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Key Concepts
A pure substance:
A mixture:
Pure Substances
Elements and compounds are both examples of pure substances.
Pure substances cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical or
mechanical means such as sifting, filtering, crystallization, distillation, etc.
eg, distilling pure water (H2O) does not separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, it
only produces water vapour.
Pure substances display a sharp melting and boiling point.
On a graph of temperature vs time, this is shown as flat line where the temperature
does not change over time until all the pure substance has melted or boiled.
Pure substances will have a constant appearance, colour and density throughout the
sample.
Pure substances have constant chemical composition, eg,
pure water (H2O) is always composed of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom
chemically bonded.
Mixtures
Some examples of mixtures are given below:
Type of
Mixture
gas in gas
Example
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and
oxygen.
liquid in liquid
solid in solid
gas in liquid
solid in liquid
solid in gas
Homogeneous mixtures do not display a sharp melting point, they melt over a range
of temperatures.
Sharpness of the melting point is often used to determine whether a substance is
pure or impure (mixture).
On a temperature vs time graph there is no flat line during which the temperature
remains constant over time. Instead, there will be a slope indicating that the
components of the mixture are melting.
Mixtures can be separated into the pure substances making them up by physical or
mechanical means because each pure substance retains its own properties.
Some methods for separating the components of a mixture include:
separation
technique
property used
for separation
example
alluvial gold is separating from smaller soil
particles using a sieve
Visual Sorting
colour, shape or
size
Magnetic
Attraction
magnestism
Decanting
density or
solubility
Separating
Funnel
Filtration
solubility
Evaporation
solubility and
boiling point
Crystallization
solubility
Distillation
boiling point
Elements
An element is a pure substance that cannot be decomposed (broken down) into
simpler substances.
There are 92 naturally occurring elements.
Some Elements
Name
hydrogen
the first letter of the symbol is always a capital letter
helium
eg, H for hydrogen, C for carbon, N for nitrogen
lithium
beryllium
if there is a second letter in the symbol it is a lower case
boron
letter
carbon
eg, He for helium, Ca for calcium, Ne for neon
nitrogen
oxygen
Elements can be present in nature as solids, liquids or gases.
fluorine
neon
Liquid
Gaseous
sodium
Solid elements
Elements
Elements
magnesium
2 elements exist 11 elements exist all other elements
aluminium
in nature as
in nature as
exist in nature as
silicon
liquids:
gases:
solids, eg:
phosphorus
mercury (Hg)
hydrogen (H)
lithium (Li)
sulfur
bromine (Br)
helium (He)
carbon (C)
chlorine
nitrogen (N)
sodium (Na)
argon
oxygen (O)
magnesium (Mg)
potassium
fluorine (F)
aluminium (Al)
calcium
neon (Ne)
silicon (Si)
chlorine (Cl)
phosphorus (P)
titanium
argon (Ar)
sulfur (S)
vanadium
krypton (Kr)
potassium (K)
chromium
xenon (Xe)
calcium (Ca)
radon (Rn)
zinc (Zn)
manganese
iron
cobalt
The atmosphere is mostly made up of the elements nitrogen
(~78%) and oxygen (~21%).
nickel
copper
Symbol
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
oxygen (O)
silicon (Si)
aluminium (Al)
iron (Fe)
calcium (Ca)
sodium (Na)
potassium (K)
magnesium (Mg)
hydrogen (H)
carbon (C)
hydrogen (H)
oxygen (O)
nitrogen (N)
phosphorus (P)
sulfur (S)
zinc
gallium
Zn
Ga
arsenic
selenium
bromine
krypton
rubidium
strontium
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
silver
tin
barium
tungsten
platinum
gold
mercury
lead
uranium
Ag
Sn
Ba
W
Pt
Au
Hg
Pb
U
hydrogen (H)
helium (He)
carbon (C)
oxygen (O)
Compounds
Compounds are pure substances made up of 2 or more elements.
Each compound has a formula showing which elements are present in the compound
Examples of some common compounds are shown below.
compound
name
water
ammonia
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
sodium chloride
compound
formula
H2O
NH3
CO
CO2
NaCl
CaCl2
elements present
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
nitrogen (N) and hydrogen (H)
carbon (C) and oxygen (O)
carbon (C) and oxygen (O)
sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl)
sodium (Na), oxygen (O) and hydrogen
(H)
calcium (Ca) and chlorine (Cl)
Ca(NO3)2
CaSO4
CH4
ethanol
C2H5OH
A monoprotic acid can only donate 1 proton : HA H+ + AA diprotic acid can donate 2 protons : H2A 2H+ + AA triprotic acid can donate 3 protons : H3A 3H+ + AThe term polyprotic is used to describe any acid that is capable of donating
more than 1 proton.
Davy
BASES
(1810)
Examples:
+
hydroxi
prot
acid
anio
base
on
de
n
ion
hydrochlo
+
+
H
HCl
ric acid:
Cl- sodium
NaO
OHhydroxide
nitric
HN
+
H
H+
acid:
O3
NO3- :
potassiu
m
KOH OHhydroxide
:
+
catio
n
+
Na+
+ K+
are aqueous
solutions
have hydrogen in
their structure, eg,
HCl
conjuga
+
te
proto
base
n
HCl
HNO3
H2SO
HSO4
-
H2O
H+ + B-
HB is acting as an acid by
donating a proton, H+.
B- is the conjugate base of
the acid HB .
aci
d
ClNO3-
+ H+
+ H+
HSO4-
+ H+
SO42-
+ H+
OH-
+ H+
HB
B- is acting as a base by
accepting a proton, H+ .
HB is the conjugate acid of the
base B- .
bas
e
OHNH3
CO32HCO3H2O
proton
+
+
+
+
+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
conjugat
e
acid
H2O
NH4+
HCO3H2CO3
H3O+
Acids and bases can also be further classified based on whether or not they
contain carbon:
Inorganic acids and inorganic bases do not contain carbon.
Organic acids and organic bases do contain carbon.
Carbonic acid, H2CO3, is an exception. It is classed as an inorganic acid even
though it contains carbon.
Properties of Bases
sour taste
bitter taste
neutralise acids
neutralise bases
Organic Acids:
Carboxylic acids are organic acids.
Examples include:
appearance
density
Metals are found on the left hand side of the Periodic Table while non-metals are
found on the right hand side.
Properties of Metallic and Non-Metallic Elements
Property
Metallic Elements
Non-Metallic
Elements
Appearance
lustrous
dull
moderate to high
low to moderate
moderate to high
wide range
good
poor (except
graphite)
high
brittle
malleable
not malleable
ductile
not ductile
(physical property)
Density
(physical property)
Physical State
(25oC, 101.3kPa)
(physical property)
(physical property)
usually ionic**
covalent
usually basic***
usually acidic
(chemical property)
pH of oxides
(chemical property)
*some non-metals can form positive or negative ions, eg, H+ and H**some metal oxides are covalent, eg, Al2O3
***some metal oxides are amphoteric (both acidic and basic), eg, Al2O3
Non-Metal
Property
magnesium zinc oxygen
sulfur
Density (g/mL)
1.74
7.14
0.0013
2.07
650
419
-219
113
23
16
10-21
Charge on Ion
2+
2+
2-
2-
Bonding in Oxides
MgO
ionic
ZnO
O2
SO2
ionic covalent covalent
Non-metals Non-metals occur on the right hand side of the Periodic Table.
Semi-metals Semi-metals with properties in between metals and non-metals
(metalloids) occur between these two groups. (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)
metals
non-metals
H
He
Li
Be
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
Transition Metals
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Transition Metals
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
Cs
Ba
Transition Metals
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
Transition Metals