6.

MATERIALS IN DESIGN OF MACHINE PARTS

COMMON MATERIALS FOR MECHANICAL PARTS

Common materials from which machine or structural parts are made are:
(a)
Cast iron;
(b)
Steel;
(c)
Copper and its alloys;
(d)
Aluminium and its alloys;
(e)
Plastics.
The factors to be considered in selecting the material for machine part are:
(a)
Mechanical properties;
(b)
Non mechanical properties
(c)
Manufacturing considerations;
(d)
Availability;
(e)
Cost.
6.1

PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties of engineering materials are properties that describe the response of a
material to the application of a force. Factors that serve as indicators of these mechanical
properties are:
a)
b)
c)
d)

Capacity to carry external load without failure;

Capacity to resist abrasive wear;
Deflection and elastic characteristics in response to external load;
Amenability to various mechanical manufacturing processes

The mechanical factors listed above are often dominant performance requirements that
machine (or structural) parts must satisfy. The choice of material from which a machine part
is made must therefore consider the appropriateness of the mechanical properties.
Mechanical properties are therefore usually given priority consideration in selection of
material for a machine or structural part.
Non-mechanical properties
Subsequently however, other relevant non-mechanical properties must also be considered.
Examples of other properties, which may be relevant to a particular machine part or structure,
are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Ability to resist corrosion or chemical attack (chemical);

Heat transmission or insulation properties (thermal);
Magnetic properties.
Electrical properties
Weight and portability.

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6.2

Nyangasi

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

A number of mechanical properties can be defined precisely, others rather vaguely. The terms
used have developed over a period of many years, during which metal technology has been
advancing. Means are available to quantitatively evaluate many properties, while others are
only evaluated qualitatively ( i.e. relative to the alternative material).
a)

Strength is the ability of a material to resist the intensity of applied load or stress. It
may be qualified according to the type of load, as tensile strength, compressive
strength, or shear strength. It varies with the time rate of loading, temperature, and
fluctuations of stress.

b)

Hardness may be defined as resistance to penetration, and can be readily measured.

c)

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original size and shape after a
deforming force has been removed. Elasticity does not necessarily imply a large
amount of deformation. Soft rubber is elastic, not because it stretches, but because it
returns to its original shape after being deformed. Stiffness and rigidity are related
mechanical properties indicating the ability of the material to resist deflection.

d)

Ductility is the ability of a material to be deformed in tension without fracture.

Consequently, a rod, made from a ductile material may be drawn into a wire.

e)

Malleability is the ability of a material to be permanently deformed in compression.

A malleable material may be hammered or rolled into thin sheets. Most metals that
are malleable are also ductile; but there are exceptions. Lead is malleable, but not
ductile (weak in tension).

f)

Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb considerable energy before fracture. It

is usually represented by the area under a stress-strain curve (or by the energy
absorbed in an impact test) and therefore involves both ductility and strength.

g)

Brittleness is the opposite of toughness, and implies that a material will fracture with
no appreciable deformation. Brittle materials exhibit little ductility, because ductility
is one of the indicators of toughness.

6.2.1 Static and Dynamic properties

It is not possible to predict all the mechanical properties of a metal after measuring only one
or two. Laboratory tests have been developed to study the behaviour of materials under
various types of loads. These tests are classified as either static or dynamic, according to
whether the metal's response to constant or varying load is to be investigated.
6.2.2

Static tests

Static tests are those in which the load is constant, or slowly and gradually increased. The
assumption is made that at any particular point, conditions are the same as though the
specimens were carrying a constant load of that magnitude. Static tests are:
(a)

Tension,

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(b)

Compression,
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(c)
(d)

Hardness,
Creep,

6.2.3

Tests for Mechanical properties

(e)

Torsion.

4)
5)
6)

Modulus of elasticity;
Percent elongation, and;
Percent reduction in area.

RESULTS OF TENSION TEST

Items usually reported in a tension test are:
1)
2)
3)

Tensile strength;
Yield point;
Limit of proportionality;

Engineering stress-strain diagram depicts the variation of stress with strain based on the
original gauge length lo and diameter d o of the specimen.
The stress is then computed as =

P
l lo
, while the strain is computed as =
.
Ao
lo

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM-TENSILE TEST

Ductile Material
Brittle Material
Sut

Sut
Sy

S-

Stress

S-

Stress

Sy

Strain

Strain

DUCTILE MATERIALS
a) Proportional limit pl identifies region of linear relationship between stress and strain
where stress-strain curve = E is linear and Hookes Law applies
b) Elastic limit el identifies where permanent set starts
c) Yield point S y identifies where large deformation occurs without increase in stress. Some
materials do not show the yield point
d) Point of ultimate tensile strength Sut is the highest stress in the diagram
e) Point of fracture S fracture is the stress and strain at which fracture of the specimen occurs in
the diagram
f) For materials where yield point is not obvious, the offset method is used to identify a
yield stress. A value of 0.2 % of gauge length is often used, implying a strain of 0.002.

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BRITTLE MATERIALS
a) Brittle material such as cast iron and some high strength steels fracture while the stress
strain curve is still rising
b) The fracture strength and the ultimate tensile strength therefore coincide
c) The plastic deformation represented by percentage elongation and reduction in area at
fracture is much lower for brittle materials
COMPRESSION TEST
This is run in the same general way as a tension test. It is usually limited to those materials
which are primarily loaded in compression, such as concrete and cast iron.
TORSION TEST
One end of the specimen is held in a fixed grip, and the other end is rotated about its own
axis. The measured variables are torque and angular displacement. Stress-strain curves
plotted from these tests are similar to those from tensile tests.
HARDNESS TEST
A number of instruments have been developed for the determination of indentation type
hardness. These are:
a)

The Brinnell hardness tester forces a hardened steel or tungsten carbide ball of
specified diameter (10, 5, 2.5, or 1 mm.) into the surface of the specimen by means of
a fixed weight. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is the weight used, divided by the
area of the hemi-spherical impression. Thus the harder metals have the higher
numbers. In practice, the diameter of the impression is measured and referred to a
table to find the BHN. A 3000 Kg. Load is standard for hard metals and a 500 Kg. for
soft metals.

b)

In the Rockwell test, the depth of indentation is measured and a dial records an
arbitrary number which is related inversely to the depth of indentation.

c)

In the Vickers hardness tester, an indentation is made with a four-sided pyramid

having an apex angle of 136 degrees. The hardness number is then determined as the
load W in kilograms, divided by the surface area of indentation in sq. mm.
V .P.N . =

1.854 * W
D

Where,
W is the load , and D is the length of the diagonal of the impression
in the plane of the metal , measured in mm.

Uses of hardness test

Hardness tests have several uses:
a)

Uniformity of the sample

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The hardness values of materials provide a means of determining the relative hardness of the
material. By making hardness measurements over a surface, the uniformity of the sample can
be tested.
b)

Uniformity of a metallurgical process

In addition, the uniformity of a metallurgical process such as heat treatment can be found by
hardness measurements over the samples.
c)

Estimation of Strength

Correlation between hardness and tensile strength shows that hardness values can be used as
a means of approximately predicting the tensile strength of steels.
d)

A non-destructive method for quality control

The hardness test is perhaps one of the most widely used non-destructive methods of testing.
The test is used in all manufacturing operations as a measure of uniformity and quality.
Inspection and control operations in manufacturing often use the hardness test as the most
reliable measure of quality.
6.2.4

Dynamic tests

Dynamic tests are those in which the load is suddenly applied, or is pulsating. Many machine
parts are subject to such loads and dynamic loads cause the large majority of all failures.
Dynamic loads can also be classified into impact loads and cyclic loads. Impact loads are
cases where the load is applied once but suddenly, while cyclic loads are cases where stresses
are applied repeatedly.
Cyclic stresses can arise from a constant load whose direction of action changes, such as in
the case of a constant load acting on a rotating member.
Dynamic and cyclic loading tests are:
(a)
(b)

Impact,
Fatigue

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(c)

Damping capacity.

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6.3

SELECTION OF MATERIAL FOR MACHINE PARTS

6.3.1 Mechanical properties

Past experience is a good guide for the selection of material, but possibilities of applying new
materials should not be ignored. Therefore, consider and exploit past experience, but avoid
enslavement by the past.
In Table 6.1, the various mechanical properties of materials are shown against the indicators
commonly used to measure their values. The indicators are determined from laboratory tests
on specimens.
Table 6.1: Mechanical properties of metals and criteria measured as indicators
MECHANICAL PROPERTY
Strength(under static load)
Strength(repeated load)
Rigidity
Ductility
Hardness
Toughness
Frictional properties

MEASURED BY
Ultimate tensile strength or tensile yield strength
Endurance strength
Modulus of elasticity
Percentage elongation
Brinell or Rockwell hardness number
Charpy or Izod impact value
Co-efficient of friction

From Table 6.1, it is seen that the simple tension test provides measures for static strength,
rigidity, and ductility. An indication of toughness is also obtained from the values of strength
and ductility.
6.3.2

Manufacturing factors

Available methods for producing metal parts are:

(a) Cutting;
(b) Machining;
(c) Welding;

(d) Casting;
(e) Forging;
(f) Heat treatment;

(g) Rolling;
(h) Extrusion, e.t.c.

The choice of material for part must consider the intended manufacturing method.
6.3.2 Availability
In practice, the factor of availability should be considered first.
6.3.4

Component parts of cost of part

The cost of a machine part is made up of components shown in Table below. The choice of
manufacturing process must therefore consider this cost components of manufacturing:
Cost category
Cost components
1 Direct costs
Material and direct labour
2 Indirect costs
Energy, Water, indirect labour such as supervision and maintenance
3 Overheads
Management and management services, Depreciation of assets

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6.4 STEEL AND STEEL STANDARDS

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, in which the carbon content is less than 2.0 %. Other
alloying elements present in steel are:
(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)
(f)

Silicon,
Manganese,
Chromium,

Nickel,
Molybdenum,
Tungsten,

(g)

Vanadium.

Sulphur and Phosphorus occur as impurities originating from the ore and refining process.
6.4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL BY APPLICATION
The choice of steel for a particular application is initially made by choosing the carbon
content. Table 6.3 gives guidelines1 on the carbon content suitable for various common
applications.
Table 6.3:Uses for steel by carbon content
Carbon
class
Low
Medium
High
Very High

Carbon
range, %
0.05-0.15
0.15-0.30
0.30-0.45
0.45-0.60
0.60-0.75
0.75-0.90
0.90-1.00
1.00-1.10
1.10-1.20
1.20-1.30
1.30-1.40
1.40-1.50

Use
Chain, Nails, Pipe rivets, Sheets for pressing and stamping, wire
Bars, Plates, Structural shapes
Axles, connecting rods, shafting
Crankshafts, scraper blades
Automobile springs, Anvils, Band saws, Drop hammer dies
Chisels, punches, hand tools
Knives, Shear blades, springs
Milling Cutters, Dies, Taps
Lathe Tools, Woodworking Tools
Files, Reamers
Dies for wire drawing
Metal cutting saws

After the approximate carbon content of the steel to be used is determined, the decision is
then made whether to use plain carbon steel, or an alloy.
6.5.3 Effects of alloying elements
Alloying elements are added to steel to enhance desired properties, and to minimise undesired
properties. Alloys are also added to modify manufacturing processes such as to permit
simpler heat treatment processes. Table 6.4, summarises the effects of various alloying
elements.

Shigley, Joseph E., Engineering Design, pp.222., McGraw-Hill Book C0mpany Inc., 1963.

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Table 6.4: Alloying elements and there effects on the steel

Alloying
element
Chromium
Nickel
Manganese
Silicon
Molybdenum
Vanadium
Tungsten

Effect on the steel

Increases hardness, without reducing ductility. Refines grain structure and increases
toughness. Simplifies heat treatment requirements.
Increases strength without reducing ductility. Refines grain structure and increases
toughness. Simplifies heat treatment requirements.
Added as a deoxidising and desulphurising agent. Considered as alloy when above 1
%. Enables oil quenching.
Added as a deoxidising agent. Stabilises carbides formed by other alloying elements.
Improves oil hardening and air hardening properties. Used with Chromium and Nickel
to simplify heat treatment.
Widely used in tool steels. Steel retains its hardness at high temperatures.
Widely used in tool steels. Tool maintains its hardness even at red heat.

Appendix B shows the applications of various plain and alloy steels from American standard
specifications and their recommended heat treatment. This may be summarised as in Table
6.5 below.
Table 6.5: Classification of steels by application, carbon and alloy content
Low carbon
0.10-0.25 %

Medium carbon
0.30-0.50 %
High Carbon
>.60 %

No alloy
(1)Structural, (2)Case
Hardening,
(3)General
Engineering steels
(3)General
Engineering
(6)Tool Steels

Low alloy
(2)Case Hardening,
(3)General
Engineering,
(4)Boiler Plates
(3)General
Engineering
(6)Tool Steels

Medium Alloy
(3)General
Engineering,
(4)Boiler Plates
(3)General
Engineering
(6)Tool Steels

High alloy
(5)Stainless
Steels

(6)Tool
Steels

6.5.4 Limit of alloy content in plain carbon steels

The distinction between plain carbon steels and alloy steels is based on the percentage by
weight of the alloy content. For a single alloy element, the maximum value of alloy content
above which the steel moves from plain to alloy classification are:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Chromium Cr, ( 0.3 %) ;

Manganese Mn, ( 1.6 %) ;
Molybdenum Mo, ( 0.08 %) ;

(d)
(e)

Nickel Ni, ( 0.3 %) ;

Silicon Si, ( 0.5 %) .

However, when more than one alloy element is present simultaneously, then the limiting sum
of the elements content is reduced to 70 % of the sum of the limits for individual alloy
elements.
For example, when Chromium and Nickel are present simultaneously, the limit for
classifying the product as plain is reduced to 70 % of ( 0.3 + 0.3 ), or 0.42 %.

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6.5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS IN VARIOUS NATIONAL STANDARDS

From suppliers who produce steels to various national standards, steel is also classified by
application into categories shown in the Table 6.6 below:
Table 6.6: Classification of steels in National Standards

Application of the steel

Steels for general structural purposes
Case hardening steels for general engineering
purposes (Heat treatable)
Heat treatable steels for general engineering
purposes
Steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels

5
6

Stainless steels
Tool steels

1
2
3

Criterion for standard & supplier classification

ultimate tensile strength (plain carbon steels)
carbon and alloy content (plain carbon & alloy steels)
carbon and alloy content (plain carbon & alloy steels)
ultimate tensile strength and temperature (plain carbon
& alloy steels)
carbon and alloy content (alloys only)
carbon and alloy content (plain carbon & alloy steels)

6.5.5 Specification of steels by application in national standards

Steels are produced according to various national standard specifications. Many of these
national standard specifications classify steels according to properties shown below:
(a)
Ultimate tensile strength, or yield strength;
(b)
Carbon content;
(c)
Content of alloying elements.
6.6 GENERAL STRUCTURAL STEELS: Specified By Ultimate Tensile Strength
In many national standards, steels for general structural purposes are specified based on the
minimum ultimate tensile strength required.
Table 6.7 shows standard specifications for steels for general structural purposes, according
to four national standards. The grade specification indicates the minimum ultimate tensile
strength allowed. For example, the material with the designation DIN 17000 St 42 is
equivalent to BS 4360 Grade 43A. Both materials are expected to have a minimum ultimate
tensile strength of 410-490 (Average of 420-430) Mpa. The figure 42 or 43 in the designation
St 42 and 43A therefore represents 1/10 of the minimum ultimate tensile strength allowed, in
Mpa.
Table 6.7: National standards for Steels for general structural purposes
Standards Organisation and its Code
DIN2
BS3 4360 ASTM4
1700
Grade
A283-78
Grade
St 34
A283 B
St 37
A283 B
St 42
43A
A283 B
St 50
50C
A573Gr70
St 50-3
A633GrE
St 60
St 70
--

JIS5
G3101G3125
SS 34
SM 41
SM 50
SS 33
-

Tensile
Strength
Mpa
330-410
360-440
410-490
490-590
510-610
590-700
685-830

Chemical Composition
C
%
<=0.17
<=0.17
<=0.25
0.25
<=0.22
0.4
0.5

P
%
<=0.06
<=0.05
<=0.05
<=0.08
<=0.45
<=0.05
<=0.05

S
%
<=0.05
<=0.05
<=0.05
<=0.05
<=0.45
<=0.05
<=0.05

German Industrial Standards

British Standards
4
American Standard for the Testing of Materials
5
Japanese Industrial Standards
3

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This approach is adopted in most national standards for the specification of steels for general
structural purposes. Steels for general structural purposes are plain carbon steels, even though
carbon content is not the primary factor used in their specification.
Steels for general structural purposes are intended to be used without further processing, for
example in building structures.
They are produced by hot rolling into shapes such as bar shapes (round, square, flat, hexagon)
and structural shapes (Tee, Channel, Angle, Wide flange, Zee).
6.7 STEELS FOR GENERAL ENGINEERING PURPOSES: Specification By
CARBON AND ALLOY CONTENT
Specification by carbon and alloy content is used for plain carbon and alloy steels for general
engineering purposes in most national standards. These steels are intended for engineering
purposes other than general structural purposes.
The designation of the steel is then based on the carbon content such that the figure
representing the carbon grade is 100 times the carbon content of the steel. For example, plain
carbon steel with carbon content of 0.10 % would be designated as 10.
6.7.1 CASE HARDENING STEELS FOR GENERAL ENGINEERING PURPOSES
Table 6.8 shows standard specifications for case hardening steels from four national
standards. The table includes both plain carbon and alloy steels. The material designated as
DIN 17210 C10, and Ck10 are equivalent to BS 970 045A10, and the materials are case
hardening plain carbon steels with 0.10 % carbon content.
Table 6.8: National standards for some case hardening steels for general engineering
Standard Organisation and its standard codes
DIN
BS
ASTM
JIS
17210
970
A576
A331
C10,
G405L
Ck10
1010
510C
045A1
0
C15,
1015
G4051
Ck15
S15C
15Cr3

523A1
4

Chemical composition
C
%

Cr
%

Ni
%

Si
%

Mn
%

0.070.13

0.150.35

0.300.60

0.120.18
0.120.18

0.150.35
0.100.40

0.300.60
0.300.60

0.150.40
0.150.40

1.001.30
0.400.60

0.400.70

0.801.10
1.5-1.8

5015
16Mn
CrNi5
17Cr
NiMo6

822A1
7

0.140.19
0.140.19

1.4-1.7

6.7.2 OTHER HEAT TREATABLE STEELS FOR GENERAL ENGINEERING

PURPOSES
Table 6.9 shows standard specifications for other heat treatable steels from four national
standards. The table includes both plain carbon and alloy steels. The material designated as
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DIN 17200 Ck45 is equivalent to BS 970 080M46 and the materials are heat treatable plain
carbon steels with 0.45-0.46 % carbon content.
6.7.3 Specification by carbon and alloying element content
For alloy steels, both carbon and alloy content are used to specify the product.
For example, the material shown in Table 6.8 as DIN 17210 15Cr3, is equivalent to BS 970
523A14. Both materials are expected to have a carbon content of 0.14 - 0.15 %. This part of
the specification is the same as that for plain carbon steels.
Table 6.9: National standards for some heat treatable steels for general engineering
Standard Organisation and its codes
DIN
BS 970 ASTM
JIS
17200
Part
A576
G4051
17210
2&3
A331
G4106
17211
Ck22
040A20 1020
S20C
Ck35
080A35 1035
S35C
Ck45
080M4
1045
S45C
6
34Cr4
530A36 5135
SCr435
34Mn4
41Cr4
530A40 SCr445
42CrM
708M4
4140
SCM44
o4
0
0
50CrM
4150
SCM44
o4
5
30CrNi 823M3
Mo8
0

Chemical composition
C
Cr
Ni
%
%
%

Mo
%

Si
%

Mn
%

0.18-.25
0.32-39
0.42-.50

0.15-.35
0.15-.35
0.15-.35

0.30-.60
0.50-.80
0.50-.80

0.30-.37

0.90-1.2

0.15-.40

0.60-.90

0.38-.45
0.38-.45

0.90-1.2
0.90-1.2

0.15-.30

0.15-.40
0.15-.40

0.50-.80
0.50-.80

0.46-.54

0.90-1.2

0.15-.30

0.15-.40

0.50-.80

0.26-.33

1.80-2.2

1.80-2.2

0.30-.50

0.15-.40

0.30-.60

To specify the content of the Chromium alloying element, the DIN standard designates the
material as Cr3. The figure 3 represents the alloy content multiplied by a factor of 4. This
means that the actual content of the Chromium alloying element is 3/4 %, or 0.75 %. The
material therefore is an alloy steel with:
Carbon content = 0.15 %
Chromium content = 0.75 %
For the BS specification, the alloy content is not readily determined from the numbering in
the designation.
6.7.4

Strength, Hardness and Ductility of Heat-treatable Steels

The steels shown in Tables 6.8 and 6.9 are intended for use in machine parts. Carbon and
alloy content, as well as heat treatment, if any, are therefore selected to achieve desired
mechanical properties such as strength and hardness. At the same time, efforts are made to
keep undesired properties such as brittleness to their minimum values.
When selecting a starting material for a particular application, it is necessary to correlate the
desired properties of strength and hardness with the carbon and alloy content, as well as to
identify these with a particular material from a national standard specification. Appendix A
provides guidelines for selecting material specification that will provide the desired
properties of strength, hardness and ductility.
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6.8 STEEL PLATES FOR BOILERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS: Specified By

Ultimate Tensile Strength And Temperature
Table 6.10 shows specifications for steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels from four
national standards. These are specified with minimum tensile strength at specified
temperatures. These requirements are achieved by combination of low carbon and specified
content of alloying elements. The alloy elements used are Chromium, Nickel, Molybdenum,
and Manganese.
Table 6.10: National standards for some Steel plates for boilers and pressure vessels
Standard Organisation and its codes
DIN
BS
ASTM
JIS
17006
1501
A 285
G 3115
Part
A 516
G3116
1&2
A 387
G 4109
HI
141
Gr B
HII
Gr26C1 Gr 60
5PV 24
.1
HIII
161
Gr 65
SG 30
HIV
211
17Mn4
213

Tensile
strengt
h
UTS
Mpa
340
400

Chemical composition
C
Mn
Mo
%
%
%

Cr
%

Ni
%

<=0.16
<=0.20

<=0.40
<=0.50

<=0.10
<=0.10

<=0.30
<=0.30

<=0.30
<=0.30

430
460
460

<=0.22
<=0.26
0.14-.20

<=0.55
<=0.60
0.90-1.2

<=0.10
<=0.10
<=0.10

<=0.30
<=0.30
<=0.30

<=0.30
<=0.30
<=0.30

6.9 STAINLESS STEELS: Specification By Carbon And Alloy Content

Table 6.11 shows specifications for stainless steels from four national standards. Stainless
steels have high alloy content, usually in excess of 10 % alloy. The alloys used are Chromium
and Nickel. The high alloy makes the material resistant to corrosion, even at high
temperature.
Table 6.11: National standards for some stainless steels
Standard Organisation and its codes
DIN
BS 970
AISI
JIS
17440
Part 4
13
G4303
17224
1479Par
G4309
t2
X5CrNi
304 S15
304
SUS304
189
X12CrNi 303 S21
303
SUS 303
S
188

Chemical composition
C
Ni
Cr
%
%
%

Si
%

Mn
%

<=0.07

8.5-10.0

17.0-20.0

<=1.0

<=2.0

<=0.15

8.0-10.0

17.0-19.0

<=1.0

<=2.0

In the DIN specification, the designation is interpreted as below:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

X indicates high alloy content

Next number represents 1/100 of the carbon content, (12 indicates 0.12 % carbon);
Next Letters indicate alloying constituents;
Next Numbers indicate alloy content in %, CrNi188 indicates 18 % Cr and 8 % Ni..

6.10 TOOL STEELS: Specification By Carbon And Alloy Content

Table 6.12 shows specifications for Tool steels from four national standards. The application
of tool steels includes a wide variety such as Metal cutting tools, Metal forming dies, e.t.c.

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Table 6.12: National standards for some Tool steels

Standard Organisation and its codes
VDE h BS
ASTM JIS
Wbl
4659
A 686
G4401
90A 681
150,25
A 600
0,320
C80
BW1
W1
SK1W1
(A-C)
SK7
BW2
W2
105W
Cr6
90Mn
V8
60CrV
7

X165C
rMoV1
2
X38Cr
MoV5
1

BO1

O1

SKS31

BO2

O2

B31

S1

SKS41

BA2

A2

SKD1
2

BD2

D2

BH

H11

SKD6

Chemical composition
C
Cr
Mo
%
%
%

0.601.40
0.851.40
0.851.00
0.850.96
0.350.65
0.951.05
1.4-1.9

0.320.42

W
%

V
%

Si
%

Mn
%

0.400.60
-

-0.40

0.150.35
-0.30

0.100.40
0.100.40
-0.50

0.20

-0.50

1.001.80
4.755.50
11-13

-0.40

-1.0

0.150.30
0.150.50
-1.10

-0.60

0.901.40
0.6-1.2

1.503.00
-

0.100.40
0.100.40
1.001.40
1.402.00
-0.70

-0.60

-0.60

4.755.25

1.001.50

0.30

0.851.1

-0.50

Tool steels are therefore primarily high carbon steels in the range of 0.6 to 1.9 % carbon.
Some tool steels are therefore plain carbon, while the majority are alloy steels. For example,
the material designated BS 4659 BW1 (A-C) is a plain carbon steel, while BS 4659 BW2
includes a small percentage of Vanadium.
Vanadium and Tungsten serve to increase the hardness. Other alloys such as Chromium and
Nickel modify properties such as strength, ductility toughness, and response to heat
treatment,
6.11 EXAMPLE OF MATERIAL SELECTION FOR A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
In Table 6.12, an example is shown of one pump design (KSB Etanorm6 pump series), which
is produced in a variety of materials so as to satisfy varying environmental conditions such as
wear from particles in pumped liquid, resistance to corrosive environment, strength, e.t.c.
Materials used for various pump parts include:
1) Grey cast iron GG
2) Grey cast iron GG-25
3) Nodular cast iron GGG-40.3
4) Tin Bronze G-CuSn10
5) Red Bronze G-CuPb10Sn
6) Tempering steel St 60/45
7) Chrome Molybdenum steel 1.4122
8) Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4462
9) Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4571
10) Cast Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4408
11) Cast Chrome Nickel Molybdenum steel 1.4462

Extracted from KSB Etanorm Product Sheet

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Table 6.12: Material selection: Example from KSB Etanorm Pump Series
PART
Volute
casing

Etanorm G
Grey cast iron
GG-25

Discharge
cover

Grey cast iron

GG-25

Impeller

Grey cast iron

GG-25

Casing wear
rings

Grey cast iron

GG

Shaft

Tempering steel
St 60/45

Shaft sleeve

Chrome Nickel
Molybdenum
steel 1.4571
Chrome
Molybdenum
steel 1.4122
Grey cast iron
GG-25

Shaft
protecting
sleeve
Bearing
bracket

Material used for each part in each pump designation

Etanorm M
Etanorm B
Etanorm S
Etanorm C
Grey cast iron Tin Bronze G- Nodular
cast Cast Chrome Nickel
GG-25
CuSn10
iron GGG-40.3 Molybdenum
steel
1.4408
Grey cast iron Tin Bronze G- Nodular
cast Cast Chrome Nickel
GG-25
CuSn10
iron GGG-40.3 Molybdenum
steel
1.4408
Tin Bronze G- Tin Bronze G- Grey cast iron Cast Chrome Nickel
CuSn10
CuSn10
GG-25
Molybdenum
steel
1.4408
Grey cast iron Red Bronze G- Grey cast iron Chrome
Nickel
GG
/Red CuPb10Sn
GG
Molybdenum
steel
Bronze
G1.4408
CuPb10Sn
Tempering steel Chrome Nickel Tempering steel Cast Chrome Nickel
St 60/45
Molybdenum
St 60/45
Molybdenum
steel
steel 1.4462
1.4462
Chrome Nickel Chrome Nickel Chrome Nickel Chrome
Nickel
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
steel
steel 1.4571
steel 1.4571
steel 1.4571
1.4571
Chrome
Chrome Nickel Chrome
Chrome
Nickel
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
steel
steel 1.4122
steel 1.4571
steel 1.4122
1.4571
Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Grey cast iron Grey cast iron GG-25
GG-25
GG-25
GG-25

6.12 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

Heat treatment given to steel may be roughly classified into non-quenching and quenching
types:
(a)

Non-quenching types

These types of heat treatment are usually applied as preliminary or intermediate treatments
used to condition the steel for further processing and heat treating. They include:
(1) Stress relieving
This is performed to relieve stresses caused by cold working. Process consists of heating
to just below the critical temperature, followed by cooling slowly, usually in air. Stresses
relieved include those caused by straightening and machining.
(2) Annealing
This is an intermediate process used to reduce the hardness caused by casting and forging
steels above 0.35 % carbon, so that the parts may thereafter be machined. The process
consists of heating the steel above the critical temperature followed by cooling slowly in a
furnace.

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(3) Normalising
This is applied in parts that have been rolled, or forged, to refine the grain structure so
that it may subsequently respond uniformly to heat treatment. The process consists of
heating the steel to above the critical temperature and cooling in still air.
(b)

Quenching

Quenching types of heat treatment is given to steel to impart the final physical properties
desired for the part. The heat treatment types include:
(1) Through hardening
This is the most common heat treatment of steel, and involves heating the part to above
the critical temperature, followed by quenching and tempering.
(2) Tempering
Tempering consists of re-heating the steel to a temperature below the critical point and
then cooling it at a pre-determined rate. The purpose is to reduce or draw back the as
quenched hardness.
(3) Case hardening
This involves hardening the surface layer of the part by the addition of carbon or nitrogen.
After the addition of carbon, the part is then heated to above the critical temperature and
then quenched. The purpose is to create a hard case on the part A hardened case of depth
ranging from 0.25 to 2.5 mm. can be produced in this way.
(4) Surface hardening
This is a form of case hardening, but in which the surface of the steel is heated directly to
a point above the critical temperature and then quenched. It is usually performed on steels
with a sufficiently high carbon content such as 0.30 % carbon and above. The steel is
therefore able to respond to heating and quenching without the preliminary procedure of
addition of carbon used in case hardening.

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6.5 CAST IRON

Cast iron can be produced in three forms, namely:
(a) Grey cast iron;
(b) Malleable cast iron;

(c) Ductile (nodular) cast iron;

(d) White iron.

All the three forms of cast iron are alloys of iron and carbon, with carbon content by weight
ranging from 2 % to 4 %. Cast irons also contain a high amount of silicon, often in excess of
1 %. Other elements that occur in small quantities ( often less than 1 %) are Sulphur,
Manganese, and Phosphorus.
6.5.1 Grey cast iron
Grey cast iron is obtained when casting conditions combine with the chemical composition to
yield a product in which the carbon occurs in the form of flakes of graphite. These thin flakes
of graphite are distributed evenly through the ferrite and cause the appearance of the microstructure to darken, hence the name grey cast iron.
Grey cast iron is widely used. In most national standards, it is classified according to its
tensile strength, as shown in Table 6.2 with the example from British Standard specifications.
Table 6.2:Mechanical properties of grey cast iron (Tensile strength corresponds to the
BS Grade)
Mechanical Properties
Tensile strength (Mpa.)
Compressive strength (Mpa.)
Shear strength (Mpa.)
Endurance limit (Mpa.)
Young's modulus (Gpa.)
Modulus of rigidity(Gpa.)
Hardness (HB)

Grade Designation (British Standard Specification)

150
180
220
260
300
150
180
220
260
300
587
663
766
868
970
176
222
284
346
407
71
82
96
111
125
71-96
79-104
89-114
100-124 110-135
29-40
32-42
36-45
40-48
43-51
160
176
196
216
236

350
350
1097
484
143
124-147
48-55
261

400
400
1225
562
161
137-160
53-58
286

Other national standards apply a classification scheme similiar to that shown in Table 6.2. For
example, grey cast iron Grade FG 150 in the Indian standards is equivalent to Grade 150 in
the British standards.
(a)

Advantages of Grey Cast Iron

(i) Availability;
(ii)
Low cost for volume production;
(iii) Amenability to production of complex shapes, thereby reducing the requirements for
machining operations;
(iv)
High compressive strength compared to steel. Therefore preferred for compressive
loading situations;
(v)
Ability to damp vibrations;
(vi)
Resistance to wear;
(vii) Resistance to corrosion (relative to untreated steel).

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Disadvantages

(i) Low tensile strength, compared to steel;

(ii)
Section size sensitivity i.e. Tensile strength decreases as section size increases;
(iii) Brittleness. Little plastic deformation before fracture, and no yield point. Cast iron is
therefore subject to brittle failure, and therefore not suitable for applications in which
failure by yielding, rather than sudden fracture would be preferred.
(iv)
Low impact resistance;
(v)
Poor machinability, compared to steel;
(c)

Applications

(i)
(ii)

Machine tool beds, frames, guides, pulleys, hydraulic cylinders e.t.c;

I.C. Engine parts, such as cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, crank-cases, exhaust
manifolds, e.t.c;
Flywheels, brake drums, brake shoes e.t.c;
Hydraulic pipes, pipe fittings, valve bodies e.t.c.

(iii)
(iv)

6.5.2 White cast iron

White cast iron is a product in which the carbon is combined with iron to form Cementite ( a
compound of iron Fe, and carbon C), with no free graphite present. The product is obtained
by a specified combination of casting process, and chemical composition of the melt.
Cementite is very hard, and white cast iron therefore also displays this property. White cast
iron is therefore very hard, brittle, and difficult to machine.
6.5.3 Malleable cast iron
Malleable iron is made by the heat treatment of white cast iron.
Malleable cast iron is obtained, when white cast iron, within a certain composition range, is
annealed. The annealing process breaks down the Cementite, and frees the carbon from the
Cementite. The free carbon then reconstitutes itself into graphite. However, instead of the
free graphite taking the form of flakes, as in grey cast iron, the annealing process causes it to
form rosettes of free graphite.
This transformation of graphite into form of rosettes changes the properties of the resultant
material from hard and brittle, to softer and ductile. The tensile strength of the material is also
increased.
Malleable iron therefore has properties somewhat similar to low carbon steel, but with the
added advantage of easier casting. The significant properties are the combination of ductility,
strength, and castability.
The heat treatment process required to transform white cast iron, into malleable iron is
however long, taking a period of days. The product is therefore expensive to produce.

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6.5.4 Ductile (Nodular) cast iron

The microstructure of Ductile iron is similar to that of malleable iron, to the extent that it also
contains free graphite, although in nodular form. The material is therefore sometimes referred
to as nodular iron.
The difference between malleable and ductile iron is in the process of production. Instead of
the lengthy and expensive heat treatment given to white cast iron to yield malleable iron,
ductile iron is produced in the as cast condition, and thereafter it is given a simpler heat
treatment of 1 hour annealing.
The transformation of free graphite from flakes to nodules is achieved by innoculating the
cast iron melt with cesium and magnesium. These additives cause the carbon in the melt to
form nodules of free graphite during cooling and solidification.
Ductile iron, in the as cast condition, therefore exhibits properties similiar to malleable iron,
after it is given a simpler heat treatment of 1 hour annealing.
6.13 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
6.14 ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS
References
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Mechanical properties of Metallic materials, Beaumont, J.

Mechanical Behaviour of Engineering Materials, Mariu, Joseph.
Strength of Materials, VOL. II, Timoshenko, S.
Design of machine elements, Bhandari, V.B., TATA McGraw-Hill, 1994.
Mechanical Engineering Design, Shigley, J., McGraw-Hill International Edition, 1986
Drawing and design, Bhandari, V.B., University of Dar-es-salaam, 1983.

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APPENDIX A7: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME STEELS

Material

British
Standard8

Productio
n process

0.20C

070M20

HR9
CD10

0.30C

080M30

HR
CD

Maximum
section
size, mm.
152
254
13
76
152
254
13
63
63
150
63
63
150
63
150
100
29
150
29
152
102
64
29
64

0.40C

080M40

0.50C

080M50

1Cr

530M40

H&T11
HR
CD
H&T
HR
CD
H&T
H&T

1.5MnMo

605M36

H&T

1.25NiCr

640M40

H&T

3NiCr

653M31

H&T

1CrMo

708M40

H&T

3CrMo

722M24

H&T

150
13
152

2.5NiCrMo

826M40

H&T

150

3NiCrMo

830M31

H&T

1.5MnNiCrMo

945M38

H&T

254
152
64
152
64
29

Yield
Strength
Mpa
215
200
385
340
245
230
470
385
385
280
430
385
310
510
430
525
680
525
755
525
585
680
755
755
680
525
940
680
755
755
850
1020
650
680
940
525
680
850

Tensile
Strength,
Mpa
430
400
530
430
490
460
600
530
550-700
550
570
625-775
620
650
625-775
700-850
850-1000
700-850
925-1075
700-850
770-930
850-1000
930-1080
930-1080
850-1000
700-850
1075-1225
850-1000
930-1080
925-1075
1000-1150
1150-1300
850-1000
850-1000
1080-1240
690-850
850-1000
1000-1160

Elong
ation
%
22
20
12
14
20
19
10
12
13
16
10
16
14
10
11
17
13
17
12
17
15
13
12
12
12
17
12
13
12
12
12
10
13
12
11
17
13
12

Hardness
Number,
HB
126-179
116-170
154
125
143-192
134-183
174
154
152-207
152-207
165
179-229
179-229
188
179-229
202-255
248-302
202-255
269-331
202-255
223-277
248-302
269-331
269-331
248-302
201-255
311-375
269-331
269-331
269-331
293-352
341-401
248-302
248-302
311-375
201-255
248-302
293-352

Shigley, Joseph E., Mechanical Engineering Design, pp. 664, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1986
British Standards Institution, BS 970: Part 1: 1983
9
HR-Hot rolled and normalised
10
CD-Cold drawn
11
H&T-Hardened and tempered
8

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APPENDIX B: STEEL APPLICATION AND HEAT-TREATING GUIDE12

USE
OR
PART

Low-Carbon
Plain
Alloy
Carbon
Or
Lean
Alloy
C 1020
A2315-20
C 1117
3115-20
4615-20
5120
8620

Medium-Carbon
Plain
Medium
Carbon
Alloy
Or
Lean
Alloy
C1040-50
A3140-50
4140-50
5145
8640-50
8740-50
6145

High-Carbon
Rich
Alloy

A 4340
3250

Oil
Hardening
Tool
Steel

Water
Hardening
Tool
Steel

Arbors
N,T
T
T
Armature shafts
T
T
T
Axles
C
C
N,T,A,
S,T,
T
T
Ball races
C
S
T
T
T
Bolts and studs
T,A
T
T
Bushings
C
C
T
Cams
C
T
T
Camshaft
C
C
T
T
Cant dogs
T
Chain Links
T
Chain Pins
C
C
Chuck Jaws
C
T
T
Chuck screws
N,A
T
Clutches
T
T
Collets
T
T
Connecting Rods
T
T
Crankshafts
N,S,A
S,T
S,T
Drift Pins
N
T
Engine bolts
C
C
N,T
T
Gears
C
C
N,S,T,A
S,T
S,T
T
Guide Pins
T
T
Mandrels
C
C
T
Pinions
C
C
N,S,T
S,T
S,T
T
Pins
C
T
T
Pistons
C
T
Pump Shafts
N,T,A
T
Rollers
C
C
Rolls
C
C
S
S,T
S,T
T
T
Lead Screws
N,A
T
Set Screws
T
T
Spindles
C
C
S,T,A,
S,T,
S,T
T
T
Stay Bolts
N
A
Thrust washers
C
T
Turbine Shafts
N,T,A
T
Turnbuckles
T
T
U bolts
T
T
Universal Joint Pins
C
C
Universal joint bodies
N,T,A,
T
T
Worm Gears
C
C
S,T
S,T
N=Normalised; C= Case-hardened; S= Surface-hardened; T= Through-hardened; A= As-rolled

12

pp. 10, ASME Handbook, Metals Engineering-Processes, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1958

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