1.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
a. Communication Systems
i. Nervous
1. Uses both chemical and electrical signals
2. The signals travel to specific cells because of the signal
traveling down the axons neurons to specific cells
3. Only can send messages to other neurons, muscle cells, and
glands
4. This system directs immediate and rapid responses
(movement and behavior)
ii. Endocrine
1. This system only sends chemical messages (hormones) that
travel through the blood
2. Only cells with specific receptor for the hormone, and will
only respond when the hormone interacts with the receptor
a. Membrane receptors are for polar or large hormones
b. Intracellular (in the cytoplasm) receptors are for
small, nonpolar hormones
3. Makes gradual changes that effect the whole body (growth,
development, reproduction, metabolism, digestion, etc.)
b. Chemical Signaling Types
i. Endocrine
1. Chemical signal (hormone) travels through blood to reach
the target cell
2. Far apart cells use this type of chemical signaling
ii. Paracrine
1. Signaling cell is close by to the target cell, the chemical
diffuses across the extracellular fluid to the target cell
2. There is no need for the circulatory system to transport the
signal
3. Chemicals are not hormones, they are local regulators (such
as neurotransmitters, cytokines, and interferons)
iii. Autocrine
1. The signaling cell and target cell are the same cell
2. This type of signaling is very rare, and generally only found
in cancerous cells
c. Endocrine Signals
i. This is long distance signaling through glands, and the signals are
called hormones

ii. Causes gradual changes throughout the body

iii. The glands are made up of epithelial tissue that secretes a product
into the blood stream (endocrine glands)
1. These glands are technically made up of cells called
endocrine cells, and include organs like the thyroid,
pituitary gland, and ovaries/testes
d. Endocrine Cells
i. Nonneural Cells
1. These cells dont use electrical impulses
2. The hormones of these cells secrete directly into the
bloodstream
3. Signaled to produce and release hormones by environmental
stimuli, such as other hormones reaching the gland
4. This type of cell is the most common in the endocrine system
ii. Neurosecreting Cells
1. These cells can send electrical impulses (action potentials)
because of their structural similarity to a neuron
2. The hormones secreted by these cells are called
neurohormones and are secreted into the bloodstream
3. Electrical impulses stimulate these cells to release
neurohormones
4. Link the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
e. What are hormones?
i. These are chemical signals secreted by endocrine cells and travel
through the circulatory system
ii. Main function is to maintain homeostasis, to respond to stimuli,
and to regulate growth/development/reproduction
iii. Polar Hormones
1. Water-soluble (polar, hydrophilic) hormones need
membrane receptors, because they can not pass through the
cell membrane
2. Made of proteins, peptides, or amines (modified amino
acids)
3. Secreted out of endocrine cells by exocytosis and travel freely
through the blood
4. These hormones cause the cells to either activate an enzyme
or change the uptake/secretion of a specific molecule

a. Example would be insulin/glucagon, which cause

cells to either take in more glucose or expel more
glucose
iv. Nonpolar Hormones
1. Lipid-soluble (nonpolar, hydrophobic) hormones need
intracellular receptors, because they can pass through the
cell membrane
2. Made of steroids (4 fused rings, are lipids)
3. These diffuse across the membrane of the endocrine cells
and travel through the blood connected to transport proteins
4. These hormones cause cells to change their gene expression
a. Generally inducing/suppressing certain genes and
their expression
f. Hormone Response Pathway
i. Signal reception (hormone arrives at the target cell)
ii. The hormone then binds to the receptor on or in the target cell,
which causes the receptor to temporarily change shape
iii. The receptor changing shape causes a cascade of events, which is
the response of the target cell
iv. In detail pathways depend on solubility of hormones (water or
lipid soluble)
g. Endocrine Glands
i. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
1. Hypothalamus is technically not a gland, though it does
show gland activity
2. Hypothalamus triggers the pituitary gland into action
(producing and sending out hormones) when it receives
signals from other nerves
a. This happens because the hormones from the
hypothalamus signal hormonal release from the
pituitary gland
3. Pituitary gland has 2 lobes (anterior, posterior)
a. The hormones of the anterior pituitary lobe are tropic
hormones that regulate other glands by targeting the
endocrine cells
4. Hormones
a. Tropic hormones (from the anterior lobe)

i. TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) regulates

the thyroid, which causes the thyroid to secrete
hormones T3 and T4
ii. ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
regulates the adrenal glands, which results in
the secretion of glutocorticoids
iii. FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) regulates
the ovaries and testes, which results in the
regulation of oogenesis and spermatogenesis
iv. LH (luteinizing hormone) is another hormone
that regulates the ovaries and testes, which also
helps regulate oogenesis and spermatogenesis
b. Nontropic anterior lobe hormones (these target
nongland cells)
i. Prolactin targets the mammary glands
(technically exocrine glands, so this is not a
tropic hormone) which stimulates the
production of milk
ii. Growth hormone targets bone and muscle cells
to stimulate growth
c. Posterior lobe glands
i. ADH (antidiuretic hormone) targets kidney
cells and increases the reabsorption of water
when dehydrated
ii. Oxytocin targets the mammary glands (which
are exocrine glands) and stimulates the release
of milk
ii. Adrenal Glands
1. These glands sit on top of the kidneys
2. Hormones
a. Epinephrine (adrenaline) targets the blood vessels,
liver, and heart. It increases blood glucose levels,
constricts blood vessels, and causes the flight/fight
response.
i. This is the main ingredient in Epipens, which
help stop anaphylactic shock, which is when
blood vessels dilate and constrict the windpipe,
so breathing is cut off

iii.

iv.

v.

vi.

ii. Constricting blood vessels leavens pressure on

the windpipe, allowing the person to breathe,
although calling the hospital is still needed
b. Norepinephrine also targets the blood vessels, liver,
and heart. It increases blood glucose levels, constricts
blood vessels, and causes the fight/flight response.
c. Glucocorticoids (cortisol) target most cells and cause
an increase in blood glucose
d. Mineral corticoids target kidney cells and increase the
reabsorption of Na(+) ions, while increasing the
excretion of K(+) ions
Thyroid Gland
1. This gland sits on the windpipe just below the larynx
2. Hormones
a. T4 (thyroxin) targets most cells and increases cell
metabolism
b. T3 (triiodothyronine) targets most cells and also
increases cell metabolism
c. Calcitonin targets the bones and lowers the blood
Ca(2+) levels
Parathyroid Glands
1. 4 small glands on the back of the thyroid gland
2. Hormones
a. PTH (parathyroid hormone) targets bones and
increases the blood Ca(2+) levels
Pineal Gland
1. Another, smaller, gland in the brain
2. Hormones
a. Melatonin targets most cells and regulates the
circadian rhythm
Ovary
1. Where the eggs are
2. Hormones
a. Estrogen targets the uterus and most other cells
i. Estrogen regulates the menstrual cycle and
secondary sex characteristics
1. Secondary sex characteristics form
because of sexual dimorphism in species
(which makes it so there are distinctive

male and female traits, like breasts,

facial hair, cellulite, etc.)
b. Progesterone targets the uterus and regulates the
menstrual cycle and pregnancy
vii. Testes
1. Where sperm are
2. Hormones
a. Testosterone targets the testes and other cells
i. Testosterone regulates spermatogenesis and
secondary sex characteristics
viii. Pancreas
1. Located under the stomach
2. Alpha cells and beta cells are located in the islets of
Langerhans (part of the pancreas)
3. Alpha cell hormone
a. Glucagon targets the liver and increases blood glucose
4. Beta cell hormone
a. Insulin targets the liver and muscles and lowers the
blood glucose
h. Antagonistic Hormones
i. Hormones with opposite effects help maintain homeostasis
ii. Insulin and glucagon are a pair
iii. Calcitonin and PTH are also a pair
i. Blood Glucose Regulation
i. Animals generally consume more glucose than they need at a time
1. This excess glucose is generally used to create polymers, is
stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen, or is stored as fat
in adipose tissue (when the muscles and liver cells fill up
with glycogen)
ii. This process of regulation is controlled by the pancreas and its
hormones
1. The cells that regulate blood glucose are isolated in clusters
of cells called islets of Langerhans, which contain both alpha
and beta cells
2. Alpha cells secrete glucagon
3. Beta cells secrete insulin
4. These hormones are antagonistic hormones, so they help
regulate the homeostasis of the blood, which is around 90
mg of glucose per 100 mL of blood

j.

Diabetes Mellitus
i. This disorder is the inability to control circulating blood glucose
levels
ii. This is generally due to the absence of insulin or a loss of response
in cells to insulin
iii. This causes glucose to accumulate in the blood and be secreted in
urine, as well as the body using fats for fuel, which causes acids to
build up in the blood, which lowers the pH
1. Both of these cause kidney damage, and eventually, kidney
failure
iv. Type 1 Diabetes
1. This is called insulin dependent diabetes, because it occurs
due to an inability to produce insulin (due to genetics)
2. Also known as juvenile diabetes
3. It is an autoimmune disease due to the immune system
mistaking the pancreas as foreign tissue and destroying it
4. Treated by regular genetically engineered human insulin
injections
5. It is caused by genetics
v. Type 2 Diabetes
1. This is called noninsulin dependent diabetes, because it is
instead caused by a lack of response to the insulin, but it can
develop into insulin dependent diabetes
2. Characterized by either an insulin deficiency, or a lack of
response to insulin in the targeted cells
3. The treatment includes mainly diets and exercise
4. Sometimes people are genetically predisposed to diabetes,
but it is often due to environmental factors
5. This affects 90% of diabetics