INSPECTION & TESTING OF MATERIALS

30-01-09 2nd Lecture

Deformation and Fracture of Engineering Materials

All materials undergo changes in dimension in response to mechanical forces. This phenomenon is called
deformation. If the material reverts back to its original size and shape upon removal of the load, the
deformation is said to be elastic. On the other hand, if the application and removal of the load results in a
permanent shape change, the specimen is said to have undergone a plastic deformation.
Fracture (or rupture) occurs when a structural component or specimen separates into two or more pieces.
While fracture clearly represents failure of a component, it should be noted that depending on the design
criteria, failure, (an inability of a component to perform its desired function) may occur prior to fracture. For
example, in many applications plastic deformation represents failure without fracture. A car axle that bends
when you drive over a pothole, is an example of a component that has failed without fracture.

Elastic Deformation
Figure below shows a cylindrical specimen with an original cross sectional area A0 and length l0 subjected to
a uniaxial force F. We define engineering stress and engineering strain as follows:

= F / A0
= l / l0 = l l0 / l0

where l is the instantaneous length of the rod. For small strains, stress and strain are linearly related. This
linear relationship between stress and strain is known as Hookes Law. Furthermore, the specimen is restored
to its original condition when the force is removed (i.e. the strain is elastic). The ratio of stress to strain /
in the linear elastic region is called Youngs modulus, E. The physical significance of Youngs modulus, also
known as Elastic modulus, is that it measures the interatomic bonding forces and, therefore, the stiffness of
the material. A material with a high elastic modulus is comparatively stiff, which means it exhibits an small
amount of deformation under an applied load.
Recall that elastic modulus is related to the shape of bond-energy curve. Materials with deep, sharp bondenergy curves have high elastic moduli.
Axial strain l is always accompanied by lateral strains of opposite sign in the two directions mutually
perpendicular to the axial strain. The perpendicular or transverse strain is defined as t = d /d0 where d0 is
the original diameter and d is the change in diameter. Strains that result from an increase in length are

designated as positive (+) and those that result in a decrease in length are designated as negative (-).
Poisson's ratio is defined as the negative of the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain for a uniaxial
stress state and is constant for a given material.

Poisson's ratio is sometimes also defined as the ratio of the absolute values of lateral and axial strain. This
ratio, like strain, is unitless since both strains are unitless. For stresses within the elastic range, this ratio is
approximately constant. For a perfectly isotropic elastic material, Poisson's Ratio is 0.25, but for most
materials the value lies in the range of 0.28 to 0.33. Generally for steels, Poissons ratio will have a value of
approximately 0.3. This means that if there is one inch per inch of deformation in the direction that stress is
applied, there will be 0.3 inches per inch of deformation perpendicular to the direction that force is applied.
Recall that the shear modulus G is defined as the ratio of the applied shear stress to the resultant shear
strain , which makes G similar to E. Shear stress and strain are illustrated in the figure below:

The quantities E, G, and are called elastic constants. For isotropic materials the following relationship is
valid:

E = 2 (1 + ) G.
Only two of the elastic constants are independent so if two constants are known, the third can be calculated
using the following formula:
Where:

Tensile Testing

E = modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus)

= Poisson's ratio
G = modulus of rigidity (shear modulus).

The tensile test (ASTM E6) is one of the most important tests for determining and measuring quantitatively
the mechanical properties of structural materials.
Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. A tensile test is a
fundamental mechanical test where a carefully prepared specimen is loaded in a very controlled manner
while measuring the applied load and the elongation of the specimen over some distance. Tensile tests are
used to determine the modulus of elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit, reduction in area,
tensile strength, yield point, yield strength and other tensile properties.
Figure below shows two specimen geometries recommended by ASTM for tensile testing of metals. The
choice of specimen geometry and size often depends on the product form in which the metal is to be used or
the amount of material available for samples. A flat specimen geometry is preferred when the end product is
a thin plate or sheet. Round cross section specimen are preferred for products such as extruded bars,
forging, and castings.

As shown in the figure below, one end of the specimen is gripped in a fixture that is attached to the stationary
end of the testing machine; the other end is gripped in a fixture attached to an actuator (moving portion) of
the testing machine. The actuator usually moves at a fixed rate of displacement and thus applies load to the
specimen. The test usually continues until the specimen fractures.

During the test, the load on the specimen is measured by an extensometer (a device for measuring the change
in length of the specimen) attached directly to the specimen gage length. Loads and elongations are recorded
directly.

The main product of a tensile test is a load versus elongation curve which is then converted into a stress
versus strain curve. Since both the engineering stress and the engineering strain are obtained by dividing the
load and elongation by constant values (specimen geometry information), the load-elongation curve will
have the same shape as the engineering stress-strain curve. The stress-strain curve relates the applied stress to
the resulting strain and each material has its own unique stress-strain curve. A typical engineering stressstrain curve is shown below. If the true stress, based on the actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is
used, it is found that the stress-strain curve increases continuously up to fracture.

Elastic limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain
remaining on the complete release of load. It is determined using a tedious incremental loadingunloading test procedure i.e. successive application and release of greater and greater loads on the
specimen until a load is found at which permanent deformation is produced. This is not practical
and is rarely determined. With the sensitivity of strain measurements usually employed in
engineering studies (10 -4in/in), the elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit. With increasing
sensitivity of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit decreases until it eventually equals the
true elastic limit determined from micro strain measurements.
Proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is obtained
by observing the deviation from the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve. Most metals and
alloys exhibit linear relationship between stress and strain within the elastic range and it has been
observed that the value of the elastic limit for metals do not differ widely from the values of the
proportional limit. The proportional limit is easily determined by the use of a stress strain curve. The
procedure is relatively simple hence the proportional limit has been used as a measure of the elastic
limit.

Yield Point

In ductile materials, at some point, the stress-strain curve deviates from the straight-line relationship and Law
no longer applies as the strain increases faster than the stress. From this point on in the tensile test, some
permanent deformation occurs in the specimen and the material is said to react plastically to any further
increase in load or stress. The material will not return to its original, unstressed condition when the load is
removed. In brittle materials, little or no plastic deformation occurs and the material fractures near the end of
the linear-elastic portion of the curve.
The stress corresponding to the elastic limit is called the yield strength ys, and the corresponding
strain is called the yield point strain yp. With most materials (FCC metals, such as copper and
aluminum) there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the exact point at which plastic
deformation begins to occur is hard to determine. Therefore, various criteria for the initiation of yielding are
used depending on the sensitivity of the strain measurements and the intended use of the data. (See Table)
For most engineering design and specification applications, the yield strength is used. The yield strength is
defined as the stress required to produce a small amount of plastic deformation. The offset yield strength is
the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a line parallel to the elastic part of
the curve offset by a specified strain (in the US the offset is typically 0.2% for metals and 2% for plastics).
In Great Britain, the yield strength is often referred to as the proof stress. The offset value is either
0.1 % or 0,5 %.
To determine the yield strength using this offset, the point is found on the strain axis (x-axis) of 0.002, and
then a line parallel to the stress-strain line is drawn. This line will intersect the stress-strain line slightly after
it begins to curve, and that intersection is defined as the yield strength with a 0.2% offset.

A good way of looking at offset yield strength is that after a specimen has been loaded to its 0.2 percent
offset yield strength and then unloaded it will be 0.2 percent longer than before the test. Even though the
yield strength is meant to represent the exact point at which the material becomes permanently deformed,
0.2% elongation is considered to be a tolerable amount of sacrifice for the ease it creates in defining the yield
strength.
Some materials such as gray cast iron or soft copper exhibit essentially no linear-elastic behavior. For these
materials the usual practice is to define the yield strength as the stress required to produce some total amount
of strain.

True elastic limit is a very low value and is related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations.
Micro strain measurements are required to detect strain on order of 2 x 10 -6 in/in.

Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified amount of plastic deformation. The
yield strength obtained by an offset method is commonly used for engineering purposes because it
avoids the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or proportional limit.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or, more simply, the tensile strength, is the maximum engineering stress
level reached in a tension test. The strength of a material is its ability to withstand external forces without
breaking. In brittle materials, the UTS will at the end of the linear-elastic portion of the stress-strain curve or
close to the elastic limit. In ductile materials, the UTS will be well outside of the elastic portion into the
plastic portion of the stress-strain curve.
On the stress-strain curve above, the UTS is the highest point where the line is momentarily flat. Since the
UTS is based on the engineering stress, it is often not the same as the breaking strength. In ductile materials
strain hardening occurs and the stress will continue to increase until fracture occurs, but the engineering
stress-strain curve may show a decline in the stress level before fracture occurs. This is the result of
engineering stress being based on the original cross-section area and not accounting for the necking that
commonly occurs in the test specimen. The UTS may not be completely representative of the highest level of
stress that a material can support, but the value is not typically used in the design of components anyway. For
ductile metals the current design practice is to use the yield strength for sizing static components. However,
since the UTS is easy to determine and quite reproducible, it is useful for the purposes of specifying a
material and for quality control purposes. On the other hand, for brittle materials the design of a component
may be based on the tensile strength of the material.
Measures of Ductility (Elongation and Reduction of Area)

The ductility of a material is a measure of the extent to which a material will deform before fracture. The
amount of ductility is an important factor when considering forming operations such as rolling and extrusion.
It also provides an indication of how visible overload damage to a component might become before the
component fractures. Ductility is also used a quality control measure to assess the level of impurities and
proper processing of a material.

The conventional measures of ductility are the engineering strain at fracture (usually called the elongation)
and the reduction of area at fracture. Both of these properties are obtained by fitting the specimen back
together after fracture and measuring the change in length and cross-sectional area. Elongation is the change
in axial length divided by the original length of the specimen or portion of the specimen. It is expressed as a
percentage. Because an appreciable fraction of the plastic deformation will be concentrated in the necked
region of the tensile specimen, the value of elongation will depend on the gage length over which the
measurement is taken. The smaller the gage length the greater the large localized strain in the necked region
will factor into the calculation. Therefore, when reporting values of elongation, the gage length should be
given.
One way to avoid the complication from necking is to base the elongation measurement on the uniform strain
out to the point at which necking begins. This works well at times but some engineering stress-strain curve
are often quite flat in the vicinity of maximum loading and it is difficult to precisely establish the strain when
necking starts to occur.
Percent Reduction in area is the change in cross-sectional area divided by the original cross-sectional area.
This change is measured in the necked down region of the specimen. Like elongation, it is usually expressed
as a percentage.
% RA = (A0 Af / A0) x 100
where A0 is the original cross sectional area and Af is the final area of the necked region.
The percent reduction in area, like the percent elongation, is a measure of the ductility of the metal and is
also an index of quality. The percent reduction in area may be decreased if defects such as inclusions and/or
porosity are present in the metal specimen.
Some materials, including carbon steels, exhibit a complex yield behavior as shown in the figure below.

The transition from elastic to plastic deformation occurs abruptly and is accompanied by a reduction in
stress. With continued deformation, the stress level remains constant, then begins to rise. The drop in stress is
caused by the sudden mobility of dislocations as they are released from the strain fields associated with
interstitial atoms (i.e. C in steel). The yield strength is defined by the lowest stress at which plastic
deformation occurs and is identified as the lower yield point. The upper yield point characterizes the stress at
which plastic deformation first begins.
Modulus of Resilience

The amount of energy absorbed in stressing a material up to the elastic limit is called elastic resilience. Upon
unloading, this energy is recovered. The energy stored per unit volume at the elastic limit is the modulus of
resilience. For a unit volume the resilience is the product of average stress times strain:

E = x / 2

= 2 / 2E

It is given by the area under the stress-strain curve up to the elastic limit. The modulus of resilience is a
measure of the elastic energy strength and may be used in connection of the materials for service where
parts are subjected to energy loads, but where the stresses must be kept within the elastic limit. It is
expressed in Joules per cubic meter.
Modulus of Toughness
The area under the stress-strain curve is a measure of the energy per unit volume required to cause the
material to fracture. This quantity, given the symbol U, is one measure of toughness of a material and is
calculated as:
U = d
Toughness is a measure of ultimate energy strength of a material. This mechanical property is useful in
selection of metals or materials which are to be subjected to impact loading. The units for toughness are
(force per unit area) x (length per unit length) = (force x length) per unit volume = energy per unit volume.
Total energy absorption capacity of the specimen = (Area under the stress-strain curve) x (vol. of the
specimen)
= {Area under stress-strain curve} x { (d /2)2 x l0 }
Where d = diameter of the round specimen and l0 = gauge length or the original length of the specimen
Engineering and True Stress and Strain
The discussion above focused on engineering stress and strain, which use the fixed, undeformed crosssectional area in the calculations. True stress and strain measures account for changes in cross-sectional area
by using the instantaneous values for the area. The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true
indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal because it is based entirely on the original dimensions
of the specimen, and these dimensions change continuously during the testing used to generate the data.
Engineering stress and strain data is commonly used because it is easier to generate the data and the tensile
properties are adequate for engineering calculations. When considering the stress-strain curves in the next
section, however, it should be understood that metals and other materials continues to strain-harden until
they fracture and the stress required to produce further deformation also increase.
True stress t is defined as the load F divided by the instantaneous area Ai:

t = F / Ai
True strain t is related to the differential change in length dl, divided by the instantaneous length l and is
calculated as:

t =

dl/l = ln (li/l0)

If we assume, constant volume of the gage-length section of the test specimen during the test, then l0A0 = liAi
or li/l0 = A0 /Ai and t = ln (li/l0) = ln A0 /Ai
Prior to the onset of necking, the following relationships between the true and engineering stress and strain
are valid:

= ln(1 + )

and

t = / 1 +

Another useful relationship is that between the true fracture strain tf and the percent reduction in area, %
RA, given by:

tf

ln (100 / 100 RA)

As previously discussed, tension is just one of the way that a material can be loaded. Other ways of loading a
material include compression, bending, shear and torsion, and there are a number of standard tests that have
been established to characterize how a material performs under these other loading conditions. A very
cursory introduction to some of these other material properties will be provided in my coming lectures.