1

Topic 1

Properties of particulate solids

Characterization of Solid Particles
Particle shape, Particle size, Mixed particle size and size analysis, Specific
surface of mixture, Average particle size, Number of particles in mixture, screen
analysis, size measurements with fine particles

Properties of masses of particles

Single particle in a fluid system
Multiple particle system

Reference:
MARTIN RHODES (2008) Introduction to Particle Technology , 2nd
Edition. Publisher John Wiley & Son, Chichester, West Sussex, England.
(Chapters 1-3)

PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY ?
Techniques for processing and handling
particulate solids.

PARTICLE ?
o A minute part of matter
o A very small speck of solid matter
o Unit of matter of indeterminate
dimensions and volume

WHY STUDY PARTICLE

TECHNOLOGY ?
Most chemical engineers find themselves
working with particles at some point in their
professional life.

APPLICATIONS ?
In carrying out many unit operations such as
o Crushing
o Drying
o Filtering
o Crystallization
o Solid fluid reacting
o Dust collecting etc.

Goal ?
Characterize particles and particulate
systems
Identify and design important traditional unit
operations

Characterization of Solid Particles

Individual solid particles are characterized by
their size, shape, and density.

1. Powder handling and processing operations

depend on
Particle size
Particle size distribution
to determine the bulk properties of the powder

2. Size distribution of particles making up a powder

central to characterization of the powder.
Mono-sized distribution of spheres and cubes
suitable for few industrial applications.

3. Real particles with many shapes and sizes

implies a SINGLE DIMENSION insufficient to
describe the properties.

So ..

Particle Size
CE diameter
3D particle

Captured as
2D image

Converted as
circle with same
area

o Diameter of a sphere which has the same property

as the particle itself that is the same volume,
same settling velocity, etc.
o Diameter of a circle which has the same property
and the projected outline of the particle that is the
same projected area or same perimeter.
o Linear dimension measured parallel to a particular
direction.

Describing the size of a single particle

Regular-shaped particles
Shape

Sphere

Cube

Cylinder

Cuboid

Cone

Dimensions

Radius

Side length

Radius and
height

Three side
lengths

Radius and
height

Irregular-shaped particles
No single physical dimension can adequately describe the
particle
Describing the size of a single particle. Some terminology
about diameters used in microscopy to be used

 Equivalent circle diameter.

(projected area diameter (area of
circle with same area as the
projected area ))

Martins diameter
(length of the line which bisects the
particle image)

Ferets diameter.
(distance between two tangents on
opposite sides of the particle)

Shear diameter.
(particle width obtained using an
image shearing device)

 The orientation of the particle on the microscope slide

will affect the projected image and consequently the
measured equivalent sphere diameter.
Sieve measurement: Diameter of a sphere passing
through the same sieve aperture.
Sedimentation measurement: Diameter of a sphere
having the same sedimentation velocity under the same
conditions.

Comparison of equivalent sphere diameters.

Equivalent Diameters
Size of particle of irregular shape is defined in terms of
the size of an equivalent sphere and according to the
property selected.
1) The sphere of the same volume as the particle
2) The sphere of the same surface area as the particle
3) The sphere of the same surface area per unit volume as
the particle
4) The sphere of the same area as the particle when
projected on to a plane perpendicular to its direction of
motion
5) The sphere with the same settling velocity as the
particle in a specified fluid.

1) The sphere of the same volume as the particle

1
3
6
Volume-equivalent sphere diameter, xv Vp

where Vp is the volume of the particle

2) The sphere of the same surface area as the particle1
2
6
Surface-equivalent sphere diameter, xS Sp

where Sp is the surface of the particle
3) The sphere of the same surface area per unit volume as
the particle
xV3
Volume-surface equivalent sphere diameter, xSV 2
xS

Comparison of equivalent diameters

The volume equivalent sphere diameter is a commonly used
equivalent sphere diameter.
Example: Coulter counter size measurement. The diameter
of a sphere having the same volume as the particle.
Surface-volume diameter is the diameter of a sphere having
the same surface to volume ratio as the particle.
Shape

Sphere passing the Sphere having the

same sieve aperture, same volume, xv
xp

Sphere having
same surface the
area, xs

Sphere having the

same surface to
volume ratio, xsv

Cuboid

3.06

3.83

1.95

Cylinder

2.38

2.74

1.80

Cuboid: side lengths of 1, 3, 5.

Cylinder: diameter 3 and length 1.

Description of populations of particles

Population of particles is described by particle size distribution
Expressed as frequency distribution curves or cumulative
curves
Typical differential frequency distribution

Typical cumulative frequency distribution

Frequency distribution and cumulative are related mathematically

Cumulative distribution denoted by F, frequency distribution is
written as dF
f ( x)
dx
Distributions can be by number, surface, mass or volume.

fN(x) is the frequency distribution by number

fS(x) is the frequency distribution by surface
FS is the cumulative distribution by surface
FM is the cumulative distribution by mass

Comparison between distributions

Conversion between distributions

Mass and number distributions for man-made objects orbiting the earth
Size (cm)

Number of objects

% by number

% by mass

101000

7000

0.2

99.96

110
0.11.0
Total

17 500
3 500 000
3 524 500

0.5
99.3
100.00

0.03
0.01
100.00

Size analysis instruments gave number distribution, and the

software converts them to distribution by mass, surface, etc

Fraction of particles in the size range

x to x +dx = f N ( x)dx

Fraction of the total surface of particles in the size range

x to x +dx = fS ( x)dx

Assume N is the total number of particles in the population,

The number of particles in the size range

x to x +dx = N f N ( x)dx
= (x 2 S ) f N ( x)dx
where S is the factor relating linear dimension of
particle to its surface area.

The fraction of the total surface area contained on these

particles [ f S ( x)dx] is
2

(x S ) f N ( x)dx
S

where S is the total surface area of the population of

particles.

For a given population of particles :

1) Total number of particles, N and total surface area S are
constant.
2) Assume particle shape is independent of size, so s is
constant.
then, for the distribution by surface area
(x 2 S ) f N ( x)dx
f S ( x ) dx
S

fS ( x) x f N ( x)
2

or fS ( x) = kS x f N ( x)

where k S =

Similarly, for the distribution by volume

3

f V ( x) = kV x f N ( x)

where k V =

SN
S

VN
V

where
o V is the total volume of the particle population and
o v is the factor relating the linear dimension of particle
to its volume.

For the distribution by mass

f m ( x) = km p x 3 f N ( x)
where

km =

VpN
V

o Assuming particle density p is independent of the

size
The constants kS, kV and km, may be found by the fact
that :

f ( x)dx = 1

Assumptions for conversions among

different distribution functions
It is necessary to make assumptions about the
constancy of shape and density with size.
Calculation errors are introduced into the
conversions.
Example: 2% error in FN results in 6% error in FM.
(Recalling the relationship between mass and
diameter).
If possible, direct measurements be made with the
required distribution.

Describing the population by a single number

Definitions of means

where x is the mean and g is the weighting function.

weighting function is different for each mean definition.

Plot of cumulative frequency against weighting function g(x).

Shaded area is

Plot of cumulative frequency against weighting function g(x).

Shaded area is

Each mean conserves 2 properties of the original population

of particles, e.g.
Number-length mean: Arithmetic mean of the number distribution
conserves the number and length of original population.

Number-surface mean: Quadratic mean of the number distribution

conserves the number and surface of original population.

Comparison between measures of central tendency.

Adapted from Rhodes (1990).

Comparison of the valuea of

different means and mode
and median for a given
particle size distribution
highlights :
1) The values of the different
expressions of central
tendency can vary
significantly.
2) Two quite different
distributions could have the
same arithmetic mean or
median.

Equivalence of Means
Means of different distributions can be equivalent

Arithmetic mean of a surface distribution,

The harmonic mean xhV of a volume

distribution is defined as

Same
Expression

Relationship between surface and volume

then,

Recalling,

dFs x 2 ks dFN

then,

Note : Ks and Kv do not vary with size

In Summary,

Surface-volume mean can be calculated as

1) the arithmetic mean of the surface distribution, or
2) the harmonic mean of the volume distribution

Common methods of displaying size distributions

Arithmetic-normal Distribution
Log-normal Distribution
z log x
z: Arithmetic mean of z,
z: standard deviation of log x

Arithmetic-normal distribution with an arithmetic mean of

45 and standard deviation of 12.

Log-normal distribution plotted on linear coordinates

Log-normal distribution plotted on logarithmic coordinates

Methods of particle size measurements

Sieving
1) Dry sieving using woven wire sieves is appropriate
for particle size greater than 45 m. The length of
the particle does not hinder its passage through the
sieve aperture.
2) The sieve diameter is dependent on the maximum
width and maximum thickness of the particle.
3) Most common modern sieves are in sizes such that
the ratio of adjacent sieve sizes is the fourth root
of two (e.g. 45, 53, 63, 75, 90, 107 m).

Microscopy
The optical microscope may be used to measure
particle size down to 5 m.
The electron microscope may be used for size
analysis below 5 m.
Coupled with an image analysis system, the optical
and electron microscopy can give number
distribution of size and shape.
For irregular-shaped particles, the projected area
offered to the viewer can vary significantly.
Technique (e.g. applying adhesive to the microscope
slide) may be used to ensure random orientation.

Sedimentation
1) Suspension is dilute and particles fall at their single
particle terminal velocity (no hindered settling), time for
acceleration is negligible.
2) Rep <0.3. Motion of the particle obeys Stokes law.

Assumptions:
1) Suspension density is directly
related to the undersize.
2) Time is related to the particle
diameter via terminal velocity.

Size analysis by sedimentation

1) Co: original uniform

suspension density.
2) Sampling point: C at time t
after the start of settling.
3) At time t all particles
traveling faster than h/t will
have fallen below the
sampling point.
4) C represents the
suspension density for all
particles which travel at a
velocity h/t.
5) C/ Co mass fraction of
original particles which
travel at a velocity h/t.

Cumulative mass faction

All particles travel at terminal velocity
defined by Stokes law

UT = h/t,

thus

Permeametry
1) Size analysis method based on f;uid flow through a
packed bed.
2) Carmen-Kozeny equation for laminar flow through packed
bed of uniformly sized spheres of diameter x

where

-p is the pressure drop across the bed

is the fluid viscosity
U is the superficial fluid velocity.

Electrozone sensing
As particle flow through the orifice,
a voltage pulse is recorded.
The amplitude of the pulse can be
related to the volume of particle the
passing orifice.
Particle range: 0.3-1000 m.
Errors if more than 1 particle
passes through the orifice at a
time.

Schematic of electrozone sensing apparatus

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