc is replaced by the time-integral on E from 0 to tc.
J* = 2a"E 2t as in eq. (16.10), and if

cavity growth is constrained, the time to cavity coalescence is
If the cavity nucleation rate is given by
(16.21)
16.2.4
Inhibited cavity growth and continuous nucleation
Inhibited cavity growth rates as treated in Chapter 13 exhibit the same dependencies on cavity spacing and cavity size as constrained growth rates. Therefore
the results of the preceding subsection can be transferred to inhibited growth.
In particular, the conclusion remains true that continuous nucleation extends
the time to coalescence by some 20% compared to instantaneous nucleation. Thus
the
time to coalescence, which can be identified with the rupture lifetime for
inhibited cavity growth, is given by eq. (13.7) multiplied by 1.2.

16.2.5
Plastic hoie growth and continuous nucleation
The cavity growth rate by creep flow of the matrix is given by eq. (14.19),
if
R = [0.37/h(1jI)]RE, I.e. a
0,
B = -1. Unfortunately, the case B = -1 is a degenerate case in eq. (16.5),
but
only
for
uniaxial
tension
is
considered. Then is
time-independent J*, a steady-state solution for the cavity size distribu-
tion function is possible, N = J*/R. Then eq. (16.7) can be integrated from
Ro
(the
size at which cavities are nucleated) to Rmax ' which follows by integrating the cavity growth law to be R
R exp[0.37E/h(1jI)]. Resolving for strain
max
0
and setting; = wf leads to the strain to failure
(16.22)
where h(1jI)
of
0.61 was inserted. If J*
E, the strain to failure is independent
stress, but eq. (16.22) usually predicts an absolute value of several hund-
red per cent. This is too large to be applicable to creep rupture conditions.
234
16.
16.3 Comparison of Calculated Rupture Tunes with Experiments

Involving Continuous Nucleation
16.3.1
Rupture lifetimes of ferritic steels
Needham (1983) reports rupture lifetimes of several ferritic steels along

measured
cavity
with
nucleation rates and creep strain rates, so that the data can
be compared unambiguously
with
subsection.
example from that investigation, Fig. 16.2 shows the
As
first
the
lifetimes
calculated
in
the
preceding
rupture lifetime of 2 /.Cr-1Mo steel austenized at 950 0 C having a grain size of

1
18
~m
(steel No.1 in Needham's notation). Measured cavity growth rates in that
material were given in Fig. 12.2, which also showed that the constrained growth
model
agrees
with
the
observed
growth
rates.
The solid line in Fig. 16.2
represents the time to cavity coalescence, tc' calculated for constrained

growth from eq. (16.18), whereas the dashed line is the time to rupture for
unconstrained growth as calculated from eq. (16.9). Numerical values for J* and
~ were taken from Needham's report, Q6Db is given in Appendix A, and for wf and
the following plausible values were chosen: wf = ~/4, h(~) = 0.61. In the
h(~)
stress
range
considered, the constrained model leads to greater rupture times
than the free diffusive model. Since the slower of the two processes determines
the rate, the constrained model is the appropriate one here .
constrained
10'
uncon- ,
strained "
100
"-
150
(5
, ......
2(1J 250
in MPa --
Fig. 16.2. Rupture lifetime of 2 1 /.Cr-1Mo steel. Solid line: eq. (16.18).
Dashed line: eq. (16.9). (From .Riedel, 1985c).
16.3
235
Interestingly, the constrained growth model

to
factor
1.5,
although
the
predicts
the
data
to
within
time to cavity coalescence is not obviously
related to the time to rupture, if cavity growth is constrained as was pointed

out in Section 12.3. Apparently, the joining of the cavitating facets, which is
rate controlling in the constrained-growth regime, obeys similar
kinetic
laws
as constrained cavity growth. The curve for unconstrained growth underestimates

the lifetime, but by not more than by a factor 4. This shows that unconstrained
diffusive
growth,
in
conjunction with continuous nucleation, may lead to the
correct order of magnitude for t f , although the cavity growth rate is sUbstantially overestimated as was shown in Fig. 12.2.
Figure 16.3 shows the same type of comparison for a 1Cr-1/2Mo steel in two
differently heat-treated conditions. The data were taken from Needham's (1983)
report. Cavity growth rates for the material austenized at the ordinary austenizing
the
temperature
circular
experimental
of
symbols
data,
930 0 C were given previously in Fig. 12.2. In Fig. 16.3,

refer
while
to
the
that
open
material:
symbols
closed symbols
bound
the
represent
ranges in which the
theoretical formulas were evaluated. Square symbols represent data for the
mater.ial austenized at 1300 oC. The high austenizing temperature was chosen in
order to simulate the conditions in the neat-affected
zone
of
weld.
This
special heat treatment leads to the precipitation of finely dispersed MnS-part-
D. Gust. 1300e
10'
t
<:
.5;
Gust. 930e
0....
lQ1
0.....
....
1~
,
"-
, ......
"- . . . . I ....... ,
........
"II ........
"'-
"-
. "
550e
"'""'1er-'izMo steel
10
100
150
(j
in MPa
'"0
--
200
250 300
Fig. 16.3. Rupture lifetimes of two heats of 1Cr- 1/ 2Mo steel.

Solid lines: constrained growth, eq. (16.18). Dashed lines:
unconstrained growth, eq. (16.9). The open symbols bound the
ranges in which the equations were evaluated. (From Riedel, 1985c).
236
16.
icles on prior austenite grain boundaries. Since the sulfides nucleate cavities
easily,
the nucleation rate increases, and therefore the rupture lifetimes are
reduced. In addition, the high austenizing temperature increases the grain size
88 ~ compared to 18 ~m in the material austenized at 930 oC, and the coarse
to
grain size affects the time to cavity coalescence

constrained
the data is poor in this example.

predictions
adversely
in
the
case
of
growth. Apparently, the agreement of the calculated lifetimes with

of
the
The
data
lie
about
halfway
between
the
constrained and the unconstrained models, and differ from
both by factors between 2 and 10.

Figure 16.4 shows rupture
(1979).
lifetimes
of
steel
21/~Cr-1Mo
measured
by
Cane
Measured cavity growth rates from that investigation were shown previ-
ously in Fig. 12.3. The material exhibits relatively poor creep rupture properties since it was given the heat treatment involving austenization at 1300 oC,
which results in an unfavorable distribution of sulfides. Figure 16.4 illustrates
the
effect of continuous as compared to instantaneous nucleation. For un-
constrained growth, the rupture lifetime is substantially

are formed continuously than if all cavities
~ere
longer
if
cavities
present from the start of the
test. This is demonstrated by the two dashed lines in Fig. 16.4, which are calculated from eqs. (11.18) and (16.9), respectively.
10CX1J
--!\............
. . . . . -..
lCX1J
.
contmuous
nucleation
unconstrain~" "-
1 j
100
(The curve for instantane-
'\~
instantaneous "
_____ ::~~~n~~
2'4 Cr-1Mo steel 565-C
10~--------~----~----~
50
100
150
200
oinMPa __
Fig. 16.4. Rupture lifetime of overheated 21/~Cr-1Mo steel after Cane (1979).
The theoretical curves correspond to eqs. (11.18), (16.8), (12.11) and (16.18)
(from bottom to top). (From Riedel, 1985c).
16.3
237
ous nucleation and unconstrained growth

spacing,
A,
increases
is
slightly
from approximately 4.5
bent
to 5.2
since
the
cavity
at higher stresses
according to Cane's observations). On the other hand, if cavity growth is
con-
for the"time to coalescence whether all

cavities are nucleated at the beginning of the test or continuously throughout
the test. This is shown by the solid lines, which represent eqs. (12.11) and
(16.18), respectively. In this case, the agreement between the calculated time
to coalescence by constrained growth and the measured rupture lifetime is
excellent considering the fact that no adjustable parameters are used.
strained,
it
is
almost
irrelevant
The effect of the sintering stress on the rupture lifetime, which

in
was
studied
Section 11.1.3, was examined in relation to the data of Cane (1979). It was
found from eq. (11.22) that regarding the sintering stress
raises
the
bottom
Needham and Gladman (1980) tested Type 347 stainless steel at 550 0 C and
650 0 C.
curve in Fig. 16.4 by at most 5%.

16.3.2
Lifetimes of austenitic steels
Measured
cavity
growth
growth rates in Fig.

nucleate
rates
12.4.
continuously
at
In
a
in this material were compared with calculated

these
constant
experiments,
cavities
were
found to
11
rate J* = a'E with a' = 8.10 /m2 . The
or
growth were calculated from eqs. (16.9) and (16.18), respective-
rupture lifetimes resulting from this nucleation rate and from

unconstrained
lY. The results are shown in Fig. 16.5 together with
constrained
Needham's
and
Gladman's
data.
The agreement of the constrained growth model with the data is good, but
to a lesser extent at 650 0 C than at 550 oC. Thus again one observes that the
time
to
coalescence by constrained growth is about equal to the time to rupt-
ure, although there is no obvious reason that the two quantities should be
rectly
related.
with continuous nucleation, also gives the

qualitatively
di-
Interestingly, the unconstrained growth model, in combination
correct
dependence
on
right
order
of
magnitude
and
stress. Obviously, if nucleation occurs
continuously, the rupture lifetime is sometimes relatively insensitive to the

cavity growth mechanism. Conversely, this example illustrates the difficulty of
investigating growth kinetics by lifetime measurements.
figure 16.6 shows rupture lifetimes of
specimens
tested
Type
316
stainless
steel
bi-crystal
by Gandhi and Raj (1982). The diffusive growth model in com-
bination with a constant number of cavities leads to a lifetime, given

(11.18),
which is
represented by the dashed line.
in
eq.
This theory underestimates
16.
238
10000
347 stainlessstee/
'\
, 1000
--<:
.s;:
10 6
10 5
\I)
'\
10'
'\
100
10J
50
"-
200
150
(fin
977K
bicrystals
316 stainless st.
Gandhi and Raj
-- ---
---
300
MPa
100
(j
400
in MPa
the data by more than two orders of magnitude. In bi-crystal

be
due
to
---
200
Fig. 16.6. Rupture lifetime of Type

316 stainless steel bicrystals
(Gandhi and Raj, 1982). Solid line:
eq. (16.9). Dashed line: eq. (11.18).
(From Riedel, 1985c).
Fig. 16.5. Rupture lifetime of Type

347 stainless steel (Needham and
Gladman, 1980). Solid lines: eq.
(16.18). Dashed lines: eq. (16.9).
(From Riedel, 1985c).
cannot
A=2!J.m
unconstr.~:
100
experiments
this
polycrystalline constraint, but continuous, rather than
instantaneous, nucleation can increase the rupture time. The solid line in Fig.
16.6
is calculated for diffusive growth and continuous nucleation as described
by eq. (16.9). Unfortunately, Gandhi and Raj do not provide all data
to
evaluate
necessary
eq. (16.9). Therefore the nucleation rate was assumed to obey the
relation J* = a'E; a' was chosen to fit the solid line to the data as
12 2
a' = 310 1m, which is slightly higher than the value for a' observed by
Needham and Gladman
B = 3'10-25 MPa- 8 1 Is
(1980).
by
The
creep
extrapolation
coefficient
of
was
assumed
to
be
Needham and Gladman's data to the
testing temperature of 977 K. Owing to these uncertainties the
absolute
value
of the theoretical rupture time should not be taken seriously, but the slope is
predicted as -(3n+2)/5 = - 5.26 independent of these uncertainties, which is in
reasonable agreement with the data.
The prolonged lifetimes of the bi-crystal specimens compared to
cavity
the
diffusive
growth model could possibly be a consequence of an inhibition of cavity
growth as described in Chapter 13. Inhibited growth models, however, predict

slope
of
- n = - 8.1
observed slope.
in
Fig.
16.6, which is significantly steeper than the
16.3
16.3.3
239
Rupture lifetimes of astroloy
Shiozawa and Weertman (1983) performed creep rupture tests on the nickel-base
superalloy 'astroloy' at 750 oC. By giving the material appropriate prestraining
and annealing treatments, they were able to generate cavities preferentially on
grain
boundaries
having a special orientation. The pre-cavitated material was
then creep tested with the cavitated boundaries

transverse
oriented
times. Material which was pre-cavitated on grain

direction
either
parallel
or
to the applied stress. Figure 16.7 shows the measured rupture lifeboundaries
parallel
to
the
of the creep strain behaves similarly to material which was not pre-
strained at
all,
whereas,
not
surprisingly,
pre-cavitation
on
transverse
boundaries leads to much shorter lifetimes.

Figure 16.7 also shows calculated lifetimes. The bottom two lines relate to the
material pre-cavitated on transverse boundaries. Equations (11.18) and (12.11),
which are valid for instantaneous cavity nucleation,
fixed
cavity
spacing
of
A= 2
~m,
were
a grain size of d
evaluated
90
~m,
using
the diffusion
coefficient, oD b , reported in Section 12.4.1 for Nimonic 80A, and heW) = 0.61.
Strain rates have been given by Shiozawa and Weertman (1983) as E = 1.4.10-6 /s
at a = 500 MPa and E = 3.6.10-6 /s at 650 MPa. With these values, the time to
cavity coalescence
predicted by the constrained
growth
model,
eq. (12.11),
astroloy
1000
750C
1(Xl
250
300
400
(J
500
650
inMPo -
Fig. 16.7. Rupture lifetimes of astroloy for virgin material (triangle) and
for material pre-cavitated on boundaries parallel to stress axis (open
squares) and transverse to stress axis (solid squares), from Shiozawa
and Weertman (1983). Theoretical curves for constrained and unconstrained growth and for continuous and inst'antaneous nucleation.
16.
240
approximately agrees with the solid squares, while
unconstrained
growth,
eq.
(11.18), underestimates the lifetime.

In material which was not prestrained, the cavity spacing was found by metallographic inspection to decrease inversely proportional to strain as described by
eq. (16.10) with the empirical factor ex" having the value
rupture
lifetime
ex" = 3'1 012/m 2
The
is then given by eq. (16.11) for unconstrained growth and by
(16.21) for completely constrained growth. In addition to the numerical
values
given above, wf = ~/4 was used in preparing the top two curves in Fig. 16.7.
Interestingly, unconstrained growth leads to longer lifetimes than does
completely constrained growth. Among these two growth mechanisms the slower one
should determine the lifetime, i.e. the constraint should not be
the
cavitation
of
the
effective
in
virgin material, and eq. (16.11) should be valid. The
agreement of eq. (16.11) with the data represented by the triangle and the open
squares
in
Fig. 16.7 is satisfactory. Final conclusions cannot be drawn since
the stress ranges in which rupture lifetimes have been measured

the equation can be evaluated do not overlap, because data for
and
in
which
are lacking at
smaller stresses.
16.4 Density Changes During Cavitation

Density measurements have often
investigate
its
kinetics.
From
been
the
applied
cavity
to
detect
cavitation
and
change in specific volume can be calculated as an integral over the volumes

the
individual
cavities.
For
cube-shaped
to
size distribution function, the

grains
of
with cube axis d and with
cavitation on all boundaries normal to the applied stress the
relative
volume
change by cavitation is:

l1V/V = (lid) J N(R,t) (4~/3)h(IjJ)R3 dR,
(16.23)
where an equilibrium cavity shape was assumed. With N(R,t) from eq. (16.5)
intgral can be evaluated and leads to:
l1V IV
[4~h(IjJ)/3dJ A A3/ (B+1) t Y+1 +3(1-ex)/(1+6) IV I (6+1),

2
where the dimensionless factor Iv is given by
the
(16.24)
16.4
Density Changes
241
for Cl '" 1
(16.25)
for Cl
The second argument of the Beta function, w, depends on the sign of 1-Cl, viz.,
for Cl < 1
w = (1 +y) I ( 1-Cl)
(16.26)
w
(1+Y)/(Cl-1) -
for Cl ) 1.
3/(6+1)
The numerical value of IV is of no interest here. Rather the dependencies on

time and on the nucleation and growth kinetics will be discussed, which are
contained in A2 and A1 , respectively. As an example, we consider a constant
nucleation rate, J* = A2 = Cl'E, together with diffusive cavity growth. With the
approximations made in Section 16.2.1, the diffusive cavity growth
the
rate
takes
power-law form of eq. (16.3) with Cl = 0 and 6 = 2. Then, from eq. (16.24),
the volume change becomes

AVIV
(16.27)
2
A linear dependence of the volume change on Et

but
usually
= Et has often
been
observed,
with an additional stress dependence, as in the following example
on constrained growth.
In the limiting case of creep-constrained cavity growth a
calculate
direct
approach
to
the volume change is simpler. The volume growth rate of a cavitating
grain facet was given in eq. (12.2). If Nmc is the number of cavitating facets
per unit volume (the subscript means 'microcracks', since facets undergoing
constrained
increases
cavitation
behave
mechanically like microcracks) and if Nmc

in proportion to strain, Nmc d3 = 6E, as assumed in eq. (12.33), then
the total volume change by the cavitating facets is given by

AVIV
(16.28)
This can be written as AVIV ~ Eta n exp(-Q/RT), which describes data by

and
Gladman
(1980)
for
Type
energy for power-law creep).
347
Needham
stainless steel well (Q is the activation
17 Summary of Results on Cavity Nucleation

and Growth
Grain-boundary cavitation is the dominant failure mode of many

and
ceramic
metals,
alloys
materials at temperatures between about a third and two thirds of
the melting temperature and at low

associated
with
relatively
applied
low
stresses.
Cavitation
the
~ucti1ity,
is
fracture
usually
path
being
intergranular. The regime of cavitation failure is bounded at high stresses
by
transgranular dimpled fracture or, in some materials, by transgranular cleavage

fracture.
At
high
recrystallization
temperatures,
prevent
the
grain
cavitation
boundary
of
migration
grain
and
dynamic
boundaries. At very low
stresses and lew temperatures, cavitation certainly proceeds
very
slowly
and
possibly stops when no stable cavities can be nucleated.
17.1 Nucleation
If a critical stress for cavity nucleation
10 MPa
in
pure
metals
exists,
it
certainly
these stresses cavity formation Is still observed to occur. The

cavity
nucleation
sites
lies
below
and well below 100 MPa in engineering alloys since at

in
metals
most
frequent
and alloys are grain boundary particles,
triple grain junctions and ledges in grain boundaries. Another important observation is that cavity nucleation occurs continuously over substantial fractions
of the creep life, the number of cavities being approximately
proportional
to
creep strain.
The theories of cavity nucleation by the rupturing of atomic bonds or by vacancy
condensation
described in Chapter 6 are not directly compatible with these
observations. Cavity nucleation by vacancy condensation would be

occur
at
stresses
above
typically
5,360 f~/2 MPa,
function fv characterizes the shape of the cavity
predicted
to
where the dimensionless
nucleus.
(For
spherical
nucleus Is fv = 4w/3). It is unlikely that fv has values very much less than
unity in all materials which cavitate. Therefore, there is a gap between the
17.1
243
Nucleation
observed and the calculated nucleation stress.

In order to bridge the gap, local stress concentrations
grain
junctions
at
particles,
triple
and grain boundary ledges were considered in Chapter 7. Grain
boundary sliding plays a role by contributing to the stress concentrations, but

it
will usually not be the overriding factor for the cavity nucleation process
in engineering materials. It was found that the local stress

grain
are oriented favorably for sliding. On boundaries

stress,
there
is
less
correspondingly smaller.
preferentially.
(The
or
no
sliding
Nevertheless,
apparent
and
transverse
the
stress
by
transverse
localized
slip
bands
such
boundaries
as
the
nickel
base
which
cavity
nucleation.
the
applied
cavitate
If
cavity
tend
to
superalloys,
concentrations at the intersection of slip bands and grain

to
to
concentrations are
even
preference may be due to cavity growth, but at
any event, nucleation must occur first). In materials
lead
concentration
boundary sliding can hardly exceed a factor 10 or 20 on boundaries which
develop
the
boundary
stress
particles
nucleation is triggered by slip band
formation, it is conceivable that nucleation occurs
continuously,
since
slip
bands are also formed throughout the creep life.

If a material contains nonadherent or weakly bonded particles on
grain
bound-
aries, such as sulfides in steels, cavities are easily nucleated at these particles. For some types of precipitates,
interface
is
affected
by
the
the
strength
segregation
of
of
the
particle/matrix
trace impurities. Oxides and
carbides, for example, tend to nucleate cavities preferentially in the presence

of
(even
very
smal~)
quantities of sulfur. Whether cavity formation at these
interfaces occurs by decohesion, i.e. by the rupturing of atomic bonds,
or
by
vacancy condensation is not yet clear. Observations and theories related to the
segregation of impurities to interfaces were described in Chapter 8.
The precipitation of gases under high
assist
pressure
into
the
cavity
nuclei
may
cavity nucleation under conditions where hydrogen attack, oxygen attack
or helium embrittlement can take place (Chapter 9). It
is
unlikely,
however,
that these effects playa key role under ordinary creep rupture conditions.
17.2 Cavity Growth Rates and Rupture Lifetimes

for Instantaneous Nucleation
The growth of cavities by stress-directed grain
boundary
diffusion
has
been
analyzed in Chapter 11 for the limiting cases of equilibrium void shapes (rapid
17.
244
Summary on Cavity Nucleation and Growth
surface diffusion) and of crack-like void shapes (slow surface diffusion).

models
for
The
diffusive cavity growth lead to growth rates and rupture lifetimes
which differ substantially from what is usually observed.

The discrepancy can, at least partly, be resolved by noting that diffusive cavity growth rates should be constrained by the material surrounding a cavitating
boundary facet, if the strain rate is below a certain
(Chapter
12).
transition
strain
rate
In fact, it has been found that most tests on commercial alloys
are performed in the constrained regime. Observed
cavity
growch
rates
agree
with the constrained growth model.

However, the constrained growth model is not
rupture
lifetimes
for
suited
for
the
calculation
reasons pOinted out in Section 12.3. Nevertheless, the
time to cavity coalescence calculated from the constrained growth

agrees
model
often
with measured rupture lifetimes. In the limit of completely constrained
growth, the model predicts a constant

often
of
Monkman-Grant
product,
Et f ,
which
is
be
the
observed~
Theoretically, the joining of cavitating grain boundary facets

rate-controlling
step
under
constrained
should
growth conditions. This process has
been investigated using self-consistent models and other models for facet-facet
interactions in Section 12.6.
The inhibition of diffusive cavity growth by a lack of vacancies near the growing
cavities or by difficulties to accommodate atoms in particle/matrix inter-
faces has been considered in Chapter 13. The importance of the effect has
estimated
been
by linking it to the phenomenon of inhibited Coble creep. The analy-
sis suggests that inhibition should become effective at
stresses
below
those
usually applied in creep rupture tests.

The continuum plastic hole growth mechanism leads to a
product,
but
it
growth
Monkman-Grant
dominates only at high stresses (Chapter 14). In the experi-
ments evaluated, there was no

Cavity
constant
indication
that
this. mechanism
predominated.
at grain boundary ledges by grain boundary sliding was found to
be too slow to account for observed growth rates, since sliding in polycrystals
is usually constrained (Section 14.2). Similarly, diffusive growth with elastic
or creep accommodation played no
role
in
the
analysis
of
the
except, maybe, in the growth of cracks in ceramics (Chapter 15).
experiments
17.2
245
Cavity Growth Rates and Rupture Lifetimes
continuum hoe grO'Nth

eq. (11.1,7)
constrained or inhibited, with

creep accommodation
constrained with diffusive accommodation
eq. (11./,)
log (stress) ___
Fig. 17.1. Calculated cavity growth rates (schematic).
Figure 17.1 gives a somewhat simplified picture

calculated
from
of
the
cavity
growth
rates
various models and it shows schematically the ranges in which
different mechanisms predominate. Of course, real materials do not
necessarily
exhibit all of the mechanisms indicated depending on material parameters and on
constrained, diffusive accommodation
constrained or inhibited, creep

accommodation, eq. 02.11)
Q,;
....
eq. (11.23)
-~
fluctuations near sintenng
stress
'---~
crack-Ii ke diffusive
continuum hole growth, eq.
log (stress) - - - -
Fig. 17.2. Calculated lifetimes for instantaneous nucleation (schematic).
246
17.
Summary on Cavity Nucleation and Growth
the cavity size and spacing. If, for example, the surface diffusion coefficient
is
large, crack-like cavity growth may have no range of validity between equi-
librium diffusive growth and plastic hole growth. Figure

times
to
17.2
summarizes
the
cavity coalescence calculated for instantaneous cavity nucleation at
the beginning of the test. In many cases, the time

approximately
equal
to
the
time
to
cavity
coalescence
is
to rupture, but in the case of constrained
growth, this relation is questionable.
17.3 Rupture Lifetimes for Continuous Nucleation

In engineering alloys, cavity nucleation usually occurs continuously,
the
rupture
time
is
affected
by
the
nucleation
complicated manner. A formalism to deal with

Chapter
16.
The
theory
is
based
on
this
the
so
that
and growth kinetics in a
problem
was
developed
in
evolution law of the cavity size
distribution function, which incorporates both, nucleation and growth kinetics.

The
importance
of
continuous
growth mechanism. If
nucleation
leads
diffusive
to
much
versus instantaneous nucleation depends on the

cavity
greater
cavities had been present from the

growth,
on
the
other
hand,
growth
lifetimes
beginning
the
is
unconstrained,
than
of
would be obtained if all
the
test.
For
Fig.
16.4.
Using
illustrated
the models for free and constrained diffusive growth in
cOnjunction with continuous nucleation leads to rupture lifetimes

well
constrained
time to cavity coalescence is not strongly
influenced by the kinetics of cavity nucleation. This behavior was

in
continuous
which
agree
with measured data for many materials. However, it should be kept in mind
that the use of the

questionable.
constrained
growth
model
in
lifetime
calculations
is
18 Grain Boundary Cavitation Under

Creep-Fatigue Conditions
18.1 Micromechanisms of Creep-Fatigue Failure

Engineering structures are often subjected to variable, rather than merely constant,
loads. Cyclic loading causes a degradation of materials which is called
fatigue. Fatigue damage can be subdivided into two broad categories.

The first one consists in the formation and propagation
mechanism
predominates
at
room
of
microcracks.
This
temperature and is frequent also at elevated
temperatures. Its discussion is postponed until after
the
stress
and
strain
fields at cracks have been described (Chapter 28).

Second, fatigue failure may also occur by more or less
of
homogeneous
cavitation
grain boundaries over the whole cross section of a specimen, rather than by
the growth of a dominant crack. Cavitation is preferred at higher

and
temperatures
by loading wave-shapes which involve slow tension-going and fast compress-
ion-going strain rates, i.e. long hold times at tensile stresses (Fig. 18.1).
a.
a.
Fig. 18.1. (a) Balanced wave-shape. (b) Slow-fast, strain-reversed loading.

The strain is assumed to be prescribed, the stress response
of the material is shown schematically.
18.
248
Cavitation under Creep-Fatigue Conditions
In some cases, however, symmetric loading cycles may also cause cavitation. The
strong
effect of the wave-shape was demonstrated, for example, by Majumdar and
Maiya (1979), Sidey and Coffin (1979), Hales (1980) and Baik and Raj
1983).
While
the
crack
(1982a,b,
nucleation and propagation mode of fracture is often
very sensitive to the chemical environment (Coffin, 1972, Ericsson, 1979),
the
cavitational mode is relatively insensitive (Maiya, 1981). The transition between the cavitational mode and microcrack propagation depends strongly on material and wave-shape and is very sensitive to environment.
There are materials like the aluminum alloy studied by Baik and
which
do
Raj
(1982a,b)
not fail by cavitation in unidirectional creep but do so under slow-
fast cyclic loading. The reason for this behavior is that, under constant load,
failure
by
transgranular
hole growth or necking intervenes when the cavities
are still very small. In fatigue, however, plastic

which
are
hole
growth
and
necking,
strain-controlled processes, are reversed within each cycle. (Tests
are usually conducted under complete strain reversal). Diffusive cavity growth,
on
the
other
hand,
is
a stress-controlled process. Hence, the tensile mean
stress associated with slow-fast cycles leads to an overall enlargement of
the
cavities in each cycle.

The fatigue maps introduced by Collins, Sidey and Taplin (1979) are an
to
attempt
display the ranges of stress, temperature, loading frequency and wave-shape
within which different micromechanisms predominate. It is hopeless to

the
extensive
evaluate
literature on creep-fatigue-environment interactions and to in-
clude the results in a brief chapter of this book. Therefore only a few
examp-
les will be selected which highlight the most important aspects. There are more
comprehensive reviews on various aspects available, for example those by Coffin
(1977),
Taplin
and
Collins
(1978), Ericsson (1979), Tomkins (1981), Snowden
(1981) and the b06k edited by Skelton (1983). The cavitational mode of
failure
will
be
fatigue
described and analyzed in some detail next, while microcrack
propagation will be studied in Chapter 28.
18.2 Theories o{Cavitational Failure for Slow-Fast Fatigue Loading

If fatigue failure is brought about by the
growth
and
coalescence
of
grain
boundary cavities, one expects that the models for cavity nucleation and growth
described in the preceding sections should also be applicable to calculate
the
number of cycles to failure. There is, however, a remarkable observation which,
18.2
Theories of Cavitation Failure
249
at least at first sight, cannot be reconciled with any

discussed
so
far.
of
the
grain boundary cavitation even if the load cycles are balanced,

tensile
part
of
growth
models
A few materials, for example copper and magnesium, exhibit

i.e.,
if
the
the load cycle is identical with the compressive part except
that the sign is reversed. In this case, the cavity growth models would predict
that
the
average
cavity growth rate is zero (or even negative because of the
sintering stress). Nevertheless, copper cavitates readily under balanced cyclic

loading
both,
at
high
loading
frequencies
and low amplitudes (Saegusa and
Weertman, 1978), and at low frequencies and high amplitudes (Sidey and
Coffin,
1979, Baik and Raj, 1983). This problem will be addressed in Section 18.4.
Compared to balanced
unbalanced,
loading,
slow-fast
the
fatigue
life
drops
significantly
under
loading. This drop in fatigue life will be explained on
the basis of the cavity nucleation and growth models described in the preceding
sections.
Beere
and
Roberts
(1982) have examined this question earlier, but
with little success. They assumed the cavity density to be constant and,
for
this
maybe
reason, obtained poor agreement with low-cycle fatigue tests. In the
following it will turn out that continuous cavity nucleation is important.

18.2.1
Cycles to failure for unconstrained diffusive cavity growth
Here, fatigue failure by unconstrained diffusive cavity growth

The
cavity
is
growth rate is given by eq. (11.14). Neglecting possible transient
effects, for example by elastic accommodation, the result is valid

loading
as
considered.
well.
If
all
for
cyclic
cavities are already present at the beginning of a
test, integration of the cavity growth law leads to the rupture time, t f , given
in
eq. (11.18), where now the stress is replaced by its time average, o. If
v~
is the loading frequency, the number of cycles to failure is

(18.1)
This result will not have great practical
cr,
relevance
since
it
predicts
that
Nf ~ v~ /
whereas in the empirical Manson-Coffin law the freqency dependence
is much weaker and the main dependence is that on the applied nonelastic strain
range, i.e.,
(18.2)
with the empirical exponents a
0.2 to 0.4 and fl
1 to 4. (Many of
the
data
18.
250
which underly the Manson-Coffin law correspond to failure by crack propagation.

Therefore care must be exercised when these data are compared with models based
on
cavitation.
However, there are also well documented cases where eq. (18.2)
applies, while cavitation is the dominant failure mode).

In fatigue tests, just as
usually
nucleate
in
unidirectional
creep
rupture
tests,
cavities
continuously rather than instantaneously at the beginning of
the test. In creep rupture tests, it has been found empirically that the number
of cavities often increases in proportion to creep strain. Although the reasons
for this behavior are not quite clear, it is likely that it has to do with slip
band
formation
or
other
strain-related
processes, which may trigger cavity
nucleation. These processes do not depend on the sign of straining.

in
the
absence
Therefore,
of direct experimental evidence, we assume that, under cyclic
straining, too, the cavity nucleation rate is related to the magnitude
of
the
nonelastic strain rate by

J*
where
11'
11'
I Ene I ,
(18.3)
is an empirical factor which should ideally be of similar magnitude as
that found in creep rupture tests. Of course, cavity nucleation cannot continue
at a constant rate up to very high accumulated
cavity
density
would
become
strains,
unrealistically
relation, eq. (18.3), certainly ceases to be
since
high.
valid
otherwise
Therefore
when
the
the
cavity
growth
leads
the
simple
density
approaches a certain saturation value.

Continuous cavity nucleation combined with
rupture
lifetime,
diffusional
to
the
t f , given in eq. (16.9). For cyclic loading, the stress and
the nucleation rate must be replaced by their time averages, Ci and

over a cycle). From eq. (18.3) is
J* =
J*
(averaged
2 1l'~neVt' where ~ne is the nonelastic
cyclic strain range. This, together with eq. (16.9), gives the number of cycles
to failure for continuous, strain-controlled cavity nucleation,
(18.4)
Experimental results are often plotted as a function of
rate
in
related to
the
Et
tension-going
part
of
~ne
and of the
strain
the cycle, ~t' The loading frequency is
and to the compression-going strain rate,
Ec '
by
(18.5)
18.2
251
Inserting this into eq. (18.4) gives the cycles to failure in terms
of
strain
range and strain rates:

h(~) kT
(1+Et /IE c
l)
Et
]2/5.
(18.6)
Q6DbG
The results given in eqs. (18.4) and (18.6) have a form similar to the
Manson-
Coffin law. (A more detailed comparison with experiments will follow later). In
addition to the dependences contained in the Manson-Coffin law, eqs. (18.4) and
(18.6) also predict a dependence on the average stress 0; Nf goes to infinity
if 0 goes to zero, i.e., if the load cycles are balanced. In this limiting
case, a new cavity growth mechanism must become effective in certain materials,
for example magnesium or copper, which fail by cavitation under balanced cyclic
loading, albeit with a much longer fatigue life than under slow-fast loading.
18.2.2
Cycles to failure for plastic hole grOwth
At high strain rates, the plastic hole growth mechanism described in Chapter 14
leads to higher growth rates than does the diffusive mechanism. Whether or not
plastic hole growth predominates depends on the magnitude of the characteristic
diffusive
length,
defined
i,
in
eq.
spacing. The author has calculated the
(4.17)
value
of
compared with cavity size and

i
for
the
experiments
of
Majumdar and Maiya (1979), Sidey and Coffin (1979) and Baik and Raj (1983), and
has found that i ranges from 0.4
and
is
~m
to 1.2
~m
for the tests on stainless
steel
an order of magnitude smaller for copper. Values of i in the submicron
range indicate that plastic hole growth plays on important role,
since
cavity
size and spacing are usually of the order of a micrometer.

Usually, fatigue tests are done such that the strain is fully reversed in
each
cycle. Since plastic hole growth is strain controlled, the net growth increment
in a cycle is zero. In reversed strain tests, the plastic hole growth mechanism
can
only
contribute
to
continuing
growth, if the cavity surface created in
tension is not completely removed in compression. Such an irreversibility could

be
caused
by
residual
elements
segregating
to the fresh surface. Since no
quantitative information is available on these irreversibilities,

be
said
irreversible surface formation. In this case, the cavity surface

proportion
nothing
can
about the cycles to failure, except in the extreme case of completely

to
6E
increases
in
in each cycle. During the compressive part of the cycle the
cavity is deformed into a flat crack-like shape, but with no rewelding
of
the
18.
252
crack
faces,
and
in
the
Cavity coalescence occurs
next
when
cycle another increment in surface is added.

the
cumulative
tensile
strain
reaches
the
critical value given in eqs. (14.24) or (16.22) for instantaneous or continuous

nucleation, respectively. Hence, in this limiting case, the number of cycles to
failure is
(18.7)
The strain to failure is predicted by the plastic hole growth mechanism in
order
of
few
hundred
per
the
cent, i.e. under cyclic loading conditions the
cumulative tensile strain to failure should have such a value,
if
indeed
the
formation of surface by plastic hole growth is irreversible. There is no reason

why the mechanism should not work for balanced cycling as well.
the
effect
of
the
irreversibilities,
which
Unfortunately,
are essential for a net cavity
growth increment per cycle, cannot be quantified easily.
18.2.3
Cycles to failure for constrained growth
For balanced cycles, the constrained cavity growth model (Chapter 12)
no
net
predicts
growth increment per cycle. Even unbalanced cycles, if they are strain
reversed and if cavity growth is fully creep-constrained in both parts

cycle,
ing ramp is so fast that the rate of cavity shrinkage is limited

rather
than
the
the
by
diffusion
by the polycrystalline constraint, a net growth increment results
in each cycle.
during
of
do not lead to a net growth increment. If, however, the compression-go-
I~
the extreme case of
compressive
part
of
the
very
fast
cycle
is
compression,
the
shrinkage
negligible,
and
only
the
tension-going ramp contributes to (constrained or unconstrained) cavity growth.

Here we assume that the tension-going ramp is so slow
creep-constrained
that
cavity
growth
is
during that part of the cycle, while cavity shrinkage during
rapid compression is assumed to be negligible. Then cavity
coalescence
occurs
the cumulative tensile creep strain, NfAE ne , reaches the critical value,
Ef ~ 0.37 Aid aC90rding to eq. (16.19). If cavity coalescence implies failure,
the fatigue life is given by
when
(18.8)
which is independent of loading frequency and temperature.
this
In
agreement
with
result, but without reference to a particular experimental investigation,
18.2
253
Collin, Sidey and Taplin (1979) remark that the product NfAEne
low
as
the
become
as
tensile ductility, i.e. of the order of 10%, at very low frequen-
cies. In the majority of cases, however, the observed fatigue

stantially
may
lives
are
sub-
greater than predicted by eq. (18.8). This is understandable, since
most tests are done outside the range of constrained growth.

18.2.4
Summary of fatigue lifetimes for different cavity growth mechanisms
The results of the preceding three subsections are shown schematically in

18.2.
The
fatigue
life
Fig.
is plotted as a function of temperature, with strain
range, frequency and the ratio Et/lEcl < 1) held constant. As the figure
shows, diffusive cavity growth prevails at intermediate temperatures. As long
as the accumulated strain 2AEneNf is not too large, cavities nucleate
continuously throughout the test and eq. ( 1 8.4) applies. The effects of
Nf ~ (vtT/6Db) 2/5
Nf , on the other hand, the cumulative strain becomes so large
frequency and temperature in this range are

For
very
large
described
by
that the cavity density saturates early in the fatigue life, so that it can
considered
as
being
effectively constant. Then the dependencies on frequency
and temperature are given by Nf
vt TI6D b according to eq. (18.1).
The range of diffusive growth is bounded at lower temperatures by

hole growth mechanism
the
plastic
which is independent of temperature and frequency if the
plastic hole
growthJl8.7 )
be
trans granular
crack
growth
instantaneous nucleation (18.1)

diffusive growth
nucleation,
constrained
(18.1.)
. . . . . . growth in
tension and
I
compression
constrained
growth in tensionJI8.8)
I
Fig. 18.2. Fatigue lifetime vs. temperature for slow-fast tests

predicted by theories for cavitation failure (schematic).
254
18.
formation of cavity surface is completely irreversible. Of course, the irreversibility
in surface formation, which is necessary for accumulated hole growth,
may depend on frequency and temperature in an as yet unknown way. In most
mat-
erials, the formation and propagation of fatigue cracks will intervene at lower
temperatures before plastic hole growth leads to failure
At high temperatures, diffusive growth becomes so fast that the imposed
strain
rate (which is kept constant in Fig. 18.2) can no longer accommodate the cavity
volume. Growth in the slow tension-going ramp becomes
constrained
first.
The
fatigue life is then approximately given by eq. (18.8), which is independent of

frequency and temperature.
At even higher
compressive
temperature,
part
the
shrinkage
of
the
cavities
in
the
short
of the cycle becomes significant compared to the constrained
growth during tension. In the limit of very fast diffusion (i.e., at very
temperatures),
cavity
growth
becomes
constrained
high
in either direction which
results in zero net growth and prolonged fatigue lifetimes.
18.3 Comparison with Results of Slow-Fast rests

18.3.1
Low cycle fatigue tests on AI-5%Mg
Baik and Raj (1982a,b) performed creep-fatigue tests on

high
an
AI-5%Mg
vacuum with a loadig frequency of 0.2 cycles per minute and a
strain range of 8ne = 1.6%.
Under
balanced
cyclic
loading,
alloy
in
on-elastic
they
observed
failure by transgranular microcrack propagation. Of particular interest for our

purposes are their unbalanced slow-fast tests with a tension-going strain rate
of t = 7.5'10-5 /s and a hundred times greater compression-going strain rate.
For this wave-shape, the fracture mode
was
intergranular
cavitation
in
the
temperature range 450 K to 550 K, and the number of cycles to failure exhibit a
behavior which is compatible with that predicted in Fig. 18.2.
It should be noted that Baik and Raj (1982a,b) offer a slightly
planation
ed. Following Min and Raj (1979a,b) they

plays
different
ex-
for their observation than ours, but the two explanations are relatcentral
role
in
argue
that
grain
boundary
sliding
cavitation failure by opening up wedge cracks. Now
grain boundary sliding in a polycrystal is constrained just as diffusive cavitation is constrained. The similarities are evident if the shear crack model for
18.3
Comparison with Results of Slow-Fast Tests
255
sliding (Chapter 7) and the tensile crack model for cavitation (Chapter 12) are
compared.
Therefore it is clear that, if the behavior can be explained by con-
strained cavity growth, it can also be explained
by
constrained
sliding.
If
sliding is constrained in the tension-going ramp and is diffusion-controlled in

the (faster) compression-going ramp, then a sliding
may
offset
accumulates.
This
open up wedge cracks and may lead to failure. The primary difference betw-
een the explanations by constrained cavitation and by
constrained
sliding
is
that the constrained sliding model predicts a sliding offset not only for slowfast tests, but also for fast-slow tests, whereas constrained cavitation
takes
place only in slow-fast tests. Since slow-fast cycles are generally observed to
be far more damaging than fast-slow cycles, the explanation based on constrained cavitation is preferred here.
18.3.2
Low-cycle fatigue tests on nickel
Lim and Raj (1984) tested pure nickel in vacuum with a frequency of 1 cycle per
= 310 =4 Is, IEC I = 1.510 -2 Is, and AEne = 1.35%. Up to a temperature
minute, E
t
of 573 K, failure occurred by transgranular crack propagation, whereas above
700 K,
cavitation
predominated.
The measured fatigue lives are shown in Fig.
18.3 together
with the prediction of eq. (18.4) using the following numerical

values: a' = 1.2.10 11 1m2 (fitted since unknown), oD bo = 3.510- 15 m3 /s,
la'
x
10 3
.r\ \.M
\ \
"\, .M
\
\
eq. (18.1)
x\
fvf
Ni ~=1,35%
x Cu L1=1,65%
Icpm
;;::,-
la'
I
lntergronular
.!::fixed
Iransgranular
10
3(1)
to)
5(J)
6ClJ
7!lJ 8I1J
T inK _ _
9JJ
1a:rJ
Fig. 18.3. Fatigue life of pure nickel and pure copper vs. temperature. Data
from Lim and Raj (1984b) and Baik and Raj (1983). Comparison with models.
256
18.
3 = 115 kJ/mol, wf = n/4, h(~) = 0.61, g = 1.0910 -29 m,

a = 400 MPa at 573 K
and a = 200 MPa at 873 K (estimated). The fitted value of the cavity nucleation
Qb
rate per unit strain, a', is within the
range
of
values
observed
rupture tests of other materials. It leads to a cavity spacing of A =
in
creep
l~m
after
310 cycles, which is compatible with the final spacing observed by Lim and Raj.
The
fatigue
life
in
the
whole range where cavitation prevails is less than
310 cycles so that continuous nucleation, which
underlies
eq.
(18.4),
is
valid assumption at temperatures above 650 0 K.

When the fatigue lifetime exceeds 310 cycles substantially, the cavity
saturates
and
eq.
(18.1),
denSity
which is based on instantaneous nucleation at the
beginning of the test, becomes the appropriate equation. The dashed-dotted line
in
18.3 represents eq. (18.1) with A = l~m,
Fig.
It has a very limited range of validity

temperatures
trans granular
crack
in
growth
this
a = 400
case,
intervenes,
MPa and h(~)

since
towards
while
towards
0.66.
lower
higher
temperatures continuous nucleation starts to playa dominant role.

The temperature at which the constraint starts to be effective can be estimated
from eq. (12.6). With A = 1.5 ~m, d = 150 ~m, q(w) = 1 and q' = 12.5, eq.
(12.6) predicts that cavitation in the tension-going ramp
strained
starts
be
con-
at around 1200 K. The constraint on the compression-going ramp starts
only beyond 1600 K, i.e., far outside the experimental range.

an
to
increase
Correspondingly,
in fatigue life at high temperatures is not observed, which would
be expected if cavitation were constrained in both parts of the cycle.

18.3.3
Low-cycle fatigue tests on copper
Figure 18.3 also shows data on OFHC-copper measured by Baik and Raj (1983). The
= 3.2 10 -4 Is, 1 Ec =
loading
frequency
was v t = 1 cpm, aEne = 1.65%, E
l
t
1.6 010-2 /s. The material response in terms of stress was
= 80 MPa at 573 K
0
and
a=
60 MPa at 673 K. Above 473 K failure occurred by cavitation. Not shown
in Fig. 18.3 are the experimental results on balanced cyclic loading for
the
fatigue
lives
were
factor
which
3 higher than for slow-fast loading above
373 K. At and below 373 K, where transgranular crack growth leads
to
failure,
the wave shape had no effect.

The theoretical curve in Fig. 18.3 represents eq.
(18.4) with the following

numerical values substituted for copper: oD bo = 005 010- 14 m3 /s, Qb = 104 kJ/mol,
g = 1.18 10-29 m3 , a' = 1.5 10 12 /m2 (fitted). This nucleation rate leads to a
0
18.3
257
Comparison with Results of Slow-Fast Tests
cavity
spacing
of
within
0.3~
100 cycles.
The agreement of the predicted
number of cycles to failure with the observed data

with
d
other
= 75~
models
and A =
(12.6),
the
such
0.5~
as
eq.
constraint
is
found
not
perfect,
although
(18.1) the agreement would be far worse. If
(assumed since
ion-going ramp and at 1300 K for the
is
not
reported)
are
inserted
into
eq.
to become effective at 900 K for the tenscompression-going
ramp.
At
least,
the
latter temperature is far outside the range covered experimentally.

18.3.4
Low cycle fatigue tests on austenitic steel
Majumdar and Maiya (1979) conducted low-cycle fatigue test on Type
304
stain-
less steel at 866 K for various wave-shapes and frequencies. They observed that
failure occurred by intergranular cavitation in slow-fast tests. Otherwise
fracture
mode
was
the
trans granular with well-defined striations on the fracture
surface. Table 18. 1 shows the number of cycles to failure
for
the
slow-fast
tests together with the strain rates and the associated stresses.
Table 18.1 also includes test results by Sidey and Coffin (1979)
material
on
the
same
for the same type of slow-fast fatigue loading. The fracture mode for
these tests was also intergranular cavitation.

The last column of Table 18.1 shows the theoretical
(18.4).
The
rate
of
cavity
nucleation
result
material
Qb = 167.4 kJ/mol,
Source
parameters
were
taken
29
3
1.21.10m in agreement
ne
in %
T
in
fit
eq.
data. The
oD bo = 2.10- 13 m3 /s,
the values generally
as
with
the
V.L1
in s
in MPa
Nf
(exp)
870
0.01
= 200
847
815
by
is not reported in the experimental
papers. It was assumed to be a' = 1.8.10 10 /m 2 in order to

remaining
predicted
Nf
(theor)
Majumdar and
Maiya (1979)
0.7
0.7
870
0.0004
= 190
261
230
Sidey and
Coffin (1979)
1.8
923
0.0017
150
148
152
1.9
1093
0.0022
50
52
70
Table 18.1. Fatigue lifetime of Type 304 stainless steel under

slow-fast loading cycles. Theoretical values from eq. (18.4).
18.
258
reported. With the nucleation rate

reasonably
well
over
wide
fitted,
range
eq.
(18.4)
represents
the
of temperatures and over two decades in
frequency. From eq. (12.6) it is concluded that all tests in Table 18.1
for
that
data
except
at the highest temperature (1093 K) should be well outside the range
of constrained cavity growth which begins at 1200 K, if
A=
and
2~m
d =
50~
are substituted in eq. (12.6).
18.4 Why Do Cavities Grow under Balanced Cyclic Loading?

There have been several attempts to explain why some materials
balanced
cyclic
loading
with
zero
cavitate
under
mean stress. One possibility was already
described in Section 18.2.2, that is cavitation by plastic hole growth combined

with
some irreversibility in surface formation. Several other suggestions will
be described next.
Skelton (1966) and Weertman (1974) argue
stress-directed
diffusion,
which
that
the
fundamental
equation
is linear in stress according to eq. (4.4),
should in fact be nonlinear. In tension, the production of atomic vacancies

encouraged
is
so that their density and hence the diffusion coefficient increase,
whereas in compression the

slightly
for
more
during
the
reverse
is
true.
Therefore,
the
cavities
grow
tensile part of the loading cycle than they shrink
during the compressive part, and this acts against the tendency of the cavities
to
shrink by sintering forces. However, the nonlinear effects are of the order
which is so small compared to
020/kT
that the sintering
stress
can
usually
not be overcome except for unrealistically large cavities.

Another explanation for cavity growth under zero mean stress
was
proposed
by
Weertman (1979). She argues that for some transient time after the beginning of
the test, effects of elasticity enhance cavity growth as described
15.2.
Under
in
Section
cyclic loading, the growth rate oscillates with the amplitude de-
creasing during the elastic transient. It is then clear that a compressive half
wave cannot quite compensate the growth increment of the preceding tensile half
wave, which was slightly higher. Therefore, depending on whether cycling starts
with
tensile
or
compressive
half wave, the transient results in a net
growth or shrinkage. If this mechanism is to lead to cavity coalescence it
can
do so only during the elastic transient, since afterwards no further net growth
occurs. However, the elastic transients are generally much shorter than typical
test
durations. It is therefore hard to believe that elasticity effects playa
18.4
Why Do Cavities Grow under Balanced Loading?
259
central role in cavitation under balanced cyclic loading.

Cavities might also be formed by the condensation of the vacancies which cyclic
loading
is
known to produce, for example by the motion of dislocation jogs or
by the annihilation of close edge
dislocation
occur
as
during
monotonic
loading
well,
dipoles.
(The
same
processes
but to a smaller extent since the
cumulative strain is much smaller). In fact, neutron scattering experiments

Kettunen
al
of
indicate that even at room temperature small voids of

2 nm size and a volume fraction of 10-5 are formed, however, not necessarily on
grain
et
(1981)
boundaries.
Thus,
the
old idea that cavitation is driven by a vacancy
supersaturation (Section 6.2), which had been
dismissed
under
creep
rupture
conditions, might be applicable under balanced fatigue-loading conditions.

Further, on a microscopic level, certain portions of the material may well
perience
stressing
experience a compressive mean stress, even under balanced applied

may
arise
from
ex-
cycle with a tensile mean stress, while other locations
asymmetric
loads.
This
plastic yielding as in body-centered cubic metals
which tend to activate different slip systems in tension and
compression.
The
accumulated grain boundary sliding offsets observed by Evans and Skelton (1969)
and by Westwood and Taplin (1975) are also evidence for asymmetries of
deform-
ation processes on a microscopic level. However, the magnitude of the stresses,

which result from these asymmetries, is not precisely known
fact
be
too
small
and
they
may
in
in comparison with the sintering forces to explain cavity
growth.
Finally, the possibility should be kept in mind that residual gases may be precipitated
into cavity nuclei, and the gas pressure can provide the mean stress
for cavity growth.
18.5 Discussion
The dependence of the fatigue lifetime on temperature and on loading
obtained
in a limited number of slow-fast tests could be explained by a theory
based on (unconstrained) diffusive cavity

However,
frequency
in
growth
and
continuous
nucleation.
all tests considered, the strain range was either constant or was
not varied considerably. A great number of tests has been done by other workers
showing
Nf
oc
that
the
dependence
of
fatigue
life
on strain range has the form
(~ne) -B ,where B has typical values between 1 and 1.7 ( Lloyd and Wareing,
Cavitation under Creep-Fatigue ConditionE
18.
260
1981).
On
constant
the
other
frequency
hand,
or
eqs.
strain
(18.4) and (18.6) predict
rate,
respectively.
Thus,
a = 0.6
the
or 1 for
theoretical
dependence on strain range is weaker than the observed one.

The discrepancy may be due to the fact that many of the reported data refer
failure
by
crack
propagation
rather
fracture was not investigated.

intergranular
cavitation
than
Generally,
and,
at
the
to
by cavitation. Often the mode of
longer
same
tensile
hold
times
time, reduce the exponent
favor
a but
seldom to values below 1.

In conclusion, eq. (18.4) describes the fatigue life well in
where
the
dominant
failure
mode
certain
tests,
is intergranular cavitation, as far as the
temperature dependence is concerned. The predicted

range,
slow-fast
dependence
on
the
strain
however, is weaker than that generally observed, although it is not yet

whether
the
agreement
would
be
better
if
the
tests
were
done
systematically in the range of cavitation failure.

Conclusive theories on cavitation failure under balanced cyclic loading are not
yet
available.
Finally, the reader is reminded that the subject of creep-fat-
igue failure is taken up again in Part III where failure by

is considered.
crack
prupagation
Part III
Creep Crack Growth
and Creep-Fatigue Crack Growth
19 Introduction to Part III
19.1 The Relevance of Cracks

Creep crack growth is the time-dependent extension of a
macroscopic
crack
at
elevated temperatures under more or less constant load. For cyclic loading conditions, one speaks of creep-fatigue crack
growth.
distinct
is a crack which is larger than the
from
grain
boundary
cavities,
A macroscopic
structural lengths of the material which are relevant
for
crack
crack,
growth
as
~for
example, the grain size). Failure by crack growth may predominate over homogeneous grain boundary cavitation in the whole cross section, if a crack is
iated
at
init-
pre-existing defect or a sharp notch early in the lifetime of the
component. A dominant crack may also be
nucleated
by
some
corrosion-related
process before profuse cavitation occurs within the bulk of the material. Under
cyclic loading conditions, surface microcracks are generally
formed
early
in
the lifetime of the specimen.

After the occurrence of a few premature failures in
plants,
generating
which were attributed to creep crack growth, the problem started to be
discussed in the literature in the

Harrison
electric-power
early
1970's
(Siverns
and
Price,
subject area of creep crack growth was reviewed repeatedly, for example by
Leeuwen
1970,
and Sandor, 1971, Robson, 1972, Thornton, 1972). In the meantime, the
(1977),
van
Ellison and Harper (1978), Pilkington (1979), Speidel (1981),
Sadananda and Shahinian (1981a) and by Riedel (1984a, 1985a).

If creep crack growth is a potential failure mode, design codes and
inspection
standards should provide a means to assess the relevance of cracks in high-temperature components. Such an assessment should include crack-like defects which
have
actually
been
detected
by non-destructive evaluation, and, in critical
applications, one must assume that cracks of
certain
maximum
size,
which
might have escaped detection, are present. A lifetime prediction should then be
based on the expected growth rates of such defects in future service.
19.
264
Current
codes, however, usually rely on the unrealistic requirement that high-
temperature components should not contain any

better
crack-like
defects
at
all.
understanding of the mechanics and the mechanisms of creep crack growth
would help to improve the situation.

Incidentally, to avoid a frequent misconception, it should be remarked that the
following
analyses
are
not
aimed
at
cracks which result from the eventual
inter-linkage of grain boundary cavities in more or less homogeneously stressed

specimens
or components such as straight pipes under internal pressure. Incip-
ient crack formation in uniformly strained specimens usually indicates that the
lifetime
is
practically
exhausted. Rather, we are interested in cracks which
are present from the beginning or are nucleated early and which grow in
wise
virtually
other-
uncavitated material. The border-line between failure by homo-
geneous cavitation and failure by crack growth cannot be
easily
predicted
or
defined in general terms.

In the analysis of creep crack growth
it
is
convenient
to
distinguish
two
aspects; namely, (1) the continuum-mechanical deformation fields in the cracked

body, and (2) the micromechanisms of crack growth which operate near the
tip
(e.g.
grain
crack
boundary cavitation). These two aspects can often be treated
separately, an approach which will be adopted in the following chapters. A combined treatment of deformation and damage will be described in Chapter 27.
19.2 The First Aspect: Deformation Fields in Cracked Bodies

In a first step, we analyze the continuum-mechanical deformation
mathematically
sharp
crack
fields
at
neglecting the effect of damage on the stress and
strain distributions. Important results of such crack analyses are the asymptotic fields near crack tips and the load parameters (K I , J, C* or others depending on the material law) which determine the strength of the asymptotic fields.
As
long
as damage is confined to a sufficiently small 'process zone' near the
crack tip, the continuum deformation fields encompass and control the evolution
of
damage
and
therefore
the respective load parameters should control crack
growth. (There are possible exceptions to that rule: if, for example, the crack
growth
rate
is
atmosphere to the
obviously
controlled by the penetration of a corrosive species from the

crack-tip
region,
the
crack-tip
deformation
fields
are
not the only controlling factor). In many cases, however, it is true
that the crack-tip fields control the crack growth rates.
19.2
The First Aspect: Deformation Fields
265
The main task in the following chapters will be to identify the load parameters
which
determine the crack-tip fields, and to explore their ranges of validity.
Limitations to the applicability of the

crack-tip
blunting
finiteness of the
(Section
specimen
22.1),
thickness
various
load
parameters
three-dimensional
(Section
effects
22.2),
arise
due
deviations
from
to
the
from
the
idealized material laws employed (Chapters 23 to 26), and from the evolution of
damage in a growing process zone (Chapter 27). The practical value of the
load
parameters lies in the fact that creep crack growth rates measured in the laboratory can be transferred to structures of different size and shape
appropriate
load
parameter
the
parameter. This transfer of growth rates can be done without
explicit reference to the micromechanisms of crack growth. If

load
using
has
the
the
appropriate
same value in the cracked structure as it had in the
test specimen, the crack-tip fields will also be the same and the fracture processes leading to crack growth must respond in an identical manner.
In the early papers on creep crack growth, the stress intenSity factor, KI , and
the net section stress, Gnet , were considered as candidates for appropriate
load parameters. While KI turned out to have its range of validity, the net
section stress has no sound theoretical basis, but, nevertheless, was sometimes
successfully applied. However, the most important load
creep
parameter
by Ohji, Ogura and Kubo (1974) and by Landes and Begley (1976). The
of
C*
to
describe
crack growth macroscopically turned out to be the C*-integral introduced

for
usefulness
t!1e more ductile alloys was subsequently demonstrated by many wor-
kers. Among the first were Nikbin, Webster and Turner
(1976),
Koterazawa
and
Mori (1977), Taira, Ohtani and Kitamura (1979), Saxena (1980), and Ohji, Ogura,
Kubo and Katada (1980). The boundaries between the ranges of validity of KI and
C*
were established theoretically by Riedel and Rice (1980) and by Ohji, Ogura
and Kubo (1980).
19.3 The Second Aspect: Micromechanisms

19.3.1
Grain boundary cavitation ahead of the crack tip
Creep crack growth often occurs by the nucleation and growth of grain
boundary
cavities ahead of the main crack and their final coalescence with the crack.
This will be modeled in Chapters 21 and 23.3 by combining the laws for cavity
growth with the stress field of the growing main crack. A rather conclusive
picture of creep crack growth in the absence of corrosive effects emerges,
since the models predict the observed behavior of several materials well.
266
19.
19.3.2
Corrosive processes at the crack tip
It is known that the chemical environment exerts

creep
crack
strong
influence
on
the
growth rate in some materials (Speidel, 1981). This is especially
so under cyclic loading conditions, which will be considered in Chapter 28. But
also
under
constant load, many of the superalloys are very sensitive to atmo-
spheres containing oxygen or sulfur
(Sadananda
and
Shahinian,
1980a,
1983;
Floreen, 1983; Stucke et aI, 1984). The crack growth rate may increase 100-fold
in air compared to an inert environment, even if unstressed
hardly
any
material
exhibits
visible oxidation under otherwise identical conditions. This is so
because structural high-temperature alloys are designed to
develop
protective
surface oxide layers (usually cr 20 3 ) in oxidizing environments. At a stressed

crack tip, however, the layer ruptures continuously and oxygen atoms can penetrate
into
the material, which they do preferentially along grain boundaries.
It is not yet known precisely how oxygen accelerates creep crack growth to
large
extent
observed.
Possibly, it reacts with constituents of the alloy to
form brittle oxides which fracture readily. Oxygen may also attack carbides
the
carbide/matrix
internal
had
oxidation and therefore they exert an opening force on the crack faces.
Finally, the grain boundaries can be embrittled by

demonstrated
segregation
of
oxygen
Ferritic
and
accelerate
austenitic
creep
crack
growth
compared
insensitive.
to
steels (Sadananda and Shahinian, 1980b) and
even some of the cast superalloys (Shahinian and Sadananda, 1984) appear to
relatively
as
by Nieh and Nix (1981) for copper. It should be mentioned that an
air environment does not always

vacuum.
up
gas pressure which promotes cavitation. Further, the oxide spikes
formed along grain boundaries usually have a greater volume than the metal
before
at
interface which leads to decohesion of the carbides. Under
special circumstances, gaseous reaction products (e.g. CO or CO 2 ) can build

an
the
be
The diverse behavior of superalloys might result from
their microstructure, which varies from material to material and has a pronounced effect on creep crack growth rates (Floreen, 1983).
Little work has been done to model the corrosive effects on creep crack
growth
rates quantitatively. In fact, the author knows of only one publication on that
subject (McClintock and Bassani, 1981). Before a more detailed understanding of
the
corrosive
processes
at crack tips emerges, this remains an area which is
necessarily dominated by metallurgical empiricism.
20 Nonlinear Viscous Materials and the Use of C*
Creep deformation of metals and alloys at elevated temperatures can oe described, to a first approximation, as nonlinear viscous. Viscous behavior is defined
by the existence of a unique relationship between the strain
rate
tensor
and
the current stress tensor, Eij = f(Oij). This corresponds to steady-state, or

secondary, creep while primary-creep effects and the elastic response of materials
are
neglected.
Although real materials generally do not exhibit exactly
nonlinear viscous behavior, the results of this section, in particular the

of
C*
are
often
use
justified as a reasonable approximation within limits to be
specified in the following sections.
20.1 Definiton ofthe C*-Integral

In fracture mechanics testing under elevated temperature creep conditions,
C*-integral
plays
the
an important role (Landes and Begley, 1976; Ohji, Ogura and
Kubo, 1974; Nikbin, Webster and Turner, 1976). For
two-dimensional,
planar
crack, C* is defined ,as the contour integral

(20.1 )
with W*
For
= JOijdC ij ; here, 0ij is uniquely related to ij by the

material law.
the definition of the symbols, see Fig. 20.1 and Section 3.4.3. In viscous
materials, the C*-integral is independent of the choice

proof
of
of
the
path
r.
The
the path-independence parallels that of the path-independence of the
J-integral in elastic. materials (Rice, 1968a,b), and will not be repeated here.
In principle, C* can be measured by testing a pair of specimens having infinit~simally
different crack lengths, a and a
da, and which are otherwise identi-
cal. From the measured load-displacement rate records of the two specimens,
C*
can be determined by differentiating the area under the load-displacement rate
Nonlinear Viscous Material and the Use of C*
20.
268
p
Xz
x,
1-----
W -----001
Fig. 20.1. Definitions.
curve with respect to crack length:

(20.2)
Here, P1 is load per unit specimen thickness and A is the displacement rate of
the load points. Landes and Begley (1976) applied eq. (20.2) to the measurement
of C* and described its use in greater detail. Alternately, C* can
ated
from
eq.
(20.1)
provided
that
be
calcul-
the stress and strain rate fields have
already been determined for the configuration considered. This usually requires
numerical
techniques
such
as
the
finite
element
method. This approach is
particularly useful for power-law viscous materials, which are described next.
20.2 Stress Fields and the C*-Integral in

Power-Law Viscous Materials
Power-law viscous materials are characterized by the special stress-strain rate
relation
(3/2) B
which simplifies to e
(20.3)
Ban (Norton's creep law) in uniaxial tension. The prime
denotes the deviator, ae is the equivalent tensile stress, and Band n are
material parameters. In agreement with the behavior of real materials, eq.
(20.3) describes incompressible deformation, since the trace of the strain rate
is zero,
E11
..
a!.
11
= 0, by definition of the deviator.
20.2
Stress Fields and C*
269
A power-law constitutive equation simplifies

strain
rate
fields
because
of
the
the
description
of
stress
and
scaling properties described in Section
3.4.2. All stress components at any point of the body increase in proportion to
the
applied
load
while
strain rate components increase in proportion to the
n'th power of the load. In configurations which are symmetrical with respect to
the
crack
plane. it is convenient to introduce the net section stress defined
as load divided by the area of the uncracked ligament ahead of the crack.
Then
the scaling properties can be expressed as

(20.4)
(20.5)
(20.6)
Here. xi represents the spatial variables, W represents the
in-plane
specimen
and a is crack length. The dimensionless functions Gij , Eij and Ui

depend on only two dimensionless parameters. a/Wand n, but not on the load nor
dimensions,
on the material parameter B.

20.2.1
The C*-integral in power-law viscous materials
If the scaling laws, eqs. (20.4) to (20.6) are inserted
into
eq.
(20.1)
the
C*-integral takes the form

C*
n+1
a B Gnet g1(a/w,n).
(20.7)
where the dimensionless function g1 is an abbreviation for the integral

(20.8)
fOijdE ij xi = xi/a and ds = ds/a. Evaluation of the integral
the knowle~ge of the field quantities. These have been computed by
with W*
requires
several workers
collection
~hich
of
using
results
the
finite
element
method.
is known as 'The Plastic Fracture Handbook', or
Their
tabulations
The
most
comprehensive
was given by Kumar, German and Shih (1981) in a report

as
the
EPRI
Handbook.
are in terms of the J-integral for time-independent elastic
materials. Due to the elastic-viscous analogy (Section 3.4.1) one can write
instead
of
J,
and displacement rate,
A,
C*
instead of ~ if their combination of
270
20.
Nonlinear Viscous Material and the Use of C*
material parameters, a o lan,

is replaced by B. Further, they chose to use a
0
notation based on the plastic limit load rather than on net section stress, but
both ways of writing the results are
connected
through
elementary
algebraic
relations. For the compact specimen in plane strain, for example, they write
n+1
(W-a) B h 1 (a/W,n) [ P1 /[1.455n(W-a)] ]
,
C*
(20.9)
where a and W were defined in Fig. 20.1, P1 is load per unit thickness, h1 is
tabulated by Kumar et al (1981) (see also Appendix C) and n is given there in
closed form as a function of a/W. Comparison with our notation
in
eq.
(20.7)
shows that g1 can be expressed by quantities computed by Kumar et al through

(20.10)
A practical drawback of the calculation of C* using eqs. (20.7)
or
(20.9)
is
that these formulas strongly rely on Norton's power law, whereas real materials
often deviate from a strict power law. In addition,
markedly
upon
specimens
of
appropriate
whether
finite
(see
plane-stress
thickness
the
discussion
it
or
is
in
the
plane-strain
not
Section
clear
which
displacement
are
depends
used.
In
case
is
limiting
22.2). For these reasons it is
advisable to measure a displacement rate, preferably at a

calculated
function
values
location
for
which
rates are available in the Plastic Fracture Handbook.
For the compact specimen, results are given for the load line deflection rate
=a
h 3 (a/W,n) [P 1 /[1.455n(W-a)] ]n
(20.11)
and for the crack opening displacement rate at the edge of the specimen
(20.12)
5e are relative
between the respective pOints above and below the symmetry
where h2 and h3 are tabulated dimensionless quantities; ~ and

displacement
rates
line of the specimen. Combining eqs. (20.9) and (20.11) leads to the
following
useful formulas for C*:

C* = g2(a/W,n) anet ~
C*
(20.13)
(20.14)
20.2
Stress Fields and C*
271
The dimensionless factors g2 and g3 are related to the notation of Kumar et

(1981) through
g3
(W/a-1)
h1 I h 31+1/n.
al
(20.15)
Plots and approximation formulas for g2 are given in Appendix C. Equation

(20.13) allows for a determination of C* which is independent of the material
parameter B and is insensitive to the choice of plane strain
and
to
or
plane
stress
the value of n. This only mild dependence is plausible in the light of
approximate, but accurate, analytic solutions for a crack in an infinite

These
solutions
were
developed
body.
by He and Hutchinson (1981) and were already
&is
used in connection with the constrained cavity growth model in Part II. If
the
relative
displacement rate between the two crack faces in the center of a
plane-strain crack subjected to a remotely applied tensile stress, o~, C*

approximately given by C* = (~/4) o~ &. This is indeed independent of n.
20.2.2
is
Crack-tip fields in power-law viscous materials
While the calculation of the whole

requires
numerical
techniques,
stress
the
field
in
finite
body
usually
asymptotic field near a crack tip can be
obtained analytically. These so-called HRR-fields were already shown in Section

3.4.4, eq. (3.25), where the symbols were also explained. The result is
0ij = (
C* )l/(n+1)
InBr
a.. (9).
(20.16)
lJ
The asymptotic field is valid for small distances from the crack
It
is
important
Load
a.
to note that the C*-integral, which can be measured far from
the crack tip, at the same time unequivocally determines the

field.
tip,
crack-tip
stress
and specimen geometry affect the crack tip field only through the
C*-integral. Therefore, in
viscous
materials,
creep
crack
growth
will
be
described macroscopically by C*. This remains true even if a sufficiently small

zone near the crack tip behaves arbitrarily
differently,
say,
due
to
grain
boundary cavitation or other processes which offset the validity of a nonlinear

viscous description. Further, although eq. (20.16) was
materials,
C*
is
valid
for
derived
for
power-law
general viscous behavior. The power law is only
especially convenient in that the near-tip field can be given in closed analytic
form.
Examples involving the use of C* in creep crack growth tests will be
described at the end of Chapter 21.
21 C* -Controlled Creep Crack Growth by

Grain-Boundary Cavitation
The continuum-mechanical analysis presented so far specifies the load parameter

which determines the crack-tip fields, but it cannot predict or explain how the
crack grows in response to the applied load
parameter
(i.e.,
C*
in
viscous
materials). The understanding of crack growth rates requires a knowledge of the

micromechanisms by which the crack grows.
As an important example, the nucleation, growth
ahead
and
coalescence
of
cavities
of the main crack will now be considered (see Fig. 21.1). As a plausible
crack growth criterion it is assumed that the crack starts growing,
and
grows
at such a rate, that at a distance Xc ahead of its tip, the condition for cavity coalescence is met. Usually Xc is equal to the cavity spacing. The analysis
is
carried
out
for
different cavity growth mechanisms separately. Corrosive
effects are neglected, which is justified in many, but not
in
all,
cases.
Fig. 21.1. Creep crack growth by grain boundary cavitation.
practical
21.1
273
Crack Growth Subject to Critical Strain
The material in which the crack grows is modeled as power-law viscous. Only the
asymptotic
term
of the stress field [i.e. the HRR-field given in eq. (20.16)J
is taken into account in the analysis to follow. Then, beyond the knowledge
C*,
the
load
and
the
outer
specimen geometry need not be specified. As an
approximation, whose validity will be shown in a later section, it

that
the
cavities
is
at
is
assumed
do not modify the HRR-field. In a viscous material with no
cavitation, it is true that the stress field

crack
of
is
independent
of
whether
the
rest or whether is grows; only the current configuration defines
the stress field. Cavitation, however, does affect the stress distribution, but
this is neglected beforehand.
The formulation of the problem in terms of integral equations follows
Riedel
(1981a),
work
Bassani (1981), Bassani and Vitek (1982), Wilkinson and Vitek
(1982) and Hui and Banthia (1984). Ohji (1977) and Kubo, Ohji and Ogura
choose
of
formal
damage
parameter
description,
which
(1979)
is equivalent to the
formulation based on cavity growth laws in important limiting cases. In a later

chapter,
continuum
damage mechanics will be applied to creep crack growth and
the results will be shown to be practically equivalent with those derived next.
Other related models were quoted in reviews by Riedel (1984a, 1985a).
21.1 Creep Crack Growth Based on a Local Critical-Strain Criterion

Failure by grain boundary cavitation as described in Part II of this book often
obeys a critical-strain criterion. Within the framework of a theory which, like
the present one, neglects effects
of
cavitation
on
the
stress
and
strain
fields, it is not necessary to distinguish between critical strain and MonkmanGrant product. For constrained cavity growth and
nucleat1"on,
the
Monkman-Grant
strain-controlled
continuous
product is given by eq. (16.19). For the ratio
0eIOI we insert the corresponding ratio in the HRR-field of the crack. Then the
critical strain at which cavity coalescence occurs takes the form:
(21.1)
The numerical factor 0.4 is approximately valid for n > 3 and

n = 5,
h(w)
0.61.
If
the ratio OelOI is equal to 0.21 in a plane-strain HRR-field. Hence for
n = 5 and Aid = 1/10, the critical strain is f = 0.78%.

Now we employ the critical-strain criterion as a local criterion at
the
crack
274
21.
C*-Controlled Crack Growth by Cavitation
tip in the following sense: the macroscopic crack must grow at such a rate that
the material at a distance Xc ahead of its current tip just reaches the
cal strain
Ef
This leads to an equation of motion for the crack tip.
In order to calculate the strain ahead of a growing crack tip one

the
HRR
criti-
stress
starts
from
field, and calculates the strain rate using the material law,
eq. (20.3). The strain follows from time integration of the strain
rate.
This
time integral is evaluated at a distance Xc ahead of the arbitrary crack tip

position, a. The integral extends backwards in time over the periods when the
crack grew and when it was stationary. While the crack is stationary, the
strain field varies in proportion to x- n/ (n+1). From this, together with the
requirement that the strain must be equal to Ef at x ~ Xc for growth initiation, it follows that the contribution of the initiation period to the strain at
.
Xc ahead of the current crack tip varies as Ef [ xc/(a+xc-a o ) ]n/(n+1) '
a dlstance
where a is the current crack length, and a o is the initial crack length. The
contribution
to
strain during the growth period is an integral over the prior
.
a
crack tip posl-tions, ai, with the
time
differential
replaced
by
da'/a(a'),
is the as yet Unknown growth rate. Then the total strain ahead of the
where
crack tip is given by the expression on the left hand side of the following
equation. To satisfy the critical-strain criterion, this strain must equal
a
)n/(n+1)
Bo~(O)
ao
C*
) n/(n+1 )_.da'
InB(a+xc-a')
a(a')
This is a linear, Volterra-type integral equation for

function
of
a.
the
Ef
unknown
1/a
Ef
(21.2)
as
It starts to be valid after the crack growth initiation time,
which elapses until the critical strain is
reached
ahead
of
the
stationary
crack:
(21.3)
where 0e(O) is the value of the normalized angular function for the
equivalent
stress in the HRR-field directly ahead of the crack.

Equation (21.2) is written in a dimensionless form by introducing a
less
crack
according to
growth
increment
dimension-
A ~ (a-a )/x and a dimensionless growth rate A

o
c
(21.4)
21.1
275
This equation already gives the dependence of

on C*. Ef Xc and B. while A
depends on A and n only. The integral equation for A follows from eq. (21.2) to
be
A
f (1+A_A,)-n/(n+1) [1/A(A')] dA'
(21 .5)
Integral equations of this type which contain a
convolution
integral
can
be
solved by the Laplace transformation method. However. in the present case the
result takes the form of an integral over the incomplete Gamma function. which
must
evaluated numerically or by series expansion (Hui and Banthia, 1984).
be
Therefore it appears easier to

standard
solve
eq.
(21.5)
directly
The
procedure to solve Volterra-type integral equations numerically is to
approximate the integral by a finite sum. This leads to

for
numerically.
1/A
recurrence
formula
which can be evaluated step by step. Results are shown in Fig. 21.2a.
while Fig. 21.2b shows the resultant crack growth increment

integration
of
the
growth
rate.
which
follows
by
Also shown is a useful two-term asymptotic
expansion for large A (dashed lines). This was
obtained
by
inserting
A A~
with
unspecified ~ into eq. (21.5). and expanding for small 1/A. In terms of
the physical coordinates a and a-a o ' the two-term expansion for large A is:
v iin(O) (BX c )1/(n+1)

e
E f sin( va)
n/(n+1)
C*
In
[(
oj
o<{
...
~
...0.
0
10
----
.,-
"2
--- ---
xc
500
IS
2!-
a-a_
_
0 )1/(n+1)
r(a)
] (21.6)
r(2-a) r(2a-1)
b)
'00
~"3OO
......
ti'
.-..--n~86
12(1)
100
~
0
c:
00
100
2(1)
300
A=(a-aoJ/xc
--
'00
500
00
20
'0
t/ti--
60
Fig. 21.2. a) Crack growth rate normalized as in eq. (21.4) vs. crack-growth
increment. Dashed lines: eq. (21.6); solid lines: full solution of
eq. (21.5). b) Crack-growth increment vs. time; ti from eq. (21.3).
21.
276
where a = n/(n+1). The expression involving the Gamma-functions has the numerical values 0.85, 0.90, 0.95 and 1.0 for n = 4, 5, 7.5 and ~, respectively. The
initial growth rate is obtained by neglecting A against 1 in eq. (21.5). There
results
Ao (n+1)/n or, in physical dimensions,
= (1+1/n)x c Iti'
In experiments, C* usually increases with crack length unless the load is reduced in order to maintain a constant C*. The predicted growth rates for three
hypothetical constant-load tests are shown schematically in Fig. 21.3. The ini-
tial growth rates, o ' lie on the dashed line which, in a log-log plot, has the
slope n/(n+1). As Figs. 21.2 and 21.3 show the initial growth rate is rather
low, typically by a factor 10 lower than later on, for the same value of C*.
Subsequently the growth rate increases due to both, the increase in C* and the
increase in A shown in Fig. 21.2a. After the crack has grown by a sufficiently
large multiple of xc' A increases only slowly, although it does not exactly
saturate [eq. (21.6)]. Then the further increase in growth rate is almost exclusively caused by the increase in C*, and
becomes an almost unique function
of C*. A comparison with experimental results in Section 21.5 will show that
the above results agree with the observed crack growth rates, whereas the
models described in Sections 21.2 to 21.4 disagree. Therefore the reader who is
interested in the most important models only can proceed to Section 21.5.
The continuum hole growth mechanism described in Chapter 14
critical-strain
also
leads
to
criterion for local failure at the crack tip, but the critical
Fig. 21.3. Crack growth rate vs. C* for constant-load test (schematic).
21.1
277
strain is larger than for constrained diffusive cavitation. From
eqs.
(14.24)
and (14.17) one obtains a critical strain Ef = 13.4%, if the multiaxiality of a

plane-strain HRR-field for n = 5 is inserted in eq. (14.17), if the logarithm
in
that
equation
is set equal to 4 and h(w)
0.61. This is a relatively low
ductility compared to that predicted by the hole growth mechanism for

tension,
uniaxial
but it is still higher than the 0.78% strain to failure obtained from
the constrained model for the HRR-field.
21.2 Strain-Controlled Cavity Growth and Stress-Controlled

Nucleation
Now we assume that cavity nucleation occurs
instantaneously
once
critical
stress, 0nuc' is exceeded. This is not a very realistic assumption when compared to the observations reported in Chapter 5, although it agrees with the
basic
nucleation
theories described in Chapter 6. This nucleation behavior is
combined with strain-controlled cavity growth. Hence, the crack must grow
ject
to
the
sub-
criterion that the strain increment accumulated after nucleation
must reach the critical value Ef at a distance Xc ahead of the crack tip.
In the HRR-field, eq. (20.16), a given nucleation stress
is
exceeded
over
distance
(21 .7)
ahead of the crack tip. This model gives a threshold for creep crack growth:
crack does not grow if C* is so small that rnuc < xc. Otherwise, the crack
starts growing, and nucleation has no effect on the crack growth rate as long
as
the crack grows within the zone in which nucleation had occurred initially.
At the boundary of the initial nucleation zone, the

nucleation
drops
discontinuously
strain
by the amount Ef(xc/rnuc)
accumulated after
n/(n+1)
. Therefore
the crack must stop at a-a o = rnuc-xc and wait until this defect in damage is
compensated by further straining. The waiting time is t.(x Ir
)n/(n+1).
1
c nuc
During that time, the strain increment
E
(I
)n/(n+1)[(a - r
f Xc rnuc
nuc
+ 2X c )/X c
is accumulated ahead of the waiting crack. The

reaches
same
]-n/(n+1)
happens
when
the
crack
twice, or generally k times, the nucleation distance. The integral eq.
(21.5), which governs the crack growth rate, then takes the form:
21.
278
J (1+A-A,)-a
A-R
A- 1dA'
1 - (1+R )-ka (1+A-kR )-a.

n
n
(21.8)
This equation is valid piecewise for kRn < A < (k+1)R n for any positive integer
k,
while for k = 0, the lower boundary of the integral is zero. The abbreviat-
ions a = n/(n+1) and Rn = rnuc/xc - 1 were used, while A and A are

in eq. (21.4).
Again, the integral equation is solved numerically, but
difficult
to
the
author
defined
as
found
it
continue the numerical scheme stably beyond the discontinuity at
A = Rn' Therefore, at A = Rn' the procedure was changed as follows. The

integral equation (21.8) was differentiated with respect to A and the resulting
Volterra-type integral equation was treated numerically in the same way as
original
quation.
This avoids difficulties at the discontinuities, but leads
to a gradual drift
criterion,
i.e.,
the
of
the
the
solutions
strain
away
from
the
imposed
crack
growth
accumulated after nucleation is not kept at the
desired valuef' This drift can be corrected by noting that, for large A,
curves must merge into the analytic result for A ~ ~:
the
(21 .9)
.~
Rn =20
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. 21.4. Crack growth rate normalized as in eq. (21.4) vs. crack-growth
increment for stress-controlled cavity nucleation and strain-controlled growth.
21.2
279
Strain-Controlled Cavity Growth, Stress-Controlled Nucleation
which is obtained from eq. (21.8) by letting k

In this way, the results shown in Fig. 21.4
discontinuities
in
the
and setting A = const.
+ ~
were
calculated.
by
the
growth curve become small after the crack has grown a
distance equal to a few times the nucleation distance, and

given
Apparently
eq. (21.9) is approached. The conversion of
the
A to
constant
rate
physical dimensions
was given in eq. (21.4). For the steady-state growth rate this gives, from
eq.
(21.9) :
(21.10)
.
1/(n+1)
where the second line is valld for (rnuc/x c )
1.
21.3 Diffusive Growth of a Constant Number of Cavities

Unconstrained diffusive cavity growth rates are given in eq.
cavity
spacing
law
can
If
the
is constant, i.e., if nucleation occurs instantaneously at the
beginning of the test, and if the sintering stress

growth
(11.14).
be
Integration from R
integrated
o at
by
separation
is
of
neglected,
the
the
variables
cavity
R and t.
nucleation to R = A/2 at coalescence gives

(21.11)
Obviously, failure by unconstrained diffusive cavitation occurs when

integral
on
the
maximum
principal
stress
attains
the
right-hand side of eq. (21.11). Creep crack growth is now treated by

that,
at
distance
Xc
the
time
value given by the

requiring
ahead of the crack tip, this critical value must be
maintained. The time integral
on
stress
is
calculated
in
analogy
to
the
integral on strain rate in the preceding section. This leads to an integral

equation having the same structure as eq. (21.5) except that n/(n+1) is
replaced by 1/(n+1). As an asymptotic solution, the crack growth rate for large
growth increments, (a-a )/x 1, is found to be
o
c
280
21.
11
315 l'!oD b
01(0)
sin(1I/(n+1) 2kTA 3h(1jI)
C* )1/(n+1) (a-a )n/(n+1).
I B
n
(21.12)
The maximum tensile stress component in an HRR-field ahead of the crack, 1(0) ,
is oriented normal to the plane of the crack. A discussion of the result
follows in Section 21.5.
21.4 Diffusive Cavity Growth and Stress-Controlled Nucleation

Again the sintering stress in diffusive cavity growth is
neglected.
Then
the
criterion for the growth of the main crack is that the time integral on 01 must
attain the critical value given in eq. (21.11). Since now stress-controlled
nucleation is taken into account, the integration on 01 must start only when
the principal stress exceeds the nucleation stress. In close analogy to Section
21.2,
one obtains the same type of integral equation as eq. (21.8), but with a
having the meaning a

a
= 1/(n+1),
and
Abeing
non-dimensionalized differently
in
way not shown here. Figure 21.5 shows a numerical solution for n = 5 and for
a nuc:eation distance Rn = 20. It is apparent that the discontinuities at

A = kR n are stronger than for strain-controlled cavity growth. After growing by
80
60
t
.-::(
Rn=20
40
20
100 200 300 400

A =(a-aa)/xc ~
Fig. 21.5. Normalized crack growth rate vs. crack-growth increment

for stress-controlled cavity nucleation and diffusion-controlled growth.
21.3
Diffusive Growth of a Constant Number of Cavities
about 10 times the nucleation distance, the
281
crack
approaches
h(~)
n
0nuc
In B]
steady-state
growth rate of
a = 158 (1+1/n) -n+1
01
06D b C*I [
kT3
A
This result will be discussed in
neglected compared to Rn/ (n+1).
Section
21.5.
In
eq.
(21.13),
(21.13)
unity
was
21.5 Comparison with Experiments

As was pOinted out in Chapter 20, C* is expected to be a valid parameter for
the characterization of crack growth if the material deforms viscously. Experimentally, this means that the load line displacement must be caused primarily
by
viscous
creep, while the contributions by elastic deformation and
instantaneous plasticity must be much smaller. The criteria for the validity of
C* will be detailed in later chapters. Many tests on ductile alloys reported in
the literature were done under conditions where these criteria are fullfilled.
(A few references were given in Sections 19.2 and 19.4). Considering the
experimental results one notices a remarkable similarity between different
materials over a wide range of temperatures as far as the creep crack growth
rate as a function of C* is concerned. In the following, one representative
example will be described in greater detail.
21.5.1
Tests on a 1Cr-1/2Mo steel
Riedel and Wagner (1985) have measured creep crack growth rates in a 1Cr-1/2Mo
steel in the temperature range 450 0 C to 600 oc. Some of the tests were performed
en as-processed steel which had a fine, bainitic microstructure. However, the
majority
of
the
tests
were done on material which had been in service (as a
pipe in a power station) for 103,000 h at nominally 530 0 C under a stress of 53

MPa. During that time, the carbides had coarsened and the creep resistance had
dropped accordingly. Only the results on the used material will be reported
here. The crack growth rates in new material are very similar and will be given
in Section 23.4 where they are to illustrate the appropriateness of C* for this
material. Uniaxial creep data for the material having a prior service history
were measured and fitted to Norton's creep law, E = B~. At 535 0 C, which was
the usual testing temperature, this gave B = 5.6.10-26 MPa-n/s and n = 8.6.
282
21 .
So far, only CT-specimens were tested which had thicknesses
of
12.5,
25
and
50 rom. Most of them had 25% side grooves as recommended by deLorenzi and Shih
(1983) in order to approximate a plane-strain field along the whole crack front
(cf.
Section
22.2).
Indeed,
the crack front remained nearly straight during
fatigue pre-cracking at room temperature and during creep crack

indicates
that
the
stress
growth,
which
field is uniform in the direction parallel to the
crack front .
During the tests, the crack length was continuously monitored using
tric
potential
drop
technique
the
elec-
and, sometimes, the elastic compliance during
small unloading/reloading events. Both are well established methods in fracture

mechanics,
and
they
were
described
recently
by Hollstein, Blauel and Voss
(1984) and by Hollstein (1985). Additionally, markings on the fracture

caused
surface
by load changes or changes of the atmosphere were used to calibrate the
continuous methods .
Some creep
cra~k
growth tests were interrupted and the specimens were
examined
for grain boundary damage. There is clear evidence of cavitation near the crack
tip, as the scanning electron micrograph in Fig. 21.6 shows. The main crack
appears to grow by interlinkage with cavitated grain boundary facets.
In order to see whether environmental effects playa dominant role, some of the
Fig. 21.6. Scanning electron micrograph of etched and polished section
showing cavitation in crack-tip region in a CrMo steel.

(From Riedel and Wagner, 1985).
21.5
283
tests were performed in a mixture of argon and 3% hydrogen.

creep crack growth rate could be detected
No
difference
in
compared to tests in air. In agree-
ment with other workers, it is concluded that creep crack
growth
in
ferritic
steel at 535 0 C is not primarily controlled by the environment.

Figure 21.7 shows measured crack growth rates as a function of C*; C*
was
de-
termined using eq. (20.13). [Application of eq. (20.7) gave the expected deviations due to the uncertainty as to plane strain or plane
stressJ.
If
plotted
against C* the crack growth rates exhibit a very small temperature dependence.
On a log-log plot of
versus C*, a slope of n/(n+1) fits the data. In Fig.
21.7,
data pOints from the early stages of the tests were omitted. These early
growth rates are generally smaller than later on, for the same value of C*,
as
was indicated schematically in Fig. 21.3. It should be mentioned, however, that

this initial behavior may
pre-cracked
occupy
large
fraction
of
the
lifetime
of
specimen since the crack grows slowly in this range. Thus the data
omitted from Fig. 21.7 for clarIty's
sake
are
very
important
for
lifetime
estimates. OtherwiSe the lifetime predictions are overly conservative.

21.5.2
Comparison with models
A consistent explanation of the data shown in FIg. 21.7 is given by
the
model
which assumes that local failure of the material at the crack tip is strain
controlled (SectIon 21.1). First. the predicted dependence
~ C*n/(n+1) is
."
'!>2
Cr /VIa steel
'"Q
~\':
E!>2
.~
0 ~
" 450C
+ 535C
o 600C
!>2
~
51
'!>2
"
"
1(;2 10' 10 10' 102 103

ClI inWlm2
Fig. 21.7. Crack growth rates in 1Cr-1/2 Mo steel. Solid line: eq. (21.6).
(From Riedel and Wagner. 1985).
21.
284
confirmed experimentally. Second, eqs. (21.4) and (21.6) explain why the temperature
dependence
is
weak:
the
strongly
temperature-dependent material
parameter B from Norton's creep law is raised to the small power 1/(n+1). This
reduces the apparent activation energy of the growth rate (n+1)-fold compared
to that of B. The other parameters in eq. (21.6) are not strongly
temperature-
dependent nor do they vary greatly from material to material. This explains why
different kinds of materials exhibit similar creep crack growth rates. Thirdly,
the
data
omitted
from
Fig.
21.7 show a dependence of
a on
the crack growth
increment, a-a o ' besides that on C*, which is qualitatively comparable with the
dependence predicted byeq. (21.6) (see Fig. 21.3). Finally, the absolute values of
are also predicted well. To show this, insert B 5.6.10-26 MPa-n/s,
n = 8.6, 0e(O) = 0.63, In = 4.63 (from Shih, 1983), a-a o

1.5 mm and Xc = 2jJDl
(assumed, but the result is insensitive to that choice) into eq. (21.6), and
consider
Ef
as an adjustable parameter. The solid line which fits the data in
Fig. 21.7 is obtained if E f = 0.56%. This is in excellent agreement with the
estimate, E f = 0.78%, given in Section 21.1, which was based on creep-constrained cavi-tation in the HRR crack-tip field.
The data can also be fitted by eq. (21.10) which is based on
nucleation
a
is
and
strain-controlled
growth
of
C* is also compatible with the data, and no strong

predicted.
Using
the
stress-controlled
cavities: the linear dependence

temperature
dependence
same numerical values as in the preceding paragraph
together with 01(0) = 2.44 and
= 0.66% and fitting eq. (21.10) with the data

21.7 leads to a nucleation stress of nuc = 450 MPa. According to eq.
in Fig.
(21.7) the
nucleation
rnuc = 680 ~m if C* =
Ef
distance
increases
in
proportion
to
C*
and
is
1 W/m 2 Neither of the numerical values obtained for 0nuc
and rnuc appears unreasonable.
The model based on diffusive growth of a constant number of cavities Ceq

(21.12)] obviously gives an incorrect dependence of a on C*, and a temperature
dependence which is too strong. Absolute values for
a are
too high,
since
the
constraint on growth and continuous cavity nucleation are neglected.

Diffusive growth combined with stress-controlled nucleation leads to
linear
relation
~ C*, and to a weak temperature dependence,
~ 6Db/B Ceq. (21.13)],
which is compatible with the experimental results. However, for eq. (21.13) to
fit the data the nucleation stress must be chosen as 0nuc
150 MPa which, from
eq. (21.7), implies a nucleation distance of rnuc = 15 m if C* = 1 W/m 2 This

means that nucleation should have occurred easily in the whole specimen and eq.
21.5
285
(21.12) rather than eq. (21.13) should be applied. But eq. (21.12) was
already
found to disagree with the observed behavior.

21.5.3
Conclusions
In conclusion, the observed crack growth rates can be explained consistently if

local
failure
at the crack tip is assumed to be strain controlled. The agree-
ment is still good if local failure is brought about by stress-controlled cavity
nucleation
and
strain-controlled growth. Among the models examined, those
based on diffusion-controlled cavity growth disagree with

crack
growth
behavior.
The
case
of
that
such
model,
if
it
observed
creep
diffusive growth and strain-controlled
nucleation could not be treated because of

possible
the
mathematical
difficulties.
It
is
were available, could also explain the
measured data.
It should be kept in mind that the whole discussion so far has
purely
been
based
on
viscous deformation behavior. The effect of elastic transients on crack
growth rates will be described in Chapter 23. These transient effects are not
negligible in materials which are not too ductile. Further, the subject of
crack growth modeling will be taken up again in Chapter 27 in the framework
continuum damage mechanics.
of
22 Specimen Size Requirements for C* -Testing

Caused by Crack-TIp Blunting and by 3-D Effects
In fracture mechanics, test specimens must generally
satisfy
certain
minimum
size requirements. In linear elastic fracture mechanics, it is the plastic zone

compared to which the specimen must be sufficiently large. This criterion has
led to the well known ASTM-E 399 rule for linear elastic fracture testing.
Under fully plastic conditions, the
crack-tip
opening
displacement
must
be
small compared to the specimen dimensions, which is expressed by the ASTM-E 813
rule. Crack-tip blunting sets an analogous limitation to C* as will
Further,
the
be
shown.
crack growth behavior is often to be measured under plane-strain
conditions, which requires sufficiently thick specimens. This is so in rate-independent fracture mechanics as well as in creep crack growth testing. The discussion of this problem in Section 22.2 is applicable to both cases.
In
later
chapters, further limitations to C*, which arise from the constitutive behavior
of the material, will be described.
22.1 Limitations to C* Set by Blunting

Before a crack starts growing, for example by coalescence with
cavities,
grain
boundary
its tip is blunted by creep flow of the surrounding material. In the
derivation of the HRR-field, on the other hand, the crack is treated

mathematically
as
being
snarp. Therefore the validity of the HRR-field is restricted to
distances from the crack tip which are large compared to the crack-tip
opening
displacement, 6t This problem has been examined in detail for time-independent

plasticity by Rice and Johnson (1970) and by McMeeking (1977). They include
crack-tip blunting in their analyses and find that blurtting disturbs the stress
field over distances 3 to 5 times 6t , whereas outside that zone the analysis
which neglects blunting becomes increasingly accurate. Thus the range of validity of the HRR-field is limited by blunting towards small
crack
tip,
and
by
distances
from
the
the outer specimen geometry towards large distances. This
means that the specimen must be large enough compared to 6t in order
to
allow
22.1
287
Limitations to C* by Blunting
for a finite range of validity of the HRR-field. This is expressed by:

(a, W-a) > 2 MOt.
(22.1 )
The factor M, which specifies how much larger the specimen

crack-tip
opening
displacement,
depends
on
must
be
than
the
the desired accuracy and on the
specimen geometry. Numerical studies, like that of McMeeking and
Parks
(1979)
show that the singular HRR-field has a reasonable range of approximate validity
if M
25 in compact specimens, whereas for
center-cracked
plates
in
plane-
strain tension, M = 200 is required. It is important to realize that the existence of a unique asymptotic field is essential for C*-testing since it
tees
guaran-
a unique behavior of crack tips in differently shaped specimens. If there
is no range of validity for the asymptotic field, the conditions at

tip
the
crack
depend on details of the specimen geometry, and different specimens cannot
be compared on the basis of C*.

In rate-independent plasticity, the crack-tip opening displacement is given
0t
= J/(2a ),
by
where ay is yield stress and J is the J-integral. With this value
of 0t' eq. (22.1) represents the ASTM-E 813 requirement for valid J-testing.
The crack-tip opening displacement in nonlinear viscous materials is calculated

next.
Following
Knauf and Riedel (1980), we define 0t as the distance between
the crack faces, where two lines drawn through the apex of
inclined
by
the
crack
profile
30 0 to the crack plane intersect the crack profile (Fig. 22.1).
Displacement rates associated with an HRR-field have the form

(22.2)
where the dimensionless functions Ui(S) are tabulated by Shih (1983).
as
the
crack
As
long
is stationary and C* is constant, the displacement is u i = uit.

u i at S = ~ and r = us/tan 30 o gives the
Taking twice the S-component of
crack-tip opening displacement of a stationary crack:

(22.3)
The term in brackets is equal to 1.25 and 1.11
for
plane
strain.
Figure
for n
5 and 7,
respectively,
22.1 also shows the evolution of the crack profile
when the crack grows. The profiles were calculated by integrating the displacement rate, eq. (22.2),
for a crack growth
history as described in eqs. (21.2)
288
22.
Blunting and 3-D EffectE
Fig. 22.1. Definition of the crack-tip opening displacement of a stationary
crack, and evolution of the crack profile during crack growth.

Test on CT-specimen of 21/~Cr-1Mo steel (magnification 4x; Detampel, 1986).
to (21.6) taking n = 7 and f = 1%. Since the calculation involved analytic

approximations, the results are not numerically accurate, but they exhibit the
correct features. After the crack has gro.wn for some multiple of the initiation
time, t i , which was given in eq. (21.3), the crack tip re-sharpens, which is
also observed experimentally. It is unknown how the
growing
crack
wedge-type
shape
of
the
affects the validity of C*. Assuming that only blunting matters
rather than growth, the effect of blunting is greatest after a
few
times
ti'
say at t = 3t i From eqs. (22.3) and (21.3), the crack-tip opening displacement
at t = 3ti for n = 7 is found to be
'\
1600
(n+1) In
f
xc
(22.4)
For f = 1%, Xc = 3~m and n = 7, eq. (22.4) yields 0t = 25~m. Typical specimen
dimensions are 'sufficiently large compared to 25~m to satisfy eq. (22.1). In
conclusion, crack-tip blunting generally implies no severe
limitation
to
C*,
but the related effect of wegde-like growth may restrict the use of C* to small
crack growth increments. The latter effect is hard to quantify at present.
22.2 The Third Dimension in Fracture Mechanics and its Practical

Consequences
So far only two-dimensional problems have been considered. Plane-strain conditions
are
approached in very thick speCimens, while plane stress requires very
thin specimens. In reality, specimens have a finite thickness, and it is impor-
22.2
289
The Third Dimension
tant to know under which conditions the idealized two-dimensional limits are
good approximations. In the following, a few facts are listed which the author
found useful in relation to fracture mechanics testing both for rate-independent materials and for creeping materials.
22.2.1
The C*-integral in three dimensions
In nonlinear viscous materials, the surface integral in
three-dimensional
de-
formation fields,
(22.5)
vanishes for all closed surfaces S bounding regions which contain no cracks
or
holes (see Budiansky and Rice, 1973).

In order to utilize eq. (22.5) for the usual fracture mechanics specimens, consider
a surface as shown in Fig. 22.2. The parts of the surface along the side
surfaces and along the crack contribute nothing to the integral
since
n1 = 0,
and aijn j = 0 on the crack due to the traction-free boundary conditions. Since
the whole surface integral must vanish, the integrals over the partial surfaces
Sl and S2 must be of equal magnitude and opposite sign. This means that the 3-D
C*-integral defined on a partial surface Sl is independent of the choice of
that surface. In other words, the thickness average of the 2-D C*-integral
evaluated on a cylindrical surface is path-independent. It is
integral
related
to
the
on the load/displacement rate curve by the usual formula, eq. (20.2).
Thus, irrespective of how complicated the 3-D stress fields are,
the
C*-value
measured at the load pOints gives the average value of C* at the crack front.
Fig. 22.2. Application of the three-dimensional C*-integral.
22.
290
22.2.2
Blunting and 3-D Effects
Asymptotic crack-tip fields in specimens of finite thickness
To start the discussion of the 3-D fields it is first shown that the asymptotic
field
near a crack tip is a plane-strain field (crack-tip bluntirtg being negl-
ected beforehand). In power-law viscous materials, especially, the plane-strain

HRR-field
is
the
asymptotic
field
near a crack tip. This is so because the
strain component parallel to the crack front, e 33 , cannot become singular except directly at the point where the crack front intersects the side surface of
the specimen. If e 33 had a singularity in r over a finite length in x3-direction, the displacement u 3 = fe 33 dx 3 would become infinite, which is inconsistent with the compatibility condition. Therefore, the equations for the leading,
asymptotic
terms
of
the
stress
and strain fields are subject to the plane-
strain condition. Hence, the resulting asymptotic field must be that for
plane
strain. Its range of validity will be discussed in Section 22.2.4.

22.2.3
The singularity at the intersection of the crack front with the surface
Figure 22.3 shows a plan view on the crack plane and on the ligament ahead of
the crack. The crack front intersects the free surface at a right angle. The
intersection point is called a vertex. At the vertex, a new type of singularity
develops
which
is
favorably analyzed in spherical co-ordinates
that the definitions of

for
e and
(p,e,~).
Note
are inverted here compared to the common usage,
compatibility with the definition of
e in this book. In these coordinates,
the vertex field can be factorized according to

(22.6)
un cracked
ligament
specimen
surface
vertex
cracktront
o
crack
plane
Fig. 22.3. Spherical co-ordinates around a vertex. The angle e (not shown)
pOints out of the plane being e = 0 on the ligament and e = n on the crack.
22.2
The Third Dimension
Substituting this into the

materials
function
leads
Fij(6,~)
291
three-dimensional
field
equations
for
power-law
to a two-dimensional eigenvalue problem for the dimensionless

and the eigenvalue, s.
This eigenvalue problem has been solved only for linear elastic (or, by
gy,
and by Bazant and Estenssoro (1977) employing different

They
find
that
numerical
techniques.
0.5, 0.452 and 0.332 if Poisson's ratio is v
0, 0.3 and
0.5, respectively. This means that the vertex singularity is

usual
analo-
linear viscous) material by Benthem (1977, 1980), Benthem and Douma (1980)
weaker
than
the
inverse square root singularity except when v = 0; if v = 0, the surface
plays no particular role. For small
~,
i.e., close
to
the
crack
front,
the
vertex field approaches the plane-strain crack-tip field as one expects:

as
~ ~
0,
(22.7)
where f ij (6) describes the angular stress distribution in linear elastic cracktip fields.
The factor kI in eq. (22.6) is undetermined by the asymptotic analysis of the
vertex field. Its determination would require a full 3-D finite element
analysis of the Whole specimen. However, from the scaling
laws
for
power-law
materials (which include linear elastic materials), it is clear that kI must be

proportional to
(22.8)
where Bt is the total specimen thickness (as distinct from the net thickness in
side-grooved specimens described later).
As a consequence of eqs. (22.6) and (22.7), the coefficient of the
tip
1//r-crack-
Singularity, which we call the local stress intensity factor, goes to zero
at the free surface according to

(22.9)
This behavior is shown in Fig. 22.4
normalized by its thickness average,
for the local J-integral, J

K2I ,
J. In viscous material, J is replaced by
C*, which is also defined locally here as the strength of the singularity.
292
22.
,
CT-specimen
o~~--~~--~~
o a1 a2 a3
I
surface
a~
x3/ B, - -
as
center
Fig. 22._. J-integral normalized by its average, J, vs. dlstanc~ from

free surface, x 3 Solid lines: Finite element results (P L = Paa~tic
limit load). Dashed line: Asymptotic vertex solution, J ex x 3 "
For comparison, the result of a 3-D finite element calculation by deLorenzi and
Shih
(1983) is also shown in Fig. 22.4. The numerical calculation was done for
a standard ASTM compact specimen. At the free surface, the numerical result
is
compatible with the required asymptotic behavior. Also shown is the numerically
calculated distribution of J for elastic strain-hardening plastic material at a
load
which
is
25%
above the plastic limit load. Obviously, J falls off more
distinctly towards the free surface if the specimen is fully plastic. A remedy
for
the
undesirable
non-uniform
distribution
of
J is Side-grooving of the
specimens as will be shown in Section 22.2.8.

22.2.4
Ranges of validity of singular fields in parallel-sided specimens with

straight crack fronts
Figure 22.5 qualitatively shows the ranges

fields
of
validity
of
various
singular
on the ligament of a cracked, parallel-sided specimen. At the vertices,
Benthem's (1977) solution, or its as yet unknown nonlinear analogue, is

For small angles
~,
valid.
this field converges to the plane-strain HRR-field. Further
away from the crack front the in-plane stress gradients become
smaller.
Since
all stress gradients are related through the equilibrium equation, the throughthe-thickness gradients must also become small. Because of thiS, in combination
with
the
traction-free
boundary
conditions
plane-stress conditions are approached.
on
the side surfaces, 03i
= 0,
22.2
293
The Third Dimension
for field on
ligament
era
Fig. 22.5. Ranges of validity of singular fields on the ligament ahead of

a crack (schematic_for a thin specimen, Bt a); p-o = plane stress,
P-g = plane strain, r s = vertex field; hatched area affected by blunting.
In relatively thin specimens, the range of the
plane-strain
HRR-field
scales
with the specimen thickness, Bt , and the outer limitation to the plane-stress
HRR-field is some fraction of the crack length or ligament width. For thick
specimens,
on
the
other
plane-stress HRR-field,
fraction
of
the
hand,
and
the
there is no finite range of validity for the

plane-strain
HRR-field
is
valid
to
some
crack length or ligament width. Towards small distances from
the crack tip, the validity of the asymptotic fields is cut
off
by
crack-tip
blunting as discussed in Section 22.1.

The fact that different singular fields occupy different regions ahead
crack
front
validity.
This
problem
will
plane-stress
specimen
finite
range
be examined below in greater detail. On the
other hand, the macroscopic response

idealized
the
has important practical consequences. Plane-strain fracture test-
ing, for example, requires that the plane-strain HRR-field has a

of
of
if
of
the
specimen
approaches
that
of
an
plane-stress HRR-field has a finite
range of validity. The macroscopic response will be discussed in Section 22.2.9

together with that of side-grooved specimens.
22.2.5
Conditions for plane strain near the crack tip
It is often desirable to investigate crack growth

strain
near
under
conditions
plane
the crack tip since this represents a well-defined limiting case.
It should be emphasized that the existence of a plane-strain HRR-field

finite
of
over
range is independent of whether the overall specimen response is closer
to plane stress or plane strain. These two questions should not be confused.
294
22.
For practical purposes the range of the plane-strain HRR-field should be

numerically
rather
than
only
known
in terms of the proportionalities given in the
preceding section. Unfortunately, three-dimensional finite element calculations

have
rarely
been evaluated systematically from this point of view. Therefore,
two analytic estimates for linear elastic material will be described next.
Yang and Freund (1985) perform an approximate analysis based on
assumption
that
the
the
kinematic
displacement field in a thin parallel-sided specimen has
the special form

(22.10)
where the strain components are independent of x3 The Greek index a has the
range 1,2. Of course, the analysis is also valid for linear viscous materials,
if displacement and strain are replaced by their time rates.
Two-dimensional field equations are obtained by substituting eq.
the
original
(22.10)
into
three-dimensional equations and then integrating with respect to
x3 over the specimen thickness. Yang and Freund (1985) solve the
two-dimensio-
nal equations for a large, cracked plate of thickness Bt using a boundary layer
approach. This means that the crack is considered as being of semi-infinite
length
and
the fields far from the crack tip must asymptotically approach the
elastic singular field for plane stress. After lengthy calculations,

Freund
Yang
and
arrive at' the following result for the lateral contraction of the plate
near the crack tip:

(22.11)
The leading term Rear the crack tip is constant,
agreement
with
our
i.e.
independent
of
r,
in
previous conclusion that E33 must not become singular. In
order to assess the relevance
for
the
validity
of
the
plane-strain
field
consider the lateral stress which one obtains from Hooke's law:
(22.12)
have an inverse
While E33 is nonsingular, the stress components all and
square root singularity and therefore dominate at the crack tip. Now we define,
arbitrarily, that the range of approximate validity of the
ends
where
the
nonsingular
term,
EE 33 ,
reaches
plane-strain
field
30% of the singular term,
22.2
The Third Dimension
295
v(011+ 022) Taking E33 from eq. (22.11) and 011 = 022
the outer range of validity of the plane-strain field:
(22.13)
Towards the crack tip, the range of validity of the plane-strain field ends
at
about 5 6t due to blunting. Thus the plane-strain HRR-field has a nonzero range
of validity if the specimen thickness exceeds about 40 6t [taking v = 0.5 in
eq. (22.13)]. For rate-independent plastic materials is 6t = 0.5 J/oy , and
hence the thickness condition becomes: Bt > 20 J/oy This is
ASTM-E 813 rule, which recommends a factor 25 instead of 20.
close
to
the
For creep cracks, 6t was found to be small. Hence, the thickness condition for
plane-strain crack-tip fields is often easily fullfilled as far as blunting is
the limiting factor. Wedge-like crack growth as shown in
Fig.
might
22.1
be
more critical, and so is the occurrence of a process zone as will be shown.

An alternative approach to study the range
of
validity
of
the
plane-strain
asymptotic field is to inspect the stress fields at the vertex given by Benthem
and Douma (1980). Their numerical solutions for the vertex field show that 033
on the ligament has dropped to 60% of the plane-strain value if ~ = 14 0 with ~
as defined in Figs. 22.3
approximate
plane-strain
or
22.5.
conditions
This
are
small
value
of
indicates
that
confined to a small sector near the
crack front. If we require that this sector extends 56 t ahead of the crack
front over at last 70% of the specimen thickness, the specimen thickness must
be Bt > 133 6t This is by a factor 3 more stringent than the criterion derived
from the Yang and Freund solution.
In both cases, the definitions of what is considered a sufficient approximation
to plane strain were somewhat arbitrary. In practice, the acceptable deviations
from plane strain will also depend on the sensitivity of the
fracture
process
to
triaxility. Thus, the factor between Bt and 6t necessary to approximate

plane-strain conditions must eventually be verified experimentally.
22.2; 6
Thumbnail-shaped crack fronts
In Section 22.2.3 it was shown that the local stress intenSity at a
crack
tip
decreases when a free surface is approached. As a consequence, the crack starts

growing
in
the
center
of
the specimen which leads to a so-called thumbnail
296
22.
c)
aJ
flat precrack
crack front
Fig. 22.6. a) Moderate and strong tunneling of a crack front.

b) Shear lips. c) Side grooves.
shape of the crack front which is also called crack tunneling (Fig. 22.6a). The
degree
of tunneling can he estimated from an analysis by Bazant and Estenssoro
(1977) They mention unpublished work
of
theirs
which
indicates
that.
for
elastic material and v = 0.3. an inverse square root stress singularity

is re-established at the vertex i f the crack front deviates by ~ = 11 0 from the
linear
normal on the surface. Then the degree of the singularity is the same along the
whole crack front. which is a prerequisite for a uniform stress
fact,
3-D
numerical
calculations
of
Smith.
intensity.
In
Towers and Smith (1984) give a
nearly constant value of KI along the crack front if it intersects the surface
at an angle between ~ = 90 and 110. In agreement with these predictions.
fatigue cracks grown under linear elastic conditions in fracture mechanics test
specimens often exhibit surface angles between ~ = 100 and ~ = 15 0 .
For nonlinear materials. vertex fields have not been
investigated.
experiments
for
and
3-D
finite
element
calculations
curved
but
both.
crack fronts
(Kikuchi and Miyamoto, 1984a), indicate that crack tunneling must be much
pronounced
than
in
linear
elastic
value of local J or C* along the crack

numerical
result
shown
in
Fig. 22.4
more
material in order to maintain a constant

front.
that
This
the
is
compatible
with
the
non-uniformity of J is much
greater for nonlinear than for linear material if the crack front is straight.
22.2.7
Shear lips
Even if the front of a growing crack adjusts itself such that constant
constant
J-.
or
C*-. conditions prevail along the crack front. there is a gradient of
stresses. in particular of 033' towards the surface at any finite distance from
22.2
The Third Dimension
297
the crack tip. The fracture process in many materials is sensitive to this loss
of triaxiality. As a consequence, the fracture mode may change
separation
of
the
specimen
halves
in
the
the
formation
of
shear
lips
normal
center of the specimen to shear
fracture along shear lips at the surface (Fig. 22.6b). In

testing,
from
creep
crack
growth
is less predominant according to the
author's experience than it is in ductile materials at room temperature.

22.2.8
Crack-tip fields in side-grooved specimens
An effective means
side-grooving
to
suppress
both,
crack
tunneling
and
shear
lips
is
of the specimens as shown in Fig. 22.6c. Side grooves counteract
the tendency of the stress intensity to falloff towards the free surface. By a
suitable choice of the included side groove angle, 28, the degree of the vertex
singularity, s, can be adjusted to that within the material. Further, the depth
of
the
side
grooves can be varied in order to optimize the smoothness of the
stress intensity along the crack front.

The vertex singularity at sharp side grooves has not yet been analyzed, neither
for nonlinear nor for linear material. However, 3-D finite element calculations
have been performed for side-grooved compact specimens by Shih,
Andrews
(1977)
for
linear
material
and
by
deLorenzi
constant
at 2S
grooves
in
terms
of
kept
out
a to
to
be
a uniform distribution of the local J-integral and in
terms of approximate plane-strain

Figure
was
while the depth of the side grooves was varied from
50% of the half specimen thickness. A relative depth of 25% turned

favorable
and
and Shih (1983) for
elastic/plastic material. The notch angle of the sharp side

= 45 0 ,
deLorenzi
conditions
along
the
whole
crack
front.
22.7 shows that J and the transverse stress component 033 at a distance
about 1% of the crack length ahead of the crack front, normalized by 011 + 22 ,
vary to a much lesser extent in side-grooved than in parallel-sided specimens.
Accordingly, side-grooved specimens exhibit
This
is
practically
no
crack
tunneling.
demonstrated in Fig. 22.8, which shows fractured compact specimens of
Nimonic BOA. The dark part of the fracture surface is due to creep crack growth
at 650 0 C, while the remaining ligament was fractured at room temperature giving
a
bright
materials,
fracture
appearance.
Sometimes,
particularly
in
more
ductile
the crack advances faster at the side grooves which suggests to use
~ slightly less acute groove angle than 45 0
Kikuchi
and
Miyamoto
draw the same conclusion from their 3-D finite element analysis.
(1984a,b)
22.
298
a)
><:'"
"""l
a6
/ / i?
/
elastic
" "-kelastic-plastic
'~
.......
'-'-
00
" I P=l25 If.

I
I
I
01 a2 03 at: 05
.vBt
a5
b) 1
..
P=125 If
1-
--------
elastic-plastic
--. at:
'"
b'
I
03 /~_l
I
:::;:: 02 r
J
0-
b~
elastic,
v=03
al
aa
01
--
Q2 03 at: a5
x3 /Bt
Fig. 22.7. J-integral (a) and plane-strain constraint (b) vs. distance
from specimen surface for 25% side-grooved (solid lines) and parallel-sided
(dashed lines) CT-specimens. (From deLorenzi and Shih, 1983).
22.2.9
The compliance and C* in parallel-sided and side-grooved specimens
The macroscopic load/displacement rate response of a specimen is interesting in

relation to the calculation of C* from the formulas shown in Section 20.2.1.
For linear elastic materials, Shih, deLorenzi and Andrews
(1977)
compare
3-D
finite element calculations with measured compliances. The agreement is excellent.
Thei~
results for the normalized compliance, E
Bt/P (where E is Young's
Fig. 22.8. Creep crack growth in side-grooved and parallel-sided specimens.
22.2
299
The Third Dimension
modulus and A is load line deflection), of compact specimens with

side
grooves
22.1. Later results by deLorenzi and Shih (1983) are

line.
and
without
are compared with plane-stress and plane-strain results in Table
for
included
in
the
bottom
stress are taken from Saxena and Hudak (1978), while

plane-strain values are obtained by multiplying the latter values by (1-v2 )
with
Values
plane
= 0.3. As the table shows, the compliance of a parallel-sided standard
compact specimen is somewhat closer to plane stress than to plane strain.

grooving
raises
the compliance to slightly above the plane-stress value. (Re-
call that the compliance is normalized by the total specimen

Thus
in
the
Side
elastic
thickness
here).
range, 3-D effects in standard specimens are relatively
small. Compliances are within a few per cent of the 2-D
limits.
The same is
2
true for the J-integral, which also differs by only a factor 1-v between plane
strain and plane stress in linear material.

In nonlinear material, C*
C* = 0net ~ g2'
if
the
can
be
determined
displacement
from
eq.
(20.13),
i.e.
insensitive to the choice of plane-strain or plane-stress values for g2. It

applicable
to
from
rate has been measured. This formula is

is
both, parallel-sided specimens, which fall between plane strain
and plane stress, and to side-grooved speCimens, for which deLorenzi and Shih's
(1983) finite element calculations suggest very good accuracy of eq. (20.13) if
plane-strain values for g2 are used. Kikuchi's and Miyamoto's (1984b)
tions lead to the same conclusion.
calcula-
If, however, the displacement rate is not known (e.g., before the test has been
n+1 gl' must be used, which gives

carr i e d ou t) ,eq. (20 .7), i .e. C* -- a B 0net
C*-values differing by typically a factor 10 between plane strain and plane
stress.
For
parallel-sided specimens, the general trend of 3-D finite element
calculations indicates that the response of typical test specimens is closer to

plane stress than to plane strain. For side-grooved specimens, the author tried
to evaluate results of the 3-D calculations of deLorenzi and Shih (1983) compa-
plane
stress
a/W = 0.5
a/W = 0.6
a/W = 0.6
plane
strain
3-D, no
side grooves
37.0
33.7
63.4
57.7
(from deLorenzi and Shih, 1983)
36.3
60.9
62.1
3-D, 25%
side grooves
38.2
63.6
63.3
Table 22.1. Normalized compliances, EASt/P, of compact specimens with

25% side grooves and without side grooves (standard ASTM dimensions).
22.
300
red to the 2-D results from the EPRI-Handbook of Kumar et al

sults,
which
are
(1981).
The
re-
not quite conclusive, are shown in Fig. 22.9. DeLorenzi and
Shih give the load/displacement response
of
side-grooved
and
parallel-sided
CT-specimens of elastic-plastic material with a hardening exponent n = 10. Only

the fully plastic limit, i.e. the limit of large loads, is
For
for plane strain (p-E) and plane stress (p-o) and for the
used
of
interest
here.
this case, the load-line displacement was calculated also from eq. (20.11)
material
parameters
by deLorenzi and Shih. The applied load per unit thickness was either re-
ferred to the net specimen thickness between the side grooves, Bnet , or to the
total thickness, Bt , or to an effective thickness defined by Shih, deLorenzi
and Andrews (1977) as
(22.14)
As Fig. 22.9 indicates, the
approximated
3-D
calculation
for
Side-grooved
specimens
best by plane stress using the effective thickness. This 2-D cal-
culation underestimates the displacement by a factor of about 1.5. The

with
is
problem
Fig. 22.9 is that the 3-D result for no side grooves gives a greater dis-
placement than the plane-stress calculation using Bt , which is the only reasonable thickness for parallel-sided specimens. This disagrees with intuitior
and with other results from the literature which indicate that
configuration
is
plane-stress
more compliant than the corresponding specimen having finite
thickness. Further work is needed in this area.
2000
1000
p-I1,Bnet
700
no side grooves
500
400
25% side grooves

(from de Lorenzi
and Shih)
300
200
CT 5-specimen
100 L--L_---'L-_ _--'_ _ _- '

QI
mo
load-line displacement, Lf in mm
Fig. 22.9. Comparison of 2-D (straight lines) and 3-D calculations.
23 Elastic/Nonlinear Viscous Materials.

Applicability of KI and C*
In
the
preceding
approximated
sections,
the
deformation
response
of
materials
was
as nonlinear viscous. The theoretical description is now extended
to include elastic deformation. Elastic strains cannot be
neglected,
and
may
even become dominant, in materials which are relatively creep resistant and
brittle, i.e., which exhibit substantial creep crack growth before the whole
specimen
creeps
extensively.
The
distinction
between predominantly elastic
deformation and extensive creep of a cracked specimen

this
chapter.
This
will
be
quantified
in
question is of some practical importance since the macro-
scopic load parameter to describe creep crack growth is

factor, KI , in predominantly
extensive creep limit.
elastic
situations,
the
while
stress
intenSity
C* applies in the
The discussion is based on an elastic/nonlinear viscous material law:

(23.1 )
with the notation as
law
reduces
to
E=
~efined
alE
in Section 3.2. In uniaxial tension, the
material
Bon. It comprises elastic behavior as the short-time
response to load application, and viscous creep as the long-time limit.
23.1 Stationary Crack under Step Loading

The basic concepts of high-temperature fracture mechanics in elastic/nonlinear
viscous materials will now be developed considering a stationary (i.e. non-propagating) crack. The presentation follows work of Riedel and Rice (1980) and of
Ohji,
Ogura
and
Kubo
(1980).
Some
of
the pertinent ideas were applied to
Mode-III loading earlier (Riedel, 1978). A creep crack growth test

by
is
modeled
letting a constant tensile load be applied to the cracked specimen suddenly
at time t = O. The instantaneous response of an elastic/nonlinear viscous
mat-
23.
302
Elastic-Nonlinear Viscous Material, KI and C*
erial to load application is purely elastic. In particular, the crack-tip field

at time t
0 is the inverse-square-root singular field:
(23.2)
where KI is the Mode-I stress intensity factor and the angular functions fij(e)
are given in Appendix B.
Also known is the stress field which is valid
at
very
long
times.
In
this
limit, the creep strains, which increase continuously, become exceedingly large
compared to the elastic strains, which remain bounded. Then
behaves
as
if
the
material
stress
field
were purely nonlinear viscous. The stress field
becomes time-independent with a spatial distribution as

20.
the
described
in
Chapter
In particular, the crack-tip field is the HRR-field with C* being path-in-
dependent and determining the severity of the HRR-singularity.

Another conclusion which can be drawn
(23.1),
is
directly
from
that very near the crack tip (i.e. if r
the
~
material
law,
eq.
0), elastic strain rates
can be neglected compared to creep rates for any time t > O. The reason is that
the
stress is unbounded near the crack tip, and therefore the creep rate (<< on
with n > 1) has a stronger singularity than does the elastic strain rate (<<
As
consequence, the
~ymptotic
a).
fields for t > 0 are determined by power-law
viscous creep alone, and must therefore be HRR-type fields:

_ ( C(t) )1/(n+1) - ( )
0ij ~
0ij e
(23.3)
Except for the time-dependent strength of the singularity, C(t), the quantities
were
defined
in
Section 3.4.4. The functional form of C(t) generally remains
undetermined by the asymptotic analysis, and more detailed considerations

be
presented
will
in the following sections. But we already know that in the long-
time limit, C(t) must approach its steady-state value, C*:

C(t)
23.1.1
C* for t
(23.4)
CD.
Similarity solutions in the small-scale creep, or short-time, limit
In the initial elastic stress concentration near the crack
tip,
the
material
creeps rapidly, which, in turn alleviates the initial stress concentration. For
23.1
303
short times after load application, the deformation field far
from
the
crack
tip is still predominantly elastic. The incipient evolution of creep strains in

a small but growing zone around the crack tip can
then
be
analyzed
using
boundary layer approach. The boundary conditions on the actual specimen surface
are replaced by the much simpler boundary condition that the
crack
is
consi-
dered as being of semi-infinite length and the stress field must asymptotically
approach the elastic singular field, eq. (23.2), at infinity.
specimen
geometry
enters
Then
the
outer
only into the linear elastic problem of determining
KI , which is a standard task in finite

geometries, KI-values are tabulated
element analysiS. For many specimen

(Tada, Paris and Irwin, 1973, Rooke and
Cartwright, 1974).
With the elastic singular field, eq. (23.2), being the
the
remote
initial
ions as Riedel (1978) and Riedel and Rice (1980) pointed out for
Mode-I
condition
and
boundary condition, the governing equations have similarity solutMode-III
and
loading, respectively. The similarity solutions are most easily derived
from the equation for the stress function [eqs. (3.11), (3.15) or 3.19)J
using
dimensional analysis and noting that E,B and t enter into the gove~ning
equation only as the product EBt and can therefore appear in the solution only
in this form. The similarity solutions are then found to be:
(23.5)
wlth the Similarity coordinate
r
R = K2 (EBt)27(n
I)
(23.6)
The dimensionless function L .. may depend on the material parameters n and \}

lJ
besides on the non-dimensionalized polar coordinates Rand 9. In fact, for
plane stress Lij is independent of \} (Riedel and Rice, 1980) . The validity of
eqs. (23.5) and (23.6) can be verified by insertion into the governing
equations. The material law then takes the form
(23.7)
where the dimensionless strain rate is defined as
~ij
Eij (EBt)n/(n-1)/B,
Le
is the dimensionless equivalent tensile stress and the prime in Llj denotes the
deviator. Compatibility and equilibrium are obviously satisfied by eq. (23.5)
23.
304
if they are satisfied by Eij and Lij . Further, insertion of eq. (23.5) into the
remote boundary condition, eq. (23.2), shows that:
for R
(23.8)
-+ "'.
Thus the whole system of equations for Lij and Eij depends on R, but not on r
and t seperately, which proves that eq. (23.5) is a solution of the field equations and boundary conditions. To obtain a complete
solution,
the
system
of
equations for Lij and ~ij must be solved. This has been carried out for Mode
III by Riedel (1978) numerically based on a stress-function formulation. For
Mode I,
finite
element
solutions
by Ehlers and Riedel (1981) start from the
original field equations making no use of the similitude of the solutions. Some
features of the solutions can also be derived analytically. All this is summarized in the following sections.
Once the solution for the stress field is known, elastic strains
are
obtained
by Hooke's law, whereas the creep strains take the form

3
(n-1) (EBt)-1/(n-1)
'" Ln - 1L!.
EIR
1J
IR
dR.
(23.9)
This latter result follows by time-integration of the creep rate with the timedifferential replaced according to eq. (23.6): dt/t
23.1.2
-[(n-1)/2J dR/R.
The crack-tip field in the short-time limit
An HRR-field which is compatible
with
the
similarity
solutions
necessarily
depends on KI , rand EBt in the following form:

2
KI (1-}) /E )1 /(n+1)
(n+1 ) I B r t
n
ct
C\j
0.. (e).
(23.10)
1J
or, in terms of the factor C(t) which was introduced in eq. (23.3):
C(t)
ct
2
KI (1-v2 )/[(n+1)EtJ.
This result is for plane strain; for plane stress,

deleted.
The
numerical factor
ct
(23.11 )
the
factor
1-v2
must
be
depends on n (and additionally on v for plane
strain), but its precise value remains undetermined by the asymptotic analysis.
However,
Riedel
and
Rice (1980) provide arguments that the J-integral, which
23.1
305
is, strictly speaking, path-dependent in elastic/nonlinear

should
viscous
materials,
be
approximately path-independent in the present problem. Equating the

far-field value, J = Ki(1-v2 )/E, with the J-value calculated from the near-tip
field leads to the estimate a = 1. This analytic estimate was confirmed numerically by Ohji, Ogura and Kubo (1980), Ehlers and Riedel (1980),
Ehlers
(1981)
and Bassani and McClintock (1981). In the range n = 3 to 10, the finite element
results fall within the range a = 0.9 to 1.24, the precise value
depending
on
the way in which a is evaluated numerically (Ehlers, 1981).

Since the time appears in the denominator, eq. (23.10) describes
crack-tip
stress
that the crack-tip field in the short-time limit is determined

stress
decreasing
field, as one would expect. Further, it is important to note
intensity
factor
as
solely
by
the
far as the loading system and the outer specimen
geometry are concerned. Near-tip fields in differently shaped specimens are the
same
if
KI
is
the same. This is so since in the short-time limit a boundary
layer formulation is possible in which KI alone determines the remote
boundary
condition.
23.1.3
The complete stress field in the short-time limit
In the short-time limit, the near-tip HRR-field is embedded within
the
remote
elastic singular field. Over the whole range of distances the equivalent stress
can be described by the interpolation formula between eqs. (23.2) and (23.10):
ae
(23.12)
which reproduces the limiting cases of small and large r and which agrees
with
the finite element results of Ehlers (1981) in the transition range to within a
few
per
cent.
approximating
Figure
the
23.1
shows
an
example.
An
even
of
the
way
of
stress field, which is also illustrated in Fig. 23.1, is to
calculate the line on which the equivalent stresses of the

and
simpler
near-tip
HRR-field
elastic far field are equal and to take the HRR-field inside, and
the elastic field outside that line. This matching of
singular
fields
yields
stresses which do not deviate by more than 15% from the finite element results.
The coordinates used in Fig. 23.1 are the
eqs.
Similarity
coordinates
defined
in
(23.5) and (23.6). In physical dimensions, the picture is momentarily the

same, but the near-tip field diminishes in proportion to t- 1 /(n+1) and the
transition to the far field moves to larger distances as r ~ t 2 /(n-1).
23.
306
l5
. . C:~~
to \(FE
interpolation
formula
05
01
(elastic
".
Q2 03 04 05
distance R ~
06
Fig. 23.1. Normalized equivalent stress vs. normalized distance from

crack tip along 6 = 90 0 Comparison of interpolation formula, eq. (23.12),
matched asymptotic fields and finite element results; n = 5. v = 0.3.
23.1.4
The creep zone
From the time-dependent HRR-field given in eq. (23.10), the creep
strain
near
the crack tip follows by time integration of the material law to be

e:~~r)
(23.13)
lJ
n- 1
where e: ij
(3/2)
1J.. Obviously, the creep strain has a singularity of
-n/(n+r)
the order r
, whereas the elastic strain is proportional to stress.
(el) r- 1/ (n+1). This confirms the remark made earlier that near the
i.e. , e:
crack
tip
creep
strains dominate, while far away elastic strains dominate in
the short-time limit. The different behavior of creep strain and elastic strain
suggests
defining
a creep zone around the crack tip. Its boundary is defined.
somewhat arbitrarily, as the line (in two-dimensional problems) on which the

equivalent creep strain is equal to the equivalent elastic strain. This
definition is. of course, not confined to the short-time limit. but it will
be
evaluated for this case first.

From the fact that the stress and
manner
its
strain
fields
develop
in
self-similar
in the short-time limit, it is clear that the creep zone also preserves
sha~e
while it grows in this limiting range. The form of the similarity co-
23.1
307
ordinate, R
r/t 2/ (n-1), requires that the creep zone must grow according to
r
(23.14)
cr
As all features of the field in the short-time limit, rcr depends on
load
and
specimen geometry only through Kr and expands around the crack tip according to
the time law rcr ~ t 2/ (n-1)
The dimensionless shape function Fcr(S) was
calculated by Riedel and Rice (1980) using an approximate analytic method based
on eq. (23.12), which leads to the dashed curves in Fig. 23.2. Figure 23.2 also
includes
results
of
finite element calculations by Ehlers and Riedel (1981).
These calculations were extended

creep,
limit.
Figure
to
beyond
the
short-time,
or
small-scale
23.3 shows the evolution of the creep zone in a compact
specimen for longer times.
plan.e 1.0
strOIn
.,_
_./'nolytic
\\
c5
O.S
1.0
Fig. 23.2. Shape of the creep zone for

plane strain (upper half) and plane
stress (lower half) for small-scale
creep. n = 5, v = 0.3.
(From Riedel, 1984a).
Fig. 23.3. Evolution of plane-strain

creep zone in a CT-specimen for
tlt1 = 2.8, 4.1, 4.4, 5.9, 9.1, 12.8
[t 1 is defined in eq. (23.15)].
n = 5, v = 0.3.
(From Riedel, 1984a).
0
23.
308
Fig. 23.4. Maximum distance of creepzone boundary from crack tip vs. time.
Plane strain, n = 5, v = 0.3. Dashed
line: small-scale creep approximation.
CCT = center-cracked tension
3PB = three-point bend
CT = compact tension
DECT = double-edge-cracked tension
CT
~B
OL-~'--~2~~3~~'~~
time ( ~'la)(EBt) 2/{n-I} - -
Figure 23.4 shows finite element results of Ehlers (1981) on the maximum extent
of
the creep zone in various specimen geometries all having a/W-ratios of 0.5.
In the short-time limit, all specimens must approach the
universal
short-time
result, eq. (23.14). At longer times, the deviations from the short-time behavior parallel tnose discussed for the plastic zone size in elastic-plastic material
(Larsson and Carlsson, 1973, Rice, 1974). For the creep-zone size the so-
called T-stress term, that is the second term in a series expansion

times,
of
which
eq.
(23.14)
is
the
first
term,
for
short
must be proportional to
K~.anet(EBt)3/(n-1). As Fig. 23.4 shows these deviations from the
small-scale
creep limit may have either sign depending on the specimen geometry.
23.1.5
A characteristic transition time
The transition from the small-scale creep limit to the steady-state creep limit
was
described above by the spread of the creep zone across the ligament of the
specimen. A useful characterization of the duration of

obtained
by
the
the
transient
the
be
following definition. A characteristic time t1 is defined by
equating the relaxing HRR-field, eq. (23.10), which is valid for

with
can
steady-state
short
times,
HRR-field, eq. (20.16), which is valid for long times.
This definition illustrated in Fig. 23_5 leads to

2
a KI (1-v )
(n+1)
C*
(23.15)
for plane strain; for plane stress the factor (1-v2 ) is deleted. It was pointed
23.1
309
100
10
01
time t / t , -
Fig. 23.5. HRR-field amplitude, C(t), after a step load. Long-time, and
short-time limits (dashed lines) intersect at t=t 1 rnterpolation formula,
eq. (23.16), and finite element results of Ehlers (1981).
out earlier that the factor a is well approximated by unity.

For a given load and specimen geometry, Kr and C*, and
computed.
Comparing
therefore
t 1,
can
be
the computed value of t1 with the expected or actual test
duration provides an idea of whether creep crack growth occurs under Kr-controlled elastic conditions, or under C*-controlled conditions. The ranges of
validity of Kr and of C* will be displayed on a load parameter map
25.1.4.
The
characteristic
time
in
Section
t 1 ,and other similar characteristic times,
separate these regimes.

23.1.6
Interpolation formulas for the transient regime
The finite element results for the HRR-field amplitude C(t) can be approximated
well
in the whole range from short to long times by the simple formula (Ehlers
and Riedel, 1981, Ehlers, 1981):

C(t)
(1 + t 1 /t)C*,
(23.16)
Which reduces to eq. (23.11) in the short-time limit and to C* for long
As
Fig.
23.5
shows,
this
formula
times.
fits numerical results for most specimen
geometries sufficiently accurately. The possible use of C(t) as a parameter
to
describe creep crack growth will be discussed in a later section.

~he
instantaneous load-line deflection upon load
deflection
~el.
application
is
the
elastic
The next term in a series expansion for small times must be
of
the order ~elrcr/a

in
23.
310
elastic-plastic
t 2/ (n-1), which corresponds to the plastic zone correction

materials (Edmunds and Willis, 1977). Hence, the load line
deflection rate for short times must vary as

~
el
cr
la t-(n-3)/(n-1).
(23.17)
A~
If this is normalized by the steady-state deflection rate,
a B a~et'
and
if t1 is introduced, it follows that for short times

(23.18)
with a factor of proportionality,
results
of
is
obtainable
from
finite
element
Ehlers (1981) as roughly a = 1.3 for CT-specimens and a = 0.77 for
three-point bend and double-edge

shows,
which
cracked
tension
specimens.
As
Fig.
23.6a
the numerical results can be approximated well in the whole time domain
by a Simple additive superpostion of the short-time and long-time limits.
(The
numerical results are indistinguishable from the analytic curve in Fig. 23.6a).
It may appear counter-intuitive that the deflection rate is
creep
zone
is
still
small
than
it
is
when
the
extensively. But apparently the rapid localized straining

highly
stressed
creep
zone
greater
whole
in
when
specimen
the
the
creeps
small,
but
leads to greater load-line deflection rates than
does creep in the whole specimen after stress redistribution. As a consequence,

the
deflection-vs.-time
plot
resembles a uniaxial creep curve with a primary
stage (Fig. 23.6b), although the material law does not include
primary
creep.
The tertiary stage shown in (Fig. 23.6b) arises from crack growth .
100
oj
3PB
DECT
~
.~
.
lil
;;::
,d/,d.=1 +0.77(t, /r/n-3J/(n-IJ

...... ......
..... .....
.......
.............
...
-..:....-------.....
0.1
10
time t/t, -
10
15
20
t/t, - -
Fig. 23.6 a) Load-line deflection rate vs. time for n=5, v=0.3 (log-log plot).
b) Load-line deflection vs. time (schematic for constant load).
23.1
311
Finally, it is interesting to note that A(t) and C(t) exhibit a similar

ior
for
behav-
the whole range of times. In the short-time limit, the two quantities
differ slightly, but for large n the different time exponents, -(n-3)/(n-1) vs.
-1,
are
similar.
This
similarity in behavior of the deflection rate and the
crack-tip field suggests to define a quantity

(23.19)
which is easily measurable with g2 as defined in eq. (20.15). The parameter Ct
is meant to be an approximation to C(t). In fact, the two quantities converge
to C* for long times, while for short times they exhibit the slight
difference
in the time dependence mentioned above. Hence Ct can be used as a parameter to

characterize creep crack growth in the transition range in an approximate way.
The
ct-parameter proposed by Saxena and Landes (1985) is practically identical
with the present definition, while Saxena's (1986) definition differs slightly.
23.1.7
Possible generalizations and related work
The analysis
of
stationary
cracks
in
elastic/nonlinear
viscous
materials
described above can readily be generalized in several ways.

1) If Young's modulus and the coefficient of Norton's creep
functions
of
time,
the
law
are
explicit
pertinent solutions are obtained by replacing EBt by
fEBdt in all formulas (Riedel and Rice, 1980).

2) If the applied load increases according to a power-law
in
time,
solutions
are also possible as will be shown in Chapter 28 on cyclic loading.

3) A sharp notch in elastic/nonlinear viscous material can be analyzed just
a
as
sharp crack. As described in Appendix B, the elastic stress field at a sharp
notch is
(23.20)
where NI is a notch stress intensity factor, s is the eigenvalue tabulated in
Table B.2 in Appendix B as a function of the included notch angle, 2a, and the
gij'S are the angular eigenfunctions pertaining to s. With eq. (23.20) as an
initial condition and as a remote boundary condition, similarity solutions are
possible just as in the limiting case of a sharp crack.
312
23.
4) If strain rates are measured over a wide range of

hyperbolic-sine
stresses,
the
following
law is often more suitable than Norton's power law to describe
the observed creep rates:

(23.21)
where Eo' 00 and n are material parameters. Bassani (1983) has carried out a
Mode-III analysis of cracks in such a material. Many of the features found in
power-law materials are also found in hyperbolic-sine law materials. There is a
similar
transient
from initially KI-controlled conditions to extensive creep,
where C* dominates. The near-tip fields, however, have a different form with
logarithmic stress singularity, 0
~n(1/r),
ions
are
given
in
Section
20.2.1
no
and the equations for C*-calculat-
longer
exact,
although
the
form
C* = g20netd is expected to remain approximately correct.
23.2 Stress Fields at Growing Cracks in Elastic/Nonlinear

Viscous Material
In purely power-law viscous materials, the crack-tip singularity was shown to
have the form 0 r- 1/ (n+1) irrespective of whether the crack is stationary or
whether it grows. If, however, elastic strains
crack-tip
fields
remain
HRR-type
are
taken
into
account,
the
fields only if the crack is at rest, while
crack growth brings about a change in the character of the fields (Hui and Riedel, 1981). The stress singularity will be found to have the form 0 r- 1/ (n-1)
for both, Mode-I and Mode-III loading. Since the
simpler,
formulas
for
Mode
are
the arguments which lead to the new singularity will be presented for
Mode III, but the results to be given in Section 23.2.2 will refer to
Sections
23.2.3
to
23.2.5
deal
In
many
practical
Mode
I.
with the entire - as distinct from only the
asymptotic - stress fields for steady-state and non-steady-state growth

tions.
III
condi-
cases, the new field is not very important, except
possibly under KI-controlled conditions. The reader who is primarily interested

in practical C*-testing may proceed to Section 23.3.
23.2.1
Derivation of the singularity at growing cracks for Mode III
The governing equation for the stress function

was
given
Win antiplane shear (Mode III)
in eq. (3.11). If the coordinate system moves with the crack tip in
the positive x 1-direction, the time derivative at a material point is given by
23.2
Stress Fields at Growing Cracks
313
(23.22)
where a/at is the time-derivative in the moving system and a is
the
(possibly
time-dependent) crack growth rate. Then eq. (3.11) becomes
o
with
B = ~+lB.
the
elastic
(23.23)
The first and second terms are linear in wand
strain
rates,
while
the
correspond
to
third term is nonlinear and describes
power-law creep.
For an asymptotic analysis, it is important to note that the first term in
eq.
(23.23) exhibits a stronger singularity near the crack tip than does the second
term, since it contains higher differentials in Xi' Therefore, the asymptotic
problem is always a steady-state problem with the term a/at deleted.
Next, it is shown that the HRR-field cannot persist near a growing
To
show
tip.
this, assume that the third (nonlinear) term in eq. (23.23) dominates
and the elastic terms can be neglected. Then

equation
crack
is
the
HRR-field
which
the
solution
of the remaining
is characterized by W r n/ (n+1). To check
whether the neglect of the first and second terms was really justified,
substitute w r n /(n+1) into eq. (23.23). Then it is found that the first term
is proportional to r-(2n+3)/(n+1), the second varies as r-(n+2)/(n+1) and the
third
as
r-(2n+1)/(n+1). Obviously the first term has the strongest Singular-
ity, which is incompatible with the assumption that the third term dominates.
Next assume that the first term in eq. (23.23) dominates and
are
negligible.
The
solution
of
the
remaining
equation,
well-known inverse square root stress singularity or, in terms
that
the
others
V2w = 0, is the
of
the
stress
function,
w r1/2. Substitution into eq. (23.23) shows that now the first and
-5/2
-(n+2)/2
third terms vary as r a n d r
,respectively. Hence, the assumption
that the first term dominates is correct if n < 3. In this case, the asymptotic
field near a growing crack tip is
possibility
will
indeed
the
elastic
singular
field.
not be pursued here and the interested reader is referred to
work of Hart (1980, 1983). If, however, n is larger than 3, the first
less
singular
This
than
the
third.
Hence
term
is
the elastic singularity cannot be the
correct asymptotic field if n > 3.

Since for n > 3, neither the linear nor the nonlinear term alone can
determine
23.
314
the
asymptotic
behavior,
they must be of equal order of magnitude to balance
each other. If we try solutions which have the factorized form

(23.24)
that
s = (n-2)/(n-1).
the balance of linear and nonlinear terms requires

singularity is therefore G a r- 1 /(n-1).
The
function f( 8)
(23.24)
stress
(neglecting
differential
is
obtained
by
substituting
eq.
dimensionless
into
The
angular
eq.
(23.23)
the second term, i.e. a/at = 0) and solving the resulting ordinary
equation
differentiation
of
numerically.
~.
The
stress
components
follow
by
This procedure was carried out by Hui and Riedel (1981)
whose results for Mode I are shown below.

23.2.2
The growing crack singularity; results for Mode I
The asymptotic stress and strain fields near the tip

elastic/power~law
of
crack
growing
in
viscous material with n > 3 are given by:
)l/(n-1)
EBr
Eij
(Il /E)
EBr
Gij
)l/(n-l)
(23.25)
()
Eij
(8)
(23.26)
Such a field with a r- 1 /(n-1)-singularity will be referred to

(after Hui and Riedel, 1981). Figure 23.7 shows the
as
dim~nsionless
an
HR-field
angular func-
2.0
0~--~30----6~0----9~0~--~12~0~--~15~0~~180
e-
O~---L--~----~--~----~~~
30
60
90
e-
120
150
180
Fig. 23.7. Angular distribution of the asymptotic stress at cracks grow ing in
elastic/nonlinear viscous materials. Plane strain, v=0.5. After Hui and Riedel
(1981) reproduced by permission of Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht.
23.2
ti ons a ij
A
is
equal
315
e , which are normalized such that the maximum of ae = (3 aija ij /2)1/2
()
to
unity.
The
n-dependent
numerical
factor
A,
was computed as
a 4 = 1.042 and a6 = 1.237 for plane strain (with Poisson's ratio v = 0.5), and
as a4 = 0.815 and a6 = 1.064 for plane stress, where the governing equation is
independent of v. For Mode III, the numerical result is represented
0.2%
accuracy
~ = [0.29(n-3)]1/(n-1),
by
replaced by G and
and
E and
to
B.
The asymptotic fields at growing cracks described by eqs. (23.25) and

have
within
B in eq. (23.25) are
remarkable
(23.26),
properties. Stress and strain are entirely independent of the
applied load. Only material parameters and the current crack growth rate, but
not growth rates at prior times, determine the asymptotic fields. (Of course,
this independence of load and prior history cannot hold for the remote fields).
Possible consequences for creep crack growth will be discussed later.
It should be noted that some of the properties of the growing-crack singularity
depend sensitively upon the material model used. In this connection, the reader
is referred to recent work by Yang and Freund (1986) on the interrelationships
between crack-tip fields in rate-dependent and rate-independent materials.
23.2.3
Fields for steady-state crack growth under small-scale creep conditions
Small-scale
behavior
creep
conditions
are
characterized
by
predominantly
elastic
of the specimen. A boundary layer approach is then appropriate, i.e.,
the stress and strain fields near the crack tip are analyzed subjected
to
the
remote boundary condition of asymptotic approach to the elastic singular field,

eq. (23.2). Steady state means
that
the
a/at-term
in
eq.
(23.23)
can
be
neglected compared to the other terms in this equation.

The equations and boundary conditions which
define
the
steady-state,
small-
scale creep problem contain a set of parameters which can be combined to form a
group having the physical dimension of length:
(23.27)
This is the characteristic length for the range of validity of
HR-field.
Further,
the
asymptotic
for reasons of dimensional consistency, the entire steady-
state stress field in the small-scale creep limit must have the form
23.
316
(23.28)
R1 = r/r 1
where
~ R~1/(n-1)aij(S)
The
dimensionless
function
Eij
must
approach
for small R1 in order to recover the near tip HR-field Ceq.
(23.25)]. For large R1 , eq. (23.28) must give the elastic singular field, i.e.,
Eij = f ij (S)/(2wR 1 ) 1/2 The knowledge of Eij at intermediate distances requires
a numerical solution of the field equations. Such a finite element analysis was
carried
out
suggested
by
by
Hui
Riedel
(1983)
and
who
found
that
(1981)
is
Wagner
a simple interpolation formula

reasonably
accurate.
For
the
equivalent stress the interpolation formula is:

(23.29)
where fe is the angular function pertaining to the
linear
elastic
case.
Alternately,
the
field
equivalent
can
also
stress
in
the
be approximated by
matching the near-tip field and the far field together on the line on which the
two terms on the right-hand side of eq. (23.29) are equal. This is analogous to
the procedure adopted in Section 23.1.3.
The steady-state solution is valid as long as the alat-term in eq.
(23.23)
is
negligible. It can be shown that this is equivalent to requiring that the crack
growth rate,
i,
and the stress intensity factor, KI , vary to an only small

extent while the crack tip traverses the zone of size r 1 . Thus the steady-state
requirement is lalla < a/r 1 Inserting r 1 from eq. (23.27) gives:
(23.30)
where
23.2.4
is the acceleration of the crack tip.

Steady-state crack growth during extensive creep of the whole specimen
If the whole specimen creeps extensively, the asymptotic HR-field

in
an
remote
HRR-field
boundary
characterized
condition,
the
by
C*,
general
is
embedded
eq. (20.16). With the HRR-field as a

form
of
the
field
follows
from
dimensional considerations to be (Riedel and Wagner, 1981):

(23.31 )
with
(23.32)
23.2
317
Now, r 2 characterizes the range of validity of the HR-field. The requirements

for the approximate validity of the steady-state solution are given by:
(23.33)
In many practical cases
of
C*-controlled
crack
growth,
the
characteristic
length r 2 turns out to be exceedingly small numerically, often smaller than

atomic dimensions. Therefore the HR-field will henceforth be neglected under
C*-controlled conditions.
23.2.5
The evolution of the asymptotic field under non-steady-state conditions
Let a constant load be applied at time t = 0 and let the crack grow at a
time-
dependent rate a ~ t B For B = 0, this includes the case that the crack starts
growing at a constant rate at time t = O. The growth rate is artificially
prescribed here rather than calculated from a crack growth criterion.
The evolution of
procedure
the
stress
field
can
be
visualized
to growing cracks by Bassani and McClintock (1981). There

fields
using
the
matching
described in Section 23.1.3 for stationary cracks, which was applied

are
three
singular
which are matched together as illustrated in Fig. 23.8a, namely the HR-
field, eq. (23.25), which is valid very near the crack tip, the elastic
lar
field, eq. (23.?), which is valid far from the tip if t
{ield, eq. (23.3). Each of the fields
is
assumed
to
singu-
< t 1 , and the HRR-
dominate
in
region
bounded by the lines 'on which the equivalent stress equals that of the adjacent
HR
a)
elastic field
....
GJ
lJ
c::
.E
.!!!
c::
.E
.!!!
"tJ
----
a:rcr 'i
'fiR
log r
....
GJ
lJ
\:;)GJ
c) ts= 10 t,
b) t, ts
"tJ
ts
time t - -
tl
time t - -
Fig. 23.8. a) Ranges of validity of HR-field, HRR-field and elastic field.

b,c) Evolution of characteristic lengths after crack growth initiation.
318
23.
singular field. Figure 23.8 is drawn
a=
for
constant
crack
growth
rate
(i.e.
0) and for constant stress intensity factor. Then, among the three singular
fields, only the HRR-field is time dependent. It is apparent how the ranges
validity
grow
and
shrink
if
of
the line representing the HRR-field is shifted
downwards for increasing time. The range of validity of the HRR-field
has
the
order
of the creep-zone size and is denoted by r cr ' while that of the HR-field
is r HR The results are shown schematically in Figs. 23.8b and c. At short
times, the range of validity of the HR-field expands according to
(23.34)
Here, all numerical factors such as (n+1) were omitted for simplicity. After
time of the order

(23.35.)
the range of the HRR-field has shrunk to zero
and
the
HR-field
is
directly
embedded
in
the
elastic field with r HR approaching r 1 from eq. (23.27). This

steady-state growth situation is depicted in Fig. 23.8b. If, however, the
specimen
approaches the steady-state creep limit before steady-state growth is
attained, i.e., if t1 < t s ' then the HRR-field displaces the elastic field and
the HR-field is eventually embedded in the steady-state HRR-field characterized
by C*. This Situation, in which r HR must approach r 2 defined in eq. (23.32) for
long times, is shown in Fig. 23.8c.
Now, by Simple matching, a rather complete picture of the transient fields
been
obtained.
The
can be shown by the formulation of boundary layer

obtained
has
question is how accurate are the results. Analytically it

problems
that
the
results
by matching are reasonable in an asymptotic sense (Hui and Wu, 1986).
Numerically, Hawk and Bassani (1986) have performed finite element calculations
for the transient, growth problem (for Mode III). They found that the fields obtained by matching agree with their finite element results to within 15%.
If the prescribed crack growth rate
varies
as
oc
t-(n-3)/(n-1),
the
crack
growth increment, a-ao ' and the creep zone expand at a fixed proportion as long
as small-scale creep conditions prevail. In this case, the full governing eq.
(23.23),
including
the
a/at-term, has simi-Iarity solutions as Hui (1986) has
23.2
319
pointed out. The character of these similarity solutions depends on
a/r cr
For
slow
the
ratio
crack growth, the HR-field is embedded within the HRR-field,
which itself is contained within the elastic singular
field.
For
fast
crack
growth, the HR-field is directly surrounded by the elastic singular field.
23.3 Crack Growth in Elastic/Nonlinear Viscous Material Subject

to a Critical-Strain Criterion
In the preceding section, stress fields were analyzed for
growth
rate.
Now
prescribed
fields calculated above with a critical strain criterion: the crack

at
such
rate
crack
the crack growth rate is determined by combining the stress

that
must
grow
at a distance Xc ahead of its tip the equivalent creep
strain reaches the critical value for local failure,
Ef
Depending on the relative magnitude of the characteristic lengths r cr ' r HR , Xc

and a-a o ' there are several limiting ranges. In the following, the two most
important ones will be analyzed. In the first example, r HR is assumed to be so
small that the HR-field can be totally neglected. This is an important case for
ductile materials which fail in the C*-controlled limit, but
non-negligible
elastic
transient
at
the
beginning
which
exhibit
of the test. The second
example refers to failure under small-scale creep conditions in which case
the
HR-field may play an important role.

23.3.1
Analysis of the case r HR
< Xc and a-ao < rcr
We start with the analysis of the case where the

crack
propagation
since
its
range
HR-field
plays
no
in
of validity is smaller than the relevant
length for the fracture process, xc. At the same time, it is assumed
speCimen
role
that
the
reaches the limit of extensive creep before it fails, but the initial
stages of crack growth
may
be
influenced
by
the
elastic
transient.
This
corresponds to the situation shown in Fig. 23.8c for the limit r 2 ~ O. Hence,
the theory to be developed here is an extension of the crack growth theory for
viscous
materials
to
include
the effect of the initial elastic transient on
crack growth behavior.

As in Chapter 21, the stress field around the crack is approximated by the HRRfield,
but now with a time-dependent amplitude, C(t) from eq. (23.16), instead
of C*. A time-dependence of C(t) does not invalidate the methods used in
Sect-
23.
320
ion
21.1
since, in the integral equation (21.2), the combination of variables
[C(t)J n/ (n+1)/a(a') can be regarded as the dependent variable. This is possible

because
C(t)
is
an
implicit function of a' since a' and t are single-valued
functions of one another during growth. Therefore, the results for a

eqs.
(21.4)
and (21.6) remain valid if C* is replaced by C(t)
For short times, the term t1/t
i~
C(t),
which
represents
given
by
(1 + t 1 /t)C*.
elastic
transient
effects, enhances the crack growth rate substantially.

Figure 23.9a schematically shows the predicted crack growth rate in a constantload
test. During the transient, the growth rate decreases, until the trend is
reverted by an increase in C* due to crack elongation. The left branch of the

[
curve in Fig.9a is obtained if a is plotted against C*
aBo n+1
net g 1 according to
eq. (20.7)J. Plotting a against C(t) leads to the right branch. A similar curve
is expected if Ct = g20net~' which was introduced in eq. (23.19), is used on
the abscissa. After the elastic transient is over, C(t) and Ct approach their
steady-state value, C*, and all branches merge into a single curve. When integrated, the cPack growth law yields the crack length as a function of
shown
in
Fig.
time
as
23.9b. Initially the crack extends rapidly due to the enhanced
strain rates during the elastic transient. It should be noted that
this
rapid
crack extension may reduce the lifetime of a cracked specimen considerably. The
magnitude of the effect increases with the ratio t 1 /t f . It
materials
which
are
is
pronounced
for
not very ductile. An experimental example on an aluminum
alloy will be given in Chapter 27, and another one on 2 ' /.Cr-1Mo steel will
shown in Section 25.3, after primary-creep effects have been considered.
time
---
Fig. 23.9. a) Crack growth rate in the transition range,

plotted against C*, Ct and C(t). b) Crack length vs. time (schematic).
be
23.3
Crack Growth Subject to Critical-Strain Criterion
321
23.3.2 Crack growth subject to a critical-strain criterion in small-scale creep

In
this
section,
(calculated)
the
creep
case
zone
is
analyzed
boundary
where
relatively
the
early
crack
in
overtakes
the
the lifetime of the
t s ). The initial transient stage

evolution of the HR-field is neglected and the stress field is assumed
specimen as illustrated in Fig. 23.8b (t 1

in
the
to be the steady-state field at a growing crack tip, given by eqs. (23.28)

(23.29).
in
a and
The steady-state assumption is valid for t > ts provided that changes

KI obey the conditions for steady-state growth stated in eq. (23.30).
Now the stress field is combined with the critical-strain criterion

growth.
and
for
crack
By time-integration of the n'th power of 0e one obtains the equivalent
creep strain. In analogy to Section 21.1, one is led to
an
integral
equation
for the growth rate, which now takes the form:

A
(23.36)
Under the integral sign, the normalized growth rate A is taken at the point A'.
Further, A = (a-ao)/x c and
A ae: f
BXc
2Tfx c
(23.31)
KIfe
KI fe (Cln Oe )n-1
/ 2TfX c E
(23.38)
e: f
The strain accumulated while the crack is stationary, e: o ' is approximated by

the creep strain which would be developed in an elastic singular field, i.e.
e:o/e: f
field
(1+A)-n/2. The angular function
(x c /r)n/2
ahead
of
the
elastic
singular
the crack is fe = (1-2v) in plane strain, and fe = 1 in plane
stress, while 0e at
e = 0 can be taken from Fig. 23.7.
For large A, the solution

steady-state
of
growth
rate
Unfortunately the resulting
of
eq.
(23.36)
approaches
is obtained by setting
integral
cannot
be
A=
steady
state.
The
const and letting A ~
evaluated
in
closed
00.
form.
Therefore the result obtained numerically by Hui (1983) is shown in Fig. 23.10.
For a given KI , the growth rate has two branches. The lower branch is unstable
in the sense that the strain ahead of the crack increases if the growth rate
23.
322
Elastic-Nonlinear Viscous Material, Kr and C*
10
K.l/K.'I,mm
. ~
Fig. 23.10. Steady-state growth rate vs. Kr after Hui (1983).
increases. The upper branch is stable. For large a, the range of the asymptotic
HR-field, r 1 , becomes negligible so that the elastic field alone determines the
evolution of creep strain. rn this limiting case the steady-state growth rate
is found to be
A=
2/(n-2) or, in physical dimensions:
fe Kr
121TXc
The minimum stress intensity factor, below
which
(23.39)
no
steady-state
growth
is
possible, is proportional to that derived below for nonsteady-state growth Ceq.

(23.41)]. Numerical values for Kr,min and
amin were
given by Hui (1983).
Nonsteady-state solutions of eq. (23.36) were obtained

(1981)
by
Riedel
Wagner
numerically. They point out that, in analogy to the two branches in the
steady state, there are either two solutions to eq. (23.36), one
stable,
and
or
of
which
is
there is none. A series expansion of eq. (23.36) for small A shows
that a solution exists only if initially kr is large enough to satisfy

kr > 0.5 n(2n-1)/(n-1)/(n_1),
(23.40)
or in physical dimensions:
n(2n-1)/(n-1)
(23.41)
------------~,--- 121TXc EE f
2(n-1)(an e)n-'f e
Results of Riedel and Wagner (1981) showing the evolution of the
crack
growth
23.3
Crack Growth Subject to Critical-Strain Criterion
rate
are
given
in
323
Fig. 23.11. The picture includes two cases in which KI is
assumed to decrease as a function of crack length in order
to
show
that
eq.
(23.36) ceases to have solutions at small kI Beyond the points marked by

crosses, only the trivial solution of eq. (23.36),
= 0, remains pOSSible,
i.e.,
the
crack
must
stop. Of course, the present theory, which is based on
steady-state stress fields, becomes incorrect at the discontinuities of

at
a,
both
A = 0 and at the point where the crack stops. In reality, a creep zone will
spread around the decelerating or arrested crack and crack growth will continue
or
will
be
re-initiated.
Wu,
Bassani
and Vitek (1986) have carried out an
improved analysis by including the HRR-field, which was neglected by Riedel and
Wagner
(1981).
Wu
et
al used the nonsteady-state stress fields described in
Section 23.2.5. They find that crack growth is possible also at small values of
KI , but the behavior
defined in eq. (23.41).
becomes
very
irregular
in the range below KI,min as
The reason for the instabilities in crack growth predicted

theory
due
by
the
simplified
to Riedel and Wagner (1981) is the fact that the strain associated
.1/(n-1)
with the asymptotiC field varies with crack growth rate as g ~ a

according to eq. (23.26). Thus if the growth rate decreases, the strain also
decreases until the critical strain is no
counter-intuitive,
here (which are
criterion.
reached.
This
behavior
is
but it is a necessary consequence of the stress fields used
admittedly
Whether
longer
or
approximate)
not
these
combined
effects
with
the
critical-strain
will be observable in creep crack
growth tests has not yet been clarified. The experiments
described
not carried out to stvdy this subtle problem.
"'
oi
e.0.5
:S
o ~--~--~--~--~--~
2
crack extension
{!:go Xc
Fig. 23.11. Crack growth rate as a function of crack length.
next
were
23.
324
23.4 Application to Experiments

23.4.1
The appropriate load parameter
As the analysis of the deformation fields in elastic/nonlinear viscous material

has
shown, the crack-tip fields are determined by the stress intensity factor,
KI , in the short-time limit and by the C*-integral in the long-time limit.

Therefore these parameters should be used in their respective ranges of validity to correlate crack growth rates. As an indication of which limit applies, it
is
recommended
to
calculate
the
characteristic
time
t1 from eq. (23.15).
Alternately, the applicability of KI can be proven by showing that the measured

load-line deflection is primarily caused by the elastic compliance of the specimen. Elastic compliances are available from a number of sources
(e.g.
Saxena
and Hudak, 1978). On the other hand, the use of C* is justified if the deflection rate has reached a steady state. In power-law viscous
materials,
the
de-
flection rate is related to the load and to the crack length by eq. (20.11).
In the following two subsections, two extreme cases are described in
order
to
illustrate the use of KI and C*. The transient regime, which may be important
in other materials, will be discussed in a later section, after instantaneous
plasticity and primary creep have been taken into account.
23.4.2
A 1Cr-1/2Mo steel
The heavy deformation of the 1Cr-1/2Mo steel specimen shown in Fig. 23.12
tainly
precludes
the
use
partly
described in Section 21.5.1.
cer-
of
KI , which is based on linear elastic behavior.

Experiments on this steel were carried out by Riedel and Wagner (1985) and were
ICr-l/2 Mo steel
Under testing
conditions under which the
Nimonic BOA
Fig. 23.12. CT-specimens after creep crack growth at 535 0 C (steel)

and 650 0 (Nimonic 80A).
23.4
Application to Experiments
325
lifetime of the specimens is several weeks, t1 was found to be a few
hours
or
less. Correspondingly, elasticity effects can be neglected and KI gives no correlation among the measured crack growth rates, whereas C* does (Fig. 23.13).
It is interesting to note that the crack growth rates in the as-processed steel
shown in Fig. 23.13 are very similar to those measured on the same steel having
a prior service history (Fig. 21.7Y. This is so despite a considerable loss
creep
in
strength due to carbide coarsening during service. It should be remarked
that the similarity of crack growth rates obtains only
if
the
comparison
is
based on C*. If the materials were compared for equal loads, the more creep-resistant material would exhibit slower crack growth. The
compatible
observed
behavior
is
with the prediction of eq. (21.6), where the creep properties enter
only weakly into the crack growth rate, for constant C*.
23.4.3
Nimonic 80A
In the nickel-basesuperalloy Nimonic 80A, creep crack growth at 650 0 C is
not
accompanied by any visible permanent deformation of the specimen (Fig. 23.12b).

Indeed, the characteristic times t1 obtained by Riedel and
these
Wagner
(1985)
for
tests were many years, while the specimens failed at much shorter times.
Therefore the crack growth rates are plotted as a function of KI in Fig. 23.14.
The
data show that the crack growth rate is temperature dependent when plotted
against KI , and that the gaseous environment has a marked effect. In an Ar/H 2 mixture, the crack growth rate increases by about a factor 10 as compared to
..'"
III[] C
goo
o
~
-L.
co
C
CC
Fig. 23.13. Crack growth rates in as-processed 1Cr-1/2Mo steel at 535 0 C,

plotted against KI and C*. Arrows indicate data from early stages of the tests.
23.
326
tests in air. No quantitative model exists to explain this

ect.
environmental
eff-
Tentativelyeq. (23.39), which is based on a critical-strain crack growth
criterion, was fitted to the data in air.

Riedel
The material parameters given by

44
Wagner (1985) are B = 3.310 (MPa)-n/ s and n = 13. The solid line
and
with slope 13 in Fig. 23.14 represents eq. (23.39) fitted to

pertinent
to
650 0 C in
air
at
low
the
data
points
stresses. The absolute value of the fit
requires that XcE~/(n-2) = 16 ~m; if Ef = 10%, this means Xc = 24 ~m. In the

low-stress range, the solid line is compatible with the data, whereas at higher
stresses the data were fitted with a line having slope 4 without a
reason
for
this
choice.
theoretical
The dashed line in Fig. 23.14 was drawn by a factor
7.56 below the solid line. This is the predicted effect of the reduction of
temperature from 650.oC to 600 oc, i f the temperature dependence .of B in eq.
(23.39) is identified
Qv
= 271 kJ/mol.
This
with
that
line
is
of
to
the
diffusion
coefficient
of
nickel,
be compared with the few data measured at
600 o C.
Although the data can be explained partly by eq. (23.39), it should be
ned
that
continuum
damage
mentio-
model to be described in Section 27.4.1, which
should theoretically be preferable, predicts an a Ki relationship, which is

very different from eq. (23.39). In conclusion, a complete understanding of
creep crack growth under small-scale creep conditions is lacking.
The
problem
is aggravated by the fact that neither of the models takes corrossive effects
into account, which obviously playa role in Nimonic 80A.
.0
10
's?
Fig. 23.14. Crack growth rates

in Nimonic BOA. The line with
slope 13 represents eq. (23.39).
650C ArlH2
650Cair
x 600C ArIH2
" 6(J(J'C air
+
.0
50
100
. AAN -3/2
K1 In""
m
24 Instantaneous Plasticity
In this chapter, the instantaneous plastic response of materials is taken

account.
In
into
order to illustrate the relevance of instantaneous plasticity for
creep crack growth we assume that the total strain rate can be written as a sum
of elastic, plastic and creep strain rates:
(el) + g(pl)
E: ij
ij
(cr)
E: ij
(24.1)
The elastic strain rate is given by Hooke's law, eq. (3.5), the creep
assumed
to
exhibit
power-law
viscous
behavior,
rate
is
eq. (3.6), and the plastic
strain rate is described by the incremental, power-law hardening relation
~~~l)
IJ
(3/2)
(B IN)
0
1/N-2'
ae
ae
(24.2)
aij'
Here, N is the hardening exponent, which lies in the
range
0.05
to
0.3
for
typical structural materials, and the coefficient Bo is more commonly expressed

by the yield stress, B a 1 - 1/N /E, for plastic loading (0 > 0), and is Bo
o
y
e ( 1)
1 IN
for unloading (~ < 0>. For uniaxial tension, one obtains E: p
= B a
e
0
Equation (24.1) is not meant to be an
instantaneous
plasticity
and
accurate
creep,
but
constitutive
model
combining
it allows to sort out and describe
E~~l) = 0, eq. (24.1) describes an elastic/nonlinear viscous material, which was already discussed in Chapter 23. For Ei~r) = 0,
several limiting ranges. If
eq. (24.1) describes an elastic-plastic material, which

time-independent,
elastic-plastic
fracture
plastic limit. This area has been summarized, for

Paris
(1979).
At
for
the
the
including
exam~e,
by
basis
the
for
fully
Hutchinson
and
the same time, the elastic-plastic deformation fields which
are established instantaneously upon load application,

condition
forms
mechanics
evolution
represent
the
initial
of creep strains in a material described by eq.
(24.1). These initial fields are briefly described next.
24.
328
Instantaneous Plasticity
24.1 Deformation Fields in Elastic/Plastic Material

If a cracked body of elastic-plastic material is loaded from zero load, plastic
straining
takes
place
in a plastic zone around the crack tip. As long as the
plastic zone is small enough compared to crack length and ligament

small-scale
yielding
approximation
is
valid.
In
this
width,
the
low-load limit, the
overall specimen response is elastic and the plastic zone size is given by
(24.3)
where the numerical factor is approximate.
For increasing load, the plastic zone spreads across the whole ligament and the
fully plastic limit is approached. In this case, elastic strains can eventually
be neglected compared to plastic strains. The analysis
of
the
fully
plastic
limit is relatively simple because of the fact that, under conditions specified
below, the
str~s
field in an incrementally plastic material
is
the
same
as
that in the corresponding nonlinear elastic material characterized by

(24.4)
The equivalence of incremental plasticity and nonlinear
sometimes
called
deformation
plasticity)
is
valid
elasticity
only
(which
is
for proportional,
monotonically increasing loadings and for stationary cracks. In this case,

stress
fields in incrementally plastic materials are proportional fields. This
prerequisite for the equivalence with deformation plasticity is

the
violated
near
tip of a growing crack, a fact which bounds the validity of the J-integral
in slow stable cracking in elastic/incrementally plastic materials. The

who
the
reader
is interestea in this subject is referred to work of Rice, Drugan and Sham
(1980), Gao and Hwang (1980) or of Hutchinson and Paris (1979).

The reader is also reminded of the elastic-viscous analogy which
all
results
described
implies
that
for nonlinear viscous materials in Chapter 20 are also
applicable to the fully plastic limit of elastic-plastic material.

The field near the tip of a stationary crack
determined
in
elastic-plastic
material
is
by plastic straining alone (linear elastic strains can be neglected
asymptotically). For power-law hardening, the crack-tip field is the HRR-field:
24.1
329
Fields in Elastic-Plastic Materials
(24.5)
where I1/N and Gij are taken for 1/N instead of n as in the
case, and J is the J-integral. For small-scale yielding is
nonlinear
(24.6)
while J-values in the fully plastic limit are given by Kumar et

their
Plastic
Fracture
viscous
al
(1981)
in
Handbook as a function of load and specimen geometry.
They also give a useful interpolation formula between small-scale yielding
and
the fully plastic limit.
24.2 Growth of a Creep Zone in an Initially Fully-Plastic Body

Under creep conditions, the elastic-plastic deformation
fields
represent
the
initial condition for time t = O. For strong strain hardening (i.e., if

> 1/n), the evolution of a creep zone and stress relaxation near the crack
tip
occur
in a similar way as in elastic/nonlinear viscous material. The HRR-
field, eq. (24.5), replaces the elastic singular field in its role as the initial condition and the remote boundary condition in the short-time limit.
>
Toe condition,
tip
finite time t > 0 and that a creep zone growing around the crack
for
any
1/n,
guarantees that creep strain dominates near
tip can be defined. Using similarity arguments paralleling those
the
crack
described
in
Section 23.1.1, Riedel (1981b) shows that the creep zone must grow according to
r
cr
a:
(J/Bo) (BtiB ) (N+1)/(nN-1)

0
'
(24.7)
as long as it is small and grows within a plastically deformed environment.
If
the instantaneous plastic zone is small, the creep zone grows beyond the
initial elastic-plastic boundary after some time. Subsequently, it grows in an
elastic
field
as described in Chapter 23. Similarity arguments also show that
in the short-time limit, the near-tip HRR-field relaxes in time according to

a J
(n+1) In
r t
) 1/(n+1) -G
(
)
ij B,n ,
(24.8)
24.
330
irrespective of
prevail
whether
initially.
small-scale
yielding
or
Instantaneous Plasticity
fully
plastic
conditions
Equation (24.8) above reduces to eq. (23.10) if the linear
elastic value for J is inserted. The dimensionless factor a may depend on v,
and N. The assumption that J is approximately path-independent leads to a = 1.

After long times, creep strains dominate everywhere in the
specimen,
and
the
C*-integral determines the crack-tip fields. Equating the short-time field, eq.
(24.8) and the long-time field, eq. (20.16), gives the characteristic time
for
the transition from the initial elastic-plastic behavior to steady-state creep:

J
(24.9)
(n+1)C*
This is a generalization of eq. (23.15) to
and
it
obviously
reduces
include
instantaneous
plasticity,
to that equation if the linear elastic value for J
from eq. (24.6) is inserted. If creep crack growth occurs at times smaller than
t 1,
the
crack
tip
fields
are still determined by the J-integral, while for
times larger than t 1 , C* starts to dominate. An experimental

J-controlled creep crack growth is described in Section 24.4.
example
for
If the strdin-hardening exponent and the stress exponent of Norton's creep
law
24.3 The Special Case N = lIn
happen
to
be related by N = 1/n, a simple description of the transient fields
is possible for step loading. We assume
that plastic loading at any
material
point occurs only immediately at load application (thus neglecting any additioional plastic straining by
strain
later
stress
redistribution).
Then
the
plastic
rate can be combined with the creep rate by replacing the coefficient B
in the creep rate by B(t) = B + Boo(t), where oCt) is the Delta
function.
Now
the problem is reduced to an elastic/nonlinear viscous problem with time-dependent B(t). According to Section 23.1.7, such a material law can be treated like
one with a constant coefficient by replacing time by f[1+B o o(t)/B]dt = t+Bo/B.
By this substitutlon, the crack-tip field can be obtained from eq. (23.10).
However,
in order to satisfy the initial condition at time t = 0, which is now
given by eq. (24.5), the factor a cannot be set equal to unity. If a

determined
is
again
from the requirement that the J-integral be path-independent, which
leads to a differential equation for a as a function

stress field becomes:
of
Bt/Bo'
the
near-tip
The Special Case N = lin
24.3
331
I Br [(n+l)t + BIB]
)l/(n+l)
0iJ'(S).
(24.10)
This result exhibits the correct behavior for t
0 and for Bo
O.
24.4 An Experimental Example forJ-Controlled Creep Crack Growth

Saxena, Ernst and Landes (1983) performed creep crack growth tests on AISI Type
stainless
316
steel
at
594 0 C using single-edge notched specimens in tension
(SENT). Their tests were relatively short-term tests done at high load
so
that
the
specimens
became
fully plastic directly upon load application.
Whether or not complete stress redistribution by creep had taken

crack
growth
can
be
decided
levels,
by
comparing
their
test
place
duration
before
with the
characteristic time tl given in eq. (24.9).

As an example, tl is calculated for one of their tests in which the crack
length was a = 18.8 mm, the specimen width W = 50.8 mm, the specimen thickness
Bt = 25.4 mm, and the load P = 102.3 kN (i.e. Gnet = 126 MPa). Saxena, Ernst
and Landes (1983) report the material parameters as: B = 3.4.10- 27 , n = 8,
Bo
1.5.10-6 and N = 0.53 in units of Megapascals and seconds. From eq. (20.7)
(or its nonlinear elastic analogue), J and C* follow as J = 110 kJ/m 2 and
C* = 1.5.10-3 W/m 2 , and from eq. (24.9) there results tl = 2,300 h. Typical
lifetimes
of the specimens were less than, or at most of the same order as the
characteristic time so that the specimens spent most of their lifetimes in

J-controlled
the
short-time limit. Therefore it is not surprising that creep crack
growth rates correlated well with J but did not correlate with C*.
The dominance of J in these
experimental
proof
that
experiments
the
load
was
line
additionally
deflection
supported
was
mainly
instantaneous plasticity while creep contributed only a fraction of

of ten per cent.
the
by
the
due
to
order
2S Primary-Creep Effects
In materials which exhibit a pronounced primary-creep stage it may be necessary

to
take this into account in the analysis of creep crack growth. Two different
constitutive models will be considered,

model
(Riedel,
1981b)
already
power-law
strain-hardening
and a creep recovery and hardening model (Kubo, 1983).
Time-hardening of the form

was
namely
= B(t)~
can easily be reduced to viscous creep as
pOinted out in Section 23.1.7. Time-hardening will not be pursued
further since it usually does
not
provide
an
accurate
description
of
the
can
be
deformation behavior of metals.
25.1 Strain-Hardening Model for Primary Creep

The decreasing strain rate in the primary
part
of
the
creep
curve
described by the following power-law strain-hardening constitutive relation:

~~~r)
lJ
(312)
(25.1)
B1
where B1 , m and p are material parameters, Ee = (2EijElj/3)1/2 is the equivalent strain, and the superscript (pr) denotes primary creep. For constant
stress in uniaxial tension, eq. (25.1) can easily be integrated in time to give
(25.2)
Here, strain is a power function of time.
creep law, E ~ t 1 / 3 , is obtained if p
In
particular,
Andrade's
primary-
2. A comparison with a hardening/re-
covery model is shown later (Fig. 25.2).

In Section 25.1.1, crack configurations
creep
alone
are
analyzed
assuming
that
primary
determines the deformation fields. In Sections 25.1.2 and 25.1.3,
primary creep is combined
with
elastic-plastic
strains
and
with
secondary
25.1
creep,
a
333
respectively. In Section 25.3 the results are applied to experiments on
21/~Cr-1Mo
steel. In Section 27.5, eventually, primary creep is included in a
damage mechanics description of creep crack growth.

25.1.1
Primary creep of the whole specimen
The stress field in a power-law hardening material described by eq. (25.1) is a

proportional
field
if the applied loading is proportional, i.e., if the loads
vary only in magnitude but not in direction (Hult, 1962, Riedel,
1981b).
Then
the stress field has a form like eq. (20.4), and the strain field calculated by
time-integration of eq. (25.1) is
related
to
the
stress
field
as
if
the
material were nonlinear elastic according to:

(25.3)
The effective coefficient
B1 (t)
is independent of
the
spatial
variables
and
depends on load ana time as
B1
[B 1 (1+p) fP(t,)m(l+p)dt,]l/(l+P)/p(t)m,
(t)
(25.4)
where pet) is the time-dependent load

pm = Ipl m- 1 p (P may be negative).
and
powers
of
P are
understood
as
Similarly, by time-differentiation of eq. (25.3), one finds that the stress and
strain-rate fields are related as if the material were power-law viscous:
t
-p/(l+p)
(3/2) B1 /(1+p) [(l+p) fp m(l+ p )dt']
pmp om-1 0i'Jo.
1
(25.5)
Since the stress/strain and the stress/strain-rate relations are
found
to
be
independent of the spatial variables, it can be concluded that in two-dimensional crack problems
th~
J-integral and the C*-integral are both path-independent
if a material characterized by eq. (25.1) is subjected to proportional loading.

Because of the time-dependent coefficients in the
(25.5),
relations
eqs.
(25.4)
even for constant load (note that the time dependences are given by J
Clf
OE).
and
and C* generally depend on the prior history and are time-dependent

In
(1981b) defined
order
to
remove
the
dependence
OE
and
on the prior history, Riedel
334
25.
(25.6;
where the subscript 'h' indicates the suitability of

Obviously,
C~
C~
for
hardening
creep.
is path-independent since it differs from J or C* only by time-
dependent factors. It reduces to C* if p=O and it has the desired

depending on the current load only. In
related to the current net section stress by
property
the notation of Chapter 20,
01
C~
iE
(25.7)
Since under proportional loading
behaves
as
if
it
were
the
nonlinear
material
viscous,
characterized
by
coefficient in eq. (25.5) and n replaced by m. In terms of
[B 1 (1 +p) ] 7 (1 +p) 1m r
25.1.2
eq.
(25.1)
the crack-tip field must be the
HRR-field, eq. (20.16), with the coefficient B replaced
----,rrrCT~:;:;::,r-_
1
by
the
correspondine
C~:
) 1 / (m+1) ;;. j (a, m)
(25.8)
Growth of a primary-creep zone in an elastic field
Now we consider step loading of a cracked body which consists of material whicn
can deform elastically and by primary creep
+ (pr)
Eij
,
where the primary creep rate is given by eq.

m > 1.
The
instantaneous
response
of
(25.9)
(25.1)
such
with
stress
exponent
a material is elastic. In close
analogy to elastic/nonlinear viscous materials, stress redistribution occurs by

the growth of a primary-creep zone, which now expands according to
(25.10)
for short times. The near-tip stress
(25.8), with C~ replaced by
field
is
an
HRR-type
field
like
eq.
25.1
335
K2 (1_,,2) IE
h [(~+1)t]11(1+P)
(25.11)
in the short-time limit and approaching eq. (25.8) in the long-time limit.
characteristic
time
for
stress
redistribution
is
The
obtained by equating the
values in the two limiting cases:
1 +p
(25.12)
This characteristic time together with other characteristic times will be
dis-
played on a load parameter map in Section 25.1.4. Equation (25.12) also describes the transition from an elastic-plastic state to primary creep provided that
Ki(1-,,2)/E is replaced by the J-integral (Riedel, 1981b).
25.1.3
Growth of a secondary-creep zone in a primary-creep field
Now we consider the case that the whole specimen creeps in

that
elastic
primary
creep,
so
strain can be neglected, but near the crack tip the material has
already reached the secondary stage of
creep.
To
model
this
situation
the
material law is assumed to be

(3/2) B e: -p m(1+p)-1 I + (3/2) B n-1 I
1
e D"e
D"ij
D"e
D"ij'
Upon step loading, the primary-creep term first dominates
field
like
eq.
(25.8).
again
has
crack-tip
secondary-creep
zone.
This
boundary-layer
similarity solutions. From their form it is clear that the
secondary-creep zone
r cr
For short times, this represents the remote boundary
condition for the evolution of

problem
giving
(25.13)
m~st
grow according to
C* [B- 1/ (m+1) B1+p t P j(m+1)/[(n-m)(1+ p )].

h
1
(25.14 )
Since the near-tip stress field must be an HRR-type field compatible
with
the
similarity solution, it must have the form

a(n,m,p) Ch*
1/(
1)
)
n+
(p+1)BI tP/(l+p)r
n
The factor a cannot be
determined
from
a..(a,n).
(25.15)
lJ
similarity
arguments
alone.
As
approximation, we assume that the J-Integral is path-independent, which gives
an
25.
336
a(n,m,p)
(n+p+1)/(n+1).
(25.16)
The assumpt10n that C* be path-1ndependent 1s equally justified as an

mation;
and n
this
leads
to a(n,m,p)
9 and we proceed using a
approxi
1. The two estimates differ by 20% if p
1.
For long times, the secondary-creep zone spreads across the whole
specimen
so
that nonlinear viscous behavior 1s approached with a crack-tip field character

ized by C*. As in previous similar cases, a characteristic time is found to be
t2 = (
C*
h
)(p+1)/P.
(1+p)C*
(25.17)
An interpolation formula between the primary-creep regime and the steady

is
state
obtained if in the HRR-f1eld, eq. (20.16), C* is multiplied by the express-
ion 1+(t 2 /t)P/(1+ P ). This reproduces eq. (25.15) in the short-time limit. If,
additionally, the elastic-plastic response is to be taken into account, the
following interpolation formula for the HRR-field amplitude is suggested:
C(t)
25.1.4
(25.18)
Summary and introduction of a load parameter map
Having included elastic strain, plastic strain,

creep,
primary
creep
and
secondary
it appears necessary to summarize the results. This can be done conven-
iently on a load parameter map, which is a diagram with time
on
the
vertical
axis and 0net on the horizontal axis. In this plane, the areas are indicated in
which each of the four deformation mechanisms considered so far determines
specimen
behavior.
the
Associated with each deformation mechanism is a load para-
meter which describes creep crack
growth
macroscopically
in
the
respective
regime. The regimes are separated by the characteristic times t1 and t 2

Figure 25.1a schematically shows an
example.
In
the
low
stress/short
time
regime, the elastic response dominates and therefore KI is applicable. At high

stresses (markedly beyond the ASTM E-399 criterion), the specimen becomes fully
plastic, which requires the use of the J-integral, until, at very high stresses
crack-tip blunting bounds the regime of J-controlled crack growth
(cf. Section)
25.1
337
/oganetFig. 25.1. Load parameter maps

for two hypothetical sets of material parameters.
22.1 and the ASTM E-813 rule). The primary-creep regime, which is labeled by
-(m+1)(1+p)
C~,
is separated from the elastic regime by t1 anet
Ceq. (25.12)J,
while after the time t 2 a~:~n)(p+1)/P Ceq. (25.17)J, steady-state creep
starts
to
dominate. At higher stresses, where no primary-creep regime eXists,
the secondary-creep zone catches up with the primary-creep zone while both
still
small,
and
the
further
evolution
effectively in an elastic surrounding. The
are
of the secondary-creep zone ensues

transition
to
steady-state
creep
then occurs with the characteristic time t1 a~~~-1) Ceq. (23.15)J. At even
higher stresses the transition from instantaneous plasticity to secondary creep
1/N-n Ceq. (24.9)J. At long times, crack-tip blunting
occurs at around ..u1 anet
bounds the range of validity of C* unless fracture of the specimen intervenes.
n+1
Combining eqs. (22.1) and (22.3) and recalling that C* anet shows that the
limitation set by blunting varies as tb a~~t.
The load parameter map is a deformation map of cracked bodies, but
any
sense
related
is
not
in
to the fracture-mechanism maps described in Chapter 2. The
precise position of the lines representing the characteristic times depends
on
the material parameters, E, B, Bo ' B1 , and on the geometrical functions

g1(a/W,n), but not on the absolute speCimen size. For example, the regime
dominated by C~ will be larger in a material with pronounced primary creep,
i.e., with a large B1 -value. Figure 25.1b shows such a situation.
25.
338
25.2 Hardening/Recovery Model for Primary Creep

25.2.1
The constitutive equations
An alternative description of
superior
to
the
previous
primary
one
dates back to Bailey (1926) and
creep
effects,
which
appears
to
be
under loading conditions like cyclic loading,

Orowan
(1946).
They
introduce
an
internal
variable, called internal stress ~ .. , which counteracts the applied stress and
IJ
which increases by strain hardening and decreases by recovery. Following Kubo
(1983),
whose
formulation
is
based
on work of Pugh and Robinson (1978) and
Robinson (1978), we describe these processes by

E .
( 3/2)
n-1
C1 'e
'ij
..
(2/3)
C2
IJ
IJ
IJ
(25.19)
-Ii - C n-Ii-1
3 (1e
~e
..
(25.20)
IJ
(25.21 )
C1 , C2 , C3 , n and Ii are material parameters. Table 25.1 shows a few examples,
which are taken from Kubo (1983) who refers to Mitra and McLean (1966). Delph
(1980) uses a slightly more general formulation than eqs.
(25.19)
to
(25.21)
and reports the material parameters for 2'!.Cr-1Mo steel at 566 o C.

From eqs. (25.19) to (25.21) it is clear that (1 .. and , .. are deviators with no
IJ
IJ
hydrostatic component. The first term on the right-hand side of eq. (25.20) represents strain hardening, since the internal
stress
while
of the internal stress which was
the
second
term
describes
recovery
increases
with
strain,
previously built up.

Equations (25.19) and (25.20) cannot be integrated in closed form even for uni-
MateriB.l:
n
Ni
Al
Zn
4.7
4.6
1.7
1.1
1.5
Table 25.1. Material parameters n and Ii after Kubo (1983).
25.2
339
axial tension under constant stress. Figure 25.2b schematically shows the shape
of
the
creep curve predicted from the following arguments. At time t = 0, the
internal stress is zero and the strain rate is E = C1 0 The

from a series expansion solution, increases initially as
internal
stress,
(25.22)
For long times,
e saturates to
(25.23)
and the strain rate decreases to the steady-state value

(25.24)
where
(25.25)
A characteristic time for the duration of the
equating the expressions
eqs. (25.22) and (25.23).
+5
~r
....e
can
be
obtained
Q
.s:
....e
11)
11)
o
c: 1
norm. time BrY't/e, ___
by
e from
'"w
.~
transient
for the short-time, and long-time values of
time ---
Fig. 25.2. Creep curves.(~a))Strair-hardening model, eq. (25.13); E1 is an

abbreviation for [B om +p /Bon] /p. (b) Hardening/recovery model, eqs.
(25.19) and (25.20); schematic. Dashed lines: primary creep alone.
340
25.2.2
25.
Solutions for crack geometries
As the creep curve in Fig. 25.2 shows, the initial response of a

covery
material
can
be
approximated by the viscous law ~
hardening/re-
c,on. Therefore,
following Kubo ('983), we note that the initial stress field must be that of
nonlinear viscous material. In particular, the crack-tip field must be the HRRfield, eq. (20.'6), with B replaced by C,. Depending on the stress experienced,
different
portions of a cracked specimen approach the long-time, steady-state,
creep stage within different periods of time. If n-' > B (which is usually
case
for
metals)
the
the
transition is accomplished first at the crack tip. For
short times, the transition can be
described
by
similarity
solutions.
From
their form it follows that the steady-state creep zone must grow according to
r
ss
(C*/C,) (C C t)(n+')/(n- p -')

, 2
(25.26)
with a factor of proportionality which depends on the precise definition chosen

for rss and on n, Sand H" which was defined in eq. (25.25). The crack-tip
field well inside this zone is again the HRR-field, but now with B replaced by
C,/H, and with an unspecified factor which cannot be determined from similarity
arguments alone. However, if J or C* are assumed to be path independent, the
factor is found to be unity in either case.
For long
times,
steady-state
creep
prevails
in
the
whole
specimen.
The
crack-tip field is still given by eq. (20.,6) with B replaced by C,/H,.

Hence, in the hardening/recovery model, the crack tip field has the
same
form
in the short-time limit and in the long-time limit, viz.,
(25.27)
However, the C*-integral becomes time-dependent even
for
constant
load.
The
short- and long-time values of C* are given by eq. (20.7) with B replaced by C,
and C,/H"
respectively:
C*(t=O)
n+'
a C,Onet g,(a/W,n),
(25.28)
C*( t="')
25.2
341
At intermediate times. C* is not a well-defined parameter. But as an approximation one can continue to assume its path-independence and to measure it according to C* = g20netA. This will probably provide an estimate for the strength of
the HRR-field. C(t). Theoretically. Kubo (1983) concludes that C(t) must
decrease for short times according to
1 - y[~-1-B C C t]1/(B+1)
net
1 2
C(t)/C*(t=O)
(25.29)
where Y is an unknown numerical factor. Equating this with the long-time value.
eq. (25.28). gives a characteristic time which varies with stress as
(25.30)
This characteristic time describes the transition from primary to
steady-state
creep of the whole specimen. It corresponds to the time t2 given in eq. (25.17)
which was. however. derived from a different model of primary creep.
25.2.3
Elasticity effects and load parameter map
If elastic strains are added to the material law. eq. (25.19). the sequence
events
after
step load is as follows: At short times. a primary-creep zone
grows within the elastic singular field. The primary-creep zone

relaxing
of
size
and
the
HRR-field are the same as in elastic/nonlinear viscous materials with
B replaced by C1 in all formulas of Section 23.1. Within the

zone. a secondary. steady-state creep zone grows according to
primary
creep
(25.31 )
Since the steady-state zone increases with a higher power of time than does the
2l (n-1)
primary zone. rpr t
two different cases are possible: first. the
steady-state zone may catch up with the primary zone while both are still small
compared with the ligament width. Primary creep then never dominates the
specimen behavior and the transient occurs effectively from elastic behavior to
steady-state
creep.
Second.
the
primary
zone
may
spread across the whole
specimen while the steady-state zone is still small.

The corresponding load parameter map which describes the evolution
ing/recovery
creep
in
cracked
specimen
is
shown
stresses. primary creep never dominates and the transition
in
of
harden-
Fig. 25.3. At low

time
from
elastic
25.
342
response
to steady-state creep is t1 as given eq. (23.15). At higher stresses,
the transition from elastic behavior to primary creep occurs also at t1

calculated with a C*-value which is greater by the factor H1 At t = t 2 ,
(25.30), the whole specimen approaches steady-state creep.
but
eq.
Comparison of the load parameter maps in Figs. 25.1 and
the
25.3
shows
that
shape of the region occupied by primary creep depends on the constitutive model
chosen.
25.3 Analysis of an Experiment in the Thmsition Range

Between J, C~and C*
<In this section, results of Detampel (1986) on 21/~Cr-1Mo steel tested at 540 0 c
are
reported.
In
order
to obtain measurable creep crack growth within a few
months in this material, like in other similar steels, it is necessary to
load
the specimens beyond the elasticity limit so that instantaneous plasticity must
be taken into account. Further, it turned out that primary creep played an even
greater
role
during
the
initial transient. In the analysis described below,
primary creep was modeled by the strain hardening law,
eq.
(25.1), with the

29
following estimate for the material parameters: B1 = 4.5'10- , m n/3, p = 2,
while the steady-state creep parameters were B = 1.3'10- 24 , n = 7.3 (all
dimensions in MPa and s).
As an example, a test on a CT1-specimen having 20% side grooves and an initial
toga
net
___
Fig. 25.3. Load parameter map based onhardening/recovery model.
25.2
Analysis of an Experiment
343
crack length a o = 25 mm is described. The specimen was loaded to P = 20.12 kN

which resulted in a lifetime of t f = 596 h. The instantaneous displacement at a
distance z
12.5 mm behind the
load
line
was
A = 492 pm,
while
purely
elastic response would have led to Ael = 269 ~m. From the Merkle-Gorten (1974)
formula, the J-integral immediately after load application was obtained as
J = 18.7 kJ/m 2 , while its linear elastic (or small-scale yielding) value would
7 kJ/m 2 From eq. (20.7) the G*-integral at the beginning of

7.2.10- 2 W/m 2 Equation (24.9) then gives the
was calculated as G*
have been J el
the test
characteristic
secondary
time
creep
for
as tl
the
transition
from
elastic-plastic
creep range intervenes between the J- and G*-controlled

sponds
to
the
as t2
to
regimes.
This
corre-
case shown by the load parameter map in Fig. 25.1b. The trans-
ition time from primary to secondary creep is obtained from

(25.7)
behavior
8.7 h. However, in the example considered, a primary-
eqs.
(25.17)
and
83 h. This is indeed not negligible compared to the lifetime of
the specimen, 596 h. In fact, the measured displacement rate exhibited a transient
behavior
like that predicted in Fig. 23.6. A steady state was approached
after about 50 h Which is close to the calculated value of t 2 . (Of course,

displacement rate increased again later in the test due to crack growth).
the
The observed crack growth behavior is shown in Fig. 25.4. During the transient,
the
crack
grows rapidly and decelerates subsequently until after some 100 h a
minimum growth rate is reached.
The
figure
alsa
shows
several
curves, which are derived from eq. (21.6) (taking the limit Xc
ing the Gamma functions). Equation (21.6) is based on a
erion
and
on
theoretical
0, i.e. delet-
critical-strain
crit-
purelw nonlinear viscous deformation of the specimen. It can be
generalized to include elastic-plastic and primary-creep transients by
replac-
ing G* with G(t) as was already pOinted out in Section 23.3.1; G(t) is given in
eq. (25.18). If tl and t2 are approximated by constant values pertaining to the
beginning
of the test, and if G* is inserted from eq. (20.7), the crack growth
law given in eq. (21.6) can be integrated by separation of the variables, a and
t.
The
resulting integrals must be evaluated numerically. In a later section,
the procedure is
describ~d
in greater detail for slightly more general
condit-
ions [eqs. (27.19) to.(27.21)].

This integration was
different
carried
assumptions.
which means that G(t)
First,
out
for
only
plane-strain
secondary
conditions
under
three
creep was taken into account,
G*. This calculation leads to the dashed line
in
Fig.
25.4. The critical strain, which appears in eq. (21.6) was chosen as f = 1.82%
in order to adjust the calculated lifetime to the observed one. In a second
25.
344
i
E
E
.!:
c
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
0
i/4 Cr-1Mo steel

540C
CT1-specimen
P = 20.12 kN
."..
":;",:;:,:;,,,::::,:::,:::,:::,';:,';:'::;
100 200 300 400 500 600

tin h---+
Fig. 25.4. Crack length vs. time. Circles: measured data; dashed line:
calculated with secondary creep only; dotted line: elastic-plastic strain
included; solid line: primary creep and elastic-plastic strain included.
step, elastic-plastic material response (but no primary creep) was
taken
into
account, which means that C(t) is taken from eq. (23.16) with t1 = 8.7 h. Numerical integration of eq. (21.6) then leads to the dotted line in Fig. 25.4.
Here,
Ef =
2.05% was chosen to adjust the theoretical to the measured lifetime.
The dotted line still underestimates the magnitude of

Finally,
primary
creep
the
initial
transient.
was taken into account in addition to elastic-plastic
strains and secondary creep, i.e. C(t) was taken
from
eq.
(25.18).
If
this
choice for C(t) is inserted for C* in eq. (21.6), one obtains the solid line in
Fig. 25.4, where
~f
= 3.28% was taken to fit the lifetime. Now the theoretical
result comes much closer to the experimental data.

The same set of data is shown in Fig. 25.5 after
crack
length.
If
although C* is
no~
the
time-differentiation
of the
aBon+1
net g1 ,
obtains Fig.
measured growth rate is plotted against C*
a valid parameter during the
tranSient,
one
25.5a. If Ct = ~ 0net g2 defined in eq. (23.19) is plotted on the abscissa with

Aas measured, the two branches of the curve for decreasing and increasing
growth
rates fall closely together as shown in Fig. 25.5b. A similar result is
obtained if
a is
plotted against C(t) calculated as in
eq.
(25.18).
At
long
times, all definitions used in Fig. 25.5 merge into the steady-state value, C*.
25.2
Analysis of an Experiment
345
b)
a)
10-'
'/
V
c)
...lL
n+l
-8
11\
"E
10
.!;
oCJ
2~Cr-l""o
10-9
540C
CTl
P=20.12kN
10-10
0.D1
al
10
100
C=aBa::;:g, -
,/
al
10
al
100
10
100
crt) -
C1=.tiq.,., g2 - inW/m 2
FIg. 25.5. Measured crack growth rates plotted against different parameters
all of which approach C* at long times. Dashed curves: theoretical results.
The dashed lines in-Fig. 25.5 are theoretical curves derived in Chapter 21.
Fig.
25.5b,
only
In
the slope n/(n+1) is shown which is typical for strain-con-
trolled creep crack growth. The dashed line in Fig. 25.5c represents
the
com-
plete solution of eq. (21.6), which was already shown as the solid line in Fig.
25.4. It includes primary-creep effects by calculating C(t) from
Apparently, after fitting the critical strain as f
eq.
(25.18).
3.28%, the model predicts
the measured growth rate well apart from a slight deviation in the shape of the
cur-ve.
for Xc
Possibly,
the agreement could be improved if the calculation
~ere
done
> o.
As was already mentioned, the parameter Ct is very similar to the parameter

which was introduced by Saxena and Landes (1985) and by Saxena (1986) and which
was also denoted by Ct. The justification for its use is that it is
approximate
the
for the special case of elastic/nonlinear viscous material. Its

vantage
to
C(t)
contribute
itself
to
the
is
practical
ad-
Ct can easily be measured during a test,

whereas C(t) must be calculated taking into account all deformation mechanisms
which
over
likely
crack-tip parameter C(t) as was pOinted out in Section 23.1.6

that
deformation of the specimen. Equation (25.18) is an
example for how C(t) can be calculated, provided that the

entering into the equations for t1 and t2 are available.
material
parameters
26 Diffusion Creep
26.1 Constitutive Law

Diffusion creep predominates at very low stresses in metals, while in
it
is
the
common
high-temperature
ceramics
deformation mode. In the diffusion-creep
range, the deformation behavior is usually approximated as linear viscous.

besides
diffusion
creep,
If,
elastic deformation and dislocation creep are taken
into account, the material law becomes:

(26.1 )
The material parameter Bd is an abbreviation for (cf. Section 1.3)

(26.2)
where Nabarro-Hering creep is described by the first term in parentheses, while

Coble
creep
is
represented by the second term. The additive superposition of
the two terms is understood as an approximation.
26.2 The Effect of Diffusion Creep on the Deformation Fields

in Cracked Bodies
If linear viscous creep alone predominates, the stress field in a cracked
body
is identical with a
analogy. The crack-tip
linear elastic stress field due to the viscous/elastic

field can be expressed equivalently by eq. (23.2),
1/2
; KI and C* become equivalent
0ij a KI/Ir, and byeq. (20.16), 0ij a (C*/r)
in linear viscous materials and are then related by
C*
This is the viscous analogue to the formula for
(26.3)
the
J-integral
under
linear
26.1
347
Deformation Fields
K2I (l-v 2 )/E, with v = 1/2 and l/E replaced by Bd
elastic conditions, J
If power-law creep is admitted in addition to linear viscous creep, the

ial
law
in uniaxial tension is ~ = Bdo
mater-
Ban. Due to the elastic/viscous ana-
logy, this is entirely analogous to an elastic/plastic problem if plasticity is

modeled
as
deformation
plasticity. At small loads, the response of a cracked
body is determined by the linear term except in a
small
power-law-creep
zone
near the crack tip whose size is of the order

(26.4)
where the subscript is to denote nonlinear creep. This estimate is obtained
equating the strain rates Bdo and Ban with a
by
KI/Ir. For increasing loads, the
power-law-creep zone grows until, when rnc = a, power-law creep determines

whole specimen response. In terms of net section stress this occurs when
the
(26.5)
This equation is represented by the vertical line on
the
load
p'arameter
shown in Fig. 26.1.
c or K]
t....
(linear
(nonlinear
viscous)
viscous)
log (JnetFig. 26.1. Load parameter map showing the regime of diffusion creep
(upper left regime).
map
Diffusion
26.
348
Cree~
The transition time from the initial elastic behavior of a cracked specimen
nonlinear
viscous
creep
at
tc
high loads is t1 as given in eq. (23.15). At low
stresses, the transition from elastic behavior to linear viscous creep involves
no stress redistribution, apart from the 033-component which depends on
Possion's ration in plane strain. In the elastic regime is typically v = 0.3
while
diffusion
creep
is
incompressible, i.e. v = 0.5. A transition time is
reasonably defined as the time at which creep strain becomes equal
to
elastic
strain,
(26.6)
which coincides with the limit of eq. (23.15) for n = 1, apart
from
numerical
factors. Equation (26.6) is represented by the horizontal line in Fig. 26.1.
26.3 Crack Growth Rates Assuming a Critical-Strain Criterion

If the crack grows in a linear viscous material
such
that,
at
distance ahead of its tip, the strain attains its critical value,
Ef
structural
, the crack
growth rate is obtained from eq. (21.6) by setting n = 1:
(26.7)
Here, numerical factors were omitted and the limit a-a o Xc was taken. As eq.
(26.7) shows, the crack growth rate increases in linear proportion to Kr in the
present case.
If the material develops a
field,
the
power-law-creep
zone
within
the
linear
ViSCOUE
crack growth rate is given by eq. (21.6) with n > 1 as long as the
crack grows within the nonlinear zone. With
C*
from
eq.
(26.3),
the
crack
growth rate becomes

a
K2 )n/(n+l)/
[ B(a-a )]1/(n+l) (
o
Bd I
Ef
Here, the crack growth rate increases in proportion to
(26.8)
Ki n /(n+l).
27 A Damage Mechanics Approach to

Creep Crack Growth
27.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapters, the deformation behavior of materials was
by
elastic,
described
plastic and creep strains. Whenever damage was taken into account
in order to model creep crack growth, it was assumed that the stress distribution remained unaffected by damage. This assumption is now dropped.
27.1.1
The constitutive model
The constitutive model to be employed in the

model
sequel
is
the
phenomenological
of Kachanov and Rabotnov, which was already introduced in Section 2.3.4.
It describes the stress/strain-rate response using an internal variable

the
parameter w. This model is to be applied to crack geometries here.
damage
Therefore, the generalization of the equations to multiaxial states

is
needed.
(1~84).
both
Here
we
employ
the
maximum
pr.incipal
of
stress
formulation proposed by Hayhurst and Leckie
The kinetic law for the evolution of the damage
the
called
stress,
aI'
and
parameter
depends
on
on the equivalent stress, ae ,
according to
(27.1)
The material parameters D,X and

the
determination
of
the
are the same as in the uniaxial
material
parameter
case,
while
requires creep rupture tests
under at least two different stress states such as tension and torsion.
The damage parameter itself is not meant to be measurable. Only its
the stress/strain-rate relation is detectable:
effect
on
27.
350
A Damage Mechanics Approach to Creep Crack Growth
(27.2)
IJ
that means the creep rate increases sharply, or the stress drops to zero, if
approaches
under
stress-,
or
strain-controlled conditions, respectively.
Elastic strains and primary creep will be included in later sections.

Table 27.1 shows the material parameters pertinent to eq.
The
data
for
copper
(27.1)
and
(27.2).
and for the aluminum alloy were taken from work of Hay-
hurst, Brown and Morrison (1984), while the data on ferritic
steels
were
ob-
tained from creep curves provided by Bendick and Weber (1984). Since the latter
authors carried out uniaxial tension tests only,
could not be determined.
Recently, attempts were undertaken to develop constitutive models for

ing
materials
cavitat-
based on the physical laws for cavity growth (Hutchinson, 1983,
Tvergaard, 1984). Models of that type were described in Sections 12.5 to

However,
these
12.7.
model-based descriptions are not yet in a shape to replace the
empirical description proposed by Kachanov.

27.1.2
The relation between fracture mechanics and damage mechanics
There are several interesting pOints which should be noted before the
of
creep
crack
growth
is
described
analysis
in detail. First, the solutions of the
damage mechanics equations automatically contain crack growth. Whereever w = 1,

the material has failed and transmits no tractions. A pre-existing crack starts
growing immediately upon load application since the failure
criterion,
is reached instantaneously directly at the crack tip.
E/[GPaJ
Al
Cu
Stl
St2
60
66
150
150
B/[MPa
-n
Is]
3.2'10- 21
3.6'10- 10
1.3'10- 24
2.7'10- 31
D/[MPa-X/s]
6.9
3.0
7.3
10
5.0'10- 18
1 .7'10- 7
7.5'10- 21
2.0.10- 23
6.5
1.2
6.2
7.0
<P
9.5
3.8
5.5
12.3
Table 27.1. Material parameters for an aluminum alloy at 210 o C,

for copper at 250 o C, for 2'/ 4 Cr-1Mo steel (St 1 ) at 540 0 C and for
1 12Cr-1/2Mo-l 14V steel having a service history (St2) at 540 o C.
0
0.7
w = 1,
27.1
Introduction
351
Further, it is important to note that a 'small-scale damage' limit can
reason-
ably be defined. Damage is developed rapidly near the crack tip in a zone which
may be called the 'process zone' and which will be
later.
As
long
defined
more
specifically
as the growing process zone is small enough, a boundary layer
problem can be formulated by prescribing the nonlinear viscous HRR-field (without
damage)
as
the
remote boundary condition for the solution of the damage
mechanics equations. The existence of a small-scale damage limit has

practical
consequences.
Only
in
this
important
limiting case, the fracture mechanics
approach based on C* remains valid. Outside the small-scale damage
limit,
the
process zone becomes so large to perturb the singular fields which validate the
use of
the
respective
description
load
parameters.
Therefore,
no
fracture
mechanics
of creep crack growth based on macroscopic load parameters appears
to be possible outside the small-scale damage limit.

Now the questions arise whether the small-scale damage limit
validity
which
is
sufficiently
what can be done outside its range

question
was
given
by
has
range
of
large to use C* in practical situations, and

of
Hayhurst,
validity.
Brown
The
answer
to
the
second
and Morrison (1984). They carry out
finite element analyses of cracked specimens based on the full damage mechanics
equations.
However,
this
procedure is not only computationally difficult and
time-consuming since every configuration requires
separate
finite
element
analysis, but it may also lead to serious error. The continuum damage equations
do not include any specific corrosive effects which may
creep
crack
growth
enhance
the
element solution of the continuum damage equations would drastically

mate
the
rate
of
in several structural materials. In such a case, a finite

overesti-
lifetime of a cracked component. The fracture mechanics approach, on
the other hand, includes the corrosive effects if the laboratory tests are done
in
the same environment in which the component operates. Crack growth data are
merely transferred from the laboratory test specimen to the component using the
appropriate
load parameter. Considering these advantages of the fracture mech-
anics approach it remains to explore the range of validity of
the
small-scale
damage approximation. This is one of the main purposes of this chapter.

The following analysis is done for two-dimensional problems (plane
plane
strain
and
stress). If specific numerical results are given, they are understood to
be for plane strain. The geometry and the coordinate systems are the same as in
earlier
(1985b).
sections
(cf.
Fig.
20.1).
The
presentation follows work of Riedel
27.
352
27.2 Small-Scale Damage in Extensively Creeping Specimens

27.2.1
Similarity solutions
The instantaneous response of a

(27.2)
material
characterized
by
eqs.
(27.1)
application is concentrated in the vicinity of the crack tip and can be

zed
and
is nonlinear viscous. The evolution of damage at short times after load

analy-
under the remote boundary condition that the stress field at infinity must
approach the HRR-field given in eq. (20.16). If the

initial
HRR-field
represents
the
condition at t = 0 and the remote boundary condition, dimensional ana-
lysis shows that the damage mechanics equations must have similarity
solutions
of the form
(Dt)-l IX I: .. (R, e)
(27.3:
w(R,e)
(27 .4;
(Br/C*) (Dt)-(n+1) / x
(27.5:
ij
IJ
with
The dimensionless functions I: .. and ware

validity
of
these
IJ
solutions
as
yet
unknown.
Of
course,
the
can be verified by insertion into the governing
equations and boundary conditions.

27.2.2
Crack growth rates
Due to the form of the similarity coordinate R in eq. (27.5), the
contours
01
constant stress or constant damage expand around the crack tip according to
(n+1)/X In particular, the crack tip, which is characterized by w = 1,
r t
moves according to
6a
a(n,X,.,K) (C*/B)(Dt)(n+1)/x,
(27.6)
where 6a = a-a o is the crack growth increment and a

initial
and a o are current and

crack length, respectively. The dimensionless factor a(n,x,.,K) cannot
be determined from similarity arguments. Its magnitude

Section
27.2.3.
will
time by the crack growth increment through eq. (27.6) gives

rate:
be
estimated
in
Differentiating eq. (27.6) with respect to time and replacing

the
crack
growth
27.2
Small-Scale Damage
353
n+1
(27.7)
It is interesting to compare the so calculated crack growth rate with that
ob-
tained in Chapter 21. There, the stress field had been assumed to be the undisturbed HRR-field moving with the crack tip, an assumption which is not
in
adopted
the damage mechanics description. Further, the conditions for local failure
at the crack tip were derived from cavity growth laws in Chapter 21, while
the
now
formal damage parameter description is employed. In spite of these differ-
ences, the results are remarkably similar.

damage
mechanics
To
realize
this,
structural length xc. Howeyer, this difference to Chapter 21

limit
of
large
note
~a/xc.
the
vanishes
criterion.
In
in
the
Further the theories can only be comparable if an equi-
valent failure criterion is used. Equation (21.6) is derived from

strain
that
equations contain no characteristic length comparable to the
the
critical-
Kachanov model, the failure criterion reduces to a
critical-strain criterion if X = n. In this case, eqs. (27.7) and

dict the same dependence of a on C* and on
~a.
(21.6)
pre-
Further, if D is replaced by the
strain to failure using eq. (2.12) with X = n, it becomes evident that the
two
models also predict the same dependence of

on E f and on B. The only possible
difference is a numerical factor. It will be seen shortly that the factor given
by
the
older
theory corresponds to the upper bound estimate for the factor a
derived below if, at the same time, the strain to failure is
replaced
by
the
which
is,
Monkman-Grant product in the older theory.

27.2.3
Approximate and numerical methods in small-scale damage
A very simple approximate way to determine the

however,
compatible
with
the
assume that the stress field is
required
the
factor
a(n,x,~,K),
self-similarity of the fields, is to
undisturbed
HRR-field
centered
at
the
initial crack tip position. For such a time-independent stress, the kinetic law
for ~ is easy to integrate. It is found that the crack tip moves in
accordance
with the form of the similarity coordinate, and the factor a is then given by
(27.8)
Since the HRR-field was assumed to remain centered at
the
original
crack-tip
position, eq. (27.8) is expected to be a lower bound.

An upper bound is obtained if the HRR-field is attached to the moving crack tip
27.
354
but is otherwise undisturbed. If one lets the crack tip move in accord with eq.
(27.6), a is obtained as:
(27.9)
with s
x/(n+1). Incidentally, this gives the same growth rate as that derived
in eq. (21.6) if X = n,
Ef
= BID and Aa xc.
An independent estimate for a can be obtained from the finite element

of
the
small-scale
damage
limit
analysis
carried out by Riedel (1985b). Usually the
contour w = 1, which describes the crack, does not spread along the line
directly ahead of the crack. For the special case n
X = 5,
= ,
a =0
= 1, for ex-
ample, the calculation predicts a plane-strain crack to branch along planes inclined
by
24 to the symmetry plane. This does not necessarily imply that
a real crack will actually branch. The crack may also follow the direction +24 0
along
certain
scopically
a=
along
portions
meters, the
the
crack
front,
and -24 0 along others. Macro-
average, the crack surface may remain flat. If Aa is measured
on~he
24 0 ,
of
the
upper-
= 37.
factor a is found to be a
and
lower-bound
estimates
For the same set of para-
give
217
and
29.8,
respectively.
27.2.4
The process zone
Somewhat arbitrarily, the process zone is defined as the zone within which
equivalent
strain
rate
is
at
the
least doubled by damage compared to undamaged
viscous material. An estimate for the size of the so defined
process
zone
is
obtained by calculating the damage from eq. (27.1) and the strain rate from eq.
(27.2) using the undisturbed HRR-field centered at the original crack tip. Then
the process zone size normalized by the growth increment is found to be
(27.10)
For the material parameters of copper and of the aluminum alloy shown in
27.1,
this
ratio
is 2.6 and 0.69, respectively. For n
= ,
Table
X = 5, the ratio
becomes 0.99.
Figure 27.1 illustrates that this definition of the process zone is reasonable.
The
figure
shows
finite
element
results for the stress ahead of the crack,
which has grown from 0 to 1 in the normalized
units used in Fig. 27.1.
Hence,
27.2
355
Small-Scale Damage
t
~
'"
b'"
:;::..
11)
11)
05
11)
g
c::
,,
/",HRR
" '1"'--__
I
I
I
I
I
I
CI.I
I
I
I
I
1p-!
2
r/Lla -
Fig. 27.1. Stress distribution in the process zone ahead of a growing crack.
Finite element results for n = ~ = X = 5, K = 1, e = 24 0 , after Riedel (1985b).
the stress is relaxed to zero there.

according
Also
shown
is
the
process
zone
size
to eq. (27.10). Obviously, rp is a measure for the zone within which
the stress deviates markedly from the undisturbed HRR-field.
27.3 The Range of Validity of the Small-Scale Damage Approximation

in Extensively Creeping Specimens
In analogy to the limitation caused
damage
by
crack-tip
blunting,
the
small-scale
approximation is valid only as long as the process zone is smaller than
a certain fraction, denoted by 2.5/M, of the crack length and ligament width
rp < 2.5 aiM.
(27.11)
Otherwise the HRR-field has no finite range of approximate validity between the
process zone and the outer specimen surface. Then C* cannot characterize cracktip fields uniquely. The factor M must have values of around
geometries
including
the
compact specimen and M
= 25
for
bend
200 for the center-cracked
plate in plane-strain tension. The condition for the small-scale damage approximation
to
be
valid,
eq.
(27.11),
can be expressed as a condition for the
relative crack growth increment using eq. (27.10):

(27.12)
27.
356
With M = 25 and n = $ = X = 5, eq (27.12) gives the allowable amount

growth
of
crack
as 10% of the crack length. At first sight, this might look like a very
restrictive condition. But the condition for the allowable crack growth
incre-
ment can alternately be expressed as the requirement that the time must not exceed a certain fraction of the lifetime, t f , of the cracked specimen, and it is
found experimentally and theoretically (Section 27.6), that 10% crack extension
correspond to a substantial fraction of the total lifetime. On a load parameter
map, the regime of large process zones Is represented by the hatched band shown
in Fig. 27.2. Although C* should no longer be valid in this regime, the experiments
reported
in Chapter 21 show a good correlation of the crack growth rate
with the C*-integral up to greater fractions of crack extension than 10% of the
ligament. This agreement might be fortuitous, but it may also indicate that the
process zone Is not quite as large as predicted by the Kachanov equations.
27.4 The Evolution of Damage and Crack Growth

for Small-Scale Creep
If elastic strain rates are added to the creep rate in eq. (27.2), two limiting
ranges
of
behavior
can
be
distinguished
which
are
described
subsections below. In brittle materials creep strains can be

where
w ~ 1.
In
other
zone between the process
in the two
neglected
except
words, in this first limiting case, there is no creep

zone and
the remote
elastic field.
In more ductile
....
-8'
J
log (/netFig. 27.2. Load parameter map showing the limitation
to C* by too large process zones (hatched area).
21.4
Damage and Crack Growth in Small-Scale Creep
351
materials, on the other hand, the creep zone grows faster than the process zone
so
that final failure occurs under extensive creep conditions, but the initial
stages of crack growth may be influenced by the elastic transient.

21.4.1
Crack grows faster than creep zone
In brittle materials, a crack may grow so fast that no appreciably sized

zone develops before the specimen fractures. This situation,
growth, i.e. a = const, was already analyzed
critical-strain
criterion,
in
Section
for
creep
steady-state
23.2.3
based
on
rather than on the damage mechanics equations. The
r/r 1 , and stress, Lij , defined in eqs. (23.27) and

(23.28) can again be used to non-dimensionalize the stress/strain-rate equation
dimensionless length, R1
and the remote boundary condition, which is the elastic singular field here. In
terms of these variables, the condition w
[(D/EB) (Ki E RLa)(n-1-x)/(n-3)]
J [KE I
1 at the crack tip takes the form
(l-KlLeJx dR 1
(27.13)
1.
o
This equation is obtained by integrating eq. (27.1) over the time, replacing dt
by -dx/a and inserting the dimensionless variables. The integral is taken along
the line ahead of the crack tip,
a=
O. The integral has some
as
yet
unknown
value which may depend only on the dimensionless material parameters and on the
bracketed dimensionless combination of variables, which appears in front of the
integral, but not on R1 , nor on a, B, E or D separately. Thus eq. (27.13) above
is an implicit relation for the bracketed combination of variables. If resolved
for the crack growth rate, the result must have the form:
(27.14)
where a is an unknown dimensionless factor. This result for
rate
is
an undisturbed elastic singular field and a

fullfilled
the
remarkably different from eq. (23.39) which predicted

at
some
d~stance
critical-strain
crack
a
growth
K~ assuming
criterion
to
be
Xc ahead of the crack tip. The comparison of eqs.
(27.14) and (23.39) illustrates that seemingly minor changes in the
model
can
sometimes lead to drastic disparities in the results. Although the damage mechanics model appears to be theoretically preferable, experiments tend to support
the stronger dependence, a
K~, as was illustrated by the tests on Nimonic 80A
described in Section 23.4.3. In conclusion, creep
crack
growth
under
scale creep conditions is not as well understood as C*-controlled growth.
small-
27.
358
27.4.2
Creep zone grows faster than process zone
If the process zone grows well inside the creep zone (which itself is initially
small compared to the crack length), the evolution of damage can be analyzed as
the following boundary layer problem: far from the crack tip, the stress
must
asymptotically
elastic transient and is given by eq.

elastic
strains
can
is
(23.10).
Inside
this
boundary
layer,
be neglected so that the problem is governed by the same
equations as in the extensive creep

condition
field
approach the relaxing HRR-field which is valid during the
limit
except
that
the
remote
boundary
now time-dependent. Again, there are similarity solutions having
the form of eqs. (27.3) and (27.4). The similarity coordinate is now
(27.15)
Therefore, the crack growth increment and the crack growth rate are
n+1
(n+1)/x
Dt)
n+1-x
~a
K2(1_v 2 )
In general. the dimensionless factor

in
n+1 (a
I
)X/ n+1
X
(n+1) ESt
)
D~
a(n,x,~,K)
(n+1-x)/(n+1)
(27.16)
(27.17)
may be different from that used
the extensive-creep case, but in the following, the two factors are assumed
to be equal. An interpolation formula between the crack
growth
rates
in
the
short-time limit, eq. (27.17), and in the extensive-creep limit, eq. (27.7), is
obtained by replacing C* in eq. (27.7) by
C*
(1 + t 1 /t) C*,
(27.18)
The characteristic time, t 1 , was defined in eq. (23.15) and is meant here to be
calculated for the initial crack length.
A comparison with Section 23.3.1 shows that, in the case of slow
inside
the
crack
growth
creep zone, the continuum damage model leads to basically the same
crack growth rates as the previous model based on the undisturbed HRR-field and
on
a critical-strain criterion. The results differ only by a numerical factor,
if corresponding cases are compared, i.e. X = n and Xc =
o.
21.5
359
27.5 Primary-Creep Effects

Primary creep is described here by the
strain-hardening
model
introduced
in
Section 25.1. Damage is taken into account by using eq. (21.1) for wand
(21.19)
Two limiting cases are distinguished in the following analysis.
21.5.1
Small-scale damage in a specimen which creeps in the primary stage
If only the primary-creep term in eq. (21.19) plays a role, the remote boundary
condition
for
the
evolution of the process zone is given by eq. (25.8). Thus
the structure of the mathematical problem is almost identical with that

in
solved
Section 21.2. The final result for the crack growth rate, eq. (21.1), needs
to be modified only by replacing n by m and
C*/B
by
C~/B1 1/(1+p),
and
the
factor a has a different numerical value, which is unknown.

21.5.2
The transient from elasticity over primary to secondary creep
Now creep crack growth is considered for

creep
and
secondary
the
case
that
elasticity,
primary
creep consecutively determine the specimen response, and
the process zorle is small and well contained wi thin the
secondary-creep
zone.
In analogy to previous cases, this case can be dealt with approximately by taking the crack growth nate from eq. (21.1), but with C* replaced by
(21.20).
The same interpolation was suggested in eq. (25.18).
27.6 The Evolution of the Crack Length and the Lifetime

Lifetimes of pre-cracked specimens are estimated now by integrating
growth
laws
the
crack
derived in the preceding sections. In doing so the limitations to
the small-scale damage approximation are ignored. Whether or not this leads
serious
error
to
will be discussed in Section 21.1. There is yet another problem
associated with the integration of the crack growth laws. It is the rule rather
than
the
exception
that
crack growth is predicted to occur along directions
27.
360
which are inclined to the original crack plane. This implies two
First
difficulties.
it is not clear whether a crack in a specimen of finite thickness really
branches or kinks macroscopically. Experience in this laboratory
with
various
steels indicates that the crack surface remains macroscopically flat and normal
to the tensile direction. Side-grooving of the specimen supports this tendency.
Second,
if
the
crack
did
actually
branch
macroscopically,
branched cracks would not be available and the crack-tip fields

Mode-II
For
component.
these
failure is controlled by the

equivalent
stress,
i.e. if
C*-values for
would
principal
is
done
for
tensile
stress
rather
than
reasons
that
branches
the
calculat-
(K
< 0.5) and
if
there
are
no
the crack should remain planar, crack growth under
6 = 60 0 is considered. The C*-integral is estimated, then, by

crack
by
in-plane crack extension. If, on the other hand, failure is
controlled primarily by the equivalent stress

experimental
> 0.5, or if the crack is known from experiments
to remain flat, for example, because deep side-grooves are used, the
ion
have
reasons the following procedure is adopted: If
projecting
the
onto the symmetry plane and to consider a planar crack of that
length. Among the examples shown below, this latter procedure is
applied
only
which
crack
to the aluminum alloy.

The following calculation is performed for ductile materials,
growth
occurs
primarily
in
in the C*-controlled limit, but the transient due to
the elastic/plastic response and to primary creep is also taken

Hence,
the
calculation
into
account.
of the crack length as a function of time starts from
the crack growth rate, eq. (27.7), with the correction for the transients,
eq.
(27.20), and the e,xpression for C*, eq. (20.7), inserted. Then the crack growth
law can be integrated by separation of the variables, a and
t.
There
results
the following implicit relationship between a/Wand time:

F(a/W) = [(n+1)/x] (n COS6)x/(n+1) DO~ t G(t/t 1 )
with
F(a/W)
ar
(0 /0
ne
t)X da
J (ag )x/(n+1)( a-a )'-xln+l)

a
o
1
(27.21)
(27.22)
tlt1
G( tlt1 )
(t 1 /t)
f [1 +1 /-r+('2/'r)P/(P+1 )]x/(n+1 )d,.
(27.23)
o
Here, ,
t 2 /t 1 ,
00
and a o are net section stress and crack
length,
27.6
361
Evolution of Crack Length and Lifetime
respectively, at the beginning of the test. The load is assumed to be constant,

and the geometrical function g1 defined in eq.
strain.
The
(20.10)
was
be
for
plane
factor cose accounts for the projection of the local crack growth
direction onto the symmetry plane. The dimensionless functions

generally
taken
F and
G must
evaluated by numerical integration; G accounts for the transient
correction and approaches 1
for
long
times
when
transient
effects
become
negligible.
The group DoXt represents the time in units of the failure time of
o
an unnotched specimen subjected to the tensile stress 0 0 If failure of the
cracked specimen occurs at longer times than 1/(D oX), the material is called
o
notch strengthening; otherwise it is called notch weakening.

Equation (27.21) was evaluated numerically for various specimen geometries
material
parameters.
Results
for
21/~Cr-1Mo
and
steel were already shown in Fig.
25.4. Figure 27.3 shows further results. They were calculated
for
double-edge
cracked tension specimens (DECT) and center-cracked tension specimens (CCT) for
plane-strain. Material parameters for copper and aluminum were taken from Table
27.1. The factor a was computed from the upper-bound estimate, eq. (27.9). The
D(j; t
(forAIIDECi) 10
15
lO~----~--~-T~~~~--~
a)DECT
09
,
,
t)
~ 08
~
tJ Q7
/,~
~-----
Q6
0.5
1.0
./
~~----- AI
1.0
I.
b)CC'"
,,
AI./
.... /
1.5
Fig. 27.3. Normalized crack length vs. normalized time calculated from
eq. (27.21). Note separate scale for DECT-specimens of AI. Dashed line:
without elasticity correction [G(t/t 1 ) = 1J. (After Riedel, 1985b).
27.
362
dashed lines represent results which neglect transient effects, i.e. which
the elastic transient. Primary creep effects are neglected in
copper,
are
by setting G = 1, while the solid lines include the correction due to
obtained
the
Fig.
27.3.
For
elasticity correction is apparently small. In fact, the corrected
curve for the CCT-specimen was omitted since it deviates by only 2% in lifetime
from
the
curve
calculated
with
G = 1. For the aluminum alloy, however, the
elasticity correction may be substantial. It enhances

due
to
the
crack
growth
initially
high stresses at the crack tip during the elastic transient. This
initial crack growth increment reduces
the
lifetime.
The
magnitude
of
the
correction
depends primarily on the ratio t f /t 1 Numerical values for this

ratio will be given in the last row of Table 27.2 (which will be shown shortly). The exponent 1-x/(n+1) in eq. (27.22) also plays a role for the importance
of elasticity effects. Values of X near n favor a pronounced
transient,
while
for X < n/2 the transient is often hardly visible in plots like Fig. 27.3.
27.7 Discussion
The general features of the evolution of the crack length,
initial
in
particular
cies in detail may arise primarily from four sources. First, the damage
nics
the
transient, are described qualitatively correctly by theory. Discrepan-
equations
axial stress field at the crack tip. (Recall that the parameter
determined
mecha-
may be inappropriate to model the situation in the highly triK
is
usually
from tension and torsions tests both of which exhibit far less tri-
axiality than a crack tip field). Second, the continuum damage approach becomes
definitely
inappropriate
if
corrosion plays a major role in crack growth as,
for example, in nickel base superalloys. Thirdly, the plane-strain
calculation
based on eq. (20.7) usually under-estimates the C*-integral. Crack growth rates
are underestimated correspondingly. A difference by a factor 10 in crack growth
rates
appears
to
be
possible
according
to the discussion in Section 22.2.
Finally, the small-scale damage approximation, which underlies the crack growth
law,
eq.
(27.7), is expected to become inaccurate for increasing crack growth
increments.
The latter problem caused by the use of the
can
be
resolved
by
small-scale
damage
approximation
comparison with finite element calculations of Hayhurst,
Brown and Morrison (1984). These calculations were performed for the same material
parameters
and
specimen
geometries and are based on the same equations
from which eq. (27.21) and Fig. 27.3 were derived except that a finite
element
27.7
363
Discussion
solution
does not require to make the small-scale damage approximation. Incid-
entally, Hayhurst et al report close agreement of
their
calculated
lifetimes
with experiments. However, conSidering the uncertainties in the constitutive

model and the expected inaccuracy of a plane-strain calculation, the agreement
may
be
fortuitous. But here we are only interested in a comparison of the two
calculations, one of which relies on the small-scale damage approximation while

the other does not. Table 27.2 shows the comparison of the normalized lifetimes
Do~tf' In this normalized notation, the net section stress
0 0 enters only
into
1/0~-1). Since Hayhurst et al do
not report the values which they use for 00 , plausible values were assumed.
Further, since no accurate values for the factor a were available, the upper
and lower-bound estimates, eqs. (27.8) and (27.9), were used. As the table
shows, the bounds for the lifetime are close together and they agree well with
the result of Hayhurst et al as far as copper is concerned. In the case of
aluminum, however, the bounds span a range of up to a factor 12, and, for the
DECT-specimen, do not even encompass the finite element result.
the
elasticity
correction
(recall that t1
The failure of eq. (27.21) to reproduce the finite element result for aluminum
may indicate that the small-scale damage approximation is not accurate enough
in this case. This far-reaching conclusion, however, should not
yet
be
drawn
definitively Since there are other possible sources for error. In particular,
eq. (27.21) cannot deal reasonably with the problem of crack branching or
kinking which is, however, important in aluminum.
Al
D oX t f
0
FE
Eq.(27.21)
for
t f /t 1
Cu
CCT
DECT
CCT
DECT
1.07
0.98
1.17
1.03-6.7
0.82-6.5
8.4-73
5.7-68
0.83-0.97
1.04-1.22
50 MPa
100 MPa
50 MPa
100 MPa
30 MPa
30 MPa
12-75
6-48
4.6-41
2.3-26
41-48
20-24
Table 21.2. Normalized lifetimes from finite element calculations of Hayhurst

et al (1984) and from eq. (27.21). Hyphenated entries represent results for
upper and lower-bound estimate for a, respectively.
28 Creep-Fatigue Crack Growth
In this chapter, the technologically important subject of fatigue at high temperatures
is taken up again. In Chapter 18, fatigue failure due to more or less
homogeneous cavitation of grain boundaries in the whole specimen was discussed,

whereas
now
failure
by
the growth of cracks under cyclic-loading conditions
will be investigated.
Figure 28.1 shows the general trends observed in fatigue crack growth
testing.
As
a function of the stress intensity factor range, 8K 1 , the crack growth rate
per cycle, da/dN, increases starting at a threshold value, 8K th . The power law
observed in the intermediate range is often called Paris' law, and the exponent
typically lies in the range 2 to 4. Further, the crack
growth
rate
increases
with increasing temperature and loading-cycle time and is sensitive to environment, particularly at high temperatures. There
creep-fatigue
crack
growth,
which
exists
vast
literature
on
the reader may find access to through the
following references: Skelton (1978a,b);
Yamaguchi and Kanazawa (1979); Taira,
increasing
aggressiveness of
environment,
hold time,
Fig. 28.1. Fatigue crack growth rate as a function of several variables.
28.1
Micromechanisms
365
Ohtani and Komatsu (1979); Runkle and Pelloux (1979); James (1979);
James
Mills
and
(1980); Michel and Smith (1980); Floreen and Kane (1980); Saxena, Willi-
ams and Shih (1981); Tomkins (1981); Shahinian

(1983a);
Wareing
and
Sadananda
(1982);
Riedel
(1983); Lloyd (1983); Sadananda and Shahinian (1980b, 1981b,
1984); Saxena and Bassani (1984); Floreen and Raj (1985); and Pineau (1985).
This chapter tries to provide a basis for the understanding of
and
the
mechanics
of
creep-fatigue
the
mechanisms
crack growth. In Section 28.1, the most
important micromechanisms (i.e. alternating slip at the crack tip, grain boundary cavitation and corrosion) will be described qualitatively. A combination of
the micromechanisms with the stress and strain-rate fields in
different
types
of materials (viscous, elastic-plastic and elastic-viscoplastic) leads to theoretical predictions of fatigue crack growth rates (Sections 28.2 to 28.5).
analysis
applies
The
both to macroscopic cracks of several millimeters length and
to microcracks in the submillimeter
range.
Microcracks
are
often
initiated
early in fatigue life preferentially at the specimen surface (see, for example,
Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann, 1984), and their growth
determines
the
fatigue
lifetime (Section 28.5.3). The chapter is concluded by a summary.
28.1 Micromechanisms of Fatigue Crack Growth

28.1.1
The alternating slip model (also called the crack-tip blunting model)
The most common mode pf fatigue crack growth up to moderately high temperatures
and
moderate hold times is a direct consequence of the cyclic blunting and re-
sharpening of the crack tip: the new surface created during the opening part of
the
cycle is not removed reversibly during the subsequent closure of the crack
tip. This irreversibility can be caused, for example,

quickly
by
oxygen
atoms
which
adhere to a freshly exposed metal surface and prevent rewelding of the
crack faces. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 28.2a,
the
crack
advances
in
each
cycle by an increment which, ideally, should be on the order of the cyclic

crack-tip opening displacement. Often the opening and closing event leaves a
microscopically
visible
striation
marking
on the fracture surface, but only
seldom does the total number of striations on a fracture surface correspond
to
the number of loading cycles.

While the global picture shown in Fig. 28.2a was proposed by
(1962),
Neumann (1974) and
Laird
Neumann, Fuhlrott and Vehoff (1979)
and
detailed
Smith
the
Creep-Fatigue Crack Growth
28.
366
crack opening
U
I
------tl
after closing
b)
Fig. 28.2. Crack growth by opening and closing of a crack tip,

(a) by continuum plasticity, (b) by alternating slip on two slip systems.
Currently active slip planes are represented by solid lines.
understanding of fatigue crack growth by showing that crack opening

crystals
occurs
is
single
by alternating slip on two slip systems which intersect along
the crack front (Fig. 28.2b). It is likely

polycrystals
in
quite
analogous.
that
Therefore,
the
the
mechanism
operating
mechanism
is
in
called the
'alternating slip mechanism'.

If the cyclic opening and closing of the crack tip as shown in Fig.
the
whole
truth
of
28.2
were
fatigue crack growth, growth rates could be estimated by
calculating the cyclic crack-tip opening displacement. This
will
actually
be
done in the following sections. However, there are several complicating factors
not all of which are well understood. One of these factors
called
is
the
phenomenon
crack closure (Elber, 1970). As the crack grows it leaves behind a wake
of plastically stretched material, which leads to crack closure well behind the
crack
tip
during
unloading
even when the applied load is still tensile. The
mechanical contact of the crack faces reduces the cyclic stress intensity experienced by the crack tip region. This, and the concommitant reduction in crack
growth rate, was modeled by Budiansky and Hutchinson (1978) and by Newman
(1981).
A further complication arises when a corrosion product is accumulated
between the crack faces, which enhances the closure effect (Section 28.1.3). An
empirical
description
of
analysis of fatigue crack

(Section 28.6).
the
growth
crack
closure
rates,
will
effect, which is useful in the

be
given
in
the
Discussion
28.1
367
Micromechanisms
For completeness, the distinction between Stage-I and

growth
should
Stage-II
fatigue
be mentioned. In its early stages, a small fatigue crack, which
is still contained within a single grain, often does not yet grow by
ing
slip
crack
on
two
slip
systems,
alternat-
but rather grows along a single active slip
plane, which is usually inclined to the tensile axis (Stage I).
The
mechanism
by which a Stage-I crack grows consists in the exposure of fresh surface at the
crack tip by slip in the tensile part of the cycle. Due to oxidation
or
other
irreversible processes, the new surface cannot be rewelded upon reversal of the
slip direction. When the crack grows longer, it usually assumes an
which
orientation
is macroscopically normal to the applied stress and grows by alternating
slip. This is called Stage II.

28.1.2
Fatigue crack growth by grain boundary cavitation
The mechanisms of grain boundary cavitation were described in Part II

book.
At
high
temperatures
of
this
and low loading frequencies or long tensile hold
times, fatigue cracks may propagate by coalescence with grain
boundary
ies.
mechanism act in
The
alternating
slip
mechanism
and
the
parallel, and the one which gives the higher
cavitation
growth
rate
cavit-
predominates.
This
comparison will be made in the Summary (Section 28.7).

A special way in which fatigue crack growth may interact with cavitation damage
was described by Min and Raj (1978). Under the testing conditions used by these
authors, fatigue cracks in stainless
alternating
slip.
the crack path

accompanied
in
by
I~,
steel
usually
grow
transgranularly
by
however, a tensile hold time precedes the fatigue test,
fatigue
changes
to
intergranular,
and
this
change
is
a large increase in crack growth rate. The explanation is that
the hold time causes grain boundary cavitation ahead of
the
main
crack.
The
subsequent fatigue crack growth can occur by fracturing the pre-cavitated grain
boundaries by the plastic hole growth and coalescence mechanism. This
preferred
da/dN
>
only
15~m.
at
mode
is
very high crack growth increments per cycle, typically, at
Otherwise the trans granular mode of crack growth
remains
active
despite the presence of grain boundary damage.

This example illustrates that special types of creep-fatigue
occur
interactions
may
under special conditions. In the tests of Min and Raj (1978) the specim-
ens were subjected to creep straining for some fraction of their lifetimes
and
to fatigue for the rest. More often each loading cycle involves both, creep and
fatigue components, and this is the subject of the following sections.
28.
368
28.1.3
Corrosive effects in creep-fatigue crack growth
In many of the papers on creep-fatigue crack growth, it

fatigue
crack
growth
has
been
noted
that
rates, just as creep crack growth rates, are often much
larger in atmospheres containing oxygen or sulfur than in vacuum or in an inert

gas. An oxygen partial pressure of less than 100Pa
such an environmental effect. In steels and
factor
(=
Ni-base
alloys,
the
enhancement
for the growth rate is typically 10 in the sensitive temperature range,
as the review of Ericsson (1979) shows, but smaller

been
1 torr) suffices to cause
observed
as
well.
little effect of environment

steels,
and
larger
factors
have
Sadananda and Shahinian (1980b), for example, report

on
fatigue
crack
growth
rates
in
austenitic
whereas Floreen and Kane (1980) obtain environmental enhancement fact-
ors of 50 to 100 in aNi-base superalloy at 650 0 C. This variability is not surprising considering the multitude of possible mechanisms and their interactions
with other mechanisms of fatigue crack growth.
A list of mechanisms which possibly explain the environmental effects on
fati-
gue crack growth has been given by Floreen and Raj (1985). Here only the most
important of these mechanisms will be discussed. In the minority of cases, the
presence of oxygen can be beneficial for the high-temperature fatigue lifetime.
One of these strengthening mechanisms is the formation of a
corrosion
product
between the crack faces. This enhances the crack-closure effect, which is known
to retard fatigue crack growth. Suresh, Parks
and
Ritchie
(1982)
show
that
already at room temperature in ferritic steels, fretting corrosion of the crack

faces can lead to oxide layers of some hundred
the
crack-closure
nanometers
applied stress intensity amplitudes. This may be one

threshold
observed
thickness.
Through
effect, these layers can stop fatigue crack growth at small

commonly
for
fatigue
crack
of
the
causes
for
the
growth at low AK r . Ericsson
(1979) explains oxidation strengthening, which is sometimes observed in
super-
alloys at high temperatures, by oxide-induced crack closure, too.

More often, however, an oxygen-containing atmosphere is detrimental for the
high-temperature fatigue lifetime. This may have several causes. First, surface
cracks in an initially smooth specimen are nucleated easier in the presence
oxygen;
of
but this is not the subject of the present chapter. Second, in the ab-
sence of oxygen, fatigue crack growth may be impeded by full or partial rewelding
of
the crack faces during unloading (Neumann, Fuhlrott and Vehoff, 1979),
whereas a layer of oxygen, which quickly adheres to the freshly

surface,
exposed
metal
or a layer of oxide prevent rewelding. By such a mechanism, oxidation
28.1
Micromechanisms
369
effects enhance transgranular crack growth by alternating slip. Third, since no

stable protective oxide layer can form at the continually and heavily deforming
crack tip, oxygen can penetrate into the material. Usually, this
grain
boundaries.
In
the
material,
oxygen
occurs
alloy, for example with carbides. As a consequence, the carbides

from
the
matrix,
and
to
decohere
presence
of
oxygen
intergranular crack growth, and Floreen and Raj (1985) consider such
subsurface corrosion damage to be primarily responsible for

effect
may
pressurized carbon-oxide bubbles and brittle or weakly
bonded metal oxides can be formed. By this mechanism, the

leads
along
reacts with constituents of the
of
the
environmental
oxygen in superalloys. Besides internal oxidation, also sulfidation
(Floreen and Kane, 1982) and, to a lesser extent,
carburization
(Floreen
and
White, 1981) playa role in the appropriate environments.

A global model for fatigue crack growth by subsurface damage formation in
cor-
rosive environments was proposed by Saxena (1983). The corrosive atoms entering
the material through the crack tip spread over a diffusion length which increases with time as (Dt)1/2, where D is their diffusivity in the host material. If
these atoms embrittle the material, for example by oxide formation on grain
boundaries, the material fractures over some, possibly stress-dependent, fraction of the diffusion zone during the tension-going part of the
Then
loading
cycle.
diffusion starts again around the new crack-tip position. This model must
lead to a fatigue crack growth rate which increases with hold time, or decreawith loading frequency, according to da/dN
1/v1 / 2 with an activation
ses
energy half that of the diffusivity D (because of the square-root dependence of

the
diffusion
length
on D) and with a not well defined dependence on loading
amplitude. In fact, Saxena (1983) and Saxena and Bassani (1984)

inverse
square-root
dependence
on
show
that
an
loading frequency is observed at moderate
temperatures, i.e. at 427C in a CrMoV steel, and at 650 0 C in
the
nickel-base
alloys astroloy and Inconel 718.

Since, in accord with the above model, the activation energy of
oxidation-con-
trolled fatigue crack growth rate is often found to be small, corrosion tends
to predominate at int~rmediate temperatures, while at high temperature, the
effects
of creep deformation and grain boundary cavitation determine the time-
dependence of the crack growth rate. From tests by Pelloux and Huang (1980)
the
nickel-base
alloy
astroloy in air and in vacuum, Saxena (1983) concludes
that at 650 0 C oxidation is still the relevant process,

effects
on
while
at
760C
creep
predominate. For a CrMoV rotor steel the transition seems to lie some-
where between 427C and 538c (Saxena and Bassani, 1984).
370
28.
28.2 Fatigue Cracks in Viscous Materials

The stress analysis of
particularly
cracked
bodies
under
cyclic
loading
conditions
is
simple for viscous materials. The stress field is always a funct-
ion of the current load only but not of the prior history. The crack-tip stress
fields
are
uniquely characterized by the current value of the C*-integral, so
that C* is the appropriate load parameter. It

that
the
range
should
be
mentioned,
however,
of validity of a purely viscous description is rather limited
under cyclic loading conditions, as will be shown later.

28.2.1
Growth rates by the alternating slip mechanism
It was pointed out in Section 28.1.1 that the crack growth increment per cycle,
da/dN, must be of the order of the cyclic crack-tip opening displacement
~O.
In
purely viscous materials, the displacement rate at any point is proportional to

C*n/(n+1)
Ceq.
(22.2)].
Integrating
over
the tensile part of the cycle and
using the definition of the crack-tip opening displacement given in
eq. (22.3)
leads to the crack growth rate in purely nonlinear viscous material

da/dN
(28.1 )
The integral extends over the tensile part of the cycle and a numerical
contained
factor
in eq. (22.3) is approximated by unity. If the tensile strain is not
completely reversed in each loading cycle, the crack blunts
progressively.
In
real materials, this will favor intergranular crack growth by cavitation.

28.2.2
Growth by cavitation in viscous materials
In Chapter 21, creep crack growth rates were calculated based on cavity
laws.
Since
in
that
growth
analysis it was not necessary to assume that C* is con-
stant, it can be applied to cyclic loading as well. Integration
of
the
crack
growth rate given in eq. (21.6) over a cycle gives da/dN. For strain-controlled
failure at the crack tip there results
da/dN
(28.2)
Xc was taken, and the numerical factor 8n combines constants from eq. (21.6), which are of no interest here. If cavitation is revers-
Here, the limit a-a o
ible during compression, the time-integral in eq. (28.2) extends over the whole
28.2
371
Fatigue Cracks in Viscous Materials
loading
cycle
with
the
integrand
being
negative
cavitation damage is not recoverable, the integral
during
extends
compression.
over
the
If
tensile
part of the cycle only. In both cases, the principal dependencies of eq. (28.2)
are given by da/dN ~ c*n/(n+1)/V~' where v~ is the loading frequency.
28.3 Fatigue Cracks in Elastic-Plastic Materials

In this section the material response is described as time-independent elasticplastic.
This
behavior predominates at moderate temperatures and high loading
frequencies. Thus it represents the limiting case opposite
to
purely
viscous
behavior, which predominates at high -temperatures and slow load variations. The
elastic-plastic response of the material to cyclic
usually,
by
total
loading
is
described,
as
strain rate which is a sum of elastic and incrementally
plastic strain rates, but the plastic strain has a special property. The stress
and
strain
variations, 00 and OE, measured from the point of load reversal in
the hysteresis loops must be related by a unique law, independent of the amplitude of the stress, and this relationship is assumed to have the power-law form
B
(00) 1 IN,
(28.3)
where N is the hardening exponent and the factor Bo is related

yield
stress,
to
the
cyclic
0Cy; if, for example, the cyclic yield stress is defined as the
O.2%-offset stress, then it follows from eq. (28.3) that Bo = O.002/(OCy)1/N.

Real materials often exhibit such a unique relationship between 00 and OE to
within a good approximation.
28.3.1
Elastic-plastic deformation fields
Deformation fields in elastic-plastic materials under cyclic loading conditions

were
analyzed
for
Mode-III loading by Hult and McClintock (1957), McClintock
and Irwin (1965) and by Rice (1967b). An important feature of the solutions
that
is
in elastic-perfectly plastic materials the Mode-III deformation fields in
the plastic zone are proportional fields, i.e., material elements are
plastically
power-law material like that described by

neglected
strained
along principal directions which remain fixed during loading. In a

or,
in
other
eq.
(28.3)
(with
elastic
strains
words, in the fully plastic limit), the fields under
Mode-I loading are also proportional fields for the same reason that
power-law
materials develop proportional fields under monotonic loading. Thus the propor-
28.
372
tionality of the fields is guaranteed in
important
limiting
cases,
and
its
approximate validity between these limits is assumed. Crack closure, i.e. mechanical contact of the crack faces during unloading and compression, renders the
fields
near
the
contact
zone non-proportional. Thus the occurrence of crack
closure over a considerable distance behind the crack tip and over
substantial
fractions of the loading cycle limits the validity of the following arguments.
28.3.2
The cyclic J-integral, Z
If the deformation fields
are
proportional
fields,
as
pOinted
out
above,
incremental plasticity and nonlinear elasticity become equivalent. This has the
important consequence that the cyclic deformation fields at crack tips
characterized
by
path-independent
can
earlier been denoted by 8J (Dowling and Begley, 1976). It is analogous

J-integral
with
be
integral, Z (Wuthrich, 1982), which had

to
the
stress, strain and displacement replaced by their variations,
60, 6E, 6u, measured from the point of load reversal. The crack-tip fields have
the HRR-type form of eq. (24.5) with Z substituted for J and 60 i , for 0, ,.
J
lJ
Since the Z-integral characterizes the crack-tip fields in elastic-plastic materials under a wide range of conditions, at least approximately, it is expected
to be a useful load parameter to characterize fatigue crack growth. The Z-integral
can
be
calculated using the analogy to the J-integral. According to the
Plastic Fracture Handbook by Kumar et al (1981), Z can be approximated
by
the
sum of an elastic (or small-scale yielding) and a plastic contribution as

Z
with
(28.4)
The plastic part, Z l' is given by formulas analogous to those given for C*
Section
20.2.1
and
For small loading amplitudes, Zpl can be neglected and Z and 8K I

valent.
28.3.3
in
in Appendix C with B replaced by Bo' 8 by 8 and n by liN.

become
equi-
Z-controlled crack grOwth rates by alternating Slip
If fatigue crack growth occurs by the
alternating
slip
mechanism
the
crack
growth rate should be of the order of the cyclic crack opening displacement. In
elastic-plastic material, displacements are
given
by
an
equation
like
eq.
28.3
Fatigue Cracks in Elastic-Plastic Materials
373
(22.2) with u i ' B, C* and n replaced by u i ' Bo ' Z and l/N. The crack-tip
opening displacement is analogously obtained from eq. (22.3), and this gives
(28.5)
da/dN
where
the
0
is the cyclic yield stress measured from the point of load reversal,
cy
numerical factor in the square brackets in eq. (22.3) was approximated by
1, and in the second form of eq. (28.5), N was taken as 0.1.

Experimentally, the dependence of da/dN on Z is usually found
to
be
stronger
than the linear dependence suggested by eq. (28.5). A dependen.ce

da/dN ~ Z(1.2 to 1.5) is typical. The deviation may arise from any of the
like
com-
plicating factors mentioned in Section 28.1.2. Of course, the crack growth rate
in rate-independent material is independent of the loading frequency.
The cavitation micromechanism does generally not predominate under
time-indep-
endent elastic-plastic conditions, and will therefore not be considered here.
28.4 Fatigue Cracks in Elastic/Nonlinear Viscous Materials

An elastic/nonlinear viscous material is characterized by the material law given
in
eq.
(?3.1), which reduces to
o/E
Bon in uniaxial tension. Such a
material behaves purely viscously if all load variations occur slowly, with the
characteristic
time
tl
defined in eq. (23.15) being the relevant time scale.
The elastic response of elastic/nonlinear viscous material becomes important if

an otherwise slow loading cycle contains a rapid load variation or if the whole
cycle time is smaller, or not much greater, than t 1 .
28.4.1
Stress fields in elastic/nonlinear viscous material after a load step
As a first example in which the elastic response of the material plays a

a sudden load step,
~P,
is considered. Prior to the load step, the specimen has
experienced a stressing and straining history and therefore

stresses.
This
distinguishes
contains
internal
a load step from the step load considered prev-
iously in Chapter 23. The stress

-
role,
fields
immediately
before
and
immediately
after the load step, 0ij and 0ij' are related by

(28.6)
28.
374
where 60 ij is the elastic field associated with 6P (Riedel,
1983a).
Near
the
crack
tip, the elastic field, 60 .. , dominates asymptotically since the elastic

IJ
1/!r-singularity is stronger than the 1/r 1 /(n+1)-HRR-type singularity of O~j.
Hence,
the
initial condition for the crack-tip field after a load step is the
same as that after a step load, and the short-time
solutions
after
the
load
be taken from Section 23.1 with 6K r substituted for Kr . For example,

the duration of the elastic transient after a load step is
step
can
(28.7)
(n+1)EC*
where C* is taken as the steady-state value after the load step.
Figure 28.3 schematically shows the
loading,
which
crack-tip
stress
field
for
square-wave
consists of a sequence of load steps. The loading frequency is
1/t 1 . The analytic short-, and long-time behavior of

field indicated in the figure is taken from Chapter 23. Obviously,
assumed to be small, v t
the
stress
the stressing history is not characterizable by a single load parameter;

6K r
and
C*
both,
determine the crack-tip fields during parts of the loading cycle.
Further, one observes that each load step is followed by a stress peak near the
crack tip.
28.4.2
Gradual load variations in elastic/nonlinear viscous material
As a generalization of step loading, a gradual load variation is now considered

which obeys the pOMer law
I~(t)~ LlK,'I1-v')
15
t to
(n+l)Et
~(t)+~
.!::
11)05
load
r-
I\,
If
/'
time--
Fig. 28.3. Stress field at crack tip for slow, square-wave loading.
After Riedel (1983a). Adapted, with permission, from STP 803, copyright
American Society for Testing and Materials
28.4
375
ex
til,
(28.8)
with the arbitrary exponent Il. The specimen is now assumed to have no
stresses
due
to
internal
a possible prior loading history. At short times, the fields
developing in response to the increasing load can be described using similarity

solutions
just
as
in
the case of the step load. There is a creep zone which
grows according to eq. (23.14), but now with a time-dependent Kr
ex
til and
with
a shape which depends slightly on the exponent Il (Riedel, 1983a). The crack-tip
field
is
given
K~
replaced
by
For long times, nonlinear viscous behavior is approached. The
for
short
times
by
eq.
(23.10)
with
(1+2Iln)[K r (t)]2.
crack-tip field is then the HRR-field, eq. (20.16), with C* increasing in time
according to C* ex t ll (n+1). The characteristic time of the elastic transient
under continually increasing load is given by:
2
1+21ln Kr (l-v )
n+1
EC*
Figure 28.4 shows the crack-tip fields
for
(28.9)
a
lin~ar
load
increase
(Il
1)
followed by a hold time. The stress is normalized by the value which it assumes
after a long hold time. The behavior depends on whether the load-rise time, t r ,
is smaller or larger than t 1 . For rapid loading, tr < t 1 , the stress at the end
of the rise time is much greater than its long-time value. For slow loading, no
such
stress
peak occurs and the crack-tip field follows the applied load, and
can be described by C*(t), except for the small hump at short times.
f 2.0
::J
1.5
11)
1.0
....~
~
c::
aJ slow loading
0.5
0
3 0
normalized time t/t1
Fig. 28.4. Crack-tip stress in response to a linear load increase followed by

a hold time. The stress is normalized by its long-time value. Dashed line:
short-time solution; n s 4. After Riedel (1983a). Adapted, with permission,
from STP 803, copyright American Society for Testing and Materials.
376
28.
28.4.3
Stress fields for rapid cyclic loading
If the whole loading cycle is fast, v~ > llt l ,

complete strain reversal must be distinguished.
wave-forms with and without

For completely strain-reversed
cycles, the overall response of the cracked specimen remains elastic. This case
of
rapid, fully reversed cyclic loading can therefore be treated in the spirit
of small-scale creep by prescribing a time-dependent elastic singular field
at
a large distance from the crack tip (Riedel, 1983a). Dimensional considerations
analogous to those used in connection with the short-time solution after
step-
loading show that the near-tip HRR-field must then have the form
(28.10)
The dimensionless function of time,
of
dimensional
consistency,
S(v~t),
cannot be determined
by
arguments
nor by assuming approximate path-independence of
the J-integral, as was possible in Section 23.1.2. Finite element calculations,

carried out by Riedel (1983a), gave the results shown in Fig. 28.5.
A compari-
son of the first with the following cycles indicates that a steady cyclic state
is
reached
very quickly. In other words, the internal stresses created during
cyclic loading do not affect the later evolution of the deformation fields
a long time.
This means that, for example,
for
square-wave loading can be treated
11t~
normalized time
Fig. 28.5. Crack-tip stress for rapid cycling. Solid lines: first loading
cycle; dashed lines: all following cycles; light lines: load. Finite element
calculations for n=5, v=0.3. After Riedel (1983a). Adapted, with permission,
from STP 803, copyright American Society for Testing and Materials.
28.4
approximately as a sequence of independent load steps,

shape
377
or the triangular wave-
shown in Fig. 28.5 can be regarded as a sequence of gradual load variat-
ions with a linear dependence of load on time.

The case of rapid cycling without full strain reversal has not yet been
satisfactorily.
The
probably identical to that obtained

superimposed
is
for
strain-reversed
rapid
(Riedel,
slip
1983a).
If
fatigue
crack
growth
amount
of
But
occurs
by
the
mechanism, the rapid cyclic component will play the dominant
role, but the creep component may play at least a secondary

the
cycling.
a slowly varying creep component whose behavior cannot be de-
termined easily
alternating
solved
rapidly varying component of the near-tip stress field is
crack
closure
and
thus
role
by
reducing
accelerating crack growth. If grain
boundary cavitation is the relevant micromechanism, the creep component will be

of primary importance.
28.4.4
Crack growth rates by the alternating slip mechanism
The crack-tip opening displacement, and hence the crack growth rate, in elastic/power-law viscous material is given by eq. (28.1), but with the C*-integral
replaced by the time-dependent amplitude of the crack-tip field, C(t).
slow-loading
limit
is C(t)
In
the
C*. For rapid cyclic loading, on the other hand,

as C(t) = Sn+1
(1-v2 ) v~/E. The crack
8Ki
C(t) is obtained from eq. (28.10)

growth rate results to be
da
dN
(28.11)
In eq. (28.11), the integral extends over the part

which
S(v~t)
0.67
the
loading
cycle
in
is positive. The value of the integral is estimated from Fig. 28.5
to be 0.47 for the sinusoidal wave-shape, 0.44 for

and
of
for
the
will
triangular
wave-shape
trapezoidal wave-shape. Thus in this case, the trapezoidal
wave-form gives the highest crack growth rate.

da/dN ~ 1/V~/n,
the
be
shown
together with other results.
graphically
The
in
dependence
the
Summary
on
frequency,
(Section 28.7)
28.
378
28.4.5
Fatigue crack growth by cavitatIon ahead of the crack
Intergranular fatigue crack growth by grain boundary cavitation

main
ahead
of
the
crack starts to dominate at high temperatures and long hold times. Incid-
entally, this transition between different micromechanisms has
nothing
to
do
with the transition from KI - to C*-control. The latter transition is related to

the deformation behavior rather than to the cracking behavior of the material.
It appears to be impossible to predict the nucleation and
growth
behavior
of
cavities in response to the complicated crack-tip fields in elastlc-viscoplastic materials. Hence, we model cavitation damage at the crack by
Rabotnov
equations,
the
Kachanov-
and assume that damage that has developed in the interior
of the material during tension is removed reversibly during compression.
Thus,
in a balanced cycle, the crack starts growing in effectively virgin material at

the beginning of each tensile cycle. Then the crack growth increment at the end
of
cycle
can be taken from eq. (27.6) for the purely viscous limit or from
eq. (27.16) during the elastic transient. Equation (27.18) provides

polation
formula
an
inter-
between the limiting cases. Thus one obtains the growth rate
by cavitation under square-wave loading as
da/dN
tt
(aC*/B) [0 f (l+t It)x/(n+1)dt](n+1)/x
(28.12)
Here, tt is the tensile hold time, t1 is the characteristic time defined in eq.
(28.7), a is the dimensionless factor introduced in eq. (27.6), and 0 and X are
material parameters which appear in
damage,
eq.
the
kinetic
law
for
the
evolution
of
(27.1). For slow cycling, the short-time response of the material
can be neglected,
da/dN 1/vin+1)/~.
i.e.
If
dependence
and
the
frequency
is
t1 It
0,
the short-time response dominates, eq. (28.12) reduces
2
to
da/dN
i.e., da/dN
will
be
a (6K I )
2
(l-v )/E
(n+1) Btt
Ott
)(n+1 )/X
l-x / (n+1)
(6KI)2/vin+1-x)/x. The whole frequency dependence of eq.
compared
(Section 28.7).
with
(28.13)
(28.12)
that of the alternating slip mechanism in the Summary
28.5
379
Combined Effects
28.5 The Combined Effects of Elastic, Plastic and Creep Deformation

on Fatigue Crack Growth Rates
An elastic-viscoplastic solid is modeled by a material law which,
in
uniaxial
tension, has the form:

e:
(28.14)
alE + (B IN) (da) 1 IN-l a + Ban.
The notation is the same as in Chapter 24, except that for cyclic
loading
the
plastic response is characterized by the stress difference, da, with respect to

the point of load reversal in the hysteresis loop. Special cases of this material
law
were considered in the preceding sections. Now the limiting cases are
put together to form a more complete picture of creep-fatigue crack growth.

28.5.1
An approximate general expression for the crack growth rate by alternating Slip
The crack growth rate by alternating slip has a time-independent elastic-plastic
component
given by eq. (28.5) and a contribution by creep, eq. (28.1). For
short to moderate hold times, also the transient

cases
between
these
two
limiting
plays a role. The transient is treated in the following approximate way.
The analysis is confined to the case n

without
much
liN, which simplifies the
calculation
loss in generality. Only square-wave loading is considered init-
ially, but the results can be written in a form that does not
speCialization
depend
on
strongly. The analysis of the transient starts from small-scale
yielding conditions. Then, for short times after a load step, the stress
at
the
crack
this
tip
is
given by eq. (24.10) with
Kr
replaced by
~Kr.
field
From the
stress, the crack-tip opening displacement, which defines the crack growth rate
for growth by alternating slip, can be calculated with the result:
daldN
BN Z 1 [1 + (n+l) Btt/B ]l/n.

o e
0
(28.15)
The elastic part of tbe Z-integral, Zel' was defined in eq. (28.4)
the tensile hold time.
and
eefore generalizing eq. (28.15) to large-scale yielding and creep,
we
in
passing
and
is
mention
that similar formulas have been proposed and compared with experi-
mental data by Saxena (1980b), Saxena, Williams and Shih

Shih
tt
Saxena
(1981),
Swaminathan,
(1982), and Saxena and Bassani (1984). They add an empirical
380
28.
exponent to Zel' allow for effects of the load-rise time and of the decay time,
include
threshold
stress
intensity
factor
and
BN Z
o pI
to
use a slightly different
functional form than eq. (28.15).

We now generalize eq. (28.15) by
yielding,
and
adding
account
for
large-scale
B1/nC*t~n+1)/n [from eq. (28.1)] to include steady-state creep.
This gives the general result for the creep-fatigue
crack
growth
rate
under
square-wave loading:
(28.16 )
da/dN
Of course, the additive superposition of the growth rates from various limiting
cases
can
only
be an approximate interpolation between these limits. In con-
structing eq. (28.16), a transient was included only in the elastic part of
since
the
stresS
field in a material with n
Z,
1/N exhibits no transient when
loaded directly into the fully plastic state.

For practical applications, it is convenient to combine
Zpl
the
terms
containing
and C*. This will be done in the following two subsections for two special
cases.
28.5.2
Creep-fatigue crack growth rates in fracture mechanics specimens
Since in fracture mechanics specimens, the load-line
deflection
rate,
6,
is
generally measured, C* can be expressed through eq. (20.14) as C* ~ 6(n+1)/n in

such cases. Then the last term of eq. (28.16), which will be denoted by
for later convenience, takes the form
g3
b.(n+1)/n /a 1/n
cr
BN Z
o cr
(28.17)
where the dimensionless function of specimen geometry, g3' was defined
in
eq.
(20.15) and b. cr is the load-line deflection due to creep.

Now we recall the theoretical result reported in Section 23.1.6 that the
load-
line displacement rate of CT-specimens and of similar test specimens approximately reflects the transient at the crack tip. Therefore, if b. cr is interpreted
as the time-dependent part of the deflection irrespective of whether it arises
from steady-state creep or from the transient, the transient is
already
into account and the bracketed term multiplying Zel in eq. (28.16) can
taken
be
de-
28.5
381
Combined Effects
leted. Hence, the crack growth rate becomes

da/dN
(28.18)
BNo (Z el + Zne)'
The nonelastic contribution is defined as Zne = Zpl + Zcr' This is very similar
to an approach proposed by Okazaki and Koizumi (1983), who suggested to correlate creep-fatigue crack growth rates by a sum of an elastic-plastic Z-integral
and
a contribution by creep. The derivation of eq. (28.18) shows why and under
which circumstances such a superposition is possible with no regard
to
trans-
ient effects.
Next, a more convenient expression for the determination of Zne is derived.
To
achieve this, Zpl is expressed by ~l using the nonlinear analogue of eq.

1+N + 81+N (8
+ 8 )1+N is made,
(28.17). If, further, the approximation 8pI
cr = pI
cr
the deflections by plastiCity and creep can be combined as 8ne = ~l + 8cr ' and
Zne becomes
(28.19)
The second form is generally more convenient to apply; g2 and g3
were
defined
in eq. (20.15), and 80net is the cyclic range of net section stress. Now Zne
and da/dN are determined by quantities which can be measured unambiguously
during the credp-fatigue test even for wave-shapes other than square-wave loading. except for 8pl and N. (Only for square-wave loading is it possible to
plastiC displacement from creep displacement). However. the dependence
discern
of Zne on these quantities is weak, so that small errors have no great effect.
For practical applications of eqs. (28.18) and
(28.19),
it
is
important
to
consider a few further pOints described in the Discussion (Section 28.6).

28.5.3
Fatigue lifetimes of initially smooth specimens by microcrack growth
As another
applicatio~
of the preceding analysis we consider fatigue failure of
an initially smooth specimen by the growth of surface microcracks. This failure

mode predominates over homogeneous cavitation up to moderately
ures
and
high
temperat-
moderate hold times. To calculate the number of cycles to failure we
consider the growth of a semi-circular surface crack. which corresponds to

crack-front
shape
usually
the
observed. The wave-shape of the applied stress and
the resulting hysteresis loop are shown in Fig. 28.6. It should be noted that
382
28.
~ ~~
/1
~ ~
~a
1/
I~
--
Fig. 28.6. Hysteresis loop for strain-reversed square-wave loading (schematic).
here the stress is prescribed, whereas experimentally it is easier

the
strain.
In
to
control
terms of strain, the wave-form shown in Fig. 28.6 corresponds
approximately to a 'slow-fast' test, which is characterized by a slow

going strain rate and a fast compression-going strain rate.
tension-
The crack growth rate for arbitrary specimen geometry was given in eq. (28.16).
It
can
be
specialized to a semi-circular surface crack having the depth a by
inserting the following expressions for the load parameters:

(28.20)
(28.21)
C~
= 2.4
Ecr (1+3/n)-1/2
= 1.9
(28.22)
Ecr
where dO is the applied stress range, .dEPl is the instantaneous plastic

range,
is
the
peak
strain
stress and Ecr the creep strain rate (Fig. 28.6). The
second forms for Zpl and C* are valid for n = 1/N = 5. The expressions above
are taken from the solutions of He and Hutchinson (1981) for the penny-shaped
crack, but modified by a factor 1.25 in order to account for the
fact
that
surface crack is considered (Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann, 1984). Such a factor
occurs between a crack in an infinite body and a surface crack in
elasticity.
Of
course,
this
can
only
be
plane-strain
an approximation for the present
three-dimensional configuration in power-law material.
28.5
383
Combined Effects
As in the preceding section, it is convenient to combine ZpI and C* to
form
nonelastic term, which leads to

(28.23)
da/dN
(28.24)
with
where the nonelastic strain range is ~Ene = ~EPI + ~Ecr = ~Etot - ~Eel In
contrast to the preceding subsection, the transient term multiplying Zel must
now be retained, since strains are now measured far away
from
the
microcrack
and cannot be expected to reflect the transient behavior of the stress field at
the crack tip. Using the material law, the transient term in eq. (28.23) can be
written in a more convenient form by substituting one of the forms
500
~E
(28.25)
cr
where acy is the cyclic yield stress at 0.2% plastic strain. To calculate the
fatigue lifetime, the growth law, eq. (28.23), is integrated by separation of
the variables, crack length, a,
and
number
of
cycles,
N.
The
integration
from N = 0 to the number of cycles to failure, Nf , and from some small

initial crack length, ai' to a critical length, a f . Cracks of length a i are
extends
assumed
to
be nucleated within the first few cycles, which is consistent with
observations en several steels (Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann, 1984; Ebi, Riedel
and
Neumann,
1986).
The values of a i and a f are of little importance for the

resultIng fatigue lifetime, which is found to be:
9.n(a f /a i )
N
8 0 DCF
(28.26)
acy
Here the quantity

DCF = 1.45
)2
~E
~a
n 1/n
~ [1 + (n+1) ~ (-;;-) J
E
~~PI
+ 1.9 M ~Ene
(28.27)
was introduced, which will be called the damage parameter for creep-fatigue. It
is determined solely by quantities which can be taken from the hysteresis loop,
and it is a measure of the damaging effect of a given loop, provided that failure
occurs
by microcrack growth. For time-independent crack growth, i.e. when
~Ene = ~EpI' DCF degenerates into the damage parameter ZD = Z/a

introduced by
Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann (1984) for fatigue testing at room temperature.
28.
384
28.6 Discussion
The following list reviews the assumptions underlying the above results:
(1) The material was treated as an elastic-viscoplastic continuum. This may
a
limitation
be
to the theory when applied to microcracks. Microcracks some-
times obviously interact with grain
boundaries
or
other
microstructural
features (Miller, 1985).

(2) Specific assumptions were made on the crack-growth
slip
and
mechanism.
Alternating
grain boundary cavitation were considered, but corrosive effects
were ignored. The alternating slip mechanism invariably leads to
linear
dependence of da/dN on Z and C* (or on ~Ki for small-scale yielding, or

da/dN a for small cracks). Observed dependences are generally stronger,
although
the
predicted behavior is sometimes approached, in particular in
small-crack experiments (Skelton, 1978b; Yamaguchi et

1981;
Ermi
and
aI,
1978;
Tomkins,
Moteff, 1983; Wareing, 1983). To rationalize the stronger
than linear dependence, it seems reasonable to assume that the alternating

slip mechanism rarely prevails in its pure form, and it is more realistic
to assume that da/dN is equal to some power, q, of
displacement.
(i.e. da/dN
the
crack-tip
opening
Then da/dN is a homogeneous function of degree q of Z and C*

6Kiq or da/dN
zq or da/dN
C*q in the appropriate limiting
cases). Equation (28.18), for example, becomes

da/dN
(Z I
e
Z )q.
ne
(28.28)
The parameter DCF retains its meaning as a damage parameter, which

fies
the
quanti-
damaging effect of loading cycles of various amplitudes and hold
times, provideti that damage consists in microcrack
growth.
In
fatigue
test with constant amplitude, the lifetime would then be predicted as

(28.29)
(3) Crack closure is one of the major effects neglected so far. For
rate-inde-
pendent material, Heitmann, Vehoff and Neumann (1984) find that the closure
effect can approximately be incorporated if 6K I , which enters into Zel'
modified according to
is
(28.30)
28.6
Discussion
385
where R = Pmax/Pmin; ~o/E in the elastic part of DCF should be modified

accordingly. The terms arising from plasticity and creep are assumed to be
unaffected by crack closure.
(4) Pr.1mary-creep effects were ignored. As
primary
creep
will
lead
to
Kubo
(1981 a, b)
has
demonstrated,
enhanced crack growth rates compared to eq.
(28.16). However, eq. (28.16) was subsequently re-written in forms containing
measured
displacements or strains rather than the material parameters
of secondary creep. It is expected that by measuring displacement or strain

one approximately takes into account primary-creep effects on crack growth.
(5) Since the analysis was carried out for square-wave loading originally,
(28.16)
is
not directly applicable to other waveforms. However, by intro-
ducing displacements or strains instead of hold

meters,
the
eq.
time
and
material
para-
equations following eq. (28.16) should be approximately valid
for other waveforms as well.

(6) The assumption n = 1/N is justified approximately by the behavior of real
materials. If it were seriously violated, the transient term multiplying
Zel in eq. (28.16) would have to be modified.
28.7 Summary
The deformation fields in cracked, elastic-viscoplastic bodies have been analyzed and the ranges in which different load parameters dominate have been identified. For rapid strain-reversed cycling, i.e. for
v~
> 1/t1
(n+1)C*/Z,
the
Z-integral
is
instantaneous plasticity is confined to a small

into
its
small-scale
yielding value, Z
high
loading
frequency
the appropriate load parameter. If

plastiC
zone,
Z degenerates
~K2I and the stress intenSity factor
range, ~KI' can be used. For very slow, continuous cycling, v~ 1/t 1 , the
C*-integral is the appropriate load parameter. In the transition range between
slow and fast cyclic loading, or if an otherwise slow
loading
cycle
contains
rapid load variations, the crack-tip fields are not characterizable by a single
parameter, but both Z (or ~KI) and C* are needed. In Section 28.5, mixed parameters were derived, which interpolate between the limiting cases. In fracture
mechanics speCimens, for example, the parameter Zel
(28.18) and (28.19) should be applicable.
Zne as
defined
in
eqs.
28.
386
Assuming that crack growth occurs by alternating slip leads to linear dependencies
of
the
crack
dependence is
only
growth
rarely
rate on the load parameters. However, this linear

observed
suggesting
that
the
alternating
slip
mechanism does not usually operate in an undisturbed form.

Figure 28.7 compares the frequency, or
growth
rate
hold-time,
dependences
of
the
predicted by various crack growth mechanisms. It is expected that
the mechanism giving the highest rate dominates. At high frequencies, or

hold
~KI
times,
alternating
as
[1+(n+1)Bt IB ]1/n
according to
to'
limit, crack extension by coalescence with
should
be
reiterated
eq.
increases
occur
and Saxena
corrosive
at
with
hold
(28.15). In the slow-cycling
cavities
that the two transitions from
usually
~KI
dominates.
It
to C* and from alter-
nating slip to cavitation have completely different origins and will

not
small
slip is the fastest mechanism. In the range in which
dominates, the crack growth rate by alternating slip
time
crack
therefore
the same loading frequency. If the conclusions of Saxena (1983)
and
Bassani
effects
may
(1984)
control
mentioned
crack
in
Section
28.1.3
are
correct,
growth at intermediate frequencies and
temperatures giving a slope 1/2 in Fig. 28.7.

If the fatigue lifetime of an initially smooth specimen is controlled by microcrack
growth
(i.e.
if crack nucleation occurs early in the lifetime), DCF as
defined in eq. (28.27) is an appropriate damage parameter to

damaging
effect
of
given
loading
cycle
with
given
characterize
stress
and strain
amplitudes. Fatigue lifetimes should be determined by DCF
{og(1l"Vt )
Fig. 28.7. Fatigue crack growth rates vs. inverse loading frequency
for various micromechanisms. Schematic for n = 6, X = 5.
the
Appendices
Appendix A: Material Parameters

Table A.l shows a selection of material parameters for a few pure metals
taken
from the sources indicated. The shear modulus, G, varies approximately linearly
with the temperature, so that the two values given for G can be used to
polate
E
to
other
temperatures.
Young's
modulus,
E,
can
be
calculated as
= 2G (l+v), with Poisson's ratio v having values of typically 0.3.
efficient
of
Norton's
extraThe
co-
creep law, B, can be calculated from the data given in
Table A.l using eq. (1.2). Diffusion coefficients are represented in the
usual
way, 0 = 0oexp(-Q/RT). Surface and grain boundary energies, Ys and Yb , are

moderately temperature dependent. The data in Table A.l refer to low temperatures. High-temperature values would be slightly smaller. The effect of impurity
segregation on the interfacial energies, which can
amount
to
some
30%,
was
examined in Section 8.2.3. The grain boundary diffusion coefficient, oOb' and
the surface diffusion coefficient, oDs, are also sensitive to the segregation
of
trace
impurities.
This
is
illustrated in Table A.l by the two different
values for the graIn boundary diffusion coefficient of a-iron
taken
different sources. They differ by a factor 2.5 for oOb at 973 K.
Material
a-iron
[1,2,3]
Y-iron
[1,2]
nickel
[1,'2]
copper
[1,2]
o in 10- 29 m3
b in 10- 10 m
G(300K) in GPa
G( 800K) in GPa
A* def. eq.(1.2)
n (stress exp.)
ovo in m2 /s
Q in kJ/mole
o~bO in m3/s
from [3]:
Qb in kJ/mole
from [3]:
00
in m3 /s
so
Qs in kJ/mole
Yb in J/m 2 [4]
Ys in J/m 2
1.18
2.48
64
48
7.10 13
1.21
2.58
1.09
2.49
79
63
3.0.10 6
4.6
1.9.10- 4
284
3.5.10- 15
1.18
2.56
42
33
7.4.10 5
4.8
2.0.10-5
6.9
2.10- 4
251
1.1.10-12
10- 15
174
105
2.5.10- 9
232
0.85
2.1
4.3.10 5
4.5
1.8.10- 5
270
7.5.10- 14
159
1.1.10-10
220
2.0
115
4.4.10- 12
199
0.7
2.0
197
5.0.10- 15
104
6.10- 10
205
0.65
1.7
Sources: [1] Frost and Ashby (1982), [2] Swinkels and Ashby
(1981), [3] Stratmann et al (1983), [4] Chuang et al (1979).
Table A.l. Material parameters relatett to creep fracture.
from
two
Appendix A: Material Parameters
390
The greater value was measured by Stratmann et al (1983) on especially purified

iron
(see
Section
11.1.5). Similarly, nickel base superalloys have a smaller
6Db than pure nickel due to the addition of boron and zirconium. A value
Nimonic 80A as reported by Dyson (1979) was quoted in Section 12.4.1.
for
Some of the material parameters of the pure metals can be applied approximately
to
the commercial materials derived from the metals. Among the only moderately
sensitive or insensitive parameters are the atomic volume,
n,
the
elasticity
moduli, the interface energies and, to a certain extent, the diffusion coefficients, with the proviso that impurity segregation affects oD b markedly.
On the other hand, the creep resistance of commercial materials is usually much
greater
than
that
of pure metals. A few examples for the material parameters
appearing in Norton's power law are
shown
in
Table
A.2.
Extrapolations
to
neighboring temperatures are possible based on eq. (1.2) and using the activation energies of the diffusion coeffiCient, Qv' and (less important) the temperature dependence of the shear modulus listed in Table A.l. The creep resistance
of ferritic steels depends sensitively on prior heat
material
treatments.
As-processed
has a substantially greater creep resistance than has the same mater-
ial after it has been in service at temperatures around
530C
for
more
than
100,000 h ('used' materials).
B in MPa- n s- 1
a-iron
at 540C [1,2]
lCr-Mo-V steel at 540C [1,2]
lCr-1/2Mo steel (used) at 535C [5]
21/~Cr-1Mo steel (new) at 540C [6,7]
21/~Cr-1Mo steel (used) at 540C [6,7]
1/2Cr-l/2M6-1/~V (new) at 540 0 C [6,7]
1/2Cr-l/2Mo-l/~V (used) at 540C [7]
Y-iron
at 650C [1,2]
304 stainless steel at 650C [1,2]
316 stainless steel at 650C [1,2]
347 stainless steel at 650C [8]
Nimonic 80A at 650C [5]
at 750C [9,10]
n
6.9
6.0
8.6
6.0
10.8
9.5
14
4.5
7.0
7.9
8.1
13
4.2
Sources: [1,2] see Table A.l, [5] Riedel and Wagner (1985), [6] Bendick and
Weber (1984, private communication), [7] own measurements, [8] Needham
and Gladman (1980), [9] Dyson and Rodgers (1977), [10] Dyson (1979).
Table A.2. Parameters of Norton's law,
E = Bon,
for steels and Nimonic 80A.
Appendix B: Elastic Stress Fields at Notches, Cracks

and Grain Boundary Triple Points
Plane-strain and plane-stress problems in linear
elasticity
described
~,
by
means of the Airy stress function,
suggests
to
conveniently
the governing equation for
which is V4~ = O. The problems to be discussed are shown

symmetry
are
in
Fig.
B.l.
Their
use polar co-ordinates, rand e. In these co-ordinates,
the equation for the stress function takes the form

(B.l )
The differential operator in square brackets is the Laplace operator
in
polar
co-ordinates. Solutions are sought now in the factorized form ~ = K~ r 2 - s fee),

where the exponent s is called the eigenvalue of the problem, which
is
to
be
determined; K~ is a factor of proportionality which will remain undetermined by

the asymptotic analysis. If the unknown function fee) is taken to be dimensionless, K~ has the physical dimension (stresslength s ). Inserting the factorized
form of
into eq. (B.l) leads to the ordinary differential equation for fee):
f""
2 (s2 - 2s
2) f"
s2(2 - s)2 f
0,
(B.2)
where a prime denotes differentiation with respect to e. Such a linear equation

with constant coefficients can be
solved by trigonometric functions.
The sym-
392
Appendix B: Notches, Cracks and Triple Points
metry of Mode-I loading permits only cosines, while Mode

sines.
Insertion
f(a) = cos(ka) or f(a)
of
eq. (B.2) shows that k = sand

coefficients
adjoining
the
k = 2-s
cosines
give
(or
II
is
described
solutions
sines)
of
eq.
(B.2).
The
will be determined from the
boundary conditions of the problem considered. Before we proceed to do so,

components
by
sin(ka) with unspecified k into
the
of stress are given in terms of derivatives of the stress function.
In polar co-ordinates, eq. (3.14) takes the form:
1 04>
r or
-- +
(B.3)
o
ra
=-
The second form of these equations is valid
for
the
Obviously, the stress has a singularity of the form
factorized
form
of
4>.
~ r- s
B.1 Stress Fields at Sharp Notches and Cracks

B.l.l
The eigenvalue equation for sharp notches
From the foregoing it follows that the function f(a) at
sharp
notch
under
Mode-I tensile loading must have the form:

f(a) = a 1 cos(sa)
a 2 cos[(2-s)9J.
(B.4)
For Mode II replace the cosines by sines. The constants of integration, a 1

a2,
and
are
determined next. On the traction-free flanks of the notch, the stress

components 0 99 and 0r9 must be zero, i.e. f( 'TT-a) = f' ('TT-a) = 0. These two
boundary
conditions
Non-zero solutions
lead
exist
to two linear, homogeneous equations for a, and a 2

if the determinant of the system of equations
vanishes. This leads to the eigenvalue equation for s:

sin[2(1-s)('TT-a)J (1-s) sin[2('TT-a)J
0,
where the plus and minus signs apply for Mode.! and Mode II, respectively.
(B.5)
393
0.5
0.500
0.488
0.456
0.384
0.181
Table B.l. The exponent of the stress singularity,

a r- s , at a sharp notch with an included angle 2a.
Table B.1 shows the smallest positive eigenvalue obtained numerically from
(B.5)
eq.
for
Mode I for various included notch angles, 2a. This eigenvalue gives
the stress singularity, r- s , at the notch tip. The boundary conditions on the
notch flanks demand that the constants of integration obey the relation
a 1 /a 2
= -
cos[(2-s)(w-a)]/cos[s(w-a)]
(B.6)
for Mode I. The absolute values of a 1 and a 2 remain undetermined by the
asymp-
totic analysis.
B.1.2
Crack-tip fields
The special case of a crack is characterized by a

term
in
the
O. In this case, the second
eigenvalue eq. (B.5) vanishes. Therefore Mode I and Mode II have
the same eigenvalues, 1/2, 0, -1/2, -1, -3/2 etc. The first of these gives
the
well-known inverse-sQuare-root singularity at crack tips. The unknown factor in

the asymptotic solution is conventionally called the stress
intensity
factor,
KI or KII , in crack problems. The stress function is then found to be:

KI (2w)-1/2 r 3/2 [cos(8/2)
~
=
(4/3) K (2w)-1/2 r 3/2
(1/3)cos(38/2)]
} for Mode I
(B.7)
} for Mode II
(B.8)
COS 3 (8/2)
~ = - KII (2w)-1/2
r 3/2 [sin(8/2) + sin(38/2)]
~ - KII (2w)-1/2 r 3/2 4 sin(8/2) cos 2 (8/2)

The stress components follow from
by eq. (B.3) in the form of eqs. (3.26)
or
(7.1). Their angular parts, f ij = a ij 12wr/K I , are listed in Table B.2. The
Cartesian components are derived from the polar components by the usual tensor
transformation
relations.
The
zero in plane stress and is a33
component
=
v(a 11
perpendicular to the plane, a33 , is

a22 ) in plane strain. Von Mises equi-
394
lj co~
36
36
cOT
= lj" co~ + lj
. 6
lj Sl~ + lj
0 11
sin'26
lj co~
- lj
3 sl.n36
2
+ lj
3 sin! _ 3 sin36
lj
i 36
s n'2
~ co~
cos~ (1 - sin~ sin~6)
sin~ (2
*cos~6
lj
t::
co~ co~)
cos~ (1
sin~ sin~6)
6
6
36
sin'2 cos'2 cos2
6
cos'2
36
cOT
co~ (1 - sin~ sin~6)
Si~
cos~ [(1_2\1)2
co~ [1
3 (sin~)2J1/2
3 (sin~)2J1/2
. 6
sm2
\I
[(1-2\1)2(sin~)2
[3 - 8 (sin~)2
3 -
+
+
sin 2 6J 1/2
9 (sin~)4J1/2
. 6 - [1 - lj
3 sln
. 26 J 1 12
- sln'2
Table B.2. The angular functions, f .. (6) = 0 .. 12wr/K I , of elastic crack-tip

lJ
lJ
fields; 01 is the maximum principal tensll'e stress, 0e is the von Mises
equivalent tensile stress for plane strain (p-E) and plane stress (p-o).
valent stresses and the maximum principal tensile

Alternative
expressions
stresses
are
listed
also.
for the trigonometric functions, as well as displace-
ments are given by Rice (1968b), by Tada, Paris and Irwin (1973) and
by
Broek
(1982).
In Mode III, the stress components are derivable from the Mode-III stress function ~, which near the crack tip has the form
stress components are
KIll
I2"1iT
and 013
sin~
2
a~
ar
~ =
__
KIll (2r/w)
KIll
6
- - cos..
12wr
2
1/2
cos(6/2). The
(B.9)
395
B.2 The Stress Singularity at a'lliple Junction

of Sliding Grain Boundaries
The triple junction of sliding boundaries under tensile loading
Fig.
B.1.
The
shown
wa~
in
angular part of the Airy stress function, f(a), satisfying eq.
(B.2) and having the symmetry of the triple junction must have the form
f( 9)
a 1 cos(sa)
a 2 cos[(2-s)aJ.
= b 1 cos[s(1[-a)J
b 2 cos[(2-s)(1[-a)]
for lal < 1[-CX

for
Ia I
(B.10)
> 1[-CX.
Mode II will not be considered here. The eigenvalue s and the constants of integration
are determined (again apart from a constant) from the conditions that
the shear stress on the inclined boundaries is relaxed (are

of
0 on either
side
e = 1[-CX) , that 0aa must be continuous at a = 1[-CX, and that the displacement
component u a must be continuous. The boundary conditions which refer to stress

imply: f' = 0, f and f' continuous at 1[-CX. The evaluation of the displacement
continuity condition requires a knowledge of the relation between
and
displacement
stress function. As a first step, displacement is related to strain by eq.
(3.2), which can be integrated to give:

(B.11)
where 90
related
to
lal < 1[-CX and ao = 1[ for lal > 1[-CX. Strain is

stress by Hooke's law. The author has carried out the analysis for
0 in the domain
incompressible material only (v
1/2).
There results
3 (2-s)
4 (1-s) E
Inserting stresses from eq. (B.3) and recalling that f' is
across
(B.12)
already
continuous
the sliding boundary leads to the requirement that ff(a)da must be con-
tinuous also. Together with the three stress-related boundary conditions,
this
establishes a system of four linear homogeneous equations for a 1 , a 2 , b 1 and b 2

with the eigenvalue s. Setting the determinant equal to zero leads to the
eigenvalue
equation
also tabulated there.
given in eq. (7.20) in the main text. The eigenvalues are
Appendix C: Calculation of C* forrest Specimen

Configurations
For power-law viscous materials described by the material law
(C.l)
the C*-integral depends on load and specimen geometry according to
the
relat-
ions given in Section 20.2.1. These expressions contain dimensionless functions

of the specimen geometry, which have been calculated by Kumar, German and
Shih
(1981) using the finite element method. Some of their results are reported now.
The numerical data were fitted by functions of the general form
(C.2)
F(x)
Here, x
a/W with a and W being defined in Fig. C.1, F(x)
represents
any
of
the functions of the specimen geometry, h 1 (a/W,n), h 2 (a/W,n), h 3 (a/W,n) or

g2(a/W,n), which were defined for compact specimens in Section 20.2.1, and the
ai's
and
are adjustable parameters. Depending on which of the functions hi
and g2 is fitted, it is convenient to choose fixed values for part of the parameters and to let the rest be determined by a least-square-fit computer program. In this way, the parameters shown in the tables were obtained. The values
that
were
prescribed,
rather
than determined by the best-fit procedure, are
marked with an asterix. The resulting functions reproduce the numerical

of
Kumar
values
et al tb within better than 3%. The results for the compact specimen
in plane strain are shown in Fig. C.2.

The formulas to calculate C*, the load-line deflection rate,
placement
rate
at
the edge of the specimen,
6e ,
A,
and
the
dis-
are given in the captions to
the tables. The function n appearing in those formulas is defined as
[4a2 + 4a + 2J 1/2 - 2a - 1
n
where a
for the compact specimen

for the SENT-specimen,
a/(W-a) and the single-edge cracked plate in tension (SENT) is
inFig.C.1.
(C.4)
shown
397
Appendix C: C* in Test Specimens
0'00
tL112
1L
1
l.d/2
FIg. C.l. Test specimen configurations.
=
N
0.50
o/W
0.75
0.25
1.00
-7
0.50
o/W
-7
0.75
0.50
o/W
--'>
1.00
0.25
0.50
o/W
0.75
-7
1.00
0.75
1.00
Fig. C.2. Geometrical functions for CT-specimen in plane strain.

Square symbols from Kumar et al (1981).
398
10
16
13
20
for h,:
2.374 3.512 1.374 0.120 0.090 0.118 1.564 1.317 0.831
ao
al
0.039 -7.581 -2.867 -0.442 -0.260 -0.431 -10.25 -8.842 -5.634
-2.674 9.116 4.849 1.040 0.115 0.159 24.40 21.36 13.75
a2
a3
1.837 -3.597 -2.007 0.461 1.134 1.103 -23.79 -21.56 -14.43
8.926 8.457 6.115
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a4
a 5 , a6
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
p
-0.027 0.469 2.090 2.373 2,541 1.363 1.629 2.142
0*
for h 2 :
a
20.14 12.00 11.95 2.293 0.314 2.491 2.118 1.686 0.576
0
-41.43 -25.65 -36.27 -7.804 -0.684 -15.38 -13.94 -11.42 -4.374
al
a2
39.69 24.16 45.51 11.65 -0.348 35.41 33.66 28.24 12.59
-13.02 -6.777 -18.10 -3.710 2.833 -34.11 -34.86 -30.42 -16.65
a3
a4
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
13.39 14.60 13.29 8.999
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a 5 , a6
p
0.285 0.419 0.552 1.707 2.995 2.412 2.767 3.095 4.179
for h3:
-0.467 8.026 8.103 1.554 0.283 0.237 0.225 1.323 0.467
ao
al
4.098 -16.'03 -24.34 -5.352 -0.601 -0.641 -0.633 -9.017 -3.563
-2.082 14.73 30.93 8.008 -0.434 -0.449 -0.522 22.46 10.30
a2
a3
2.758 -3.733 -12.22 -2.260 2.526 2.261 2.132 -24.43 -13.65
10.74 7.357
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a4
a 5 , a6
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
p
2.194 0.401 0.560 1.756 2.868 3.282 3.487 3.064 4.135
for g2:
1.082 1.886 -0.338 -0.282 -0.227
a0
-0.860 -4.244 1.135 1.006 1.132
al
1.192 7.262 -1.027 -1.263 -1.731
a2
0*
0*
-0.611 -3.839
a3
0*
a4
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
-0.299 -0.287 -0.220
0*
0*
a5
a6
0*
0*
-0.891 -1. 117 -1.368
1*
1*
0*
0*
1*
P
Table
C.,.
-0.182
0.675
-1.480
0*
0*
-0.283
-1.396
1*
-0:158
0.691
-1.589
0*
0*
-0.264
-1.443
1*
-0.188
1.058
-1.867
0*
0*
-0.211
-1.448
1*
-0.124
0.471
-1.413
0*
0*
-0.279
-1.427
1*
Parameters from eq. (C.2) for CT-speclmen in plane strain.

C*
hl (W-a) B [onet/(1.455 n)]n+l
6e = h2
A = h3
a B [onet/(1.455 n)]n
a B [onet/(1.455 n)]n
g2 1:. 0net
399
10
13
for h 1 :
3.235 2.252 2.009 0.498 0.554 0.041 0.103
ao
a1
-1.863 -3.069 -0.732 -1.075 -1.571 .0008 -0.250
-0.177 3.088 0.775 1.999 2.967 -0.095 -0.136
a2
a3
0.885 -0.698 0.302 -1.013 -1.247 0.941 2.477
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a
a4' 5
a6
0.836 0.558 1.949 -0.399 0.082 0.444 3.465
2*
2*
-0.25*
0*
0*
0.75* 0.75*
P
16
20
0.113
0.367
0.021
1.909
0*
2.616
2*
0.074
0.248
0.076
1.041
0*
1.283
2*
for h2 :
a
3.813 1.179
0
1.347 0.650
a1
a2
-2.705 -2.565
3.384 4.528
a3
0*
0*
a 4 a6
0.104 0.073
a5
1.5*
2.5*
P
0.574 0.248 0.240 0.297 0.512 0.270 0.131

0.133 0.274 -0.060 -0.587 -2.098 -0.954 -0.365
0.214 -0.206 0.051 0.439 3.404 2.285 1.357
1.583 1.639 1.630 1.455 -0.576 -0.545 -0.313
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0.029 .0062 .0023 .0036 .0095 -0.092 -0.209
1.44*
0*
2.5*
2.5*
2.5*
2.5*
2.5*
for h3:
3.469 1.641
ao
a1
1.087 -1.338
-2.079 -0.200
a2
a3
2.821 3.109
0*
0*
a
6
a 4
a5
0.252 0.137
p
1.5*
2.5*
0.398 0.141 0.137 0.694 0.226 0.107 0.090

0.044 0.156 0.129 -2.554 -1.625 -0.341 -0.286
0.386 -0.336 -0.358 3.151 2.226 0.244 0.126
1.174 1.594 1.502
0*
0*
0.909 0.876
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0.031 0.010 -.0027 0.049 0.026
2.826 2.824
2.5*
2.8*
2.5*
3*
3*
for g2:
a
0.031 -.0077 0.093 0.087 0.197 1.274 1.488 1.247 1.558
0
0.776 0.367 -0.312 0.343 -0.878 3.209 3.467 3.205 3.738
a1
a2
0.155 -1.461 0.345 2.521 2.152 -5.276 -6.404 -5.146 -7.231
-0.162 2.186 1.155 -1.630
0*
2.247 2.936 2.142 3.457
a3
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a
0*
0*
0*
0*
6
a 4
0*
0.074
0*
0.018 0.034
0*
0*
0*
0*
a5
4.108 3.423
-0.242 -0.309 -0.183 -0.310
1*
1*
3*
P
Table C.2. Parameters from eq. (C.2) for CT-specimen in plane stress.
n+1
C* = h1 (W-a) B [Onet / (1.071 n)]

= g2 /). 0net
n
~e
h2 a B [Onet / (1.071 n)]
i;
h3 a B [Onet/(1.071 n)]n
400
10
13
16
20
for h 1 :
0.344 3.826 2.095 1.520 0.837 0.655 0.190 0.058 0.044
ao
a1
-1.151 -6.064 -3.982 -2.713 -0.749 -1.142 -0.481 -0.096 -0.142
5.676 3.041 2.172 -0.521 -3.212 -1.300 0.025 -0.194 0.093
a2
a3
-3.322 1.624 1.567 3.260 4.451 2.619 0.520 0.353 0.047
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a4' a6
a5
-0.084
-.0042
-.0033
0.406
0.147
-0.173
0.052
-0.023 -0.073
2.5*
2.5*
p
1*
1*
0.76*
2*
2.5*
1.5*
1.5*
for h 2 :
a
0.307 2.301 3.642 -0.407 1.091 0.534 0.109 0.089 0.057
0
-0.561 -4.439 -7.349 8.298 -2.109 -0.747 -0.687 -0.194 -0.183
a1
a2
2.089 3.511 4.392 -22.44 -1.039 -1.803 -0.742 -0.150 0.114
2.634 -0.154 2.735 17.32 3.462 2.914 1.030 0.417 0.069
a3
a 4 , a6
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0.049 -0.631 0.245 -0.092 -0.280 -0.321 -.0093 -0.012 -0.014
a5
2*
2*
1*
0.5*
0.5*
2*
2.75* 0.455* 1*
P
for h3:
0.521 0.734 0.696 0.339 0.449 0.389 0.054 0.023 0.014
ao
a1
1.766 -0.285 1.117 -0.226 -0.897 -1.002 -0.106 -0.040 -0.038
-4.594 -2.686 -0.949 -1.854 -0.678 0.077 -0.130 -0.082 .0038
a2
a3
4.492 3.821 2.636 2.678 1.821 0.984 0.297 0.152 0.040
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
a 4 , a6
a5
-0.114
-.0026
-.0029
-.0039
0.010 0.010 .0061 -.0038 -0.030
2*
2*
2*
2*
1.5*
1*
2.5*
2.75* 2.75*
P
Table C.3. Parameters from eq. (C.2) for SENT-specimen in plane strain.
C* = hl (W-a) (a/W) B [Onet/(1.455 n)]
6e
= h2
~c =
6C is the remote load

6c = A- ~c' where Ais
n+l
[Onet / (1.455 n)]

n
h3 a B [onet / (1.455 n)]
point
a B
displacement
rate
due
to
the
crack,
i.
the total displacement rate and ~c =13 B L [l3o~/2

1s the displacement rate in the absence of the crack; o~ is the remote
applied stress.
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Index
Airy stress function 31,32,93,95,

106,391-392
aluminum 14,53,55,84,136,248,350,
360-363
angular distribution of cavitating
boundaries 56
annealing of creep damage 156-157
anti-plane shear 29,312-314
bicrystals 56,58,154,172,200,213,
237-238
blunting (see crack opening
displacement)
Boltzmann's constant 5
Borisov 158-159
boron 117-119,390
carbide 7,16,54,57.59,60,69,102,120,
133,135,138,140-146,159,243,266,
281,325,369
cavity growth 148-246
cavity size distribution 225-227
ceramics 13,15,17,55,147,223,242,
244,346
characteristic time 81,91,99-101,112,
113,221,308-309,324,325,330,331,
335-339,341-344,348,358,374,375
chemical potential 42,45,125,132,
140,141
Chuang and Rice model 160-170
C!-integral 36,89,263-385,396-400
Ch-integra1334-337,359
cleavage 16-17,53
cohesive strength 61-62,66,67-69,88,
116,118,120,127-129,140,146,243,
266
compatibility 27,28,104,107,111,174,
204,290,303
constitutive models 5-6,27-28,185-196,
327,332,338-339,346,349-350
constrained cavity growth 172-197,200,
219,231-241,244-246,252-254,256,
273,284
constrained grain boundary sliding 8,
10-11,214,254-255
copper 23,54,56-58,60,63,65,131,154,
169,200,213,220,249,256,266,389,
350,360-363
corrosion 15,266,325-326.351.368-369,
386
cosegregation 122.123
crack opening displacement 270.
286-288.293.295.365-366.370.
372.377.379.384
crack closure 366.368.372.377.384-385
creep crack growth tests 281-283.
297-298.324-326.331.342-345.363
creep curve 3.4.25,194-196,339
creep embrittlement 117-119
creep-fatigue 247-260.364-386
creep zone 99.306-308.329-330,
334-335,357-358,375
cyclic loading 247-260.364-386
damage (different kinds of) 14
damage mechanics 349-363
damage parameter 24-26,349-350.353.359
decohesion (see cohesive strength)
deformation map 11-13
density 52,240-241
diffusion 5-7,40-48,123,130,389-390
diffusion creep 6-8,96-98,110-112,
346-348
dimensional analysis
(see similarity solutions)
dimpled fracture 18
dislocation 4,5,12-14,16,198
elastic-viscous analogy 33,94,107,
269,328,346
electron microscopy 52
equilibrium 27.121,142,143,204,205,
292,303
fatigue 247-260,364-386
finite elements 10-11,39,94-96,106,194,
210,212,216,269,292,294,296-300,
303,305,307-310,316,318,351,
354-355.362-363,376.396
Fokker-Planck equation 77-82
fracture mechanics 263-386
fracture-mechanism map 15-22
free energy 72-75
free enthalpy 121,133.134
gas bubbles 131-139,159,169,243
gas constant 5
Gibbs adsorption equation 124-126
grain boundary energy 68,69,71,124-126
grain boundary migration 21,55,58,242
grain boundary sliding 8-11,13,56,
85-115,212-214,254-255
Index
418
heat affected zone 59,63,119

helium 60,139
Hoff equation 20-21
hot shortness 22
HRR-fields 36,37,89,271-274,287,
292-293,302,306,312,316-319,329,
334-336,340,352-355,372,374-376
Hull and Rimmer model 148
hydrogen attack 117,136-138,160
hyperbolic-sine creep law 312
ideal strength 67-69
impurities 17,63,69,116-130,158
incubation time 80-82
intermetallic compounds 17,55,117
internal stress 5,140-147,338-339
J-integral 34,35,38,327-331
Kachanov equations 24-26,349-350
Langmuir-McLean isotherm 122
Larson-Miller parameter 24
ledge 57,114
load parameter map 336-337,341-342,
347,356
magnesium alloys 54,59,60,249
Monkman-Grant product 21,23,26,91,
154,193,195-197,200,201,
210-212,230,244,273,353
multiaxial loading 28,86,173-174,
186,191,203,205-209,216,349
necking 18-21,196,197
neutron scattering 52
nickel alloys 7,14-15,54,55,57,60,
63 -6 6 , 70 ,84 , 117 -1 18 , 131 -1 36 , 157 ,
159,172,182-184,239-240,243,
255-256,266,287-288,324-326,
368,369,389
Norton's creep law 5,28-31,105,186,
205,268,270, 28 1,389-390
notch 311,392-393
notch strengthening/weakening 361
nucleation of cavities 57-60,62-147,
194-196,225-241,277-278,280-281
nucleation stress 65-66,78-80,83,
129,130,277,28i,284
oxide particle or layer 15,55,56,59,
60,69,118,133,136,243,266,367-369
oxygen attack 131-136
particle coarsening 14,124,281,325
penny-shaped crack 87,90,173,186,190
plane strain 32,93,95,97,293,307,308
354-355,361,396-400
plane stress 31,307,308,396-399
plastiC zone 328
power-law breakdown 312
primary creep 4,332-345,359
process zone 351,354-355
recovery 4,338-339
recrystallization 21
replication technique 53
rupture lifetime 154-156,167-169,
181-185,193-196,200,209-211,
214,224,228-240,244-246
by creep crack growth 344,359-363
scaling law 33,34,269
secondary creep 4,26,267-271,359
segregation 116-130,158
self-consistent method 11,188-189,212
side grooves 282,296-300
silver 7,55,169-170,224
similarity solutions 38,46,80-81,
99 -100,113,164,201 ,215,226,
302-304,315,316,318,329,335,
340,352,357,358,375,376
slip band 16,57,84,86,243,250
small-scale creep 302-306,315,321,356
small-scale damage 351-356,359,
362-363
s tee 1 s 7, 1 4-1 8 ,21 ,22, 5 3-5 6 , 59 , 60 , 6 3-6 5 ,
118-120,123,126,136-138,158,160,
172,175-179,234-238,241 ,257-258,
266,281-284,324-325,331,342-345,
350,368-369,389
strain hardening 4,327,332
stress concentrations
at cracks 36-38,263-385
at ledges 114
at particles 102-114
at slip bands 86-91
at triple grain junctions 92-101
stress-enhancement factor 10,11,
96,192
stress intensity factor 38,87,88,
102,105,222,301-326,346-348,
356-358,364,372-377,393-394
stress relief cracking 59,62,119-121
Stroh-McLean transition 61
sulfur and sulfide 59,63,69,118-121
superplasticity 18-21
surface diffusion 45,160-171
surface tension 71,151,153,156-157
temper embrittlement 116-117
tertiary creep 4,26,194-196,339
thermal expansion 146,147
threshold stress 7,8,112
threshold stress intensity 364
titanium 55
trace elements (see impurities)
triple junction 59,61,92-102
tungsten 55
vacancy 6,40,69,70,74,75,129,139,
148-149,198
wedge crack 61-62,254-255

welding 22,59,63,117,119-121
Z-integral 372-373,379-386
zirconium 55,116-118,158-159,389

Dr. Hermann Riedel Auth. Fracture at High Temperatures 1987

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Materials Research and Engineering

Edited by B. llschner and N. 1. Grant

Dr. HERMANN RIEDEL

Dr. rer. nat. BERNHARD ILSCHNER

Prof. NICHOLAS J. GRANT

This book covers the fundamentals of fracture at high temperature. It

(N.J. Grant) - by permission

a particular emphasis on theoretical modeling. The

Of course, scientific work in a subject area like

high-temperature fracture must be related to practical questions. For

contribute to the development of better design codes and inspection

of high-temperature alloys by identifying the

also for design engineers and persons responsible for

the safe operation of high-temperature equipment. In an attempt to give a

and coherent picture of what is known about high-temperature fracture, I

may have sacrificed the degree of simplicity which would be required in

other hand, postgraduate readers will prefer to be

taken in large steps from the underlying assumptions of a model

results, as I have chosen to do.

all attempts to link theories quantitatively to

intergranular fracture, stress

Several sections owe their existence to these efforts. Finally,

it turned out to be necessary to retreat to an

Part II, which describes the nucleation,

was a less difficult subject.

Among the many models proposed in the literature, some could be

to a given material under given testing conditions. Measured cavity

growth rates, for example in commercial

parts of coal-fired electricity-generating

plants operate at high temperatures at which failure by cavitation is a

danger. To avoid catastrophic failures, as have occurred occasionally, it

is increasingly becoming industrial practice to take replicas from

polished surfaces of critical parts during the regular inspections. If cavities

nucleation and growth one should be able to evaluate

relating to creep crack growth and creep-

are comprehensively described. Cracks, as distinct from

cavities, are understood to be larger than the typical microstructural

capacity or the lifetime of a structure conSiderably, or it

may be relatively harmless. Under ambient-temperature conditions, the

a structure can be successfully assessed using the fracture

mechanics approach. For relatively

conditions, the stress intensity factor also describes fatigue crack

growth and stress corrosion cracking. The use of

materials is regulated by the ASTM-E 813 rule. So far, no

comparable standards exist for cracks in high-temperature components. In,

Engineers does not permit any crack-like defects in ferritic

of the American Society of Mechanical

creep conditions. This is unnecessarily restrictive, so that a realistic

basis for making decisions about repair, replacement or continued operation

a cracked part is lacking.

high temperatures. The complicating factor compared to room

temperature is the time dependence of the material response. A significant contribution

to the development of time-dependent fracture mechanics must be made

by theory. Theoretical reasoning plays a more central role

Without a careful solid-mechanics analysis one could

hardly identify the load parameters which allow a

of validity, as well as those of other load

parameters, are displayed on load parameter maps.

working time at Max-Planck-Institut into this project.

Otherwise it would have been impossible to write

(nearly) satisfies the writer and, I hope, pleases the reader.

Dusseldorf, September 1986

PART I. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS

The Creep Curve