Plant Physiology Questions

1. Please describe the major organelles of a

plant cell and their functions.
a) The endomembrane system:
The endoplasmic reticulum, the nuclear envelope, the Golgi apparatus, the
vacuole, the endosome and the plasma membrane. The endomembrane
system plays a central role in secretary processes, membrane recycling, and
the cell cycle. The plasma membrane regulates transport into and out of the
cell. Endosomes arise from vesicles derived from the vesicle contents.
b) Organelles proliferating independently:
The oil bodies, peroxisomes and glyoxysomes, which function in lipid storage
and carbon metabolism.
c) Autonomous organelles:
Plastids and mitochondria, which function in energy metabolism and storage.

2. Please

describe

the

different

types

of

plastids and their features.

Plastids bounded by a double membrane, and sometimes containing
extensive membrane systemsthere are three kinds of plastids.
a) Chromoplasts, contain high concentrations of carotenoid pigments, rather
than chlorophyll. Chromoplasts are responsible for the yellow, orange, or red
colors of many fruits and flowers, as well as of autumn leaves
b) Leucoplasts: Nonpigmented plastids are called leucoplasts. The
amyloplast, a starch-storing plastid. Amyloplasts are abundant in the storage
of shoots and roots, and in the seeds. Specialized amyloplasts in the root cap
also serve as gravity sensors.
c) Chloroplast: chloroplast contain chlorophyll and its associated proteins
and are the site of photosynthesis.

3. Please

describe

the

water

movement

pathways in plants.
a) Aquaporins facilitate the movement of water across cell membrane.
Water absorption by roots. Water moves in the root via the apoplast, symplast
and transmembrane pathway
b) Water transport through the Xylem pressure-driven bulk flow moves water
long distances through the Xylem. The ascent of water through the xylem is
due to negative pressure that develops at the surface of cell walls in the leaf.
c) Water movement from the leaf to the Atmosphere. Water is pulled from
the xylem into the cell walls of leaf mesophyll before evaporating into the

leafs air spaces.

d) Overview: the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum physical forces, without
the involvement of any metabolic pump, drive the movement of water from
soil to plant, to atmosphere with the sun being the ultimate source for the
energy.

4. Please

describe

the

events

after

chlorophyll absorbs a red photon, or a blue

photon.
a) When a chlorophyll absorbs a red photon it will turn into the lower excited
state.
b) When a chlorophyll molecule absorbs a blue photon it will turn into the
higher excited state. Chlorophyll is extremely unstable. It gives up some
energy to the surroundings in the form as heat, and enter s the lower excited
state.
c) In the lower excited state. There are 4 pathways for disposing its available
energy.
i. Excited chlorophyll can reemit a photon and thereby return to its ground
state- a process known as fluorescence.
ii. The excited chlorophyll can return to its ground state by directly
converting its excited energy into heat, which does not involve the emission of
photon.
iii. Chlorophyll may participate in energy transfer, during which an excited
chlorophyll transfers its energy to anther molecules. Photosynthetic pigments
absorb the light that powers photosynthesis.
iv. A forth process is photochemistry in which the energy of excited state
causes chemical reactions to occur.

5. Please describe why nitrogen is important

in plant life.
a) Nitrogen is constituent of amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides,
coenzymes, hexosamines, etc.
b) Nitrogen deficiency rapidly inhibits plant growth. If such deficiency
persists, most species show chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves) especially in
the older leaves near the base of the plant. Under severe nitrogen deficiency,
these leaves become completely yellow (or tan) and fall off the plant.

6. Please

describe

the

nitrogen

fixation

reactions in nature.
a)

Lightning (8% of the nitrogen fixed):

N 2+ H 2 Olightning HN O3

b) Photochemical reaction (2% of the nitrogen fixed):

N O+O3 photon HN O3

c)

Biological nitrogen fixation (90% of the nitrogen fixed)

N 2 bacteriacyanobacteia N H 3

7. Please describe the reactions that plants

use to carry out ammonium assimilation.
Plant cells avoid ammonium toxicity by rapidly converting ammonium into
amino acid. There are four pathways and ammonium can be assimilated by
one of several processes:
a) The GS-GOGAT pathways that forms glutamine and glutamate. A reduced
cofactor is required for the reaction: ferredoxin in green leaves and NADH in
nonphotosynthetic tissue.
b)
The GDH pathway that forms glutamate using NADH or NADPH as a
reductant.
c)
Transfer of the amino group from glutamate to oxaloacetate to form
aspartate catalyzed by aspartate aminotransferase.
d)
Synthesis of asparagine by transfer of an amino acid group from
glutamine to aspartate catalyzed by aspartate synthetase.

8. Please describe the physiological functions

of carotenoids.
a) As accessory pigments: carotenoids are integral constituents of the
thylakoid membrane an are usually associated intimately with many of
proteins that make up the photosynthetic apparatus. The light energy
absorbed by the carotenoids I s transferred to chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
b) Carotenoids also help protect the organism from changes caused by light.
The second line of defense: scavenging systems, carotenoids superoxide
dismutase ascorbate.
c) In the blue-light response: a carotenoid-protein complex in cyanobacteria,
the orange carotenoid protein, shows blue-green reversibility functions as a
light sensor. The orange carotenoid protein provides a molecular model for
blue light sensing by zeaxanthin in guard cells.

9. Please describe the relationship between

light

and

plants

(hint:

from

two

perspectives).
a) Light is involved in biochemistry and metabolism. E.g. photosynthesis, the
conversion of light energy to chemical energy by photosynthetic pigments
using water and CO2 and producing carbohydrates.
b) Light is involved in Growth and development. E.g. photomorphogenesis,
the influence and specific roles of light on plant development. In the seedling,
light induced changes in gene expression to support above-ground growth in
the light rather than below ground growth in the dark.
c) In the blue-light response: a carotenoid-protein complex in cyanobacteria,
the orange carotenoid protein, shows blue-green reversibility functions as a
light sensor. The orange carotenoid protein provides a molecular model for
blue light sensing by zeaxanthin in guard cells.

10. Please describe the enhancement effect

and the red drop effect.
a) Enhancement effect: The rate of photosynthesis and the red drop effect
light are given together is greater than the sum of the rates when they are
given apart. It provide essential evidence in favor of the concept that
photosynthesis is carried out by two photochemical systems working in
tandem but with slightly different wavelength optima.
b) Red drop effect: the quantum yield of oxygen evolution falls off drastically
for far-red light of wavelength greater than 680nm, indicating far-red light
alone is inefficient in driving photosynthesis. Phototropism, the alteration of
plant growth patterns in response to the direction of incident radiation.

11. Please draw the photosynthetic electron

transfer chain. (Hint: from H2O to NADPH)

12. Please draw Calvin-Benson Cycle (C3

cycle).

13. Please

describe

the

reactions

that

Ferredoxin (Fd) participates.

a) In the light reactions, PS1 reduces NADP+ in the stroma, via the action of
ferredoxin and the flavoprotein ferredoxin-NADP reductase (FNR).
b) The ferredoxin- thioredaoxin system. The system links the light signed
sensed by the thylakoid membranes to the acidity of enzymes in the
chloroplast stroma.

c) Coupling of photosynthetic electron flow, via ferredoxin, to the reaction

centre of nitrite by nitrite reductase.
14. Please draw the C2 cycle.

15. Please draw the TCA cycle.

16. Please describe the different zones and

layers

of

the

Arabidopsis

shoot

apical

meristem.

a) Cytological Zones
i. Central zone(CZ):contains meristematic cells that divide slowly but are
ultimate source of the tissues that make up the plant body.
ii. Peripheral zone(PZ): cells divide rapidly, surrounds the central zone
produce the leaf primodia.
iii. Rib zone(zone): lies to the interior of the central zone and generated the
central tissues of the stem.
b) Cell layers
i. L1: the outermost layers, generates the shoot epidermis.
ii. L2 and L3 layers generate internal tissues.

17. What is phytochrome? Please describe

the phytochrome photoreversibility.
a) Phytochrome is a protein pigment and photoreceptor that absorbs red and
far red light most strongly, but also absorbs blue light. It mediates several
aspects of vegetative and reproductive development.
b) Phytochrome photoreversibility refers that phytochrome can interconvert
between Pr and Pfr forms. Pr can receive red light and convert to Pfr, while Pfr
can receive far red light and convert to Pr. Because the absorption spectra of
Pfr and Pr overlaps, the phytochorome actually cannot fully convert from one
to the other.

18. Please describe the differences between

a

light-grown

and

dark-grown

di-

cotyledonous plant.
The difference between a light-grown and a dark-grown di-cotyledon plants in
the changes when a signal flash of relating dim light applied to a di-cotyledon
seedling:
a) A decrease in the rate of stem elongation.
b) Beginning of apical-hook straightening.
c) In the light the synthesis of pigments like chlorophyll is initiated, but it will
not happen in the dark during the juvenile phase.

19. What processes do blue light regulates

in plants? What are blue light receptors?
a) Blue Light responses
i. Phototropism: directional growth toward (or away from) the light
ii. Stimulate stomatal opening movement
iii. Inhibition of hypocotyl elongation involving membrane depolarization
iv. Gene activation
v. Pigment biosynthesis
vi. Tracking the sun by leaves
vii. Chloroplast movements within cells
b) Blue Light Receptors
i. Cryptochromes, a flavoprotein involved in the inhibition of stem
elongation and other blue light response.
ii. Phototropins 1 and 2, two flavoproteins that induces phototropic bending
in Arabidopsis.
iii. Zeaxanthin, a carotenoid implicated as a blue-light receptor which
protects from excites excitation energy.

20. Describe the environmental factors that

regulate stomata aperture.
fundamental

process

What are the

controlling

stomata

aperture. (Hint: consider water movement).

a) Environmental factors:
i. Light: When the light radiation is increased in the day, the stomata
aperture tend to open. When the light radiation is decreased, the stomata

aperture tend to close. Blue light will stimulate the open of the stomata
aperture.
ii. Concentration of CO2: Higher concentration of CO2 makes the stomata
aperture close while lower concentration of CO2 makes the stomata aperture
open.
iii. Water stress: Drought and lower water potential in the atmosphere makes
the stomata aperture close.
iv. Temperature: Low temperature makes the stomata aperture close.
b) The fundamental processes stomata aperture.
i. When the guard cells have lower water potential, it receive water and the
volume of guard cells increase and then the stomata aperture open.
ii. When the guard cell have higher water potential, it loss water and then
the guard cells decrease, then the stomata aperture close.

21. When we are determining the steady

level of a plant hormone, what are the
factors that we should consider?
The steady level of active plant hormone is affected by four factors:
a) Biosynthesis, depends on the type of tissues and the stage of
development and environmental conditions. E.g. ethylene production
increases during leaf abscission and flower senescence, as well as during fruit
ripening. Any type of wounding can induce ethylene biosynthesis, as can
resist physiological stresses such as flooding, disease, and temperature, or
draught stress. In addition, infection by various pathogens can also elevate
ethylene biosynthesis.
b)
Conjugation, e.g. cytokinins levels can also be conjugated at various
positions. There are two type of conjugated cytokinins, O-conjugations and Nconjugations. They are storage forms of cytokinins.
c)
Transport, e.g. cytokinins synthesized in roots appear to move through
the xylem into the shoot, along with the water and minerals take up by roots.
d)
Degradation, e.g. cytokinins can be degraded by cytokinin oxidase.
Cytokinin oxidase irreversibly inactivates and limiting cytokinin effects. The
activity of the coenzyme is induced by high cytokinin concentrations, due to
at least in part to an elevation of the RNA levels for a subset of genes.

22. Please

describe

the

physiological

functions of auxins.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Auxin regulates apical dominance;

Auxin transport regulates floral bud development and phyllotaxy;
Auxin promotes the formation of lateral and adventitious root;
Auxin induces vascular differentiation;
Auxin delays the onset of leaf abscission;
Auxin promotes fruit development;
Synthetic auxins have a variety of commercial uses;

23. Please

describe

the

auxin

signal

transduction pathway. (Hint: with hormone,

without hormone, from signal to responses).
a) Without hormone: In absence of auxin, AUX/IAA repressor protein inhibits
ARF transcription factor when they combine. Therefore the auxin regulated
genes do not express.
b) With hormone: The presence of auxin will bind to its receptor complex with
AUX/IAA and the repressor protein will be ubiquitinated and degraded. So the
transcription factor ARF is able to form a dimmer to activate the auxinregulated genes.

24. Please

describe

the

physiological

functions of gibberellins.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Promote seed germination;

Stimulate stem and root growth;
Regulate the transition from juvenile to adult phases;
Influence floral initiation and sex determination;
Promote pollen development and tube growth;
Promote fruit set and parthenocarpy;
Promote early seed development;

25. Please

describe

the

physiological

functions of cytokinins.
a) Promote shoot growth by increasing cell proliferation in the shoot apical
meristem
b) Inhibit root growth by promoting the exit of cells from the root apical
meristem
c) Regulate specific components of the cell cycle
d) Modify apical dominance and promote lateral bud growth
e) Delay leaf senescence
f) Promote movement of nutrients
g) Affect light signaling via phytochrome
h) Regulate vascular development
i) Manipulation of cytokinins can alter agriculturally important traits delay
senescence and increase yield

26. Please

describe

the

physiological

functions of ethylene.
a) Stimulating or in habiting elongation of stems, roots depending on
conditions and species.
Enhances fruit development.
b) Enhances fruit development.
c) Suppresses flowering in most species
d) Increase abscission of flowers and fruits.
f) Increases RNA transcription of numerous genes.

27. Please

describe

the

ethylene

triple

response, and how people have used the

triple

response

in

research

to

establish

ethylene signal transduction pathways.

a) Ethylene triple response: common responses to ethylene of growing
etiolated seedlings of most dicots and of coleoptile and mesocotyls of grass
seedlings (e.g., wheat and oats). Reduced rate of elongation, increased lateral
expansion, and swelling in the region below the hook.
b) Scientists use triple response morphology of etiolated Arabidopsis
seedlings as a screen to isolate mutants affected in their response to
ethylene. There are two types of mutants: ethylene-insensitive mutants and
constitutive mutants.
i) The first ethylene-insensitive mutant isolated was etr1, and people use it
to identified ETR1 is an ethylene receptor.
ii) The recessive ctr1 mutations was constitutively activate ethylene
responses. The fact that the recessive mutations caused and activation of
ethylene response suggests that the wild-type protein, like the ethylene
receptors, act as negative regulator of the response pathway.

28. When we are discussing plant hormones,

we often use deficient, insensitive, resistant
and constitutive. What are the biological
meanings of these definitions? (hint: you can
use examples).
a) Deficient mutant: refers to mutant that lacks certain nutrition compound
required for metabolism in the plant comparing to the wild type. It may not
generate or absorb enough nutrition e.g. the cellulose deficient mutant may
not generate the cell wall, which makes the cells more vulnerable for damage.
b) Insensitive mutant: refers to mutant that is not able to sense the presence
of certain types of signal because the receptors are blocked or degraded, thus
the phenotype or response differs from the wild type. E.g. the hypocotyls
elongation of ethylene insensitive mutant is reduced comparing to the wild
type due.
c) Resistant mutant: refers to the mutant that generate certain compound
that degrades the signal or the signal is combine to inhibitors, thus the
phenotype or response differs from the wild type. E.g. The IAA resistant
mutant of Arabidopsis whose root will not grow according to the gravitropism
as the wild type.
d) Constitutive mutant: refers to the mutant that has the same response as
when it confronts the signal, even if the signal is absent in the environment.
E.g.The hypocotyls elongation of ethylene constitutive mutant is increased
in the environment without ethylene signal comparing to the wild type.

29. Please describe the ABC model that

explains Arabidopsis flower formation.
Five floral organ identity genes are homeotic gene classified as three
types A, B, C
a) Type A include AP1 and AP2, which controls organ determination in the
first and second whorls
b) Type B include AP3 and P1, which controls organ determination in the
second and third whorls.
c) Type c include AG, which controls events in the third and fourth whorl.
d) Type A alone will express the sepals, A and B together form the petals. B
and C form stamens. C alone specifies carpels. A and C mutually repress each
other, and when one of them is missing, the other will exclude from its own
expression domain.

30. This is the first time that the course

Plant Physiology

is taught in English.

Please tell us what do you feel after this

course, and also please point out the things
that we can improve for this course in the
future.
a) Feeling: After this course, I understood the major concepts in plant
physiology and I appreciate many cool processes occur in plants. I have learnt
many cool words like chloroplast, mitochondrion, Arabidopsis, mutant,
constitutive, temporal, spatial. I feel my English improved.
b) Indication: As far as I am concerned, teacher can make handouts to help
students to grasp the hard cores and teacher can assign report and we can
have discussion class.