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1 Incompressible ow equation
In most ows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a uid parcel can be considered to
be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the ow.
Therefore, the uid can be considered to be incompressible and these ows are called incompressible ows.
Bernoulli performed his experiments on liquids, so his
Bernoullis principle can be applied to various types of equation in its original form is valid only for incompressuid ow, resulting in various forms of Bernoullis equa- ible ow. A common form of Bernoullis equation, valid
tion; there are dierent forms of Bernoullis equation for at any arbitrary point along a streamline, is:
dierent types of ow. The simple form of Bernoullis
equation is valid for incompressible ows (e.g. most
liquid ows and gases moving at low Mach number).
More advanced forms may be applied to compressible
ows at higher Mach numbers (see the derivations of the where:
Bernoulli equation).
v is the uid ow speed at a point on a streamBernoullis principle can be derived from the principle of
line,
conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady ow,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
the sum of all forms of energy in a uid along a streamline
is the same at all points on that streamline. This rez is the elevation of the point above a referquires that the sum of kinetic energy, potential energy
ence plane, with the positive z-direction pointand internal energy remains constant.[2] Thus an increase
ing upward so in the direction opposite to the
in the speed of the uid implying an increase in both
gravitational acceleration,
increase in the speed of a uid occurs simultaneously
with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the uid's
potential energy.[1][2] The principle is named after Daniel
Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in
1738.[3]
p + q = p0
v
+
g
z
+
p
=
constant
2
the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is
or:
used it refers to this static pressure.[14]
q + g h = p0 + g z = constant
where:
q =
The simplied form of Bernoullis equation can be summarized in the following memorable word equation:
1
2
v 2 is dynamic pressure,
p
g
h = z +
is the piezometric head or
hydraulic head (the sum of the elevation z and
the pressure head)[10][11] and
p0 = p + q is the total pressure (the sum
of the static pressure p and dynamic pressure
q).[12]
3
If the uid ow at some point along a stream line is
brought to rest, this point is called a stagnation point, and
at this point the total pressure is equal to the stagnation
pressure.
1.2
Applicability of incompressible ow
equation to ow of gases
1.3
Unsteady potential ow
2 Compressible ow equation
Bernoulli developed his principle from his observations
on liquids, and his equation is applicable only to incompressible uids, and compressible uids up to approximately Mach number 0.3.[17] It is possible to use the fundamental principles of physics to develop similar equations applicable to compressible uids. There are numerous equations, each tailored for a particular application,
but all are analogous to Bernoullis equation and all rely on
nothing more than the fundamental principles of physics
such as Newtons laws of motion or the rst law of thermodynamics.
[18]
(constant
v is the ow speed
is the potential associated with the conservative force eld, often the gravitational potential
In engineering situations, elevations are generally small
compared to the size of the Earth, and the time scales of
uid ow are small enough to consider the equation of
state as adiabatic. In this case, the above equation becomes
4 APPLICATIONS
(
)
p
[19]
+ gz + 1
(constant
= constant
along a streamline)
v2
2
p
=
p0
0
4 Applications
where:
p0 is the total pressure
0 is the total density
2.2
Compressible ow in thermodynamics
+ + w = constant. [21]
Note that w = + p where is the thermodynamic energy pressure, both due to acceleration of the air.
per unit mass, also known as the specic internal energy.
So, for constant internal energy the equation reduces to In modern everyday life there are many observations
that can be successfully explained by application of
the incompressible-ow form.
Bernoullis principle, even though no real uid is entirely
The constant on the right hand side is often called the
inviscid[25] and a small viscosity often has a large eect
Bernoulli constant and denoted b. For steady inviscid
on the ow.
adiabatic ow with no additional sources or sinks of energy, b is constant along any given streamline. More gen Bernoullis principle can be used to calculate the lift
erally, when b may vary along streamlines, it still proves
force on an airfoil, if the behaviour of the uid ow
a useful parameter, related to the head of the uid (see
in the vicinity of the foil is known. For example,
below).
if the air owing past the top surface of an aircraft
When the change in can be ignored, a very useful form
wing is moving faster than the air owing past the
of this equation is:
bottom surface, then Bernoullis principle implies
that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be
lower above than below. This pressure dierence
v2
results in an upwards lifting force.[26][27] Whenever
+ w = w0
2
the distribution of speed past the top and bottom surwhere w0 is total enthalpy. For a calorically perfect gas
faces of a wing is known, the lift forces can be calsuch as an ideal gas, the enthalpy is directly proportional
culated (to a good approximation) using Bernoullis
to the temperature, and this leads to the concept of the
equations[28] established by Bernoulli over a century before the rst man-made wings were used for
total (or stagnation) temperature.
5
the purpose of ight. Bernoullis principle does not
explain why the air ows faster past the top of the
wing and slower past the underside. See the article
on aerodynamic lift for more info.
The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines
contains a venturi to create a region of low pressure to draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it
thoroughly with the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by
Bernoullis principle; in the narrow throat, the air is
moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its
lowest pressure.
serve that the plume follows the curve of the paper and
that a curved streamline will develop a pressure gradient perpendicular to the direction of ow, with the
lower pressure on the inside of the curve.[53][54][55][56]
Bernoullis principle predicts that the decrease in pressure is associated with an increase in speed, i.e. that as
the air passes over the paper it speeds up and moves faster
than it was moving when it left the demonstrators mouth.
But this is not apparent from the demonstration.[57][58][59]
Other common classroom demonstrations, such as blowing between two suspended spheres, inating a large bag,
or suspending a ball in an airstream are sometimes explained in a similarly misleading manner by saying faster
moving air has lower pressure.[60][61][62][63][64][65][66]
See also
Terminology in uid dynamics
NavierStokes equations for the ow of a viscous
uid
Euler equations for the ow of an inviscid uid
Hydraulics applied uid mechanics for liquids
Torricellis Law - a special case of Bernoullis principle
Daniel Bernoulli
Coand eect
REFERENCES
References
[17] White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics, 6e. McGraw-Hill International Edition. p. 602.
[18] Clarke C. and Carswell B., Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics
[19] Clancy, L.J., Aerodynamics, Section 3.11
[20] Landau & Lifshitz (1987, 5)
[21] Van Wylen, G.J., and Sonntag, R.E., (1965), Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, Section 5.9, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York
[22] Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1963). The
Feynman Lectures on Physics. ISBN 0-201-02116-1., Vol.
2, 403, pp. 406 409.
[23] Tipler, Paul (1991). Physics for Scientists and Engineers:
Mechanics (3rd extended ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 087901-432-6., p. 138.
[24] Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1963). The
Feynman Lectures on Physics. ISBN 0-201-02116-1., Vol.
1, 143, p. 144.
nothing to say about the interaction of air masses having dierent speeds... Also, while Bernoullis principle allows us to compare uid speeds and pressures
along a single streamline and... along two dierent
streamlines that originate under identical uid conditions, using Bernoullis principle to compare the air
above and below the curved paper in Figure 1 is nonsensical; in this case, there arent any streamlines at all
below the paper!" Peter Eastwell Bernoulli? Perhaps,
but What About Viscosity? The Science Education Review 6(1) 2007 http://www.scienceeducationreview.com/
open_access/eastwell-bernoulli.pdf
[49] The well-known demonstration of the phenomenon of lift
by means of lifting a page cantilevered in ones hand by
blowing horizontally along it is probably more a demonstration of the forces inherent in the Coanda eect than a
demonstration of Bernoullis law; for, here, an air jet issues from the mouth and attaches to a curved (and, in this
case pliable) surface. The upper edge is a complicated
vortex-laden mixing layer and the distant ow is quiescent, so that Bernoullis law is hardly applicable. David
Auerbach Why Aircreft Fly European Journal of Physics
Vol 21 p 295 http://iopscience.iop.org/0143-0807/21/4/
302/pdf/0143-0807_21_4_302.pdf
[50] Millions of children in science classes are being asked to
blow over curved pieces of paper and observe that the paper lifts... They are then asked to believe that Bernoullis
theorem is responsible... Unfortunately, the dynamic lift
involved...is not properly explained by Bernoullis theorem. Norman F. Smith Bernoulli and Newton in Fluid
Mechanics The Physics Teacher Nov 1972
[51] Bernoullis principle is very easy to understand provided
the principle is correctly stated. However, we must be
careful, because seemingly-small changes in the wording can lead to completely wrong conclusions. See How
It Flies John S. Denker http://www.av8n.com/how/htm/
airfoils.html#sec-bernoulli
[52] A complete statement of Bernoullis Theorem is as follows: In a ow where no energy is being added or taken
away, the sum of its various energies is a constant: consequently where the velocity increasees the pressure decreases and vice versa."" Norman F Smith Bernoulli, Newton and Dynamic Lift Part I School Science and Mathematics Vol 73 Issue 3 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/
10.1111/j.1949-8594.1973.tb08998.x/pdf
[53] "...if a streamline is curved, there must be a pressure
gradient across the streamline, with the pressure increasing in the direction away from the centre of curvature.
Babinsky http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9120/38/6/001/
pdf/pe3_6_001.pdf
[54] The curved paper turns the stream of air downward,
and this action produces the lift reaction that lifts the paper. Norman F. Smith Bernoulli, Newton, and Dynamic
Lift Part II School Science and Mathematics vol 73 Issue 4 pg 333 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/
j.1949-8594.1973.tb09040.x/pdf
[55] The curved surface of the tongue creates unequal air
pressure and a lifting action. ... Lift is caused by air moving over a curved surface. AERONAUTICS An Educators
REFERENCES
Guide with Activities in Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education by NASA pg 26 http://www.nasa.gov/
pdf/58152main_Aeronautics.Educator.pdf
[56] Viscosity causes the breath to follow the curved surface, Newtons rst law says there a force on the air and
Newtons third law says there is an equal and opposite
force on the paper. Momentum transfer lifts the strip.
The reduction in pressure acting on the top surface of
the piece of paper causes the paper to rise. The Newtonian Description of Lift of a Wing David F. Anderson & Scott Eberhardt pg 12 http://www.integener.com/
IE110522Anderson&EberhardtPaperOnLift0902.pdf
[57] '"Demonstrations of Bernoullis principle are often given
as demonstrations of the physics of lift. They are truly
demonstrations of lift, but certainly not of Bernoullis
principle.' David F Anderson & Scott Eberhardt Understanding Flight pg 229 http://books.google.com/books?
id=52Hfn7uEGSoC&pg=PA229
[58] As an example, take the misleading experiment most
often used to demonstrate Bernoullis principle. Hold a
piece of paper so that it curves over your nger, then blow
across the top. The paper will rise. However most people
do not realize that the paper would not rise if it were at,
even though you are blowing air across the top of it at a
furious rate. Bernoullis principle does not apply directly
in this case. This is because the air on the two sides of the
paper did not start out from the same source. The air on
the bottom is ambient air from the room, but the air on the
top came from your mouth where you actually increased
its speed without decreasing its pressure by forcing it out
of your mouth. As a result the air on both sides of the
at paper actually has the same pressure, even though the
air on the top is moving faster. The reason that a curved
piece of paper does rise is that the air from your mouth
speeds up even more as it follows the curve of the paper,
which in turn lowers the pressure according to Bernoulli.
From The Aeronautics File By Max Feil http://webcache.
googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:nutfrrTXLkMJ:
www.mat.uc.pt/~{}pedro/ncientificos/artigos/
aeronauticsfile1.ps+&cd=29&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us
[59] Some people blow over a sheet of paper to demonstrate
that the accelerated air over the sheet results in a lower
pressure. They are wrong with their explanation. The
sheet of paper goes up because it deects the air, by the
Coanda eect, and that deection is the cause of the force
lifting the sheet. To prove they are wrong I use the following experiment: If the sheet of paper is pre bend the
other way by rst rolling it, and if you blow over it than,
it goes down. This is because the air is deected the other
way. Airspeed is still higher above the sheet, so that is not
causing the lower pressure. Pim Geurts. sailtheory.com
http://www.sailtheory.com/experiments.html
[60] Finally, lets go back to the initial example of a ball
levitating in a jet of air. The naive explanation for the
stability of the ball in the air stream, 'because pressure
in the jet is lower than pressure in the surrounding atmosphere,' is clearly incorrect. The static pressure in
the free air jet is the same as the pressure in the surrounding atmosphere... Martin Kamela Thinking About
[61] Aysmmetrical ow (not Bernoullis theorem) also explains lift on the ping-pong ball or beach ball that oats so
mysteriously in the tilted vacuum cleaner exhaust... Norman F. Smith, Bernoulli and Newton in Fluid Mechanics
The Physics Teacher Nov 1972 p 455
Lamb, H. (1993). Hydrodynamics (6th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45868-9.
Originally published in 1879; the 6th extended edition appeared rst in 1932.
Further reading
Batchelor, G.K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid
Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-66396-2.
Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (1987). Fluid Mechanics. Course of Theoretical Physics (2nd ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-7506-2767-0.
Chanson, H. (2009). Applied Hydrodynamics: An
Introduction to Ideal and Real Fluid Flows. CRC
Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-41549271-3.
10 External links
Bernoulli equation calculator
Denver University Bernoullis equation and pressure measurement
Millersville University Applications of Eulers
equation
NASA Beginners guide to aerodynamics
Misinterpretations of Bernoullis equation Weltner
and Ingelman-Sundberg
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