BALDERA, JASPHER G.

ITCE

TYPES OF NEURONS (Illustration)

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BALDERA, JASPHER G.
ITCE

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TYPES OF NEURONS
Multipolar Neuron
A multipolar neuron (or multipolar neurone) is a type of neuron that possesses a single (usually
long) axon and many dendrites, allowing for the integration of a great deal of information from
other neurons. These dendritic branches can also emerge from the nerve cell body. Multipolar
neurons constitute the majority of neurons in the brain and include motor neurons and
interneurons.It is found majorly in the cerebral cortex.

Motor Neuron
A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a nerve cell (neuron) whose cell body is located in the spinal
cord and whose fiber (axon) projects outside the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control
effector organs, mainly muscles and glands. Motor neurons' axons are efferent nerve fibers that
carry signals from the spinal cord to the effectors to produce effects. Types of motor neurons are
alpha motor neurons, beta motor neurons, and gamma motor neurons.

Sensory Neuron
Sensory neurons are nerve cells that transmit sensory information (sight, sound, feeling, etc.).
They are activated by sensory input, and send projections to other elements of the nervous
system, ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord.

Physiology
Physiology (/fzildi/; from Ancient Greek (physis), meaning "nature, origin", and
- (-logia), meaning "study of") is the scientific study of the normal function in living
systems. A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells,
and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. Given
the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology (including that of
humans), plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology (see microbial
metabolism), bacterial physiology, and viral physiology. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a physiologic state is one occurring from normal
body function, rather than pathologically, which is centered on the abnormalities that occur in
animal diseases, including humans.

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Physiology affects persons Muscle Action, Learning, Memory, and Sleep.

Muscle Action

Excitatory neurotransmitter
Increases of ACh during visual, auditory and somatosensory stimulus have been found to
increase the firing rate of neurons
Initiate muscle contractions

Learning

Encoding of new memories

Increasing the strength of sensory input relative to feedback, enhances different types of
encoding based on effectiveness

Memory

Formation of LTM
Involved in the scheduling of REM-consolidating memory
Enhances processing in many areas such as the hippocampus

Sleep

Evidence that acetylcholine is associated with REM sleep

Release of ACh in the cortex is highest during waking and REM sleep, and lowest during
delta sleep.
Further, drugs that act as ACh agonists increase REM, and antagonists decrease REM.
It appears that REM sleep initiation begins in the ACh neurons
ACh Neurons in the area of the brain known as the pons can therefore be described as the
"REM Headquarters"

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Cerebro Spinal System

What Are Endocrine and Exocrine Glands?

Before figuring out the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands, it is very
important to understand the basic functions and locations of these hormones.
Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands are specialized organs which release their chemicals directly into cells
or surrounding tissues. The released chemicals of the endocrine system help in regulation
and maintenance of multiple physiological events, such as body metabolism, menstrual
flow and uterine changes, reproductive functioning, etc.
Components: Endocrine glands include thyroid and parathyroid gland, pineal gland,
testes and ovaries, pituitary gland, pancreas, hypothalamus and adrenal glands, etc.
Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands are specialized secretions which are released through a duct directly into
an external or internal surface such as sebaceous glands, mammary glands, mucus
producing glands. The secretions produced by exocrine glands help in the regulation of

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multiple phenomena such as regulation of body temperature through sweat glands.

Likewise, the lacrimal glands in the eyes help preventing the eyes from dying out.
Components: Typical exocrine glands are salivary glands, sweat glands, mammary
glands, digestive system glands.
Pancreas
and
liver
are
exocrine and endocrine glands.

the

two

organs that

crossover

both

Difference between Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

You may get some idea of differences the two glands from the above mentioned
definitions and functions. Some key differences between endocrine and exocrine glands
are listed as below:
1. Ducts

Endocrine glands do not utilize ducts or tubes to release their secretions,

while exocrine glands require some ducts for transportation of their secretions.

For this reason the exocrine glans are classified into two types according to the duct
types:

Simple exocrine gland: This has only one single duct or unbranched simple ducts for
transportation of released substances.

Compound exocrine gland: They consist of multiple branches of the duct which are
secondary and tertiary branches responsible for releasing the substance at the targeted
site.

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2. Response Time
Response time can be one of the factors of difference between endocrine and exocrine
glands.

The response of the endocrine glands is generally delayed due to the release of
substances in the blood which then transported to the target tissues.

Exocrine glandular secretion however possesses a quicker response time as they are
released directly at the target site.

3. Duration of Action
Although the response time of endocrine glands is longer than that of exocrine glands, the
secretions of endocrine glands have longer duration of act. This happens because the
blood containing released substances is passed from kidneys for the purpose of filtration
where they are reabsorbed and again transported to the target site. On the contrary, the
secretions of exocrine glands are not passed to kidney so there is no reabsorption hence
the duration or effect is shorter.
4. Other Differences between Exocrine and Endocrine Glands
Below is a summarized comparison between endocrine and exocrine glands:
Exocrine Glands
They are an enzyme secreting glands.
The activity of the enzymes is short term
The secreted substances are directly released over the target site or tissue.
Some of the examples include sweat glands, gastric glands, etc.
Pathological Significance
Knowing the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands helps with a better
understanding as to what is normal and what is diverted from the normal physiology.
Crying and sweating are short term phenomenon and usually stops after some time but if
such secretions persists for a longer period of time (such as constant sweating or lacrimal
fluid) then it indicates that a person is suffering from some pathological condition.

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Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

One of the questions that you could be asking yourself might be "what are the main parts of the
brain". Well, the following is an explanation of the parts of the brain and their functions.
1 Cerebrum
The cerebrum constitutes the largest part of the human brain. It is also known as the cortex and is
responsible for performing a great number of important brain functions, including action and
thought processing. The cerebrum is further subdivided into four different sections that have
their own respective functions and are termed as lobes. The names of these lobes are; frontal
lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe and temporal lobe.

Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe is tasked with the duty of performing functions like
expressive language, reasoning, higher level cognition and motor skills. It is positioned at
the front portion of the brain. Any damage to it can lead to changes of socialization,
attention, sexual habits, etc.

Parietal Lobe: The parietal lobe is responsible for processing the information sent to the
brain by the tactile senses like pain, pressure and touch. It is placed in the center of the
brain. Any damage to it can cause problems with language, ability of controlling eye gaze
and verbal memory.

Occipital Lobe: The occipital lobe is tasked with the duty of interpreting the information
being sent to the brain by the eyes. It is positioned at the back of the brain. If it is
damaged, your visual ability will be affected, like unable to recognize colors, words and
objects.

Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe is responsible for forming memories and processing
the sounds being recorded by the ears. It is placed at the bottom of the brain. Any damage
to it can cause problem with language skills, speech perception and memory.

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2 Cerebellum
The cerebellum is known as the little brain and resembles the cerebrum for it has a highly folded
surface and distributed in 2 hemispheres. This part of the brain is responsible for performing
functions like balance, posture and coordination of movement. Even though the cerebellum is
smaller in size, it contains more neurons than the entire brain itself. The cerebellum is located at
the back of the brain stem and on top of the pons.
3 Limbic System
The limbic system lies inside the cerebrum. It is also sometimes called the emotional brain
because it takes charge of our emotional response. The thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and
the hippocampus are the four different sections that make up the limbic system.

Thalamus: Thalamus is a substantial piece of gray matter that lies deep inside the
forebrain. It performs motor and sensory functions. All sensory information, except
olfaction, sent to the brain enters the thalamus and from there is sent to the overlying
cortex by neurons.

Hypothalamus: Hypothalamus is associated with functions like circadian rhythms,

homeostasis, hunger, emotions and thirst. Besides these functions, it is also responsible

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for controlling the pituitary glands which is responsible for producing hormones. The
hypothalamus is located ventral to the thalamus and is a component of the diencephalon.

Amygdala: The amygdala, as a part of the telencephalon, is positioned in the temporal

lobe and is associated with fear, memory and emotion. It is present just under the front
and medial sections of the temporal lobe.

Hippocampus: The hippocampus helps in learning and memory building. It is where

short term memories are converted into permanent ones. Moreover, the hippocampus also
helps in recalling the spatial relationships about us in the world. It is located in the basal
medial section of the temporal lobe.

4 Brain Stem
When we talk about parts of the brain and their functions, brain stem should never be
overlooked. The brain stem is located underneath the limbic system. This section of the brain is
tasked with the duty of supervising important tasks such as blood pressure, breathing and
heartbeat. Moreover, the brain stem organizes reflexes and coordinates the fine movement of the
face and limbs. It is composed by midbrain, pons and medulla.

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Midbrain: The midbrain is located at the mouth of the brain stem and is made up of the
tegmentum and the tectum. It controls functions like body movement, hearing, vision and
eye movement. The cerebral peduncle is located at the anterior portion of the midbrain. It
is basically a large bundle of axons that play an important part in transferring messages
and controlling voluntary motor function.

Pons: Pons is responsible for performing sensory analysis and controlling motor function
and the information coming to the brain from the ears enters the pons first. It is
responsible for sleep and maintaining levels of consciousness. Some parts of it are linked
to the cerebellum and thus are associated with posture and movement.

Medulla: The medulla is located in between the spinal cord and the pons. It is the tailend of the brain stem and is tasked with the duty of controlling vital body functions like
heart rate and breathing.