--~

...

....;,---

RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS

INTRODUCTION
Today, the drilling of a well is an extremcly expcnsivc CIl(k~IlVOr.Therefore, rhe management of
an oil cornpany is much more careful than in the pasito justify the drilling of a well that rnay eventually
COS millions of dollars. Typically this justification is given in the forrn of an "expected" oil in place
calculation that is normally based on a volurnetric estimate made. by the petroleum engineer or
geologist. Of course, the expected oil in place is only the Iirst pan of thc jnsriication, which also
in..ludes an econornic invcstigaiion of the hypothetical developrnent pJ211.
ir other rescrvoirs are in the vicinity of a prospect, then performance data from these reservoirs
are :)fren used either d:;'eclly or on an analogy basis to arrive at estimates in terms cf recoverable
barre of oil or thousandsof standard cubic feet (Mscf) of gas per acre. Surrounding wells sornetimes
otfer subsurface centre! Q~;io rluckness, areal exter.t, and rcscrvoir quality uf thc iargc: rcscrvo.r.
In a new area, voiumetric estimates made befare the drilling of the first well are usually based
on geophysical maps thai :'~:lyhave no subsurface well control. These TT1~pS tire uscd lO get an estmate
of possible productivo size tnat, togcther with cstirnates of recoverable barreis or MCF pcr acre, will
allow expcctcd tutal reserves rrecoverable hydrocarbons) to be calculated.
Al! this, of course, assur: es .hat a reservoir exists. The enance of failcre is denoted by the term
"cxpectcd.'
So, before a reservoir performance prcdiction can be made, an estmate of {he volume of original
0'1 in place is nccdcd. Tu calculate this volume, we mus! establish the geologic boundaries of the
reservoir. To this end, sorne definitions are needed.
"GIU~S Iormaiion thickncss" is [he total thickness of fue formation. "Gross pay" (for an oil
reservoir) is the total thickness of the oil-bearing portien of the fonnation or reservor, At a well, the
interval of the formation below the oil/water contact is included in the gross formation thickness hut
is excluded rom gross payo "Net pay'' or "effective pay" s tha pan of the gross pay that contributes
to hydrocarbnn recovcry and is dcfincd by lower lirnits ofporosity and permcabiJily lndupper limits
of water saluralun l. Figure 4-1 illustrates these concepts. Analogous definitior:s for gros:; and net
pay e~isrfor gas reservoirs or gas caps. The mos! cornmon exclusion from gross pay (to arrive at net
pay) is sh_le. Shale intervals are usually determined from wr:lllog such as the self-pcte:1tial m the
gamma nly surveys.

4-2

-4018'

e
I
b

o
r

e
..:4040'

OH~--------------------------------------Watflf Contact

Fonnation Bottom
Gross Formation Thckness = 4048 - 4018 = 30'
Gross Pay ...4040 - 4018 ...22'
Net Pay '""22 - (4028 - 4025) ~ 19'
Fig. 4- t. Hypotheticaloil-bearng forma/ion Ilustratng tne calculation DIgros<:tormetion thickness, gross pay and net payo

Often times, the Jower boundary of a reservoir s fue "oil/water contact." Because usually there
is really not a sharp surface where the fluid saturation changes from 100% oil to 100% water (sce
Capillary Pressure in fue "Rock Properties" chapter), we define the oil/water contact to be that level
where, just below it, 100% water production would be obtained. This determination is normally rnade
va conventional electric logs.
Similarly, the upper boundary of an oil reservo ir is sometimes the "gas/oil contact." Here again,

a transition zone is between the ol and gas. But, the gas/oil contact is defined as that level above
which 100% gas production would be obtained.

If we had a homogeneous, isotropic reservoir, then it would be vald to obtain volumetric

estimares of thc original hydrocarbon in place with the followng equatons:

ou, STB =
Gas, Mscf

(4-1)

_. Sw)

(4-2)

(7758) ( A ) ( h )( <ji ) ( 1 -:.Sw

Bo
~( <\ (1
= -(, 4_3..:..::.,5-=-60.::......)~(o....:...A.....:.)~(_h~)
( 1000 ) (B s )

4-3

Reservor Volumetrics

where:

7758 = conversion factor: barreis per acre-ft,

43,560 = conversion factor: square ft per acre,
A :::reservoir area, acres,
/ =: net thickness, ft,
Ijl = porosity, fraction,
Sw ::: average water saturation, fraction,
Be =: oil formation volume factor, res. barrels I STB. and
Bg == gas formation volurne factor, res. cu ft I scf
Notice that the unit of volume employed on the right hand side of these equations is an

"acrc-foot." As you might expect, one acre-foot is equal ro '[he volume having ene acre in area and
one foot in thickness.
These equations are also applicable for the case of a new reservoir with no wells or perhaps only
one or two wells drilled. For this situation, only unrefined estirnates will be. available for the needed
parameters. The petroleum engineer or geologist who is using either Equations 4-1 or 4-2 will usually
determine a range of values for each parameter: minimuin. rnaximum, and most likely. Thus,
estimares for oil and/or gas in place rnay be bracketed.
Witb the drilling of more wells, it is usually found
question) differs in each well. Sirnilarly, net thickness,
forrnation volume factor are changing with position in
wil) be consrant Ior the rcservoir unless a large vertical
bouorn

that the average porosity (Ior the reservoir in

average water saturation, and possibly cven
the reservoir. Normally, the f0l111aOn factor
distance exists between the reservoir top and

With additional inforrnation available from rnu.t.ple wells, we normally prepare maps 10 keep
track of and display thesc data .. hese maps include: structurc top, structure bortorn, gros~ thickness,
net-to-gross (rhickness: ratio. iso-norcsity. and iso-water saturaiion maps.
The volurnetric estimation of oil in place is n on-going project. Each time that new information
becomes available, usually from additional wells, then all the maps snould be updated and a new
volurnetric calculation made: In this manner, as the field is drilled, the reserves estmate. becomes

more accurate.
SUBSURFACE MAPPING
Contour maps are used ex tensively for the deterrnination of hydrocarbon in place and reserves.
AJI the maps mentioned previousy may be prepared as contour maps. According to BishOl, contours
are lines drawn on a map to connect points of equal value compared to sorne chosen reference. Figure
4-2 is an example from Pirson 1 Ihat illustrates a contour map. In this case, the map is a gross thiclcness
isopach. Each contour represents a given constant gross thick:ness in the reservoir.

....1

4-4

____________________

Fig. 4-2. Reservoir gross isopach (from Pirson'}. Permission to publish

____:A_:;;;_pplied
Re~e_r.voir EngineeringlVol,

bp

McGraw-Hilf_

BiShop2 has presented sorne rules conceming contour maps:

l. Contour lines cannot cross one another, (In the special case of an overhanging c1iff 01' fault,
the contours appear to cross. In space, these lines would not be in contact butwould be one
aboye the other.)
. .
2. Contour lines may not rnerge with contours of diffcrent values or of the same value. (When a
vertical plane is projected upon a map, the contours appear to be merging. In space, those
lines would not be in contact but would be one above the other.)
3. Contours must always close or end at the edge of the map.
4. Contours of the same valuc must be repeated to indicate a reversa} of direction of slope.
5. The contour interval, or unit upon which the map is drawn, should be a function of (a) [he
scale of the map, (b) (he amount of variation between the values being contoured, and (e)
the amount of detaiJ which is desirable for the special purpose of the map.

A. Structure Maps
Structure maps are drawn to show the geometric shape of a reservoir or formation. Traditionally,
if the term "structure" map is used; this indica tes a strueture map of the top of the zone. It is
probably better terrninology to use "strucrure top" rnap if the top of the zone is being mapped
because "structure bottom" maps also exist. An example structure top map is shown in Figure
4..3.

.---- -

Reservoir Volumetrics

-------------""-

----_ ..._--4-5

l~~
I
,.

r-"""-+~~~+--:,'~
:
o',
,

[_'''

o'

..

.,

~.

.,r.

BU ~Gt(

PUBtlClIl ',m
etIlU.'.fll
.OllUI .otE lilC.I,lUII
llBGm'lOl lOCAIIU

11

JlI

"'1

...,
o

Jn

Ag. 4-3. Structure top map (from Lele~).

Petmission to publish by JPT.

Often the top of the fonnation is different for the geologist and the reservoir engineer. The aim
of the geologist is normally to map the top of a lthologic or stratigraphic unit, regardless of
quality. However, the aim of the reservoir engineer is to map the surface that is the highest point
where "reservoir'l-quality rock exists. The rescrvoir engineer is interested in mapping the top of
the oil within the formation; the geologist is interested in mapping the top uf the formaton.
Sometimes these tops are rhe sarne, but sometimes they are not. When a formation ha') a caprock
with 09 or very little porosity, it will act as an impermeable barrier, The engineer will probably
map fue bottom of this; the geologist may choose lo map the topo So, it pays to be careful and
make sure what is actually being mapped.

4-6

__Applied Reservoir EngineeringNol. 1

It is cornmon practice for the contours of a structure map to be solido If an ol/water or gas/oil
contact is shown, these are often dashed lines.
The contours represent lines of intersection between a series of horizontal planes (separated by
a constant vertical ntervaJ) and the surface (usually the top but could be the bottom) of the
formation being mapped. The configuration of the surface is interpreted from the pattem made
by the con tour lines. Faulting and folding may be shown by mean s of contours.
Strike is defined as the compass direction of the line of intersection between a horizontal plane
and the mapping horizon? Because a contour line is also the Iine of intersection between a
horizontal plane and the mapping horizon, each structure contour Une is also a strike lineo
Dip is defined as the angle between the bedding plane and a horizontal plane rneasured at 90 in
a compass direction from the strike of the bed. Dip has both magnitude and direction, with the
direction being that of the maximum downward slope. So, dip rnay be determined from a structure
map by considering the change in slope along a linc at right angles to the contours .
. The first step in making a -subsurface- structure map 5s -to determine fue surface elevation- of-the
well with reference to mean sea level. Then, the structural position of the formation surface is
Iound by subtracting the depth at which the surface was encountered from the surface elevation.
The result will be a structure map whose contours are referred to mean sea level. Thus, if the
.mapping surface hes below sea Ievel, the contour values are negative.

__ _--

Only in cornpletely drilled fields on relatively close spacing will there be enough data t permit
accurate contouring by merely mechanically connecting points of equal elevation. With the
limited data normally on hand, "interpretative" contouring is probably fue mosr acceptable
method. With this procedure/, contours are drawn to illustrate possible structural patterns that
are consistent with the. given set of data as weli as with the known (or supposed) trends Of
the
..
region.
Usually the contouring of structure rnaps is left in the hands of the geologist. These data for this
purpose are basically from three sources: (1) well control, (2) geophysical data usually in the
forrn of "Time" maps, and (3) geoJogical hypotheses concerning deposition and post-depositional events.

B. Isopach Maps
An isopach map shows by means of contour lines the distribution and thickness of a chosen
mapping unit. The con tour lines connect points of equal vertical intervaJ. Isopach maps illustrate
the size and shape of a given horizon.
Two common types of isopach maps are used by reservoir engineers: gross isopachs and net
isopachs. For the moment, comments will be restricted to oil reservoirs. The gross oil thickness
isopach map contours gross pa y; i.e., the depth of the top of the oil minus the depth of the bottom
of the oil. The net oil thickness isopach map has contours that relate only to the zone thickness
contributing to oil recovery: i.e., net payo Therefore, for example, a gross oil isopach would
inelude any shale sections within the oil-bearing interval of the formation; a net isopach would
noto Note that the top of the oil interval in a well with a gas/oil contact would not be the top of
the formaban, but would be the gas/oil contact, Sirnilarly, in a well with an oil/water contaet, the
lower )imit of the oil would be the oil-water contacto Figure 4-1 illustrates these concepts in a

-r-_

"

Reservoir Volumelrics

4-7

single borehole. The situation is similar for a gas zone (whether it is a gas reservoir or the gas
cap of an oil reservoir) with the exception that if a gas/oil contact is present, it will be the lower
thickness lirnit, not the upper. Data for isopach maps may be obtained directly from well logs.
For the sake of calculating hydrocarbons in place, it is more geologically and rnathematically
consstent to prepare gross isopach maps for subsequent use with net-to-gross-ratio maps than
it is to use net isopaeh maps. The mathernatical reasons for this will be touched on latero However,
many oil companies prefer to use net oil isopach maps for volumetric ealculations.

C. Net-to-Gross (Pay) Ratio Maps

In a well, considering a single formation, the net-pay to gross-pay ratio relates the fraetion of the
total hydrocarbon interval that is effectively contributing to reeovery. Therefore, the contours
of a net-to-gross ratio map will illustrate at a glance how clean tbe forrnation is and how it is
distributed. From welllogs, the gross pay section is detennined. Then, within this interval (again
using logs); zonesofshale, 10w por_o~jb', and high water saturation are located. The thicknesses
of these zones are subtracted from gross pay, which leaves net pay. Then, for thar wellloeaton,
the net-to-gross ratio is merely the net pay divided by the gross payo

D. Iso-Porosty Maps
1'0 prepare these maps, for each well the average porosity over the net pay portions of me desired
formation is calculated. So one number is representing the average porosity at each wcll location.
Then, contours are drawn which illustrate the ~et pay porosiry trends in the reservoir,

E. Iso-Water Saturation Maps

For ea eh well, considering the net pay portions of the desired forrnation, average water saturation
is calculated, usually from eonventional electric Iogs. Then, similar to porosity rnapping, each
well location will have one average water saturation. With enough wells, contours can be drawn
which llustrate how average water saturation is distributed in the reservoir.

F. Determining Reservoir Volume from Contour Maps

l. Limited Data A vailable
As we have discussed, during the early development of a reservoir (such as zero, one, or two
wclls drilled), only one or two (perhaps erude) estirnates for each of the parameters in
Equations 4-1 or 4~2 are available. However the geologist may have provded a structure
map primarily based on geophysical data from which a rougb net pay isopach can be
generated. In this case, it would be appropriate ro use Equations 4- J or 42 together with
estimates of average values over the reservoir for all the parameters except "A" and "h." Net
hydrocarbon volume for this situation is determined by nurnerical ntegration of che net pay
isopach. This result in acre-ft is substiruted into the appropriate equation, 4-1 or 4-2, in place
uf the product: (A)(h).
A planimeter is a device for integrating surtace areas. This instrument has an arrn that s used
ro trace the boundary of the area, such as ene of the contours on the net isopach map. In this
way, the area inside a particular contour can be obtaincd.

--~

...

....;,---

RESERVOIR VOLUMETRICS

INTRODUCTION
Today, the drilling of a well is an extremcly expcnsivc CIl(k~IlVOr.Therefore, rhe management of
an oil cornpany is much more careful than in the pasito justify the drilling of a well that rnay eventually
COS millions of dollars. Typically this justification is given in the forrn of an "expected" oil in place
calculation that is normally based on a volurnetric estimate made. by the petroleum engineer or
geologist. Of course, the expected oil in place is only the Iirst pan of thc jnsriication, which also
in..ludes an econornic invcstigaiion of the hypothetical developrnent pJ211.
ir other rescrvoirs are in the vicinity of a prospect, then performance data from these reservoirs
are :)fren used either d:;'eclly or on an analogy basis to arrive at estimates in terms cf recoverable
barre of oil or thousandsof standard cubic feet (Mscf) of gas per acre. Surrounding wells sornetimes
otfer subsurface centre! Q~;io rluckness, areal exter.t, and rcscrvoir quality uf thc iargc: rcscrvo.r.
In a new area, voiumetric estimates made befare the drilling of the first well are usually based
on geophysical maps thai :'~:lyhave no subsurface well control. These TT1~pS tire uscd lO get an estmate
of possible productivo size tnat, togcther with cstirnates of recoverable barreis or MCF pcr acre, will
allow expcctcd tutal reserves rrecoverable hydrocarbons) to be calculated.
Al! this, of course, assur: es .hat a reservoir exists. The enance of failcre is denoted by the term
"cxpectcd.'
So, before a reservoir performance prcdiction can be made, an estmate of {he volume of original
0'1 in place is nccdcd. Tu calculate this volume, we mus! establish the geologic boundaries of the
reservoir. To this end, sorne definitions are needed.
"GIU~S Iormaiion thickncss" is [he total thickness of fue formation. "Gross pay" (for an oil
reservoir) is the total thickness of the oil-bearing portien of the fonnation or reservor, At a well, the
interval of the formation below the oil/water contact is included in the gross formation thickness hut
is excluded rom gross payo "Net pay'' or "effective pay" s tha pan of the gross pay that contributes
to hydrocarbnn recovcry and is dcfincd by lower lirnits ofporosity and permcabiJily lndupper limits
of water saluralun l. Figure 4-1 illustrates these concepts. Analogous definitior:s for gros:; and net
pay e~isrfor gas reservoirs or gas caps. The mos! cornmon exclusion from gross pay (to arrive at net
pay) is sh_le. Shale intervals are usually determined from wr:lllog such as the self-pcte:1tial m the
gamma nly surveys.

4-2

-4018'

e
I
b

o
r

e
..:4040'

OH~--------------------------------------Watflf Contact

Fonnation Bottom
Gross Formation Thckness = 4048 - 4018 = 30'
Gross Pay ...4040 - 4018 ...22'
Net Pay '""22 - (4028 - 4025) ~ 19'
Fig. 4- t. Hypotheticaloil-bearng forma/ion Ilustratng tne calculation DIgros<:tormetion thickness, gross pay and net payo

Often times, the Jower boundary of a reservoir s fue "oil/water contact." Because usually there
is really not a sharp surface where the fluid saturation changes from 100% oil to 100% water (sce
Capillary Pressure in fue "Rock Properties" chapter), we define the oil/water contact to be that level
where, just below it, 100% water production would be obtained. This determination is normally rnade
va conventional electric logs.
Similarly, the upper boundary of an oil reservo ir is sometimes the "gas/oil contact." Here again,

a transition zone is between the ol and gas. But, the gas/oil contact is defined as that level above
which 100% gas production would be obtained.

If we had a homogeneous, isotropic reservoir, then it would be vald to obtain volumetric

estimares of thc original hydrocarbon in place with the followng equatons:

ou, STB =
Gas, Mscf

(4-1)

_. Sw)

(4-2)

(7758) ( A ) ( h )( <ji ) ( 1 -:.Sw

Bo
~( <\ (1
= -(, 4_3..:..::.,5-=-60.::......)~(o....:...A.....:.)~(_h~)
( 1000 ) (B s )

4-3

Reservor Volumetrics

where:

7758 = conversion factor: barreis per acre-ft,

43,560 = conversion factor: square ft per acre,
A :::reservoir area, acres,
/ =: net thickness, ft,
Ijl = porosity, fraction,
Sw ::: average water saturation, fraction,
Be =: oil formation volume factor, res. barrels I STB. and
Bg == gas formation volurne factor, res. cu ft I scf
Notice that the unit of volume employed on the right hand side of these equations is an

"acrc-foot." As you might expect, one acre-foot is equal ro '[he volume having ene acre in area and
one foot in thickness.
These equations are also applicable for the case of a new reservoir with no wells or perhaps only
one or two wells drilled. For this situation, only unrefined estirnates will be. available for the needed
parameters. The petroleum engineer or geologist who is using either Equations 4-1 or 4-2 will usually
determine a range of values for each parameter: minimuin. rnaximum, and most likely. Thus,
estimares for oil and/or gas in place rnay be bracketed.
Witb the drilling of more wells, it is usually found
question) differs in each well. Sirnilarly, net thickness,
forrnation volume factor are changing with position in
wil) be consrant Ior the rcservoir unless a large vertical
bouorn

that the average porosity (Ior the reservoir in

average water saturation, and possibly cven
the reservoir. Normally, the f0l111aOn factor
distance exists between the reservoir top and

With additional inforrnation available from rnu.t.ple wells, we normally prepare maps 10 keep
track of and display thesc data .. hese maps include: structurc top, structure bortorn, gros~ thickness,
net-to-gross (rhickness: ratio. iso-norcsity. and iso-water saturaiion maps.
The volurnetric estimation of oil in place is n on-going project. Each time that new information
becomes available, usually from additional wells, then all the maps snould be updated and a new
volurnetric calculation made: In this manner, as the field is drilled, the reserves estmate. becomes

more accurate.
SUBSURFACE MAPPING
Contour maps are used ex tensively for the deterrnination of hydrocarbon in place and reserves.
AJI the maps mentioned previousy may be prepared as contour maps. According to BishOl, contours
are lines drawn on a map to connect points of equal value compared to sorne chosen reference. Figure
4-2 is an example from Pirson 1 Ihat illustrates a contour map. In this case, the map is a gross thiclcness
isopach. Each contour represents a given constant gross thick:ness in the reservoir.

....1

4-4

____________________

Fig. 4-2. Reservoir gross isopach (from Pirson'}. Permission to publish

____:A_:;;;_pplied
Re~e_r.voir EngineeringlVol,

bp

McGraw-Hilf_

BiShop2 has presented sorne rules conceming contour maps:

l. Contour lines cannot cross one another, (In the special case of an overhanging c1iff 01' fault,
the contours appear to cross. In space, these lines would not be in contact butwould be one
aboye the other.)
. .
2. Contour lines may not rnerge with contours of diffcrent values or of the same value. (When a
vertical plane is projected upon a map, the contours appear to be merging. In space, those
lines would not be in contact but would be one above the other.)
3. Contours must always close or end at the edge of the map.
4. Contours of the same valuc must be repeated to indicate a reversa} of direction of slope.
5. The contour interval, or unit upon which the map is drawn, should be a function of (a) [he
scale of the map, (b) (he amount of variation between the values being contoured, and (e)
the amount of detaiJ which is desirable for the special purpose of the map.

A. Structure Maps
Structure maps are drawn to show the geometric shape of a reservoir or formation. Traditionally,
if the term "structure" map is used; this indica tes a strueture map of the top of the zone. It is
probably better terrninology to use "strucrure top" rnap if the top of the zone is being mapped
because "structure bottom" maps also exist. An example structure top map is shown in Figure
4..3.

.---- -

Reservoir Volumetrics

-------------""-

----_ ..._--4-5

l~~
I
,.

r-"""-+~~~+--:,'~
:
o',
,

[_'''

o'

..

.,

~.

.,r.

BU ~Gt(

PUBtlClIl ',m
etIlU.'.fll
.OllUI .otE lilC.I,lUII
llBGm'lOl lOCAIIU

11

JlI

"'1

...,
o

Jn

Ag. 4-3. Structure top map (from Lele~).

Petmission to publish by JPT.

Often the top of the fonnation is different for the geologist and the reservoir engineer. The aim
of the geologist is normally to map the top of a lthologic or stratigraphic unit, regardless of
quality. However, the aim of the reservoir engineer is to map the surface that is the highest point
where "reservoir'l-quality rock exists. The rescrvoir engineer is interested in mapping the top of
the oil within the formation; the geologist is interested in mapping the top uf the formaton.
Sometimes these tops are rhe sarne, but sometimes they are not. When a formation ha') a caprock
with 09 or very little porosity, it will act as an impermeable barrier, The engineer will probably
map fue bottom of this; the geologist may choose lo map the topo So, it pays to be careful and
make sure what is actually being mapped.

4-6

__Applied Reservoir EngineeringNol. 1

It is cornmon practice for the contours of a structure map to be solido If an ol/water or gas/oil
contact is shown, these are often dashed lines.
The contours represent lines of intersection between a series of horizontal planes (separated by
a constant vertical ntervaJ) and the surface (usually the top but could be the bottom) of the
formation being mapped. The configuration of the surface is interpreted from the pattem made
by the con tour lines. Faulting and folding may be shown by mean s of contours.
Strike is defined as the compass direction of the line of intersection between a horizontal plane
and the mapping horizon? Because a contour line is also the Iine of intersection between a
horizontal plane and the mapping horizon, each structure contour Une is also a strike lineo
Dip is defined as the angle between the bedding plane and a horizontal plane rneasured at 90 in
a compass direction from the strike of the bed. Dip has both magnitude and direction, with the
direction being that of the maximum downward slope. So, dip rnay be determined from a structure
map by considering the change in slope along a linc at right angles to the contours .
. The first step in making a -subsurface- structure map 5s -to determine fue surface elevation- of-the
well with reference to mean sea level. Then, the structural position of the formation surface is
Iound by subtracting the depth at which the surface was encountered from the surface elevation.
The result will be a structure map whose contours are referred to mean sea level. Thus, if the
.mapping surface hes below sea Ievel, the contour values are negative.

__ _--

Only in cornpletely drilled fields on relatively close spacing will there be enough data t permit
accurate contouring by merely mechanically connecting points of equal elevation. With the
limited data normally on hand, "interpretative" contouring is probably fue mosr acceptable
method. With this procedure/, contours are drawn to illustrate possible structural patterns that
are consistent with the. given set of data as weli as with the known (or supposed) trends Of
the
..
region.
Usually the contouring of structure rnaps is left in the hands of the geologist. These data for this
purpose are basically from three sources: (1) well control, (2) geophysical data usually in the
forrn of "Time" maps, and (3) geoJogical hypotheses concerning deposition and post-depositional events.

B. Isopach Maps
An isopach map shows by means of contour lines the distribution and thickness of a chosen
mapping unit. The con tour lines connect points of equal vertical intervaJ. Isopach maps illustrate
the size and shape of a given horizon.
Two common types of isopach maps are used by reservoir engineers: gross isopachs and net
isopachs. For the moment, comments will be restricted to oil reservoirs. The gross oil thickness
isopach map contours gross pa y; i.e., the depth of the top of the oil minus the depth of the bottom
of the oil. The net oil thickness isopach map has contours that relate only to the zone thickness
contributing to oil recovery: i.e., net payo Therefore, for example, a gross oil isopach would
inelude any shale sections within the oil-bearing interval of the formation; a net isopach would
noto Note that the top of the oil interval in a well with a gas/oil contact would not be the top of
the formaban, but would be the gas/oil contact, Sirnilarly, in a well with an oil/water contaet, the
lower )imit of the oil would be the oil-water contacto Figure 4-1 illustrates these concepts in a

-r-_

"

Reservoir Volumelrics

4-7

single borehole. The situation is similar for a gas zone (whether it is a gas reservoir or the gas
cap of an oil reservoir) with the exception that if a gas/oil contact is present, it will be the lower
thickness lirnit, not the upper. Data for isopach maps may be obtained directly from well logs.
For the sake of calculating hydrocarbons in place, it is more geologically and rnathematically
consstent to prepare gross isopach maps for subsequent use with net-to-gross-ratio maps than
it is to use net isopaeh maps. The mathernatical reasons for this will be touched on latero However,
many oil companies prefer to use net oil isopach maps for volumetric ealculations.

C. Net-to-Gross (Pay) Ratio Maps

In a well, considering a single formation, the net-pay to gross-pay ratio relates the fraetion of the
total hydrocarbon interval that is effectively contributing to reeovery. Therefore, the contours
of a net-to-gross ratio map will illustrate at a glance how clean tbe forrnation is and how it is
distributed. From welllogs, the gross pay section is detennined. Then, within this interval (again
using logs); zonesofshale, 10w por_o~jb', and high water saturation are located. The thicknesses
of these zones are subtracted from gross pay, which leaves net pay. Then, for thar wellloeaton,
the net-to-gross ratio is merely the net pay divided by the gross payo

D. Iso-Porosty Maps
1'0 prepare these maps, for each well the average porosity over the net pay portions of me desired
formation is calculated. So one number is representing the average porosity at each wcll location.
Then, contours are drawn which illustrate the ~et pay porosiry trends in the reservoir,

E. Iso-Water Saturation Maps

For ea eh well, considering the net pay portions of the desired forrnation, average water saturation
is calculated, usually from eonventional electric Iogs. Then, similar to porosity rnapping, each
well location will have one average water saturation. With enough wells, contours can be drawn
which llustrate how average water saturation is distributed in the reservoir.

F. Determining Reservoir Volume from Contour Maps

l. Limited Data A vailable
As we have discussed, during the early development of a reservoir (such as zero, one, or two
wclls drilled), only one or two (perhaps erude) estirnates for each of the parameters in
Equations 4-1 or 4~2 are available. However the geologist may have provded a structure
map primarily based on geophysical data from which a rougb net pay isopach can be
generated. In this case, it would be appropriate ro use Equations 4- J or 42 together with
estimates of average values over the reservoir for all the parameters except "A" and "h." Net
hydrocarbon volume for this situation is determined by nurnerical ntegration of che net pay
isopach. This result in acre-ft is substiruted into the appropriate equation, 4-1 or 4-2, in place
uf the product: (A)(h).
A planimeter is a device for integrating surtace areas. This instrument has an arrn that s used
ro trace the boundary of the area, such as ene of the contours on the net isopach map. In this
way, the area inside a particular contour can be obtaincd.