2 - Modelling With Zero-Offset

2
Chapter Two
Modelling with Zero-offset
Objectives
Construct a post stack or zero-offset section using a compass
Know that seismic dips are defined by , and geological dips by
Understand modelling by summing diffractions, F-K methods, ray-tracing

methods, and the exploding-reflector model
Use the "exploding reflector" model of 2-D data in (x, z) with the added
dimension of time to define the 3-D volume with dimensions (x, z, t)
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A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations
2.1 Introduction
Ray tracing is a simple procedure in which the path from the source to the
reflector and on to the receiver is defined. This procedure is simple when the
velocity is constant and the source and receiver are at the same location, as
illustrated in Figure 2.1 and below.
Assume:
one-way times and unit velocity
source and receiver are collocated
the emitted and receiving rays travel the same path
collocated source and receivers will only produce right-reflections
a scatter point will reflect energy to any location of the source-receiver pair
reflections are plotted below the source-receiver location
Page 2.2
Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 2.1 Examples of raypaths in (a) a horizontal reflector, (b) dipping reflector,
(c) a scatter point, and (d) a combination of the above.
Page 2.3
2.2 Ray-tracing with compass

Construction:
Construct the zero-offset reflection from the reflectors for each surface location.
Assume one-way travel times and unit velocity.
For each reflector:

1. Place the compass point at a s/r location.
2. Guess the reflection point on the reflector (right angle to ray).
3. Position the other point of compass at reflection point to get the travel
time.
4. Plot the travel time below the s/r position.
Highlight the reflection and then repeat the process for all the reflectors.
Ignore edge effects that could come from the ends of the reflectors.
Construct the zero-offset reflection from the two scatter points.

Measure the distance from a surface location to the scatter point.
Plot this distance (that now represents time) below the surface location.
Repeat for all surface locations and for both scatter points.
Observations:
Horizontal event remains in the same position.
Dipping events becomes shallower and reflection points move down dip.
The dipping reflector and reflection converge at the surface.
The reflection from the scatterpoints produces a hyperbolic curve referred to

as the diffraction shape.
The asymptotes to the hyperbola intersect at the surface.
The maximum dip is 45 degrees.
Page 2.4
CMPs
t
or
z
Figure 2.2 Construction with constant velocity and zero-offset.
Page 2.5
2.2.1 Geometry of reflection

Using the ray-tracing information, we can construct the diagram in Figure 2.3 to
relate the dip angles between the reflector and the reflection.
Define:
the angle of the dipping reflection
the angle of the reflector
T two way time from B to R
From the construction note two triangles, ABC and ABR
VT
2
The length BR = BC is given by
s=
In triangle ABC
tan =
s
x
and in triangle ABR
sin =
s
x
i.e.,
tan = sin
.
(2.1)
See [788]
Page 2.6
x
b
s
s = tv/2
R
C
t or z
Figure 2.3 Geometry for computing the relationship between the dip angles of the
reflector and reflection.
Page 2.7
2.2.2 Construction example of anticlines and synclines

Draw the raypaths and time response for the following structures.
x
z
or
t
a)
x
z
or
t
b)
Figure 2.4 Construction of anticline's response with (a) shallow, and (b) deep.
Page 2.8
x
z
or
t
a)
x
z
or
t
b)
Figure 2.5 Construction of synclines that give buried focus images, (a) shallow
and (b) deeper.
Conclusions
Anticlines have broader reflections.
Synclines may appear as anticlines.
Page 2.9
2.3 Modelling with diffractions

A reflection may be considered as a collection of scatter points as illustrated in
Figure 2.6a. Each point may be modelled with a diffraction as in (b). The points in
the rows below increase in density to form a better approximation to a line. This
concept leads an effective method of seismic modelling.
a)
b)
Figure 2.6 Modelling with diffractions showing in (a) input points, and in (b) the
effect of diffraction healing.
What factors will affect this method of seismic modelling?
Page 2.10
The structure below was used as input for modelling with diffractions. Modelling
was accomplished by replacing each input point with an appropriate diffraction
shape, with the amplitude of the diffraction scaled to be proportional to the
amplitude of the input point. The figures on the following pages illustrate this
process by increasing the number of modelled traces in each figure. Only on
trace is used in Figure 2.8a. Two additional traces are included in (b) that are
midway to the sides. The following figures continue to increase the number of
modelled traces until every input sample has been mapped into a diffraction as in
(f). Notice the constructive and destructive interference creates the final image.
Figure 2.7 Input structure for diffraction models that are displayed on the
following pages.
This modelling example scaled each sample on the diffraction by the cosine of the
angle of incidence, i.e. the angle from the vertical to the raypath. Additional
filtering and time varying scaling will be required to match the amplitude and
phase of flat events before and after modelling.
Advanced modelling may assume incremental reflecting elements that contain the
dip of the reflector for angle dependent reflectivities.
Page 2.11
a)
b)
x
c)
d)
Figure 2.8 The number of diffractions is increased to illustrate modelling with (a)
one trace, (b) three traces, (c) 8 traces, (d) 16 traces, e) 32 traces, f) 64 traces, and
g) all 100 traces.
Page 2.12
e)
f)
x
g)
Page 2.13
Diffraction modelling is
very simple to set up and program
has minimal edge-effect problems
is accurate for depth-varying velocities
illustrates constructive and destructive reinforcement.
A stacked section may be considered to made entirely from diffractions even

though they are not visible.
x
z
a)
x
t
b)
Figure 2.9 Computed diffractions for buried focus, (a) the input scatter points,
and (b) the resulting pattern formed from the diffractions.
The diffraction in Figure 2.9 are visible. Blurring this image could remove the
diffractions. Complete removal of the diffractions to create the specula reflection
requires a temporal bandwidth that is limited by the trace interval, velocity, and
dip. This relationship will be discussed later when dealing with aliasing.
Page 2.14
2.4 Fourier transform modelling

2.4.1 Introduction
The figures in this section illustrate the idea that images may be stored in a
computer. These images are stored as well-organized numbers and may be
manipulated to produce various effects. An example of photo deblurring, similar
to seismic deconvolution, is shown in Figure 2.10, and image enhancement
shown in Figure 2.11. Another series of pictures illustrates coordinate transforms
in Figure 2.12.
These images are similar to seismic sections that may be manipulated for various
effects.
The 2-D Fourier transform may also be used on images to convert the information
into a different form for other applications as illustrated Figure 2.13 to Figure 2.16.
Page 2.15
2.4.2 Image deblurring and enhancement
a)
Figure 2.10 Image processing showing in a)a blurred image, and (b) the deblurred
image.
Page 2.16
b)
a)
b)
Figure 2.11 Image enhancement from (a) the original, to (b) the improved image.
An equivalent process in seismic would be automatic gain control (AGC).
Page 2.17
2.4.3 Illustration of coordinate transforms
a)
b)
c)
x
d)
Figure 2.12 Special image deblurring is shown with (a) a radially blurred image (x,
y), (b) a transform to (r, ), (c) deblurring in direction, and (d) the restored (x,
y) image from [92].
Page 2.18
2.4.4 2-D Fourier transform examples

The Fourier transform is a mathematical process that converts the data in one
domain (i.e., time) to a different domain (i.e., frequency). The different domains
contain the same data but present the information differently.
Different information becomes more obvious in different domains.
Low-cut or high-cut filters are easier to define in the frequency domain.
Radio stations send out time signal (traces).
We tune to different stations by selecting different carrier frequencies.
The Fourier transforms a time trace into a frequency array.
The Fourier transform of distance becomes "wave number."
The 2-D Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that transforms an image

into a new space that has special properties such as:
temporal and spatial frequency content
dip content of the image
the alignment of events with the same dip at the same location,
the ability to modify all events at one dip to have a new dip.
Illustrations of two-dimensional Fourier transform are shown in a)

b)
Figure 2.13.
positions.
Note that the origin of the 2-D Fourier transforms have different
An exercise in Figure 2.14 helps define the use of the 2-D Fourier transform.
Figure 2.15 and Figure 2.16 show examples 2-D Fourier transform modelling that
creates "seismic sections" from given "structures."
Page 2.19
a)
b)
Figure 2.13 Images and their Fourier Transforms.
The images of a)
b)
Figure 2.13 (a) shows a photo of a pastoral scene and (b) its 2-D Fourier
transform. The foreground of (a) is blurred. The effects of the blurring can be
seen in the horizontal smear in the center of the transform in (b). The
mathematical origin of (b) is at the center of the image.
Parts (a), (b), and (c) of Figure 2.14 show an original photo of a tank, a blurred
image of a tank, and the 2-D Fourier transform of the blurred tank.
Page 2.20
a)
b)
c)
Figure 2.14 Toy tank figures with (a) the original, (b) a horizontally blurred image,
and (c) the transform of (b).
The 2-D Fourier transforms in these figures appear to contain little information
may not seem useful at this time. The 2-D transform, however, does simplify
many processing operations. Some features are presented in Section 3.3.
Page 2.21
2.4.5 Example of modelling with the 2-D Fourier transform

x
kx
a)
b)
x
kx
t
f
d)
c)
Figure 2.15 Modelling of a buried focus by the Fourier Transform with (a) the
input (x, z) section, (b) the Fourier transform (kx, kz) of (a) with the origin in the
upper left corner, (c) the modelled transform (kx, f), and (d) the modelled image (x,
t).
Page 2.22
kx
z
kz
a)
b)
x
kx
t
f
450
d)
c)
Figure 2.16 Hockey stick structure modelled by the 2-D Fourier transform with (a)
the input structure, (b) the 2-D Fourier transform, (c) the modelled Fourier
transform, and (d) the modelled image.
Page 2.23
2.4.6 Some comments on Fourier transform modelling
Gives ideal solution with constant velocity
May give an adequate model when the velocities are smoothly varied and a
depth to time is included after the last transform
May have wrap-around problems
Indicates that no energy should exist above the 45 degree dip in a modelled or
seismic section
Is very fast
The inverse operation is migration
Page 2.24
2.5 Ray trace modelling

2.5.1 Constant interval velocities.
The previous modelling methods used models that had constant velocity. We
now consider a model that has layers with different constant velocities. We make
use of Snell's Law that relates the angles of incidence and transmission to the
velocities in the respective layers.
1
V1
2
V2
Figure 2.17 Snells law ray diagram.
1 = incident angle
2 = transmitted angle
V1 = velocity in the upper layer
V2 = velocity in the lower layer
sin 1
V
= 1
sin 2 V 2
(2.2)
The model from ray tracing is a time section with the reflection amplitude defined
by the reflection coefficient at the velocity interface. If required, the modelling
may be very complex and account for internal reflections and transmission losses
along the raypath.
It is not possible define a ray path between two points when the medium has a
variable velocity. Typically, a family of rays is first drawn from one point to the
area of the target location. The closest ray is either good enough or an iterative
process is then used to minimize the error of the raypath.
To aid in the iteration process, rays were started normal to the reflector and then
traced to the surface where it may be easier to converge to a desired location.
More recent work traces rays from each surface point to all subsurface points.
Page 2.25
Figure 2.18 a) and b) show a model structure and the resulting ray-traced section.
The model applied Snells law to normal rays from reflectors, and to scatter points
that crossed interfaces. Diffuse rays through the pinchouts are ignored.
a)
Figure 2.18 Simplified ray-tracing showing in a) the input structure with constant
interval velocities, b) the modelled time section and c) a spatially compressed
view of (b), included to illustrate the distortion in the diffractions.
Note:
Point reflectors are in vertical line
Point reflections are not in a straight line, and peaks move to the right with
increased depth
Diffractions are not continuous and have discontinuities (why?)
Deep events that are flat on the input structure have pull-up on the modelled
section.
Page 2.26
b)
c)
Some claim that rays dont exist but only wavefronts exist. A ray traveling across
a linear but rough interface may be scattered all any directions. Propagation of a
wavefront across the same interface will remain coherent (mainly due to the
summing effect of Huygens principle). Rays should be normal to the wavefront;
what is the problem???
Ray-tracing algorithms assume that velocity (actually the slowness S = 1/V) is

smooth relative to the size of a wavelet on a seismic trace. This smoothness of
the slowness is an assumption required to obtain the Eikonal equation from the
ray equation or the wave equation.
Smoothing the slownesses tends to preserves traveltimes [267]. The size of the
smoother should be grater than the wavelength of the data [716].
(Discontinuities of the velocity are required to define the reflection coefficients.
Reflection energy may be frequency dependent, depending on the on the relative
size of the transition zone between two impedances.)
Page 2.27
2.5.2 Ray tracing with arbitrary velocities.

A summary of an accurate ray tracing algorithm from [716] is shown below. Also
see [781], [784] and [785].
Starting with the wave equation where f(x, y, z, t)
1
2 2 2 1 2
1 2
2
+
+
=
or = 2 2 or 2 = 2 2 ,
2
2
2
2
2
x
y
z
c t
c
c t
(2.3)
we get the Eikonal equation
( )
1
t t
= 2 or + = 2 .
c
c
x z
2
(2.4)
This equation is expanded and the real parts collected to give the ray equation
G
G r
G
G
(2.5)
( n ) = or
S
r
=
S
r
(
)
(
),

where S is the slowness vector and s is a discrete increment along the raypath.
This equation may then be sorted into x and y coordinates giving;
S x = 0
Sx + S x x + S z xz
.
Sz = 0
Sz + S z z + S x xz
(2.6)
Introducing two terms u and v as x = u and z = v we get four first order equations
x = u
Su + S u + S uz S = 0
x
z
x
z = v
u = 1 [ S x S xu S z uz ]
(2.7)
that finally give the finite difference equations
xn +1 = xn +
un +1 = un +
zn +1 = zn +
vn +1 = vn +
S
un
S x un ( un S x + vn S z )
vn
S z vn ( un S x + vn S z )
Page 2.28
(2.8)
Note that the u and v terms are related to the angle of the raypath by u = sin and
v = cos .
In equation (2.8) we are extrapolating or predicting the future values of (xn+1, un+1,
zn+1, vn+1), and that the derivative is defined at the previously established location
(xn, un, zn, vn). Ideally the derivative should be known at a point midway between
the established and predicted location say at n+1/2. There are numerous
mathematical techniques to improve the accuracy of the predicted values such as
the Runge-Kutter algorithm contained in may texts such as Numerical Recipes
[187].
A simple approach is to use initial estimates of the n+1 values to estimate new
derivatives. Average the derivatives at n and n+1 to get an estimate for the
derivative values at the n+1/2 location, then recompute new values at n+1.
This is referred to as the improved Euler method.
An example this algorithm in a linear V(z) medium is shown in Figure 2.19 that
traces five circular raypaths. The (+) signs are exact solutions, and the solid lines
are the solution using the Euler method using large ray increments (100m).
Figure 2.19 Five raypaths computed using the Euler method.

This result is quite significant when compared to a ray-tracing algorithm that is
based on Snells law which will not allow a ray to turn when the velocity is
constant. In Figure 2.19 the velocity is constant at the horizontal portion of the
raypath and it is the vertical component of slowness Sz that allows the ray to
curve up when using a solution based on equation (2.8).
Page 2.29
2.6 Exploding Reflector Model

2.6.1 Introduction
The exploding reflector model, introduced by Loewenthal 1976 [8] is an extremely
important concept. It allowed the first migration of zero-offset (stacked) section. It
also allowed a variable velocity distribution.
The zero-offset case assumes the raypath from the source to the reflector is
identical to the raypath from the reflector to the receiver. Only one raypath is
required; the path from the reflector to the receiver, i.e. the path followed by an
exploding interface.
Assume:
the reflectors emit normal rays

the rays are traced at equal increments of time
the surface reconstructed by the raypaths is the wavefront
the energy and traveltimes at the surface are mapped to the seismic section
the model honors all structures
It is not necessary to keep track of all the rays, but it is necessary to know the
wavefront. The image of the wave font at discrete times, gives the illusion that the
reflector has exploded.
The amplitude on a plane-wave that leaves a linear reflector is made proportional
to the reflection coefficients. This same amplitude will travel to the surface
Usually one-way wave propagation is used to eliminate multiple reflections:
ignore losses at boundaries
ignore transmission loss
True amplitudes are not provided.
Do we want to preserve the internal or multiple reflections?
The exploding reflector model assume the initial condition is the geological
model, the seismic data as a boundary condition, and the wave equation as the
connecting link.
The power of the exploding reflector model lies in treating a stacked seismic
section as a measurement of a wavefield. Although only an approximation, it is
such a useful model that methods based on it still dominate migration. Gardner
[528] page 141.
Page 2.30
T=0
z
x
T=2
T=5
z
Wavefront
in depth
domain
T=8
x
2
Seismic in
time
5
8
t
Figure 2.20 Wavefronts of "exploding" reflectors are shown at T=0, T=1, and T=2.
Sketch the resulting seismic section in the space provided.
Page 2.31
2.6.1.1 Photograph model

Figure 2.21 represents photographs of an exploding source by showing (a)
multiple exposure, and (b) a time sequence of photographs at constant time
intervals. In Figure 2.22, the photos are arranged in 3-D order with time
orthogonal to the x/z plane. Inserting a large number of photos results in the
volume of information shown in Figure 2.23.
a)
x
x
z
x
z
T0
T1
T2
x
z
x
z
T3
T4
b)
Figure 2.21 Photos of an exploding point showing (a) a multiple exposure, and
(b) a series of photos taken at constant time intervals.
Page 2.32
Figure 2.22 Photos arranged in time sequence.
Figure 2.23 Continuum of photos in (x, z, t) volume.
Page 2.33
2.6.2 Exploding scatterpoints

time
time
a)
b)
time
time
c)
d)
time
time
e)
f)
Figure 2.24 Examples of exploding reflectors at discrete times of: a) t=0 showing
the scatterpoint on a dipping event, b) t=1, c) t=3, d) t=5, e) t=7, and f) t=9, also
shown are a composite of the discrete times g) 1 - 9, and h) the continuous time
surface seismic response.
Page 2.34
time
g)
time
h)
Page 2.35
2.6.3 Model examples of exploding reflectors

Figure 2.25 shows an example of an exploding reflector model with (a) a 3-D view
of the volume and (b) the top of the output surface displayed as a 2-D section.
Note:
Front surface (x, z) of the cube is the input structure
Top surface (x, t) now represent the output time section
Output traces on the section are horizontal, (top of photos)
The diffraction shape from the point
The horizontal event with its full end effects.
Amplitudes on the exploding reflectors may be set proportional to the reflection

coefficients. This method of modelling can be simple as in the following
examples with a constant velocity, or may be complex with variable velocities.
Typical mathematical algorithms used in exploding reflector modelling use a oneway wave equation that obeys Snell's Law of refraction. In addition, it does not
change the amplitudes of wavefront as they cross a velocity interface.
Other forms of the wave-equation solution allow reflections off velocity interfaces
and the surface to produce multiples. For example, these methods would be used
to produce shot models with surface reflections and multiples.
All methods must be concerned with boundary conditions at the surface, edges,
and bottom of the model.
The images from inside the volume may be displayed at various time intervals, as
shown in Figure 2.26. Ten internal "photos" from various times shown a more
complex syncline model. Note:
Energy from each reflector moves away from the original position.
Energy may be seen advancing to surface (z=0).
Energy advancing to the bottom of the images.
Figure 2.26k is a collection from the top of many "photos", and contains the time
record of the wave field as it reaches the surface (x, t, z=0).
Page 2.36
a)
x
t
b)
Figure 2.25 The model that results from a point and a flat reflector using the
exploding reflector model.
Page 2.37
a) t=2
b) t=25
c) t=50
d) t=100
e) t=150
f) t=200
Figure 2.26 Exploding reflector model at various times as indicated from (a) to (j),
with axis x and z, and with the output time section (k) with axis x and t.
Page 2.38
g) t=300
h) t=350
i) t=400
j) t=450
x
t = 100
k) surface (x, t, z=0)
Page 2.39
2.7 Huygens' method of wavefront modelling.

2.7.1 Introduction
How is the energy moved from one time image to another time? This is normally
done by using a solution to the wave equation and was the method used in the
previous examples. The diagrams could have been formed by hand using a
wavefront construction involving Huygens' method of modelling (illustrated in the
previous Figure 2.26).
An insight to this method will be gained from the following construction:
Using a compass, repeat the circles indicated for all points along the
"exploding" reflectors in (a) and (b) of Figure 2.27.
Note the formation of the new wavefronts.
The larger radius represents the wavefront at three time the initial increment
Note the formation of the buried focus cusp in b.
Extend the wavefront of the first image (a) to two and then three time increments.
Adding new circles centered on the newly constructed wavefronts.
Verify the similarity of the wavefront in (a) after three time propagations with
that obtained in (b).
In a constant velocity medium, the wavefronts could be propagated directly to

the surface for fast modelling.
Note:
The radius of the circles is proportional to the time increment and the interval
velocity.
The smaller time increments of the first image could have radii that vary with
velocity to follow a structure more accurately than the larger increment.
The buried focus cusp observed in this model and on the previous depth
sections is not the buried focus observed on the time section. The time section
buried focus is formed as the wavefronts cross the z = 0 surface.
Page 2.40
2.7.2 Construction of Huygens' model

t=3
t=2
t=1
r=1
x
z
a)
t=3
r=3
x
z
b)
Figure 2.27 Construction for Huygens' method of modelling for a small radius (a)
and a large radius (b).
Page 2.41
2.7.3 Comparison construction using approximate raypaths.

The objective of this exercise is to evaluate wavefront propagation using crude
raypath locations with accurate traveltimes along these raypaths.
In Figure 2.28:
1. Draw with a ruler, or sketch free hand, normal rays that leave the reflecting
surface. The raypaths should be long enough to contain the three time
units.
These rays should leave the reflector at right angles, but in this exercise,
simply guess the angle and draw the rays rapidly, i.e. take only about 20
seconds to complete all the rays. The intent is to have an approximate
location for the raypath.
2. Set a compass to the length of the three time units, then scribe along each
raypath a small arc. Ensure that the arcs from the neighboring rays touch
or intersect.
3. How well do the small arcs recreate the wavefront?
Observations:
The wavefront constructed from approximate raypaths is surprisingly accurate.
The traveltime to the wavefront may be estimated from an approximate raypath.
We therefore conclude that reasonably accurate traveltimes can be computed

between any two points by using an approximate raypath.
Page 2.42
t=3
r=3
x
z
Figure 2.28 Construction for estimating the wavefront using approximate

raypaths.
For more information, see section 3.2.7 on Fermats principle
Page 2.43
2.7.4 Huygens' method illustrating refraction

Huygens' method may also be used to illustrate the bending of rays or the
bending of wavefronts across a velocity boundary as illustrated below in Figure
2.29. The wavefronts are spaced at equal time increments. Note the change in
radius with change in velocity. A raypath normal to the wavefront is also shown.
Figure 2.29 Huygens' construction illustrating wavefront bending at a velocity

boundary. The wavefront is shown at equal time increments and propagates to a
lower velocity in the upper medium.
What is the velocity ratio in the above diagram?
Page 2.44
2.7.5 Huygens' modelling example

The image below is a computer-generated model using Huygens' method. All the
time increments are displayed as one time image to give a multiple exposure
effect. A wavefront may be seen crossing two velocity layers. Transmitted,
reflected and refracted energy may be observed.
Figure 2.30 Huygens' method of modelling of a wavefront crossing two velocity

boundaries.
Huygens method is usually used for illustration purposes. The normal method of
propagating a wave field from one time to an additional increment in time is the
wave-equation.
Page 2.45
2.8 Eikonal method of grid modelling

2.8.1 Traveltimes computed on a grid in (x, z).
Traveltimes may be computed on a grid as illustrated in Figure 2.31. The velocity
in each gridded box may vary, allowing the computation of traveltimes in media
with complex velocity structures. The resulting diffraction shape will not be
hyperbolic.
c
b
Traveltime
contours
a)
b)
Figure 2.31 Traveltime modelling showing: a) a partial grid to located traveltimes

and the contours of traveltimes, and b) the resulting diffraction from the
traveltimes at the surface of the structure, i.e. z=0.
Page 2.46
2.8.2 Traveltimes computations

Traveltimes computations are illustrated in Figure 2.32:
Initially compute the closest four (or sixteen) grid points directly from the
source * in part (a). The known grid times are represented by black dots.
Locate the minimum traveltime on each side of the known traveltime shell as
highlighted by the yellow band in the second shell of part (b). At this location,
the wavefront is assumed to be parallel to the side or a ray normal to surface
illustrated in (d). See [136] for
The travel time to one point in the third shell (green) is computed using
perpendicular distance and the two velocities in the neighboring boxes.
The remaining unknown point (represented in (b) as circles) are then computed
from the three known points in shown in (e) and described in the next section.
After each side is computed, the four corner point are then computed using the
three known points as illustrated in part (c).
A minimum
traveltime
Next point
a)
b)
c)
t4
t3
t1
W. F.
d)
t2
e)
Figure 2.32 Traveltime computations on a grid of points: a) the initial points, b)

expanding the shells, c) the corner points d) minimum traveltime corresponds to
tangential wavefront and normal ray, and e) solving for a fourth point on the grid.
Page 2.47
2.8.3 Computing the fourth point

The key to the process is computing the traveltime t4 at a fourth point on a box
when the traveltimes t1, t2, and t3 are known at three points.
One method uses the geometry of a plane wavefront (Figure 2.33a) to

compute the unknown traveltime. It is assumed in this figure that t1 < t3 and
t1 < t2 and that the t3 wavefront intersects the line connecting the two point
of t1 and t2. (The location of t3 could be anywhere on the horizontal line
through t1 and t2.) The wavefront through t4 and is parallel to the t3
wavefront. Given the geometry and times on the line through t1 and t2, the
desired time t4 can be computed. from
t4 = t2 + t3 t1 .
(2.9)
A second method (Figure 2.33b) assumes a circular wavefront and that the
time at the center of the circle is t0 that is not necessarily zero. The velocity
surrounding the box is assumed to be the same as that in the box. Finding
the location of the center of the circle (x0, z0) requires solving a fourth order
(quartic) equation (a difficult, but possible task). Once the center is found,
the traveltime to the fourth t4 point is trivial, Vidale [136]. (This problem is
similar to the navigation problem shown in Figure 3.6.)
The value of t0 may be expressed in an implicit form that is independent of
(x0, z0) and estimated using Newton-Raphson iteration techniques. Given t0,
(x0, z0) can be estimated and the t4 evaluated.
t4
t3
t1
t4
t3
t4
t1
t2
t2
t3 -t1
t3
t4 wavefront
t0
t3 wavefront
a)
b)
Figure 2.33 Computing the traveltime of the fourth point assuming: a) a plane
wave, and b) a circular wavefront,.
Page 2.48
A third solution, also by Vidale [136] uses the finite difference method to
solve the eikonal equation
2
t t
+
x z
1
,
v2
(2.10)
2h 2
2
t4 = t1 +
(t3 t2 ) ,
2
v
(2.11)
giving the solution
where v is the velocity of the box, (or the average at the four corners), and h
is the distance on each side of the box.
The Eikonal equation can be derived from the wave equation Scales [716 p79-81],
or from geometry Slotnick [542], or Nolet [383]. Applications to wavefront
modelling are found in [109], [268], expanding wavefront [143]-[423], [480], [515]
and [716].
The derivation of the Eikonal equation from the wave equation requires the
assumption of smoothly varying velocities, and is more accurate for higher
frequencies. The Eikonal equation also provides a foundation for ray theory
(section 2.4.2).
The Eikonal equation (2.10) is a square law relationship between the vector
components of slowness (reciprocal of velocity) as illustrated by the geometry of
a, b, and c in Figure 2.31a. The components a and b represent the x and z
components of velocity, and c the actual velocity.
The above method computes the traveltimes using square shell. This method
works well when the wavefront is a simple surface, but may not produce the first
arrival times in complex areas such as those encountered with refraction energy.
The progress of computing the unknown time should follow causality [136] and
for stability, should be larger than the times from which it is calculated.
More advanced methods (Qin [143] and Popovici [666]) update the location of the
minimum traveltime from all possible updated times, causing the traveltimes to be
updated on a surface that approximates the wavefront. See also [786].
This method of modelling is an integral part of many prestack depth migrations.
Page 2.49
2.9 Modelling 3-D data

Three dimensional data is typically divided into
marine 3-D
land 3-D
Marine 3-D
Marine 3-D data is typically acquired by a boat towing a 2-D streamer (many times)
across the area of interest. Each pass of the line may be considered a 2-D
section. It is processed as a large collection of 2-D data sets as illustrated in (a)
of Figure 2.34. Prestack processing is therefore quite similar to the processing of
regular 2-D data. DMO may also be applied to the 2-D lines. Migration would be
performed on the 3-D volume of data.
Modern marine acquisition may drag a number of lines, and may have a number of
sources. These data sets are more complex and may require processing similar
to 3-D land processing.
Marine 3-Ds have problems with water-bottom multiples but are usually easier to
process than land 3-Ds as they have negligible static problems and are acquired
at an elevation that varies only with the tide.
Land 3-D
Land 3-Ds are usually acquired with a number of receiver lines and a number of
source lines that are at right angles to the receiver lines as illustrated in (b) of
Figure 2.34. Many receivers may be laid out to cover a large area, but only a patch
around the source will be activated.
The receivers in a patch will have a large number of angles or azimuths to a
source that is at the center of the patch.
Page 2.50
a)
Figure 2.34 Surface descriptions of 3-D acquisition for (a) marine and (b) land.
Page 2.51
2.9.1 3-D modelling

3-D modelling may be accomplished by many methods, and a number of
commercial packages are available.
Some models may be very simple such as horizontal and dipping planes, while
others may be quite complex.
One method of modelling reasonably complex data is similar to the diffraction
method of section 2.2 but now uses a 3-D form of the hyperbola called the
hyperboloid.
As in the 2-D case, the amplitude information of each input point is dispersed on
the surface of the hyperboloid. The shape of the hyperboloid is determined by the
RMS velocity and time of the output sample. When modelling to a 2-D line from a
3-D structure, only the hyperbola that intersects the output plain is required, as
illustrated in Figure 2.35.
Figure 2.35 Modelling a 3-D structure with hyperboloids. Only the hyperbola is
projected onto the output 2-D line.
Page 2.52
2.10 A simple numerical model (mod50.sgy)

Seismic data can be created from physical and numerical models.
Physical models of geological features may be built at a small scale that is
convenient for laboratory testing where seismic data can be acquired in a
controlled manner. The modelling uses very high frequencies that tend to match
the wavelengths of real seismic data in real geological structures. The advantage
(or sometimes disadvantage) of these models is that multiples and mode
conversions are present.
Numerical models are defined within a computer and can contain features that are
not present in real geological structures. These models can be very simple or
complex.
A numerical model that is known as mod50, and shown in Figure 2.36a, will be
used a number of times in these notes. It has a constant velocity of 10,000 ft/sec
and contains linear and dipping reflections, diffractions, and localized points of
reflection energy. The model has 150 traces with trace interval of 100 ft, and 750
time sample at a 2 msec sample rate for a total time of 1.5 sec. The reflection
events were defines at specific times, and amplitudes were linearly weighted
between time samples. After all the events were defined, the entire section was
bandpass filtered to a maximum frequency of 50 Hz.
Mod50 was padded with extra traces and sample to enable the 2-D Fast Fourier
transform (FFT) to compute the FK plot that is shown in Figure 2.36b. Note the
band limiting to 50 Hz, and energy at all wave numbers. Evanescent energy that is
steeper than 45 degrees is also evident and comes from the points and the
truncated events. The aliased energy from the two steeper dipping events has
wrapped around as illustrated by the black outlines.
It is unfortunate that the two steepest event have the same magnitude of dip as
the aliased energy appears to be reflected of the side of the plot, and not
wrapped around.
It is an interesting exercise to clear one side of the dipping events in the data of
Figure 2.36a and verify the wrap around nature of the aliased energy.
Page 2.53
a) The mod50.sgy model
Maximum Frequency
(Nyquist)
250 Hz
Aliased energy
b) FK amplitude spectrum of mod50

Figure 2.36 A constant velocity numerical model with its FK transform.
Page 2.54
2.11 Points to note in Chapter 2
Poststack modelling assumes zero-offset input section.
= seismic dip (using the RMS velocity in the area of interest).
= geological dip ( really the only true dip ).
tan = sin .
A dipping linear event and its model converge at the surface.
Diffractions are hyperbolic in constant-velocity media.
Diffractions approximate hyperbolas in variable velocity media.
Diffraction asymptotes are at 45 degrees and intersect at the surface.
Stacked sections are composed of diffractions.
The 2-D Fourier transform may be used to model and is perfect for constant
velocities.
A structure with any velocity distribution may be accurately modelled by the

"exploding reflector" method that creates a 3-D volume (x, z, t). The input is (x,
z, t=0) and the output is (x, t, z=0).
How good is the exploding reflector model?
Good kinematic responses.
It assumes a one-way wave-equation solution where there are no reflections,

i.e. no boundary transmission losses.
For further information:

Ray tracing modelling, Gray [64]
2-D Fourier transforms, Bolondi [39], Kosloff [65]
Page 2.55
2.12 Quiz 2.
1. Sketch the seismic section that results from the given structure.
x
t or z
2. The apparent dip on a seismic section will be steeper/shallower than the

structure dip.
3. Why did question 2 use the term "apparent dip"?
4. Where do the asymptotes of a diffraction converge?
5. Where will a dipping reflector and its reflection converge?
6. Given tan = sin ,
=
=
8. What is diffraction modelling?

9. Can you "image" process?
10. Given the following volume V(x, z, t), indicate: (a) V(x, z, t=0), (b) V(x, z=0, t)
t
x
z
Page 2.56

2 - Modelling With Zero-Offset

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2

Construct a post stack or zero-offset section using a compass

Know that seismic dips are defined by , and geological dips by

Understand modelling by summing diffractions, F-K methods, ray-tracing

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

one-way times and unit velocity

source and receiver are collocated

the emitted and receiving rays travel the same path

collocated source and receivers will only produce right-reflections

reflections are plotted below the source-receiver location

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

2.2 Ray-tracing with compass

Assume one-way travel times and unit velocity.

For each reflector:

Construct the zero-offset reflection from the two scatter points.

Horizontal event remains in the same position.

The dipping reflector and reflection converge at the surface.

The reflection from the scatterpoints produces a hyperbolic curve referred to

The asymptotes to the hyperbola intersect at the surface.

The maximum dip is 45 degrees.

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

Figure 2.2 Construction with constant velocity and zero-offset.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

2.2.1 Geometry of reflection

From the construction note two triangles, ABC and ABR

The length BR = BC is given by

and in triangle ABR

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

2.2.2 Construction example of anticlines and synclines

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

Anticlines have broader reflections.

Synclines may appear as anticlines.

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

2.3 Modelling with diffractions

What factors will affect this method of seismic modelling?

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

very simple to set up and program

has minimal edge-effect problems

is accurate for depth-varying velocities

illustrates constructive and destructive reinforcement.

A stacked section may be considered to made entirely from diffractions even

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

2.4 Fourier transform modelling

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

2.4.2 Image deblurring and enhancement

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

2.4.3 Illustration of coordinate transforms

Chapter 2 Modelling with zero-offset

2.4.4 2-D Fourier transform examples

Different information becomes more obvious in different domains.

Low-cut or high-cut filters are easier to define in the frequency domain.

Radio stations send out time signal (traces).

We tune to different stations by selecting different carrier frequencies.

The Fourier transforms a time trace into a frequency array.

The Fourier transform of distance becomes "wave number."

The 2-D Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that transforms an image

temporal and spatial frequency content