Impedances been by Kelays During

Power Swings W i t h and Without Faults

EDITH CLARKE
.

MEMBER AIEE

E are at present in a period of

power-system development during
which it is essential that the best use be
made of manpower and materials. To
meet this requirement, equipment must
be re-evaluated and refinements made in
the design of apparatus and methods of
system control. Loads on existing lines
must be increased with continuity of serv
ice maintained. Of vital importance at
this time is a thorough understanding of
the operation of distance relays. The
characteristics of the relays, and the sys
tem impedances "seen" by them, deter
mine their performance. If it is known
exactly what impedances are seen by a
system of relays, their performance during
power swings, with or without a fault on
the system, can be predicted; and more
important, relays having characteristics
best suited for specific applications can be
selected.
A valuable method of determining
distance-relay performance is by means
of an impedance chart with resistance and
reactance as abscissa and ordinate, re
spectively. On this chart, the character
istic curve of the limit of operation of the
relay and the system impedances seen by
the relay under specified operating condi
tions are plotted to the same scale. If
the system impedance seen by a relay
falls within the boundary of the character
istic curve of the relay, the relay will
operate; if it falls outside this boundary,
the relay will not operate. This method
of determining relay performance is given
by J. H. Neher1 in a paper on the per
formance of distance relays, in which he
plots the characteristic curves of the
boundary of operation of various types of
relays in terms of resistance and react
ance. The development of the general
equations for distance relays, he credits to
A. R. van C. Warrington. The paper
provides equations from which initial
system impedances seen by relays during
faults of various types can be calculated
and located on impedance diagrams for
Paper 45-67, recommended by the AIEE commit
tees on power transmission and distribution, and
protective devices, and presented at the AIEE
winter technical meeting, New York, N. Y., Janu
ary 22-26, 1945. Manuscript submitted November
14, 1944; made available for printing December
27, 1944.
EDITH CLARKE is in the analytical division, central

station engineering divisions, General Electric

Company, Schenectady, N. Y.
The author acknowledges the assistance of L. F.
Kennedy and A. J. McConnell in the development
of the material in this paper; she wishes also to
thank A. R. van C. Warrington and S. B. Crary
for their helpful suggestions.

372

given relay systems. In his discussion of

a paper by C. R. Mason,2 presented at the
same AIEE convention, Mr. Neher3
points out that system impedances seen
by distance relays during power swings
can likewise be plotted on the same chart
as the characteristic boundary curve of
the relay. Following Mr. Neher's sug
gestion, Mr. Mason4 gives a chart of the
system impedances seen by a relay, during
power swing under symmetrical system
conditions, at any location in a single
symmetrical three-phase linear circuit of
negligible capacitance, with equal bal
anced generated voltages at its terminals.
Later, Poage, Streifus, McGregor, and
George in their excellent paper 5 extend
the construction of system impedance
charts, during power swings under sym
metrical system conditions, by considering
unequal balanced voltages at the ter
minals of a symmetrical three-phase linear
In Figure 1 b , the
point of fault F, also
shown outside the
box, is short-cir
cuited to neutral

IA

posed. The method of constructing sys

tem impedance charts is applicable to any
three-phase system which can be replaced
during power swings by two equivalent
synchronous machines with balanced
generated voltages, connected by a threephase linear network in which positive
and negative impedances can be assumed
equal. While the development of the
method of constructing system impedance
charts from equations in specified form
given in part II and the derivation of these
equations in part III are necessarily com-.
plex and somewhat lengthy, the net result
presented in part I is a simple tool with
which the behavior of a distance relay pan
be quickly determined by the use of tables,
and the adaptation of a general imped
ance chart.
The new features of the paper are:
1. The inclusion of generated voltages of
unequal magnitudes at two equivalent
power sources.
2. Systems in which there are one" or more
paths between the two power sources in
addition to the path through the relays.
3. Power swings during all types of unsymmetrical faults as well as during sym
metrical system conditions.
4. Proof that impedances seen by relays
for constant phase angles between generated

ft v

NEUTRAL N_

n
1_

( a ) - NO FAULT

Figure 1 . Positive-sequence diagrams of a

general symmetrical linear system between
terminals A, B, and neutral N, represented as
a box with section pRq of the circuit at R
shown outside the box

circuit of appreciable capacitance, with

relays located at its terminals. An out
standing contribution of their paper is the
proof that the impedances seen by relays
at the terminals of the circuit during
power swings are circles for all constant
ratios of the magnitudes of the voltages at
these terminals, as the phase angle be
tween the voltages varies from 0 to 360
degrees.
The amount of effort necessary in a
relay study, together with further work
on this problem, has indicated that the
relay application engineer should have a
relatively simple means of determining
the effect of power swings on distance re
lays, with or without a fault on the sys
tem. This paper is an attempt to provide
such a means, by presenting in part I a
simple method of constructing charts of
the system impedances seen by distance
relays during power swings, upon which

(b)

Tl

NEUTRAL N

VR

- SOLID FAULT AT F

voltages of varying magnitudes are arcs of

circles, two phase angles which differ by 180
degrees giving a complete circle.
5. A general impedance chart for deter
mining the impedance seen by a relay during
power swings, under various conditions of
operation, without the necessity of con-?
structing an entirely new chart for each new
problem.

I.

Construction of Impedance
Charts From System Data

Notation
Vectors and complex numbers atarepresented by letters without distiugui'shing'
marks; scalar values of those huSrtiiies;
are enclosed in vertical bars? u : i ; uius, '
the vector voltage at point %" is writ- '
ten VA; the scalar of VA i s % i f t e t f | 7 j . '
is vrr:~~c

Assumptions
The method of constructing impedance
charts given here applies to any threephase system whic^i can be replaced dur-

ClarkeImpedances During Power Swings

AIEE

TRANSACTIONS

NEUTRAL N
(o) - NO FAULT

=^rr

A2B2C2P2

VR

EA

NEUTRAL N
(b) - NO FAULT

=5?

Figure2. Positive-sequence diagrams

of a symmetrical lin
ear system" with no
connection between
A and B except
through the relays
at/?
Represented in (a)
by t w o three-termi
nal networks, in ( b )
by t w o sets of genera I
circuit constants, and
in (c) by three threeterminal networks

NEUTRAL N
( c j - SOLID FAULT AT F

ing power swings by two equivalent syn

chronous machines with balanced gener
ated voltages EA and EBi connected by a
symmetrical three-phase linear network
having equal positive- and negativesequence impedances, with the relays
located at any point R in the network and
a fault (if present) at any point F. It is
assumed that phase distance relays are
actuated by line-to-line voltages and the
corresponding delta currents. In reduc
ing a given system to one having two
equivalent power sources, synchronous
machines which can be represented by the
same impedance in the direct and quad
rature axes, and linear representation of
loads, will be assumed. Initial tran
sients, including d-c and natural-frequency
components, and the effects of saliency in
synchronous machines during power
swing will be neglected. The voltages
back of the internal impedances of the
two equivalent machines will be assumed
constant. Under these assumptions,
there will be no harmonics because of
saturation or other nonlinear effects, or
from unequal impedances in the two axes
of rotating machines. Initial transients
will be of short duration in the usual
transmission system because of the rela
tively high ratio of resistance to react
ance. EA and EB will be constant sinu
soidal voltages of fundamental frequency
back of a single impedance in each of the
two equivalent power sources. In the
usual transient swings, transient imped
ance is assumed ; but for swings which are
long relative to the field time constants,
an impedance higher than transient im
pedance may be a better representation.

sequence network at the opening, must be

determined.
Positive-sequence diagrams of three
types of symmetrical three-phase linear
networks between EA and EB will be con
sidered:
1. A general network.
2. A network in which there is no connec
tion between EA and EB except through the
relays at R.
3. A single circuit of negligible capacitance

networks, may contain constant-imped

ance loads or line capacitance, or both.
The impedance shunts Ze and Zf may be
either inductive or capacitive; if there is
neither capacitance nor constant-imped
ance loads, they become infinite. ~,In
Figure 2b, the positive-sequence diagram
of Figure 2a is expressed in terms of two
sets of general circuit constants. In
Figure 2c, a solid fault is indicated at F.
Figures 3a and 3b are special cases of
Figure 2a in which capacitances and con
stant-impedance loads are negligible. In
Figure 3ay the point F at which a fault
will be applied is between R and tLBy i n
Figure 3b, Fis between EA and R.
Figures 4a and 4b are special cases of
Figure 2a in which VA and VB are ter
minal voltages (not internal generated
voltages) at A and B, the terminals of a
symmetrical three-phase linear circuit of
appreciable capacitance with relays lo
cated at A and By respectively. In sys
tems which cannot be replaced during
power swings by two equivalent power
sources, system impedance charts can be
constructed from Figures 4a and 4b in
terms of \VA/VB\

OT\VB/VA\

and

the

phase angle by which VA leads VB;

but some auxiliary means, such as an a-c
network analyzer, will be required to
determine the range of \VA/VB\
during
power swings under given conditions of
operation.

In reducing the positive-sequence dia

gram of a given system to one having two
equivalent power sources, the identity is
retained of the point R at which the relays Procedure in the Construction of
under consideration are located, and of the
System Impedance Charts
point F at which a fault is to be applied.
The positive-sequence diagram of a
Without a fault or with a symmetrical
general symmetrical three-phase linear three-phase fault, the impedances seen by
system with two power sources, or their the relays in the three phases at R are
equivalents, can be represented as a identical; for this condition, only one
single-phase network having terminals A chart is constructed. With unsymmetriand B at which voltages to neutral EA and cal faults, the impedances seen by the
EB, respectively, are applied; when relays in each phase at R will be different;
capacitance and constant-impedance for this condition, more than one chart
loads are present, there will* be one or will be required. The procedure in con
more terminals connected to neutral N. structing system impedance charts for
Figure la shows the positive-sequence any system which can be replaced during
diagram of a general network between A, power swings by two equivalent power
B, and N with no fault on the system. sources, with or without an unsymmetriIn Figure lb a solid fault is indicated at F. cal fault, is as follows :
In these diagrams, the general network is
represented as a box with three terminals 1. Draw the positive-sequence diagram of
the given system, representing transmission
A, Bt and N brought outside the box; a circuits by equivalent T's or x's, and con
portion pRq of the circuit on which the re stant impedance loads by impedance shunts
lays are located is also shown outside the to neutral. Reduce the network to its sim
box. Points p and q are on opposite sides plest form, preserving the identity of the
of the relays at R but at negligible dis point R at which the relays are located, and
tances from R. VB is the voltage to of the fault point F if power swings during
neutral at R, and IB is the line current at faults are to be considered.
System Diagrams
R, positive direction of current being 2. From the positive-sequence diagram of
Under the stated assumptions, only the from p to q, or from A to B. In Figure the system and the given type of fault (if
positive-sequence diagram is used in de lb, a portion of the circuit at the fault F a fault is specified), determine the constants
required in the construction of the system
termining system impedance during sym is also shown outside the box.
Figure 2a is the positive-sequence dia impedance chart. These constants consist
metrical system conditions, or during
of three impedances Zx, Zz, and Zy, related
line-to-line faults. In considering short gram of a system without a fault which by the equation -\, and one com
circuits involving ground, Z0, the zero- can be separated into two parts which plex ratio K. Written in polar form, Z*=
sequence impedance viewed from the have no connection with each other ex \ZV\/Jy and K - \K\/J, where \K\ may be
fault, is required ; and in the case of open cept through the relays at R. The por unity or greater or less than unity and the
conductors, 20, the impedance offered to a tions of the positive-sequence network on angle 0k may be positive or negative. With
series voltage inserted in the zeny- each side of R, shown as three-terminal positive direction of current from A to B,

1945,

VOLUME

64

GarkeImpedances During Power Swings

373

~ZX and locate ffi unpdnces seen by a

relay at R when EA and EB, respectively,
are zero. \K\ and 0* are required in con
structing or labeling the two sets of circles
which make up the impedance chart. (See
Figure 5.)
From the positive-sequence diagrams of
the four types of networks shown in Figures
1-4, the constants Zx, Zz, Zy, and K have
been evaluated (in part III) for symmetrical
system conditions and for various types of
faults. They are tabulated in Table I for
the condition of no fault on the system, and
in Table II for a line-to-line fault in a single
circuit of negligible capacitance. The quan
tities in Table I are expressed in terms of
transfer and driving-point impedances,
determined under specified conditions.
Methods of determining the transfer and
driving-point impedances used in Table I
are explained below this table. In Table II,
the required constants are given in terms of
ZA* ZB% and Zc, the impedances indicated
in Figures 3a and 3b, where the total imped
ance between A and
B=Zs=ZA+ZB-\-Zc>
3. From the calculated constants ZXt Zz,
Zy=Zz+Zz = \Zy\/jy> and K = \K\/Jh con
struct the impedance chart. Two methods
of constructing system impedance charts
will be given:
Method A. Under this method, the entire chart is
constructed for each new problem.
Method B. Under this method, only part of the
chart is constructed, the remainder being obtained
from the general impedance chart.

Method AConstruction of
Complete Chart
1. On a sheet of rectangular cross-section
paper, such as shown in Figure 5, locate the
origin 0. As the chart gives the impedances
seen by a relay at R, the origin represents R,
the location of the relay. Selecting a con
venient scale, with resistance and reactance
as abscissa and ordinate, respectively, lay
off Zx and Zz from the origin, locating
points A and B, respectively. These points
are shown in Figure 5. Point A corresponds
to the impedance Zx=ZzZy seen by the
relay when ^ = 0; point B corresponds to
the impedance Zz= Zx-\-Zy seen by the
relay when EB = Q, positive direction of cur
rent being from A to B. Points A and B
may be considered the terminals A and B at
which the voltages EA and EB, referred to
the relay, are applied.
2. Draw a straight line from A to B and
determine its midpoint M. The line AB
will have the length \Zy\ and, in the direction
AB, the slope of Zy = \Zy\/Jv. This is
indicated in Figure 5. Extend the line AB
in both directions. The line AB (extended)
is the line of centers of the circles for con
stant values of the ratio \EA/EB\ or
EB/EA\.
Through M, the midpoint of AB,
draw the line GMH perpendicular to AB.
The line GMH is the line of centers of the
arcs for constant values of 8, the angle by
which EA leads EB.
3. For any assumed value of \EA/EB\
calculate \EAK/EB\.
If EA and EB are
internal generated voltages to neutral (or
their equivalents) applied at A and B behind
transient reactances, they can be calculated
or estimated for a given system operating
under normal specified conditions. Under

374

the stated assumptions, ^EA\ and \KB\ will

not change during power swings; therefore,
only a few circles for ratios of \EA/EB\ are
required in a given problemsometimes
only one. From Table III, read r and MX
in terms of \Zy\ corresponding to \EAK/EB\
where r is the length of the radius and MX
is the distance from M, the midpoint of AB,
to X, the intersection of the circle with AB.
Locate C, the center of the circle at a dis
tance r from X along AB (extended).
Positive values of MX are laid off along AB
in the direction MB, negative values in the
direction MA. C and X for any circle are
on the same side of M. With C located,
draw the circle which cuts AB at X. In
stead of using Table III, r and MX can be
calculated from equations 10 and 13 of part
II in terms of \EAK/EB\ and \Zy\. In
Figure 5, circles have been drawn for values
of \EAK/EB\ of 0.75, 1.00, and 1.50. The
circles in Figure 5 are labeled in terms of
\EJEB\, \EB/EA\, and \EAK/EB\ for |X| =
1.25. When \EAK/EB\ = 1.0, the circle be
comes a straight line perpendicular to AB at
Mthis is the straight line GMH which is
the line of centers of the arcs for constant
values of 5.
4. For any assumed value of , calculate
+, where Bk may be positive or nega
tive. The arcs for any two values of or
which differ by 180 degrees have the same
center C but they intersect the line GMH at
X' on opposite sides of M. The complete
circle is divided into two arcs by points A
and B which are common to all arcs. In
Table IV, MC, the distance of the center of
the arc C from M, is given in terms of and
\Zy\, and the sign of MX' is indicated. For
values of not included in Table IV, MC
can be calculated from equation 19, and the
sign MX' determined from equation 18 of
part II. Positive values of MC' and MX'
are laid off along GMH in the direction
MH, negative values in the direction of MG.
As all arcs pass through A and B, the dis
tance C'A or C'B on the chart gives the
radius of the arc. In Figure 5 arcs are
drawn for various values of between 0 and
360 degrees. For <>
/ = 180 degrees, the arc
is the straight line from A to B; for 0,

Table I.

tile arc is te straight Trne from B to > and

from oo back to A, as indicated in Figure 5.
In Figure 5, 0A=2O degrees, <*>=6-f20 de
grees, or = 20 degrees. The arcs of
Figure 5 are labeled in terms of both and .
In Figure 5, the impedance seen b y the
relay at R during power swings for any
assumed value of | E A / B | can be deter
mined from the intersection of the circle
for | ^ / B | with the arcs. For ex
ample, if \EjjEB\ = 1.2 and = 40 de
grees, the impedance is ZR=65+j
4
ohms. In Figure 5 impedances are ex
pressed in ohms. In many cases, it is
more convenient to express Zx, Zz, and Zy
in per unit or per cent of a base impedance
equal t o \Zy\, the scalar value of Zy.
When this is done, \Zy\ = 1.0 in per unit of
base ohms.

Method BUse of General

Impedance Chart
The general impedance chart suggested
and first constructed by A. J. McConnell
is shown in Figure 6. The line AB, equal
in length to |Ztf| = 1.0 in per unit of base
impedance, determines the sca^e. AB is
shown in a vertical position. A horizon
tal line is perpendicular to AB at its mid
point. The line AB (extended) is the
line of centers of the circles for constant
values of \EA/EB\ or| EB/EA\. The horizon
tal line is the line of centers of the arcs for
constant values of , the angle by which
EA leads EB. The circles are labeled in
terms of \EAK/EB\ and the arcs in terms
of =-\-].
The origin and the co
ordinate axes are not indicated. T o use
the general impedance chart, the following
procedure is suggested:
1. On a sheet of thin rectangular crosssection paper, locate the origin 0. Assume
a base impedance equal to \Zy\ and express
Zx, Zz, and Zy in per unit of this base imped-

Values of Z x / Z z / Z y , and K, in Terms of Driving-Point* and Transfer Impedances in

the Positive-Sequence Networks of Figures 1 - 4
No Fault

z,

1.

General network of Figure la

2.

Connection between A and B only

through relayFigure 2a
Same as 2 except negligible capacitance
Figure 3a. ZRA^ZRR-A;
ZRB =

3.

ZRR -. .
Z.BR

ZRR-B

4.
5.

Relay located where EA is measured

Figure4a. ZRR- A = 0 ; ZRR- A/ZAR = 1 . . .
ZRR-B = 0; ZBR/ZRR-

B= 1

ZAR

JZk-

ZRR~

. . . ZRR-B .

ZRR-

0
ZRR-

ZRR-B

. . ZRR.. B .

Relay located where EB is measured

Figure 4b.

ZRR

(ZAR

ZBR \

ZBR

ZRR

[ZA~R+Z-B^)

ZAR
ZRR-

ZRR-A+ZRR-B

'

ZRR-A+ZRR-B

ZBR

ZARZRR-B

1/0
ZBR

ZRR-B

ZRR-B
ZRR-A

ZRR-A

ZAR

All the impedances in Table I can be obtained from the positive-sequence diagrams of Figures 1-4 with A
and B short-circuited to neutral and no fault on the system: With a voltage ER applied between neutral
and R, and A and B short-circuited to neutral, let / be the current entering the network at 22 and Ip and
J the components of / at p and q, respectively, which are also the components of / at R flowing toward A
and B, respectively; let I A and IB be the currents leaving the network at A and B, respectively. Then
ZRR^ER/1;

ZRR-A~ER/IP;

ZRR-B = ER/Iq; ZAR = ZRA = ER/IA;

ZBR = ZRB = ER/IB.

The imped

ances ZAR and sBR are required only for the general network. With a series voltage eR inserted at R in
Figure la, and A and B short-circuited to neutral, let I A and IB be the currents at A and B, respectively.
Then zAB=*ZRA=>eR/lA; XBR = zRB = eR/lB

ClarkeImpedances During Power Swings

AIEE

TRANSACTIONS

ance. \Zy\ = 1.0 in per unit of base imped

ance. Select a scale such that |Zj,|=1.0 =
the length of A B in the general impedance
chart of Figure 6. Plot Zx=Z2Zy and
Z2 = Zx+Zy which locate points A and B,
respectively.
2. Place the cross-section paper over the
general impedance chart of Figure 6 so that
points A and B coincide with A and B in
Figure 6, and trace the various circles and
arcs (or the significant portions thereof).
The values given in Figure 6 correspond to
\EJEB\ and , if \K\ = 1 and 0*=0. If \K\
is not 1, the constant-voltage-ratio circles
may be relabeled in terms of \EA/EB\ by
dividing the values of \EAK/EB\ given in
Figure 6 by \K\. If Bk is not 0 degrees, the
constant-angle arcs may be relabeled in
terms of by subtracting 6k from the value
of given in Figure 6.
A practical example illustrating the use
of methods A and B will now be given.
Problem.
T h e given system can be
represented as a single circuit of negligible
capacitance between two equivalent gen
erated voltages EA and EB with the relays
located at R, as indicated in Figure 3a.
A line-to-line fault between phases b and c
occurs at F. T h e impedances ZA, ZB,
and Zc shown in Figure 3a are Z ^ = 2 0
/ 8 0 ohms; ZB = 50/80 ohms; Z c = 3 0
/ 8 0 ohms; Z 5 = 1 0 0 / 8 0 ^ ohms. (It is
not required that these impedance angles
be equal; calculations are but slightly
simplified b y this assumption.) The im
pedances ZCh, Zac, and Z 6 a seen by the
phase distance relays in the three phases
at R will be different.
(a). Determine ZCb, and construct charts
for determining Zac and Z&a during power
swings.
(b). Assuming \EA/EB\ = 1, compare the
impedances ^ and Zu determined under
(a) with the impedances seen by the relays
in the three phases at R during power swings
when there is no fault on the system.
.II:

Solution of Problem.
From Table
Z, ft =ZB = 5 0 / 8 0 o f a n s .

Chart for Zae.

From
ZJ = Z A = 2 0 / 8 0 o h m s .
K =1

V3(ZA+ZB)

Table II:

100
: - i - i/ ;7 0 / 3

= 1-J0.8248 = 1-296/-39.52
= 1.30/40 , approximately

a complex ratio, remains unchanged.

\K\ = 1.30 and 0*= - 4 0 degrees. T h e
chart of Zac given in Figure 7a was con
structed in accordance with method A.
T o construct this chart, the origin 0 is
located, and a convenient per-unit scale
chosen. - Z x = - 0 . 0 3 9 - j
0.221 and
Z 2 = 0.030+7 0.779 are plotted, locating
points A and B, respectively. The line
AB is drawn, its midpoint is determined;
the perpendicular t o AB at its midpoint
is erected; and AB is extended in both
directions.
Values of \EA/EB\ or \EB/EA\ covering
the operating voltage range are selected
and \EAK/EB\ = 1.30 \EJEB\
calculated.
The lengths of the radii r and the dis
tances MX from M, the midpoint of AB,
to the intersections X of the circles for
constant values \EAK/EB\ with the line
AB are read from Table III. For ex
ample: if \EA/EB\ = 1, \EAK/EB\
= 1.Z0;
and from Table III with \Zy\ = 1, r = 1.884
and M X = 0 . 0 6 5 . In Figure 7a the circle
for \EB/EA\ = l is shown. The perpen
dicular bisector of AB which corresponds
to \EAK/EB\
is the locus of
\EA/EB\=
1/|1|=0.77.
With 0 * = - 4 O ,
0=+0*=-4:
The distance MC of the center of the arcs
from the midpoint of AB for any constant
values of can be read from Table IV
corresponding to = 4 0 . Thus: for
= 0, = 0 - 4 0 = 320; for 5 = 60,
= 20. The line AB corresponding to
= 180 is the arc for = - 0 = 2 2 ; the
line AB (extended) is the arc for = 00*
= 40. The arcs for = 90 and 270
(circle with AB as diameter) are arcs for
= 130 and 310, respectively. These and
other values of are indicated in Figure 7a.
Chart for Zba.

From Table II :

Zr=ZA=20/80
K

=l+i

= 1+./ 0.8248

V3(ZA+ZB)
= 1.296/39.52

\\ = 1.30 and 0*=4O, approximately

y

.155/30)
, . 1 \ 100/g0_O(l.l
+J
!.296/39.52
~\
y/*/
L296/3
= 89.2/70.48 ohms

Table I I .

Let base o h m s = 8 9 . 2 ohms. In per

unit of base ohms, Z z = 0 . 0 3 9 + i 0.221;
Z = 1 . 0 / 7 0 . 4 8 = 0 . 3 3 4 + j 0.943; Z 2 =
Z - Z x = 0 . 2 9 5 - h / 0.722.
The chart for Z^, will be constructed by_^
using the general impedance chart of
Figure 6. In Figure 7b, the origin 0 is
located and a scale chosen so that \Zy\ =
1.0 in per unit of base impedance=the
length AB of the general chart. Zx=
- 0 . 0 3 9 - . / 0.221 and Z 2 = 0 . 2 9 5 + j 0.722
are plotted, locating points A and B,
respectively. T h e chart of Figure 7b is
then placed over Figure 6, with A and B
on the t w o charts coinciding. The vari
ous circles and arcs of Figure 6 are then
traced on the chart for Z ^ . ( I t is gen
erally unnecessary t o trace all circles and
arcs completely. Usually the significant
portions are obvious and only those por
tions need be traced.)
Since in this problem \K\ and 0* are not
1 and 0, respectively, the various circles
and arcs must be relabeled in values of
\EA/EB\ and . For example, the con
stant \EAK/EB\ circle in Figure 6 labeled
1.3 when traced on Figure 7b corresponds
to \EAK/EB\

= 1.3 or t o \EA/EB\

= 1.Z+ '

\K\ = 1.3/1.30 = 1.00. Similarly, the con

stant arc in Figure 6 labeled 90 degrees,
when traced on Figure 7b corresponds t o
= + 0 = 9 degrees or t o = - 0 * = 9
degrees40 degrees = 50 degrees.
Circles for | J E V ^ S I = 1 from t h e charts
of Figures 7a and 7b for Zac and Z&j, re
spectively, are shown on the same chart in
Figure 7c, and the intersections of these
circles with various arcs are indicated.
The point locating Zc&* is also shown.
Base impedance in Figure 7c is 89.2 ohms.
Symmetrical System Conditions.
From
Table I, i t e m 3 , ZX = ZRB_A=ZA
= 20/80
ohms;
Zz=RR-B=ZB
+ Zc=80 / 8 0
ohms;
Zy=Zx+Zy=
100 / 8 0 ohms;
]J[=1; and 0*=. I n per unit of 89.2
ohms (base ohms in Figure 7c), Z x =
0.2244 / 8 0 = 0.039 +j
0.221;
Zy=
1.122/80 o = 0.195+jl-.105; Z2 = Zy-Zz =
0.156-T7 0.884.
In Figure 7c, Zx and Zz are plotted
locating points A and B, respectively.
The line AB is drawn and its midpoint M

Values of Z X / Z t / Z y / and KLine-to-Line Fault Between Phases b and c at F in

Figure 3a or 3b

Positive Direction of Current From A to B

=

100/80(i.l55/-30o)
1.296/-39.52

=89.2/89.52 ohms
The chart of the impedance Zac will be
expressed in per unit of a base impedance
equal to |Z|=89.2 ohms. In per unit of
89.2 ohms, Z=1.00 /89.52 = 0.009 + j
1.00; Z x = 0 . 2 2 4 4 / 8 0 o = 0 . 0 3 9 + j 0.221,
Zz=Zy-Zx=
- 0 . 0 3 0 - f j 0.779. K, being

1945,

VOLUME

64

Figure

Zy ="-1-

Zs

lZcb = ZB
3a..

I Zac

Zba

Zc Zs/

zA

...+-

ZA

Zc
...Zfl+...

.1 \

Zs
V3(Z^+ZB)

Zc Zs/
1 \
ZA+ZB+-g- =-~i 1+J'v!fJ

Zs
+.V3(ZA+ZB)

++

lZeb=~ZB
3b.

\Zac
\Zu

...KZA+ZB...

Zc

.KZA+ZB. . . Zc

...KZA+ZB+Z

= KZS

.KZA+ZB+Zc~KZs\

ClarkeImpedances During Power Swings

1/

..1/

( * )

Zs
l-j V3(Z*+Zc)
e
Zs
l-hr
j5(Zs+Zc)

375

determined. The line perpendicular to

AB at M is drawn; this line corresponds
to \EAK/EB\ = 1.0, and since \K\ = 1, it
also corresponds to the desired value of
\EJEB\ = 1. The intersections of the
arcs with the line for \EJEB = 1 are
indicated in Figure 7c for ZR with no fault
on the system.

Fisure 3. Positivesequence diagrams

of a single circuit
of negligible capa
citance between EA
and EB

--9-

WWVTORT-

The assumptions in regard to the sys

tem are the same as those stated in part I,
except that the three-phase linear net
work between EA and EB} when there is
no unsymmetrical fault on the system,
need not necessarily be symmetrical in the
three phases. Under these assumptions,
system voltages and currents during
power swings are functions of EA, EB, and
the characteristic impedances and ad
mittances of the system. Any impedance
Z which is defined as the ratio of a speci
fied voltage F to a specified current I,
with positive direction of current from A
to B, may be written
Z_V

_-
I GAEAGBEB

HA
GA

\GAGB)_
EB\GB/
HB t \GA

GB )

Gi

-ZR=ZZ

2*-lzJ-

W i t h s = 0,

<t> = +ek,ord=<t>-ek

1-

ZRZz/ez
/By

EB
7-a-g*
EAK

(4)

Equations 3 or 4 give ZR in two differ

ent forms which are not independent of
each other. Either form can be obtained
from the other, since ZyZx-\-Zz.
Methods of determining ZXy Zz, ZyZx-\ZZy and K with and without faults are
given in part III. With these constants
known, two points on the impedance
chart can be obtained by equating first
EAt and then EB} to zero. From equa
tion 3, with EA=0,
Zy

Table III.

|EAK/EB|

1-/()

(3)

(7)

Substitution of equation 7 in equation 4

gives

\zy\Ah

-,\/+

(6)

In Figure 5, Zx locates point A,

corresponding to ^ = 0; this point can
also be located by ZzZy. Zz locates
point B, corresponding to EB = 0; this
point can also be located by Zx-\-Zv.
The line AB connecting points A and B
and measured from A to B has the mag
nitude and slope of Zy=\Zy\/Bv.
In equation 4, let

EK
1 - A /+0k
EB
\Zy

En
B

ZR=ZZ Zx-\-Zy

(5)

'.

_
EAK /
EB

zx/h+1-

\Zy\/jy
EAK

(8)

A third point M in Figure 5 can be

obtained from equation 8, if \EA/EB\
1/\\=+=1&0
degrees. Then
the denominator of either fraction in
equation 8 is two, and
Z* = i l f = Z 2 - - v = - Z x + - v

Either of the impedance equations in

equation 9 locates M at the midpoint of

Radii and Intersections With A B of Circles ior Constant Values of | E A / E B | n

Terms of | Z y | ^ A B and | E A K / E B |
rV|Zy|

MXyjZy|

|EAK/EB|

r"/\Zy\

MX*/|Z y |

0
0.1
0.2
0.3

0 ....0.5000
0.101....0.4091
0.208....0.3333
0.330....0.2692

0.9
0.95
1.0
1.05

4.737. ..0.0263.
9.744. . .0.0128.
. . .
0 .
1 0 . 2 4 4 . . . 0.0122.

0.4
0.5
0.55
0.6

0.476....0.2143
0.667....0.1667
0.789....0.1452
0.938....0.1250

1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25

5.238...
3.566...
2.727...
2.222...

0.0238.
0.0349.
0.0455.
0.0556.

0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85

1.126....0.1061
1.373....0.0882
1.714....0.0714
2.222....0.0556
3.063....0.0405

1.3
1.35
.1.4
1.45
1.5

1.884...
1.641...
1.458...
1.315...
1.200...

0.0652.
0.0745.
0.0833.
0.0918.
0.1000.

1-/
-

:376

where ZXy ZZy and ZyZx-\-Zz are imped

ances, and K in tke general case is a com
plex number. In special cases, Zx or Z2
may be zero, or K may be unity.
If positive direction for current is from
B to At instead of from A to B, the signs
of these equations for ZR will be reversed.
In terms of magnitudes and angle, let
Zx = \Zx\/%; Zz=fol/fa
Zy= lZyl/^
K = \K\/d_k; / = \/\/_;
+
EA=\EB/EA\/by where is the angle by
which EA leads EB. With complex im
pedances and ratios in polar form, equa
tion 3 becomes

(2)

The equations 2 are general. As given,

ihey define an impedance. They may,
however, be used to define the ratio of
two currents or of two voltages, or any
ratio which can be expressed in the gen
eral form of equation 1 with constant
-coefficients.
In equations 2, let HB/GBZX; HA-z~
GA=ZZ;
(HA/GA+HB/GB) = ZX+ZZ=
Zy; and K = GjJGB. Then, replacing Z
in equations 2 by ZRy the impedance ZR
seen by a relay at R is

R
1

NEUTRAL N
(b)

ZR ZZ

EA\GA)

VWvV'WRP

NEUTRAL
(a)

R and F are relay and

fault locations, re
spectively

(!)

where HA, HBi GAt and GBi after initial

transients have disappeared, are constant
coefficients determined from the charac
teristic constants of the system under
specified operating conditions.
Equation 1 may be expressed in terms
of EJEB or EB/EAt whichever is pre
ferred.

VR

II. Construction of Impedance

Charts From Equations in Specified
Form
Assumptions

-WAArRRP

|EAK/EB|

rV|Z y J MX*/|Zy

. 1.55..
. 1.6 ..
. 1.65..
1.7 ..

.1.105..
.1.026..
.0.958..
.0.899..

.0.1078
.0.1154
.0.1226
.0.1296

. 1.75..
. 1.8 ..
. 1.85..
. 1.9 .
. 1.95.
. 2.0 .
. 2.5 .
. 5.0 .
.10.0 .

.0.848..
.0.804..
.0.764.
.0.728.,

.0.1364
.0.1429
.0.1491
.0.1552

.0.696.
.0.667.
.0.476.
.0.208.
.0.101.
0..

0.1610
0.1667
0.2143
0.3333
0.4091
0.5000

*r is the radius of the circle; X is its intersection with AB. See Figure 5. MX is the distance from M
the midpoint of A B to X in the positive direction MB. The center of the circle C is on AB (extended).
MC has the sign of MX. \MCi=r-f \MX\.

ClarkeImpedances During Power

Swings

A I E E TRANSACTIONS

Figure 5.
Circles for Constant Ratios of the
Magnitudes of EA and EB
The first terms in the two equations 8
are constant impedances; the second
terms involve EA/EB or EB/EA and other
constants. In reference 5, it is inowu
that an impedance equation in t h e form of
either of these second terms is the equa
tion of a circle for, any constant value of
the ratio of the magnitudes of the two
Voltages when the phase angle between
them varies from 0 to 360 degrees; and
equations for the centers and radii of
these circles are given. The addition of
the constant first term shifts the centers
of the circles but does not change their
radii. If r is the length of the radius and
C is the center of the circle referred to the
origin, and ZR is expressed in terms of
EJEB,
EAK\

|zl E 1
B
\EA K

-1

C^lr

(10)

=M)4"

MX
(11)

The line o centers of the circles for

constant values of \EA/EB\
is given by
equation H . The term in parenthesis
(Z 2 -.p/2) locates the midpoint of AB;
the term following it locates C along the
line AB, or -AB extended. If MC is the
distance fron M t o <C measured along the
line of centners -B (extended) in the
direction M&,

^ 1 |Jt/ B !'+l
-2

&AK/EB\>-1

(12)

If l^K/j is greater than unity, MC in

equation 12 will be positive and will be
laid da in the direction MB. If MC is
negative, it will be laid off in the direction
MA.
In Figure 5, let X be the intersection of
the circumference of any circle of radius r
with AB, and MX the distance measured
from M to X in the positive direction
MB. If the outer bars enclosing the de
nominator in equation 10 are removed,
and equation 10 then subtracted from
equation 12, the distance MX is

MxJH
2

[-]'
I

-1

EB\

If \EAK/EB\

EAK
-1
EB
\EAK
+1
\Ea

is greater than unity, MX is

" 1945, V O L U M E 6 4

NEUTRAL N
(b)
Relay location R at

Relay location R at A

,| \EB/(E AK)\
EB 21
1EAK
1-\EB/{EJQ\
l+\EB/(EAK)\

(14)

(15)

I \EB/(EAK)\ is less than unity, MX and

|J|f C|( = \MX\ plus r) will be laid off along
AB (or AB extended) in the positive
direction MB.
If \EB/(EAK)\ is greater
than unity, MX and MC will be laid off
in the negative direction MA.
As
\EB/(EAK)\
is the reciprocal of \EAK+
EB\, circles for values of \EJEB\
and
\EB/EA\
which are reciprocals of each
other will be identical. This is shown in
Figure 5, where the circles are labeled in
terms of both \EJEB\ and \EB/EAl
If \EJEB\ = 1/\K\, \EAK/EB\ = \EB+
(EAK)\ = 1 ; and from equations 10 or 14,
r=co.
From equation 12,
MC=,
The circle, in this case, becomes a straight
line perpendicular to AB. As MX from
equation 13 or 15 is zero, the straight line
passes through M and is the perpendicular
bisector of the line AB. This straight
line GMH is shown in Figure 5.

values of \EB/EA\, D in equation 16 is a

straight line. This line passes through
\1/\/-
and has a slope 1 8 0 - ( +
0*+0y) ^ c a n be shown (any good
analytic geometry) tjiat if the equation of
an admittance is a straight line extending
to infinity in both directions, its reciprocal
is the equation of a circle which passes
through the origin. In the special case of
a straight line which passes through the:
origin, the reciprocal is a circle of infinite.
radius, that is, a straight line. A s
\EB/EA\ is always positive, the straight
line representing the admittance D for a
constant value of extends to infinity in
one direction only as \EB/EA\ varies from
0 t o oo. Its reciprocal l/D is therefore
the equation of an arc of a circle^not a
complete circle. The addition of the first
term in equations 4 shifts the center of t h e
arc but does not change its radius. T h e
equations 4, for any constant value of &
and ratios \EB/EA\ between 0 to <, are
therefore the equations of arcs of circles.
It is shown in equations 5 and 6 t h a t
the impedance ZR is Z^ ZzZy when
^ = 0 , and -Zx+Zy=Zz
when EB = 0.
These impedances are indicated in Figure
5 by points A and B, respectively. A s
these two values of ZR are independent of
the angle by which EA leads EB, t h e
arcs for all values of must pass through
the points A and B. The centers of all
arcs will therefore lie on the perpendicular
bisector GMH of the line AB. T h e line
GMH in Figure 5 is the curve for \EAK+
EB\ = \EB/(EAK)\ = 1; it is also the line
of centers of the constant arcs.
The intersection of the constant- arcs
with their line of centers GMH can be ob
tained if \EB/(EAK)\
in equation 8 is
replaced by unity. Let Xf indicate t h e
point of intersection; then X' referred t o
the origin is given by the following equa
tion :

Arcs of Circles for Constant Angles

Between EA and EB
The second term in either of the equa
tions 4 can be equated to l/D if numera
tor and denominator are divided by
\Zy\/Qy; selecting the second equation,
Dis

D = ,/-ev
(13)

NEUTRAL N
(o)

positive and will be laid off along B in

the direction MB.
If \EAK/EB\ is less
than unity, MX will be negative and
will be laid off in the direction MA.
This
is shown in Figure 5 for \EAK/EB\ = 1.50
and 0.75, respectively. MX given b y
equation 13 and MC given b y equation 12
will always be measured in the same
direction from M. When radii are long
relative to the length AB, instead of using
equation 11 or 12 to locate C, a higher de
gree of precision can usually be secured
(if one is not an expert draftsman) by
laying off MX calculated from equation
13 and then adding r given by equation 10
to find the center C of the circuit which
cuts AB at X.
In terms of EB/EA, the equations for r
and MX are

\EAKV

EAK 2
-f-i
\E*

-1
\EB

VA and VB

,r l z
\EB

MC

sequence diagrams
of a symmetrical
three-phase
linear
network
between
terminal
voltages

EB
/-g-fljb-fly
KEAZy\

(W)

where \Zy\f 0, \K\, and 0* are constants.

For a constant value of but variable

ClarkeImpedances During Power Swings

X'=-Zx+

1-/-

= -zz+ 1 cos +j
(1-

= -Zx+
,

= -Zx+~+

sin

cos -j sin
2 ( 1 - cos)

(17)

Zu\Zy\/ey-W

2tanThe first two terms in the last equation 17

locate Mt the mid-point of AB. T h e third
term gives the distance MX', measured
from M t o X* along a line perpendicular

377

t o Zy at i , that is, along the line GMH.

The distance MX' from M to X' measured
along the line GMH in the positive direc
tion MH, is

20, it will be noted that when points A and tance relay, using line-to-line voltage and
B corresponding t o EA = Q and = 0,
t h e corresponding delta current, will see
respectively, have been located, the set of
the same system impedance on threecircles for constant values of
\EB/(KEA)\
phase, phase-to-phase, or two-phase-toor \EAK/EB\
and the arcs for constant

ground faults in a symmetrical threecot phase linear system having equal positive(18) values of =-\- can be determined
2
MX'= J
from the length and slope of the line AB
and negative-sequence impedances, pro
2 tan
which represents the impedance Zy
vided the fault involves t h e phases t o
\Zy\ /By. If line AB is taken as unity or which the relay is connected. Accord
100 per cent, and a chart constructed with ingly, the three impedances at R are
If cot (/2) is positive, MX' is positive;
if cot (/2) is negative, MX"' is negative.
complete sets of circles and arcs of circles
Vb-Vc
This is indicated in Figure 5 where MX' for constant values of \EB/(EAK) | or
(21)
h-h
h~ -h
is positive for values of between 0 and \EAK/EB\
and = --0*, respectively,
180 degrees, and negative for values of this chart can be used for any system if
Vac
c -Va
between 180 and 360 degrees. The inter impedances are expressed in per unit of a ^ac
(22)
h-la
1,-1.
sections X' are shown for = 6 0 and 240 base impedance equal to \Zy\ =AB. The
degrees.
general chart is shown in Figure 6 with
. JjLL _ YsiliL
(23)
From equation 18 and Figure 5, the line AB in a vertical position. The length Zba~ lah
la lb
angles AX'M and BX'M are each equal t o AB = \ZV\ in this chart is five centimeters.
where V and I in the above equations are
/2.
If C is the center of the arc, t h e Any convenient length may be selected.
sinusoidal voltages t o neutral and line
angles AC M and BCM will each be There are no co-ordinates o n the chart.
currents, respectively, of fundamental
equal to (an angle inscribed in a circle
It consists of circles and arcs of circles
frequency at R; and subscripts a, b, c
is one-half the angle at the center sub and the straight lines AB (extended)
tended b y the same arc). The distance and the perpendicular bisector of AB. refer t o phases a, 6, c, respectively.
MC is therefore
The circles are graduated in terms of
Power Swings During Symmetrical
\EAK/EB\, the arcs in terms of =0-1-0*.
z
System Conditions
v\
\z [cQt
Illustrations
of
the
use
of
the
gen
j ? -2Jtan
* l 2 tan\ (i+0*)
l vl
2
eral impedance chart are given in part
This case covers symmetrical three(19) I. It may be preferable t o use a template
phase short circuits, and system condi
If cot is positive, the center C is in the for the general impedance chart, in which tions after a fault has been cleared and
case points A and B of the template would
direction MH; if cot is negative, C
initial transients have disappeared. In a
is in the direction MG. Values of or of be placed over A and B of the rectangular
symmetrical three-phase system under
co-ordinate paper, and the desired circles
= + 0 * which differ b y 180 degrees will
balanced operation, there are only posi
and
arcs
of
circles
drawn
on
the
paper.
have the same center C; but from equa
tive-sequence currents and voltages.
tion 18, their intersection X' with GMH
Va= Val and Ia=Iai>
With phase order
will be on opposite sides of M. This is
a b c: Vb=a2Vai;
Vc=aVal;
I^aH^;
shown in Figure 5, where the arcs for III.
Equations for System Ic=alal.
Substitution of these values in
= 60 degrees and = 240 degrees have
Zcb=Zac=Z*a=
Impedances Seen by Relays equations 2 1 - 2 3 gives
the same center C but their intersections
During Power Swings
X' with GMH are on opposite sides of M.
The impedance ZR seen b y the relays
When the center C has been located,
in the three phases at any location R under
the radius r' is equal to the distance from
symmetrical system conditions can be
Equations will be derived and expressed
C to A or B. The equation for the radius in the form of equation 3 of part II for
determined from the ratio of the positiver'is
sequence line-to-neutral voltage a t i? t o
the impedances seen b y distance relays
the positive-sequence line current at R.
during power swings, with and without
\Zy\
(20) faults, based on the assumptions stated in T h e problem is to express ZR VR/IR
7> = C'A = CB =
2 sin 2 sin (+0*)
b y an equation in the form of equation 3
part I. A brief discussion of three-phase
in terms of the positive-sequence system
To construct charts for constant values linear systems containing unsymmetrical
impedances, the ratio \EA/EB\ or \EB/EA\,
of \EB/EA\ or \EJEB\
and , the as static circuits, with a suggested method
and the angle ; is the angle b y which
of procedure, is given at the end of part
sumed value of \EB/EA\ is divided b y K
EA leads B . With the equation in speci
t o obtain \EB/(EAK)\,
or the assumed III.
fied form, the three complex impedances
It has been shown 6 that a phase dis
value of \EA/EB\ is multiplied by | X | to
obtain \EAK/EB\,
and the assumed value
of is added to 6k to obtain = --0*.
= AB and
Table IV. Location of Centers of Arcs for Constant Values of in Terms of
Circles for constant values of \EB-(EAK)\ or \EAK/EB\ and arcs for constant
values of are then constructed as ex
*MC'/|ZyI
MC'/IZyl
MC7|Zy|
0-{+9k
*=5-Mk
<-5+0k
plained above, but circles and arcs are
graduated in terms of \EB/EA\
or \EA/EB\
0,180

60,240
0.2887
120, 300.....'.".. .0.2887
and , respectively. This is illustrated in
5,185
5.715
65,245
0.2332
.125,305
0.3501
Figure 5, where circles and arcs are labeled
10,190
2.836
70,250
0.1820
130,310
0.4196
in terms of \EA/EB\,
\EB/EA\ and , as
15,195
1.866
75,255
0.1340
135,315
0.5000
well as in terms of \EAK/EB\ and .
20,200
1.374
80,260
0.0882
140,320
0.596

v-

General Impedance Chart

25,205
30,210
35,215

1.072
0.866
0.714

85,265
90,270
95,275

0.0437
0
0.0437

145,325
150,330
155,335

0.714
0.866
....1.072

40,220

0.596

100,280

0.0882

160,340

1.374

45,225
0.500
105,285
0.1340
165,345
,..1.866
A general chart for determining the
50,230
0.4196
110,290
0.1820
170,350
2.836
system impedances seen by relays during
55,235
0.3501
115,295
0.2332
175,355
5.715
power swings was first suggested and con
*MC
is
the
distance
from
M,
the
midpoint
of
.45,
to
C
,
the
center
of
the
arc
on
GMH.
See
Figure 5.
structed by A. J. McConnell.
MX' is the distance from M to X', the intersection of the arc with GMH in the positive direction MB,
JReferring t o equations 10-15 and 1 8 - If is between 0 and 180 degrees MX* is positive; if is between 180 and 360 degrees, MX' is negative.

378

ClarkeImpedances

During

Power

Swings

A I E E TRANSACTIONS

100

General Network Between EA and EB.

(See Figure l a ) . W i t h EA a n d EB applied
a t A a n d B, respectively, n o c u r r e n t enters
or leaves t h e network a t R. L e t VR b e t h e
resultant voltage t o n e u t r a l a t R. Under
t h e principle of superposition, R m a y b e "
considered a network t e r m i n a l a t which
a voltage t o n e u t r a l VR is applied t h r o u g h
zero impedance so t h a t t h e current sent
into t h e network a t R b y VR j u s t equals
t h e s u m of t h e c u r r e n t s sent o u t of t h e
network a t R b y EA a n d EB;
VR/ZRR
must equal t h e s u m of EA/ZAR a n d EB-rZBR or

\*

Z.ftxtD
RR
a a - ai
i

(25)

^BR/
*-.

^ *-*

ZRRA-\-ZRRB\ZAR
DATA:
Z* 5 + J 2 5 OHMS
Z z 25 ] 3 5 OHMS

8 /340

J_
Figure 5.

System impedance chart in ohms

ZX} Zzy -\,

a n d t h e complex
number K can b e evaluated.
Although
ZR is given in t w o forms b y equation 3,
except for a few illustrative examples,
only one equation for ZR will b e given in
the work which follows. Because of t h e
relation Zy=Zx-\-Zz,
if Zy a n d Zz are
knownj Zx can b e determined b y sub
tracting Zz from Zy: Zx = ZyZz.
Positive-sequence diagrams are given in
part I, Figures 1-4, for t h e types of sys
tems which will b e considered. There are
two generally accepted methods of deter
mining voltages t o neutral a n d line cur
rents in linear single-phase networks such
as those shown i n p a r t I, Figures 1-4.
One method is b y means of driving-point
and transfer impedances; t h e other is b y
the use of general circuit constants. Both
methods will be used for t h e special sys
tems of Figures 2 a n d 4, b u t only the
former for t h e general system of Figure 1.
Driving-Point and Transfer Impedances.
Referring t o t h e positive-sequence dia
grams of Figures l a , 2a, 3a, 4a, a n d 4b, let
ZRR = driving-point impedance between ter
minals R and N=ratio of the voltage to
neutral applied a t R to the total current
entering the network at R when terminals
A and B are short-circuited to neutral N
ZRR-V,

ZRR-q

components of ZRR in
or
^RR-A*ZRR^By
t h e directions p and q,
respectively (or in the directions A and B
when there is no ambiguity in regard to
direction of current) = ratios of the voltage
to neutral applied a t R to the components
1945, V O L U M E 6 4

(25a)

T h e line current IR a t R i n t h e direction

pRq m a y b e determined b y superposing
the line currents resulting from EA a n d
Eg, separately applied. T h u s ,

Zy > 30 f j 60 67.112.* OHMS|

K 1^5 120?
/

ZBBj

iR =

EA

EB

%AR

koo

of current entering t h e network at R and

flowing through p and q, or toward A and
B, respectively, when A and B are shortcircuited to neutral
ZAR =ZZRA = transfer impedance between
terminals A and N and terminals R and
Nratio of the voltage to neutral applied
at A to the total current leaving the net
work a t R when R and B are shortcircuited to neutral=ratio of the voltage
to neutral applied a t R t o the current
leaving the network at A when A and B
are short-circuited to neutral
ZRR = ZRB = transfer impedance between
terminals B and N and terminals*R and N
(Definition similar to that of ZAR=ZRA,
with B and A interchanged)
ZAR = ZRA = transfer impedance between ter
minals A and N and terminals p and q
when p and q are short-circuited through
R=ratio of the voltage to neutral applied
at A to the line current a t R when B is
short-circuited to neutral and p and q are
connected through R. (R is not shortcircuited to neutral) = ratio of the series
voltage inserted a t R between p and q to
the current a t A when A and B are shortcircuited to neutral
25==2 = transfer impedance between ter
minals B and N and terminals q and p
when p and q are short-circuited through
R. (Definition similar to that of zAR = zRA
with B and A interchanged)
F r o m these definitions of ZRR_V ZRR_qi
or (ZRR_Af ZRR-B)
a n d ZRR} it follows
that
Z RR

RRA^RRB
RRA r?K

ZRRp+ZRRq

ClarkeImpedances

Z
During

(24)

*+ZE

Power

Swings

(26)

ZBR

T h e impedance ZR seen b y t h e relay a t

R in t h e general network of F i g u r e l a is
obtained b y dividing VR given b y equa
tion 25 b y IR given b y equation 2 6 :
7

^RRZARZBR(EAZBR-\-EBZAR\

^R
IR

ZARZBR

\ EAzBREBzAR

Reference t o equations 1, 2, a n d 3 shows

t h a t ZR m a y be w r i t t e n in either of t h e
forms given b y equation 3.
(zAR

ZR=ZR

7~~ )

\^AR

EB

*BR \

A~7

ZAR

^BRf

\zAR/

(zAR

. %BR \

RR[yt)

6RR

nr

^BR

\^AR

-.

EB

^BR/

(ZAR\

(27)

EA\zBRJ

Equation 27 can b e replaced b y equation

3 if ZX = ZR

ZBR

ZRR[ ~r-Tp- );
\^AR

^BR/

7 7

?i*.. 7

K=zBR/zAR.

Special Network Between EA and EB.

(See Figure 2a). W h e n point R, t h e loca
tion of relays, divides t h e system into two,
parts which have n o connection except
through R, t h e impedance seen b y t i e
relays a t R can b e expressed i n a form
more convenient for calculation t h a n
t h a t given b y equation 27. Instead of
using one driving point impedance and
four transfer impedances t o define VR
and IR, t w o driving point impedances
ZRR-A a n d ZRR-B a n d t w o transfer im
pedances ZRA a n d ZBB can b e used if
zAR a n d zBA are expressed i n terms of
these four impedances b y t h e equations
derived in t h e following paragraph.
In Figure 2a, with EA applied between
379

^^*

roi

CM

if

CM

>

ro

CI

CM

M S?
ro

m
CD

380

ClarkeImpedances During Power Swings

AIEE

TRANSACTIONS

neutral and A, and B short-circuited t o

neutral, let VB be the line-to-neutral volt
age at R and IR the line current at R,
positive direction of current being from A
to B. Under this condition, b y definition,

**-f

driving point impedances which occur i n

equation 34, i n terms of these general
circuit constants, are ^,

(28)
(34a)

By use of superposition, IB is also given

by the following equations when EB=0:
(29)
?AR

ZSRA

ZBRB

ZBKAJ
For use in equation 3 :
Zx=Bl/Al;

ZZ=B2/D2;
Hi

Substitution of VR=IRZRR-B,
from the
second equation of (29) in the first, gives

ZAR

=/,

ZRB-A)

-B(ZRR-B\

ZBB-A^~ZBB-E

EA=

\ZBB-B/

ZRR

VRAI+IRB

and EB=

EAB2-\-EBB\

ZARZBR-B

IR

(30)

ZBB

ZAR=ZAR-

(31)
^RR

Similarly, it can be shown that

(32)
RR

The voltage VB at R is given by equa

tion 25a, The current IB at R, obtained
by substitution of equations 31 and 32 in
equation 26, is

r>

- z ^(i^ARZR -B
ZRB-AZBB_B

i+ZR

EA

EB

K ZAR ZBB-B

ZR

(33)
Division of VR from equation 25a by IB
from equation 33, or substitution of
equations 31 and 32 in equation 27, gives
ZRB-B~-

1+

_VR_

EAB2+EBB

/ZBB_AZBB\

This equation is in the form of equation 1 ;

if expressed i n the form of equation 2, i t
will be the same as equation 34a.

VB(
~VA\

EB /
EA

ZBR=ZRB_B=SZSZA

Substitution of these equations in equa

tions 25a and 33 for VB and 7 R , respec
tively, gives
-

ZRB-A

EA (ZsZA)

/-:

-\-

i+ZRR-B)
ZARZRR_B\
\ZBB-AZBB/

(34)

VB\

ZARZRB_B

General Circuit Constants.

T h e posi
tive-sequence diagram of Figure 2a is
given b y Figure 2b in terms of two sets of
general circuit constants Ax, Blf Cit Dx
and A2, B2, C2t D2. The transfer and

-ZRR-A+

During

ZRR-A+~

VB(

ZxZy=ZRR^A;

ZAR

(39)

Zz=0;

K=ZBB_A/ZAB

In terms of the general circuit constants

A, B, C, and D, ZBB (in equation 38) =
ZAR (in equation 39) = ;
ZRR_B (in
equation 38) = B/D; ZRR_A (in equation
3 9 ) = / . 4 . If these equations are sub
stituted in equations 38 and 39, the im
pedances ZR seen b y the relays at A and
JB, respectively, are

7 _
Z,R-

B
D

B
D

vB

(38a)

VAD

zx==0;
,,,_.
(37)

ZR- =0-

Z2=Zy=B/D;
B
A

K =D

B
__+

VBA

For use in equation 3 :

ClarkeImpedances

ZAR

For use in equation 3 :

, ZRR_A-\-ZRB_B

Z2ZB

ZBR/ZRR__B

For use in equation 3 :

ZBB-A-\-ZBB-B

ZBB_A

vA\zRR_J

&B

ZBR-AZBR

(38)

ZRR_B\
ZBB )

VA(ZRR_A\

Division of equation 35 by equation 36,

or substitution of ZBB-A for ZSJ, and
ZBB-B for ZBB in equation 34, gives
ZBZRR_B

B y analogy, the impedance ZR seen b y

the relay at B in Figure 4b is

(36)

+Z

B
^RR-A"T^RR-B

ZZ=ZBB-B>'

1945, V O L U M E 6 4

(35)

EAEB

EAEB

ZBVS:

Zx \jsZz=Zy=ZRR_Bj

Single Circuit Between EA and EB of

Negligible
Capacitance.
(See Figure
3a). If capacitance is negligible, the posi
tive-sequence diagram of Figure 2a be
comes that of Figure 3a in which the im
pedance between A and R is ZA and that
between R and B is ZSZA, where i s
the total impedance between A and B.

VA/

For use in equation 3 :

~IR~EAD2-EBAX

\ZARZBB-B)

(ZR

ZRR-E

VB \ZRR-B

A1B*+DiBl

Zs

For use in equation 3 :

~-;

ZR ZRRB

EAD2EBA\

a n d !R =

A1B2-\-D2B1

+_)

(Zs
EA
ZB

= -zR

VJ?
R = -*

ZARZRR-A=ZA

ZBBZBR^

ZR

VRD2-IRB2

The impedance ZR seen by a relay at R is

If EA/IB in equation 30 is replaced b y

zAR from equation 28,

*BR=ZBRZ

K=D2/AV

Solution of these equations for VR and IR

gives

ZRR-B

EA

Hi

ZV=T+W;
A\ D2

Equation 34a will now be derived in

terms of general circuit constants directly
from Figure 2b of part I.

=IB(I+ZRR~*\

=IR

ZBBB2;

ZBR-A=B1/A1;
ZBR-B=B2/D2.
Sub
stitution of these equations in equation 34
gives

Relays at Terminals A and B.

Let
the relays be located a t the terminals A
and B of a general three-phase circuit, and
let VA and VB be t h e positive-sequence
terminal voltages t o neutral at the relays^
Let IA and IB b e t h e positive-sequence
line currents a t A and B, respectively,
positive direction of line current being
from A t o R. T h e positive-sequence
diagram of this system is shown as a threeterminal network between A> B, and neu
tral N, i n Figures 4a and 4b, with the
relay location R at A in Figure 4a, and at
B in Figure 4b.
Let R in Figure 4a approach A; then,
in t h e limit, ZAB=ZBB__A=0;
and
ZAB/ZBB-A=
1. Substitution of these
values in equation 34, with EA and EB
replaced b y VA and VB, respectively,
gives Z B , the impedance seen b y the relay
at A:

(39a)

vA

For use in equation 3 :

^ZaZjL

zx== Zy =B/A;
Power

B
A
VBA

Swings

Zz=0; K = l/A
381

plus-negative,
positive-minus-negative,
a n d zero-sequence components. 8
At a n y point R in a three-phase system,
a components of line-to-neutral voltages
a n d a components of line currents in
phases b and c are equal; t h e y are oppo
site in sign a n d of half t h e magnitude of
those in phase a. There are no com
ponents of voltage and current in phase a;
in phases b a n d c, components of lineto-neutral voltages and components of
line currents are equal in magnitude b u t of
opposite signs.
Zero-sequence compo
nents (indicated by the subscript Q) are
equal in the three phases. T h e following
equations satisfy these definitions :

""3

\
-*
-*H
?^ A

41

. 2
r

1
1

V <y

-#C

/o7^

-2.0

>

-1.5

IBASC OHMS

P/r

BATO

/l i * - ^ t i \
i iTT"'v'Hif Sj-TTI
1 II 1 il "1 1 \il\l

LL

T1

IS

69.2 OHMS

-1

60*

/ ' >#/ y i2 0*
f,0.5/

0 ^

Pf

Il!:

rA/^yj

*>\

Jj

kl
te

E /E_

I E A/ E BI

|EA/EBI

^ ^

II

PA^BI

90
0

/
r

Va=Va+V0
i.5

2:o

PER UNIT/RESISTANCE

'/

F6=- >.^

7.

55

'

Equations 38a and 39a, in terms of gen

eral circuit constants, are given in slightly
different form in reference 5.
Three-Phase Faults.
The equations
for VRi given b y equation 27 for t h e gen
eral network of Figure 1, can be applied
t o symmetrical three-phase faults if trans
fer and driving-point impedances are
determined from Figure l b with a solid
fault a t F. Impedances so determined will
be designated by a prime (') superscript,
for example, Z'RR Z'AR.
For the special
case of n o connection between B and R
except a t t h e fault F, ' = , and t h e
impedance ZR seen by t h e relay a t R is
(40a)

ZRZ'RR-B

Figure 7a.

Zac in per unit of 89.2 ohms

300

\s

V
l "
jVA
f^eV. . /
ri
8

382

V
>
260*

-~r/

<"*""

\o

>

i
f

m ^

^/ s7
i/^

K)

1
0.5

V0
1

/A0

BASE OHMS - 69.2 OHMS

_834

y*

l E */ E e!'^ ^

Z0
1.5
/ P I FR U MITIR ESISTANCC

\
>

A C
.ij>

yoji
J

i
l

) 2B

S3

r*

\ Lsl

-< \

|EA/E^.|.54

f-1

A.

 \

hX

"*-^.

y
r

350

r^

_J

^1

ZR = ^=ZB
1

The impedance seen by the relay is

given by equation 40a.
For a single circuit of negligible capaci
tance with a solid fault a t F, as in Figure
3a, where t h e impedances between A and
R, R and F, and F and B are ZAy ZBi and
ZC) respectively, V'R and ' are

I'R = ZA+ZB

-1.5

\J; il

Ul

-2.0

8*/320

(41a)

Z'ARZ'RR-B

ZA+ZB

VS

290

e
1

(40b)

(41b)

IRZ'R

V'a~-

v.

I E A/E B | - \

' **7'A

For t h e special system of Figure 2,

with a solid fault a t F which separates
t h e system into two p a r t s a t F, as indi
cated in Figure 2c, Z'BR = o. From equa
tions 25 and 33
V'S=Z'K

\/3

Figure 7b(below). Z a in per unit of 89.2 ohms

With no connection between R and A

except a t Fs Z'AR = <, a n d
Z '
_
RR-A

(43)

(42a)
(42b)

(42c)

Power Swings During

Unsymmetrical Faults
The system impedances seen by t h e
three relays a t R during a n y condition of
operation are given b y equations 21-23
in terms of phase currents a n d voltages.
When positive- and negative-sequence
system impedances can be assumed equal,
phase voltages a n d currents are conven
iently expressed in terms , , and zerosequence components, 7 or b y positiveClarkeImpedances

During

Power

Swings

where t h e choice of t h e sign for c u r r e n t s

a n d voltages is arbitrary. 9
Substitution of these equations in e q u a
tions 21-23 gives the impedances seen b y
t h e relays in the three phases a t R in
terms of a a n d components of c u r r e n t
a n d voltage.
(44>

~~~~

3
Znc

\/3

~2Va~~TVfi_V3Va+Vp

ST
\/3
/3/+//3

AIEE

(45)

TRANSACTIONS

Zba

V3

P-

VS.

while line-to-ground short circuits occur

on phase a. I n t h e case of one open con
ductor, let t h e opening occur a t F in
phase a; with two open conductors, let
t h e openings occur a t F i n phases b a n d
c.
Zero-Sequence Network.
Let Z 0 b e
t h e zero-sequence impedance viewect from
t h e fault a t F. L e t z0 b e t h e impedance
offered t o a series voltage inserted in t h e
zero-sequence network a t F. If F is on a
single ungrounded circuit, Z 0 and z0 will
both b e infinite; if t h e circuit is grounded
a t one terminal only, Z 0 will be finite b u t
ZQ infinite. If F is on one of two parallel
circuits, connected t o b u s bars a t b o t h
ends, grounded or ungrounded, so will b e
finite.
Under t h e assumption of a symmetrical
three-phase linear network with equal
positive- a n d negative-sequence imped
ances between EA a n d EB> there will b e n o
connection between t h e a a n d network

(46)

VSla-

where F, Fp, / , and Jp are a and

components of line-to-neutral voltage a n d
line current a t R, respectively. Zerosequence components of voltage and cur
rent a t R do n o t appear in t h e impedance
equations; however, their presence will
affect Va a n d Ia.
a, , a n d 0 one-line diagrams or com
ponent networks can b e drawn for a n y
three-phase system. Under t h e assump
tion of a symmetrical three-phase linear
network, having equal positive- a n d nega
tive-sequence impedance, a and imped
ances are equal t o positive-sequence im
pedances. With balanced generated volt
ages EA a n d - E s applied a t t w o system
terminals A and B, respectively, generated

"
1

oc

20*

1I

\io

.-r

^ 280

* * 33
3/50

1.5'

11

1
1

f 1
ai? I 1
- /,

*\
SI L e / *

>i 2 9 0

-oc

//

/
/

8 =60#

I*?

/
/.'
/?
>
<50

80"

-1.0
1

-1.5

BASE OHMS 9.2 OHMS

-0.5

J
i\'

-^
0.5

0 "

^60^-

1.0
1

350

j
r

to/

/9
.y
iv34n
*/A
100*
/o 120
-oV
.60..
3orv[^
110
27o
240 So?
22^^30^20^?;
*/2
e

Zbo

>/

'

-2 0

" 1

111

1
I
1
1

1 1

3(30

*bo

5T
1.5

PER UNIT RESISTANCE

fe bg

2.<

"

-0.5

Figure 7c. Zc&, Z a c / Zba for line-to-line

fault and ZR with no fault in per unit of 89.2
ohms
\EA/EB\

=1

a voltages will b e t h e same as t h e posi

tive-sequence generated voltages EA and
EB; generated voltages will b e jEA
and jEBl t h e positive-sequence gen
erated voltages EA and EB multiplied b y
j. Before t h e fault occurs, t h e a. net
work will be exactly t h e same as t h e posi
tive-sequence network; t h e network
will differ from t h e positive-sequence net
work only in t h a t t h e applied voltages a t
terminals A a n d B are multiplied b y j.
Let t h e fault be a t a n y system point F;
and let t h e phases b e designated so t h a t
line-to-line and double-line-to-ground
short circuits involve phases b and c,

1945, VOLUME 64

even during unsymmetrical faults. This

makes it possible t o use t h e positive-se
quence system diagrams of Figures 1-3,
and t h e equations in terms of transfer a n d
driving-point impedances already derived
for VR a n d IR under balanced operation
for Va a n d Ia, or for jVfi a n d , pro
vided the transfer and driving-point imped
ances are defined and determined under the
conditions imposed by the fault. A system
of notation is required t o differentiate VR
a n d IR a n d t h e transfer a n d driving-point
impedances obtained from t h e positivesequence network under seven different
conditions. T h e following notation is
suggested, where t h e phrase in parenthe
sis indicates t h e application of the stated
condition:
1. No superscripts when F in the positivesequence network is isolated from neutral.

ClarkeImpedances During Power Swings

(a networkline-to-line fault; network

line-to-ground fault or one open conductor.)
2. Prime (') when F in t h e positive-se
quence network is short-circuited directly
to neutral, ( networkline-to-line or
double-line-to-ground fault;
positive-se
quence networkthree-phase fault.)
3. Double prime (*) when t h e positivesequence network is open a t F. ( net
worktwo open conductors.)
4. One asterisk (*) when F in t h e positivesequence network is short-circuited to neu
tral through Zo/2. (a networkline-toground fault.)
5. Double asterisk (**) when F in the
positive-sequence network is short-circuited
to neutral through 2ZQ. ( a network
double-line-to-ground fault.)
6. One plus sign ( + ) where 2z0 is inserted
in the positive-sequence network a t F. (a
networkone open conductor.)
7. Double plus sign ( + + ) where zj2 is in
serted in t h e positive-sequence network a t
F. (or networktwo open conductors.)
Under a n y one of t h e seven conditions
given above, transfer a n d driving-point
impedances are determined from t h e posi
tive-sequence network a n d w r i t t e n with
the designated superscript.
VR and IR
written with t h e same superscript, are
then obtained from equations 25 a n d 26,
respectively, for t h e general network,
where impedances without subscripts are
replaced b y those with t h e designated
superscript (except for condition 1, where
no change is m a d e ) . F o r t h e special case
of a network with n o connection between
A and B except t h r o u g h R, equations 25a
and 33 are used instead of equations 25
and 26 ; and for t h e single circuit of negli
gible capacitance between A a n d B,
equations 35 and 36 are used. VR and IR)
designated b y t h e specified superscript
(or no superscript) c a n b e used directly
for Va a n d Ia; b u t t h e y are multiplied
by j t o obtain a n d . Va, la ,
and are then substituted in equations
44-46 t o obtain t h e impedances seen b y
the three relays a t R u n d e r t h e stated
conditions. T h e following equations give
Va, Ia, Vfi, and in terms of VR a n d IR
with specified subscripts for unsymmetri
cal faults :
(a). Line-to-Line Short Circuit at F Be
tween Phases b and c.
T h e a network is un
affected b y fault; point F in the network
is short-circuited directly to neutral.
Va=VR;

Ia=R;

Vfi=-jVR';

=-'

(b). Line-to-Ground Short Circuit at F on

Phase a. Point F in t h e a network is shortcircuited t o neutral through Z 0 / 2 ; the
network is unaffected.
Va=VR*;

Ia=IR*;

Vfi = -jVR;

Ip = -jIB

(c). Double-Line-to-Ground Short Circuit at

F on Phases b and c. Point F in t h e a net
work is short-circuited t o neutral through
2Z 0 ; point F in t h e network is shortcircuited directly t o neutral.

383

Fault Between Relays and EB, as in

Figure 3a.
Va and Ia are the same as
VR and IR given by equations 35 and 36,
(d). Phase a Open at F. The impedance
2zQ is inserted in the a network at F; the and F/3 and are j times VR and IR
given b y equations 42a and 42b, respec
network is unaffected.
tively. If the coefficients in these equa
+
Va = t V v / a J* ; F^ - - j 7 B ; ij, = -jIR tions are equated to those in equation 47,
(e). Phases b and c Open at F. The imped the constants in equations 48 and 49 are:
b = ZA/Zs;
c=d =
ance zo/2 is inserted in the a network at F; a=(Zs-ZA)/Zs;
1/Z8;
e = ZB/{ZA+ZB);
/ = 0 ; *=l-sthe network is opened at F.
(ZA+ZB);
A = 0. W i t h / = / z = 0 in equa
Va-VB+ + ; 7 = V - + ;
Vp=-jVR";
tion 48,
JlR

-*;

/ - V ; V*--jY;

JlR

After Va, Ia, , and 7^ have been

determined in terms of EA, EB, and the
transfer and driving-point impedances of
the positive-sequence network under the
conditions imposed by the fault, they are
substituted in equations 44-46. If these
impedance equations are written in the
form of equation 1, they can readily be
expressed in the form of equation 3 and
Zx, ZZ, Zy=Zx+Zz,
and K determined.
The general solution is as follows:
For any type of fault, with positive
direction of current from A to B, let
Va=aEA+bEB;
Vfi=-j(eEA+fEB)
h=-KgEA-hEB)

Ia=cEA-dEB
(47)

where a, b, and so on, are constant coeffi

cients.
Substitution of and in equation
44 gives
*=/=

eEA+fEB
gEA-hEB

Zac, given DV equation 49, can be ex

pressed in the form of equation 3 by
evaluating Zx> Z 2 , Zy, and K in equation
50:
Zc
ZX=ZA
Zz=ZB-\-K.

*- *+*+-(w^)

K=l-j

_
ac

Fault Between EA and Relays,

Figure 3b.

C49)

VZb-jf
V3d-jh

ZyZx-\-Zz

z2=
K =

y/Sa je
VZc-jg
VZc-Jg
VZd-jh

(5)

EAEB

-JV=
=

References

If the coefficients in these equations are

equated to those in equation 47, the con
stants in equations 48 and 49 are: a
Zc/Zs;
b = (ZA+ZB)/Zs;
c = d = l/Zs;
e = 0;. f=ZB/(ZB+Zc);
g = 0: /z=l-f(ZB+ZC).
With e = g = 0 in equation 48,
Zcb=f/(-h)

(53)

= -ZB

Zac, given by equation 49, can be ex

pressed in the form of equation 3 b y evalu
ating ZXy Zz, Zy, and K in equation 50:

384

iC==

^gJ\

(54)

56, 1937, July section, pages 8 2 3 - 3 2 .

3.

Discussion b y J. H . N e h e r of reference 2 .

AIEE

T R A N S A C T I O N S , v o l u m e 5 6 , 1937, pages 1 5 1 3 - 1 4 .

4.

Closure b y C. R. M a s o n of reference 2 .

AIEE

T R A N S A C T I O N S , v o l u m e 57, 1938, pages 1 1 1 - 1 4 .

5.
P E R F O R M A N C E R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR R E L A Y S O N
U N U S U A L L Y L O N G T R A N S M I S S I O N L I N E S , F . C.

P o a g e , C. A. Streifus, D . M . MacGregor, E . E .
A I E E T R A N S A C T I O N S , v o l u m e 6 2 , 1943,

6.
F U N D A M E N T A L B A S I S FOR D I S T A N C E R E L A Y I N G
O N T H R B E - P H A S E S Y S T E M S , W . A . L e w i s , L. S.
Tippett.
E L E C T R I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G , v o l u m e 50,

June 1931, pages 4 2 0 - 2 .

7.
CIRCUIT A N A L Y S I S OF A-C P O W E R S Y S T E M S
SYMMETRICAL A N D R E L A T E D C O M P O N E N T S ( v o l

With JJnsymmelrical
Static
The methods of constructing

During

J u l y section, p a g e s 8 3 3 - 4 4 .
2.
R E L A Y OPERATION D U R I N G SYSTEM OSCILLA
T I O N S , C. R . M a s o n .
A I E E TRANSACTIONS, volume

George.

The equation for Zm is similar to that

for Zac except that the signs of all j terms
are reversed.

ClarkeImpedances

1.
A COMPREHENSIVE METHOD OF DETERMINING
T H E P E R F O R M A N C E OF D I S T A N C E R E L A Y S , J . H .
Neher.
A I E E T R A N S A C T I O N S , v o l u m e 56, 1937,

J u n e section, pages 2 7 5 - 8 3 .

7L 1 "" i V3(zI+z c )J

Systems
Circuits.

There are many unsymmetrical cir

cuits which have equal impedances in
two of the phases; if, in addition, the
zero-sequence impedance of the circuit is
infinite, as is the case with an open-delta
transformer of two identical single-phase
units, there will be no mutual coupling
between the , , and 0 networks. For
this special case, the procedure in deter
mining Zx, Zz, Zy, and K is similar to
that for symmetrical three-phase systems
except that Va and Ia at the relay loca
tion R are determined from the a. dia
gram and F/3 and from the diagram,
instead of using the positive-sequence
diagram first for the a. network and then
for the network. Even without an
unsymmetrical fault, the impedance seen
b y the relays in the three phases at R will
not be identical, and equations 44-46
will be required in all cases to determine
the impedances seen by the relays.

~~J\ZB~+ZC)

The equation for is similar to that

for Zac except that the signs of all j
terms are reversed. Equations for Zcb, ZxKZA-\-ZB
Zz=Zc
Zac> and Zt>a will be evaluated for a special
case.
Zy=KZA+ZB+Zc=KZs(l-j
Line-to-Line
Short Circuit
Between
Phases b and c in a Single Circuit of Negli
gible Capacitance.
The given system is
shown in Figures 3a and 3b, where ZA-\ZB-\-ZcZs.
In Figure 3a, the fault
point F is between the relays at R and EB;
in Figure 3b, F is between EA and R.
For both cases, positive direction of cur
rent will be taken from A to B.

as in

EAZC+EB{ZA+ZB)

Va=VR**
I=IR

Equation 49 is in the form of equation 1 ;

to express i t in the form of equation 3 :
Zx =

V3(ZA+ZB)

48)

(VZ"-Je)EA+(VSb-jf)EB
(V3c-jg)EA-(V3d-jh)EB

[ (52)

The equation for Zba is similar to that

for Zac except that the signs of all j
terms are reversed.

Equation 48 is in the form of equation 1 ;

to express i t in the form of equation 3 :
Z*=f/h; Z2 = e/g; K = g/h.
Substitution of Va, I<x, Vfi, and in
equation 45 gives
Z

(51)

Zcb ZB

system impedance charts, given in part II,

apply to three-phase linear systems with
unsymmetrical static circuits, with or
without an unsymmetrical fault on the
system. The unsymmetrical circuit can
be replaced b y equivalent circuits in the
, , and 0 networks. I n the case of a
general unsymmetrical circuit in an other
wise symmetrical system, the a, , and 0
networks are mutually coupled. The
procedure in determining the required
constants Zx, ZZt Zy, and K is too lengthy
for discussion here. These constants,
however, can be determined, and t h e
work required is not excessive if an a-c
network analyzer is available.

Power Swings

ume I ) , Edith Clarke. John Wiley a n d Sons,

N e w York, N . Y . , 1943. Chapter 10.
8.

Chapter 5 of reference 7.

9.
T W O - P H A S E CO-ORDINATBS O F A T H R E E - P H A S E
CIRCUIT, Edward W. Kimbark.
AIEE TRANS
A C T I O N S , v o l u m e 58, 1939, p a g e s 8 9 4 - 9 0 4 .

A I E E TRANSACTIONS