Urinary system

maintenance of water and electrolyte homeostasis by removing excesses via urine.

maintenance of acid-base balance by secretion of H+ into the urine.

excretion of many toxic metabolic waste products from the body, such as urea and
creatinine.

participation in other homeostatic mechanisms of the body through endocrine pathways:

o blood pressure regulation through the production of renin and the reninangiotensin-aldosterone mechanism.
o maintenance of the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood through the production
of erythropoietin which stimulates erythrocyte production in the bone marrow.
o regulation of calcium balance through conversion of vitamin D to its active form.

The Kidney
a pair of purplish-brown organs located below the ribs toward the middle of the back.
1. Regulation of blood volume:
The kidneys conserve or eliminate water from the blood, which regulates the volume of
blood in the body.
2. Regulation of blood pressure:
The kidneys regulate blood pressure in 3 ways, by:o Adjusting the volume of blood in the body (by regulating the quantity of water in
the blood - see above),
o Adjusting the flow of blood both into, and out of, the kidneys, and
o Via the action of the enzyme renin. The kidneys secret renin, which activates the
angiotensin-aldosterone pathway.
3. Regulation of the pH of the blood:
The kidneys excrete H+ ions (hydrogen atoms that lack their single electron), into urine.
At the same time, the kidneys also conserve bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), which are an
important buffer of H+.
4. Regulation of the ionic composition of blood:
The kidneys also regulate the quantties in the blood of the ions (charged particles) of
several important substances.Important examples of the ions whose quantities in the

blood are regulated by the kidneys include sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+),
calcium ions (Ca2+), chloride ions (Cl-), and phosphate ions (HPO42-).
5. Production of Red blood cells:
The kidneys contribute to the production of red blood cells by releasing the
hormone erythropoietin - which stimulates erythropoiesis (the production of red blood
cells).
6. Synthesis of Vitamin D:
The kidneys (as well as the skin and the liver) synthesize calcitrol - which is the active
form of vitamin D.
7. Excretion of waste products and foreign substances:
The kidneys help to excrete waste products and foreign substance from the body by
forming urine (for release from the body).
Examples of waste products from metabolic reactions within the body
include ammonia (from the breakdown of amino acids), bilirubin (from the breakdown
of haemoglobin), and creatinine (from the breakdown of creatine phosphate in muscle
fibres). Examples of foreign substances that may also be exceted in urine
include pharmaceutical drugs and environmental toxins.
Short descriptions of the parts of the kidney labelled above:

Renal hilus:

The renal hilus is an indentation near to the centre of the concave area of the kidney. This
is the area of the kidney through which the ureter leaves the kidney and the other
structures including blood vessels (illustrated), lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter/leave
the kidney.

Renal capsule:

The renal capsule is a smooth, transparent, fibrous membrane that surrounds, encloses,
and protects the kidney. Each kidney has it's own renal capsule (outer layer), which helps
to maintain the shape of the kidney as well as protecting it from damage.
The renal capsule is itself surrounded by a mass of fatty tissue that also helps to protect
the kidney by damage by cushioning it in cases of impact or sudden movement.

Renal cortex:

The renal cortex is the outer part of the kidney and has a reddish colour (shown as very
pale brown above). It has a smooth texture and is the location of the Bowman's Capsules
and the glomeruli, in addition to the proximal and distal convoluted tubules and their
associated blood supplies (these structures are part of the kidney nephrons - described in
further detail on the page about kidney nephrons).

Renal medulla:

The renal medulla is the inner part of the kidney. "Medulla" means "inner portion". This
area is a striated (striped) red-brown colour.

Renal pyramids:

There are approx. 5 - 18 striated triangular structures called "Renal Pyramids" within the
renal medulla of each kidney. The apperance of striations is due to many straight tubules
and blood vessels within the renal pyramids.

Renal pelvis:

The renal pelvis is the funnel-shaped basin (cavity) that receives the urine drained from
the kidney nephrons via the collecting ducts and then the (larger) papillary ducts..

Renal artery:

The renal artery delivers oxygenated blood to the kidney. This main artery divides into
many smaller branches as it enters the kidney via the renal hilus. These smaller arteries
divide into vessels such as the segmental artery, the interlobar artery, the arcuate artery
and the interlobular artery. These eventually seperate into afferent arterioles, one of which
serves each nephron in the kidney.

Renal vein:

The renal vein receives deoxygenated blood from the peritubular veins within the kidney.
These merge into the interlobular, arcuate, interlobar and segmental veins, which, in turn,
deliver deoxygenated blood to the renal vein, through which it is returned to the systemic
blood circulation system.

Interlobular artery:

The interlobular artery delivers oxygenated blood at high pressure to the glomerular
capillaries.

Interlobular vein:

The interlobular vein receives deoxygenated blood (at lower pressure) that it drains away
from the glomerular filteration units and from the Loops of Henle.

Kidney nephron:

Kidney nephrons are the functional units of the kidneys. That this, it is the kidney
nephrons that actually perform the kidney's main functions. There are approx. a million
nephrons within each kidney. To find out more about these, visit the page about Kidney
Nephrons.

Collecting Duct (Kidney):

The collecting duct labelled in the diagram above is part of the kidney nephron (shown
much enlarged). The distal convoluted tubules* (term explain on the page about kidney
nephrons) of many nephrons empty into a single collecting duct. Many such collecting
ducts unite to drain urine extracted by the kidney into papillary ducts, then into a minor
calyx, then the major calyx (at the centre of the kidney), and finally into the ureter
through which the urine leaves the kidney en-route to the urinary bladder

Vasculature of the kidney - The blood supply of the kidney is central to its function.

The main renal artery sequentially divides

into

posterior and anterior branches

interlobar arteries that run between

the medullary pyramids

arcuate arteries that run laterally

where the renal cortex abuts the
medulla (the corticomedullary
junction)

interlobular arteries running

upwards into the cortical tissue

afferent arterioles

the glomeruli, tufts of capillary loops within the renal corpuscle where plasma filtration
occurs

efferent arterioles

two secondary capillary plexuses which provide the blood supply to the parenchyma of
the kidney:
1. The vasa recta. Arising from efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary glomeruli (in
the cortex near the medulla), this capillary system runs straight down into the
medulla and loops back on itself ultimately draining into the veins at the
corticomedullary junction. As well as providing the blood supply to the medulla,
the vasa recta, help to generate the high osmotic pressure in the medulla necessary
for concentration of urine.
2. The cortical capillary network. Arising from the efferent arterioles in the rest of
the cortex, these capillaries allow the exchange of materials between the blood
and cortical tubules (eg. oxygen to tubular cells; molecules reabsorbed from the
provisional urine to blood).

the ureter
, a muscular tube which conveys the urine toward the bladder

1. There are two ureters, one leading from each kidney to the urinary bladder. Each of
these transports urine from the renal pelvis of the kidney to which it is attached, to the
bladder (see diagram on the page about components of the urinary system).
2. Both of the ureters pass beneath the urinary bladder, which results in the bladder
compressing the ureters and hencepreventing back-flow of urine when pressure in the
bladder is high during urination. This prevention of back-flow is important because when
it is not operating correctly cystitis, which is inflammation of the ureter / urinary bladder,
may develop into a kidney infection.
bladder

the bladder which acts as a reservoir for urine and a pump that expels the urine during
micturition

- a triangle-shaped, hollow organ located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place

by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's
walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine
through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of
urine for two to five hours.
Two sphincter muscles - circular muscles that help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly
like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.
urethra, through which urine is voided from the body
the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to
tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter
muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in
the correct order, normal urination occurs.

The Circulatory System is responsible for transporting materials throughout the entire
body. It transports nutrients, water, and oxygen to your billions of body cells and carries away
wastes such as carbon dioxide that body cells produce. It is an amazing highway that travels
through your entire body connecting all your body cells. Help maintain the body temperaturethis is especially important in warm blooded animals like humans.

1. Heart:
Heart is of the size of the fist and is built with the muscles which is situated in the rib cage
between the lungs. Heart- Pumps blood through the body
Chambers and Valves
The heart is divided into four chambers: (see Figure 2)
1.
2.
3.
4.

right atrium (RA)

right ventricle (RV)
left atrium (LA)
left ventricle (LV)
Each chamber has a sort of one-way valve at its exit that prevents blood from flowing
backwards. When each chamber contracts, the valve at its exit opens. When it is finished
contracting, the valve closes so that blood does not flow backwards.

1.
2.
3.
4.

The tricuspid valve is at the exit of the right atrium.

The pulmonary valve is at the exit of the right ventricle.
The mitral valve is at the exit of the left atrium.
The aortic valve is at the exit of the left ventricle.
When the heart muscle contracts or beats (called systole), it pumps blood out of the heart. The
heart contracts in two stages. In the first stage, the right and left atria contract at the same time,
pumping blood to the right and left ventricles. Then the ventricles contract together to propel
blood out of the heart. Then the heart muscle relaxes (called diastole) before the next heartbeat.
This allows blood to fill up the heart again.
The right and left sides of the heart have separate functions. The right side of the heart collects
oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs where it picks up oxygen and
releases carbon dioxide. The left side of the heart then collects oxygen-rich blood from the lungs
and pumps it to the body so that thecells throughout your body have the oxygen they need to
function properly.
The Blood Vessels
In class we talked about three types of blood vessels:

blood vessels are thin pipe like structures which supply the blood to the heart and receives
impure blood from body parts. Blood vessels are of two types namely arteries and veins.
1. Arteries
2. Capillaries
3. Veins
Arteries
Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen rich blood AWAY from the heart.
Remember, A A Arteries Away, A A Arteries Away, A A Arteries Away.
Arteries supply oxygentaed blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body. These
arteries divide into arterioles and end as capillaries in the cells. Pulmonary artery supplies
deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs.
Capillaries
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels as thin or thinner than the hairs on your head.
Capillaries connect arteries to veins. Food substances(nutrients), oxygen and wastes pass
in and out of your blood through the capillary walls.
Veins
Veins carry blood back toward your heart. Veins collect deoxygenated blood from all
parts of the body. They start as capillaries, then to veinlets and to larger veins
finally. Pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood from lungs to left auricle.

Blood:
Blood is a fluid connective tissue which is red in colour due to the presence of haemoglobin. Our
body contains 5-6 litres of blood. The main components of the blood are plasma and blood cells.
Plasma:
Plasma constitutes 55% of the blood and is light yellow coloured liquid containing water, salts
and plasma proteins.
Blood cells:
Blood cells constitute 45% of the blood. They float in plasma and are of three types. They are red
blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets.

Red Blood Corpuscles:

They are also known as erythrocytes. RBC are round in shape and disc shaped with constriction
in the middle. They contain a pigment called as haemoglobin. They do not contain nucleus. The
life span of RBC is 120 days.
White Blood Corpuscles:
They are also known as leukocytes. They are of differenet shapes. WBC contains nucleus. WBC
are classified as granulocytes and agranulocytes based on the presence of granules in their cells.
They do not contain haemoglobin and hence are white in colour. They attack the microorganisms
which enter our body and protects us from diseases. Their lifespan is 12 days.
Agranulocytes:
Lymohocytes and monocytes belongs to agranulocytes as they do not contain granules in their
cells. Kidney shaped nucleus is present in them. Monocytes are called as macrophages.
Granulocytes:
Eosinophils (acidophils), basophils and neutrophils belong to granulocytes as they contain
granules. Their nucleus is lobed.
Blood platelets:
Blood platelets are called as thrombocytes and are small and oval in shape. They do not contain
the pigment and are white in colour. The life span is 3 -10 days. Blood platelets are useful for
formation of the blood clot during bleeding when wound occurs in the body.

We will begin at the point where the RBC has delivered its oxygen to a cell in need
and is on its return back to the heart.
1. Once the deoxygenated red blood cell (RBC) returns to the heart, it enters either
through the superior vana cava or the inferior vena cava. The superior vena cava
returns deoxygenated blood from the upper part of the body to the heart. The inferior

vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the lower part of the body to the heart.
These large veins lead into the right atrium.
2. The RBC passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
3. The RBC is then pumped through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
and on to the lungs. There the RBC gives off carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.
4. The RBC returns to the heart through a pulmonary vein, enters the left atrium,
passes through the mitral valve, and flows into the left ventricle.
5. The left ventricle pumps the fully oxygenated RBC through the aortic valve, into
the aorta, the body's main artery, and out to the body.
6. From the aorta, the RBC flows into one of the many arteries of the body, through
the arterioles, and then to the capillaries, where the RBC will deliver oxygen and
nutrients to the cells and remove wastes and carbon dioxide. Next it moves through
the venules, veins, and on to the vena cava in a deoxygenated state, and returns to the
heart, only to begin its repetitive journey once again. This whole process has taken
approximately 20 seconds
The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions: [6]

It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues

It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle from the digestive system

It transports white blood cells to and from the lymph nodes into the bones

The lymph transports antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells, to

the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated.