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History of wine
'One barrel of wine can work more miracles than a church full of saints.' Italian proverb
Wine has been around for thousands of years; and grapes even longer. The earliest
scientific evidence of grapes are fossil vines, which are 60millionyearsold.
While archaeologists suggest that the earliest wine production occurred in Georgia (Eastern
Europe) around 7,000 BC, the earliest evidence of grape crushing and production can be
traced back to Northern Greece around 6,500 years ago. Other regions that enjoyed wine
were Greater Iran (4,500 BC) and Armenia (4,100 BC).
In Egypt, wine became part of recorded history and played an important role in ceremonial
life. However, it wasn't until the time of the Phoenicians and Romans that winemaking really
took off. Grape plantations were established and winemaking methods improved, with the
introduction of wine presses, cultivation techniques, different grape varieties and barrels for
storing and shipping wine.
Medieval Europe continued advancements in winemaking technology and production. The
Christian Church needed wine for Catholic mass celebrations.
Medieval Europe expanded into the Americas, South-East Asia, the South Pacific and Africa,
and wine went with them, so eventually wine growing regions were established all around
the world.
'Wine is sunlight held together by water.' GALILEO (1564-1642)
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Winemaking process
'Wine cheers the sad, revives the old, inspires the young and makes weariness forget his
toil.' LORD BYRON (1788-1824)
Wine-making isn't complex, and while the process itself hasn't really changed for hundreds
of years, the technology and machinery used in the wine-making process has. We won't be
covering the wine-making process in detail in this course, but we will give you an introduction
to all facets of winemaking.
Flowchart of the winemaking process
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Wine terminology
'The soft extractive note of an aged cork being withdrawn has the true sound of a man
opening his heart.' WILLIAM SAMUEL BENWELL
Before we talk about wine varieties and regions, you should familiarise yourself with the
many terms and expressions used to describe wine. It is essential that you know them so
you can understand wine better. This glossary of wine terms is also provided in the
downloadable course notes.
Acid: Acids of various types are present in wine, and are essential to a wines longevity and
also to your enjoyment. A wine's quality can be affected if there is too little acid; but too
much acid can spoil the wine. Acid needs to be balanced along with other components of
the wine.
Aeration: is the process of letting wine 'breathe' in the open air or by swirling it in a glass.
Aeration can soften young, tannic wines; it can also fatigue older ones
Aftertaste: is the flavour that lingers in your mouth after tasting or swallowing wine. It can
either be pleasant, unpleasant or non-existent (which would indicate a neutral wine)
Alcohol: is the difference between grape juice and wine! Alcohol is produced by the action
of yeasts on grape sugars during the fermentation process. Alcohol has an important bearing
on the taste of wine
Appearance: refers to a wine's clarity, not its colour
Aroma: is the smell of a wine, and usually refers to pleasing fragrances rather than 'off'
odours. The aroma is normally associated with the grape variety. Often wood can come
through in an aroma. Young wines often have more obvious aromas
Astringent: Tannins produce astringent tastes in wine. Astringency can be detected by
involuntary 'puckering' of your mouth as the tannins hit your taste buds and produce a drying
taste in the mouth. Tannins come from grape skins, seeds and wood.
Austere: is used to describe relatively hard, highly acidic wines that lack depth and
roundness. It usually refers to young wines that need time to 'soften', or wines that lack
richness and body
Backbone: is used to describe wines that are full-bodied, well-structured and balanced by a
desirable level of acidity
Balance: is used to describe wine that has flavour components in complete harmony, with
no single dominating component
Baume: is a measure of the sugar content of grapes. The Baume value roughly equals the
alcohol content in the finished wine (as a percentage of alcohol by volume). For example,
grapes at 10 Baume will produce a wine with about 10% alcohol
Big: is used to describe a wine that is powerful in flavours or bouquet
Bite: refers to a marked degree of acidity or tannin. An acid grip in the finish should be more
like a zestful tang and is tolerable only in a rich, full-bodied wine
Bitterness: is an unpleasant characteristic in wine, usually detected in the aftertaste. It is
not to be confused with acidity
Bland: is used to describe a wine without character, though the wine doesn't necessarily
have any faults
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Agglomerates - made up of bits of cork not a whole cork. Usually made from inferior
cork, therefore oxidisation can occur
Synthetic closures - usually made from plastic. The seal is not perfect, so wines can
oxidise. A traditionalist in winemaking would never use this product
Vino-Seal - is a glass stopper/seal. It is very effective in stopping oxidisation, but is also
very expensive
'Wine awakens and refreshes the lurking passions of the mind, as varnish does the colours
which are sunk in a picture, and brings them out in all their natural glowing.'
ALEXANDER POPE
Wine varieties
'Five qualities are wine's praise advancing: Strong, beautiful, fragrant, cool and dancing.'
JOHN HARINGTON (1561-1612)
While there are many different varieties of wine, in this course we'll focus on the varieties
that are most common in Australian restaurants, pubs and clubs.
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White wine
White wine can vary in colour from straw-yellow to yellow-green to yellow-gold. It is
produced through alcoholic fermentation of the non-coloured pulp of grapes which either
have a white or black skin.
The most common white wine varieties in Australia are:
Chardonnay
Sauvignon Blanc
Semillon
Riesling
Verdelho
Viognier
Pinot Gris
Gewrztraminer
Wooded chardonnay is fermented in wooded vats and tends to have a woody and
buttery flavour and texture.
Unwooded chardonnay is fermented in metal vats and has a more crisp and, some
would say, less complex taste.
Flavours vary greatly in Chardonnays, from rich, buttery, woody and dry in a wooded
Chardonnay, to fresh, smooth, crisp and sometimes carrying overtones of peach in
unwooded Chardonnays.
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The younger wines tend to be very dry, acidic and crisp; while older wines tend to be dry,
rich and buttery.
Semillon wines keep for a long time and some are aged for up to 15 years. The older wines
tend to become a dark yellow colour and are particularly rich.
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Red wine
Red wine is a type of wine made from dark-coloured (black) grape varieties. The actual
colour of red wine ranges from intense violet, which is typical of young wines, through to
brick red for mature wines and brown for older red wines. The juice from most black grapes
is greenish-white, so the colour of red wine comes from pigments (colours) present in the
skin of the grape. Much of the production process therefore involves extracting colour and
flavour components from grape skins.
The most common red wine varieties in Australia are:
Shiraz
Cabernet Sauvignon
Pinot Noir
Merlot
Grenache
Zinfandel
Sangiovese
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Other wines
In addition to red and white wine, there are three other important types of wine:
Sparkling wine
Fortified wine
Dessert wine (Stickies)
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Sparkling wine
Wines with high levels of carbon dioxide, fizz and bubbles are called sparkling wines. The
carbon dioxide can result from natural fermentation (yeast giving off alcohol and carbon
dioxide) in a bottle or wine tank. Carbon dioxide injection (which is a manmade process) can
also achieve the same results.
The most famous sparkling wine is from the Champagne district in France. Sparkling wine
can no longer be called Champagne unless it is made in this district in France.
The two most popular grape varieties for making sparkling wine are Pinot Noir and
Chardonnay. The reason these two grape varieties are preferred is because of their low
sugar levels.
Fortified wines
Fortified wines are wines that have had spirits, usually brandy, added to them. While spirits
were originally added to preserve wine, these days spirits are added to enrich the wine with
distinct flavours.
A normal wine may have an alcohol content of between 12to 15% ABV (alcohol by volume),
whereas fortified wines may have an ABV of up to 20%, due to the spirits added to them.
The most common types of fortified wines are:
port
sherry
marsala.
Fortified wines are usually enjoyed after a meal, either with coffee, cheese or desserts.
Variations in flavour
The descriptors of the wines contained in this course are very general. Wines can
vary greatly.
A New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc will, in most cases, vary great from a Sauvignon Blanc
made in Western Australia.
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Different regions have different soils, weather conditions, water, sunlight and
temperature.
Winemakers have different styles and make wines to suit their growing conditions.
Consumers may prefer some wines which have a particular style. Winemakers will
produce a wine that suits what their consumers (market) want.
The year in a which a wine is made will impact on its taste. For example, if a
Chardonnay was made during a particularly hot dry year it may taste different to a
Chardonnay that was made during a wet year by the same winery.
South Australia
Victoria
New South Wales
Western Australia
Due to hotter temperatures in Queensland there are fewer wineries, though some areas
such as the Granite Belt are producing more and more wine.
Tasmanian wines are also gaining momentum in the Australian market and Tasmania is
increasingly renowned for its excellent Pinot Noir.
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New Zealand
Let's not forget our neighbour across the Tasman Sea: New Zealand.
New Zealand produces some of the best wines in the world and the wines are very popular
in bars, restaurants, hotels and clubs here in Australia.
New Zealand is best known for its Sauvignon Blanc from Marlborough and Pinot Noir from
Central Otago.
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Wine tasting
Wine tasting
When it comes to tasting wine there are three key things to do:
Taste with your eyes
Taste with your nose
Taste with your mouth
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Spoiled wine
Just like food, wine can also go off and spoil. Wine generally spoils through oxidisation.
Wine oxidisation is the random and premature ageing of wine caused by oxygen exposure.
Oxidisation can occur in two ways: either through the cork during storage or after opening a
wine bottle.
During storage
Corked is a term used to describe oxygen entering wine through the cork before the wine
bottle is opened. Corked wine smells like wet cardboard and mould and tastes flat and
non-fruity.
After opening
When a wine bottle is opened and resealed, small amounts of oxygen enter the wine. If the
wine is left long enough, it will go off and spoil. White wine will turn gold or copper in colour;
and red wine will turn dark brown. The flavour will be non-fruity and taste more like vinegar.
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Temperature
Most wine varieties are suited to particular temperatures.
Here is a guide to which wine should be served at what temperature.
Very cold (8-10 degrees): Non-vintage Champagne, sparkling wine, Sauvignon Blanc,
Riesling
Cold (11-15 degrees): Vintage Champagne, Chardonnay, Semillon, Viognier, Pinot Gris,
Pinot Noir
Room temperature (15-17 degrees): Medium to full-bodied red wines
There are however, many exceptions to these combinations as dining has become far more
exotic than in the past. It is also difficult to determine which wines are acidic and which retain
bitterness. That's why, experience is key. It's important to improve your palate and your
perception of the four primary tastes of wine and food - sour, bitter, sweet and salty (in food
only).
'There is nothing like wine for conjuring up feelings of contentment and goodwill. It is less of
a drink than an experience, an evocation, a spirit. It produces sensations that defy
description.' THOMAS CONKLIN
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When working in a restaurant, a sommelier is responsible for working within the taste
preferences and budget of the establishment.
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Selling wine
'If penicillin can cure those who are ill, Spanish sherry can bring the dead back to life.' SIR
ALEXANDER FLEMING (1881-1955)
Selling wine can seem daunting, particularly when it comes to meeting a customer's
expectations and matching them with the right bottle or glass of wine.
Over the last 15 to 20 years, wine service has changed significantly. Traditionally, a wine list
may have featured 10 wines (five reds and five whites), but these days it can feature up to
140 wines, ranging in price from $40 to $7,000 per bottle.
There has also been a change in popular varietals over the same period. Where 20 years
ago wine lists would have mainly featured Cabernets, Moselles and Rieslings, these days
there are more than five varieties of both red wine and white wine, plus many sparkling
wines and fortified wines.
Another change over the years is the sale of wine by the glass, not only in restaurants but
also in bars. Most bars now offer a variety of wines by the glass, not just one red and one
white, to cater for a wider range of customers with different tastes. This is now the norm
rather than the exception, in better establishments.
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Wine rep
Ask your local wine representative (rep) who sells the product. Reps should have tasting
notes they can give you.
Internet
Go to the internet and search for information on the wines you sell. All wineries publish
extensive information on their wines, including tasting notes and possible food matches.
Customers
While asking your customers may sound counterintuitive, they are sometimes the best
source of information. This is because a customer may have tried more than one brand of a
particular wine style and are therefore able to give you a comparison.
showing them the wine list and/or telling them what you have behind the bar
letting them select a wine
advising them of other customers' preferences or what other customers thought of the
wine - dont try to make them feel you know better than they do
being polite - let them feel they have good wine knowledge.
The customer who doesn't know what they want and/or can't match wine with
their food
How do you deal with a customer who doesn't know what they want? Use the opportunity as
your time to shine!
Start by asking them these questions:
Where possible choose a wine for them and encourage them to try it, especially if it is sold
by the glass.
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Serving wine
When the customer has selected a bottle of wine and you bring it to their table, you should
follow these steps when serving the wine:
Show the customer the label on the bottle to ensure it is the wine they ordered.
Open the wine at the table in front of the customer.
Give the customer a taste of the wine to ensure it is to their liking.
If the customer likes the wine, continue to pour the wine, but leave the person who
ordered the wine to have the last pour.
When serving wine by the glass, you should pour it to a standard amount. The volume is
either decided by management or indicated by a small line on the glass called the
'plimsoll line'.
Wine facts
'Place a substantial meal before a tired man, and he will eat effort and be a little better for it
at first. Give him a glass of wine or brandy, and immediately he feels better; you see him
come to life again before you.' BRILLAT SAVARIN (1755-1826)
Wine is more than just fermented grape juice that tastes great with or without food. It
involves a love affair with the winemaking process, the history of wine, winemaking regions
and the way that wine is enjoyed.
We have collected some fun and interesting wine facts to broaden your understanding of this
great industry.
Red vs. white: 44% percent of adults surveyed prefer red wine over white wine. Of those,
men are more likely to prefer red wine (57%) than women (31%).
How many? There are about 20 million acres of grapes planted worldwide - making grapes
the first international fruit crop. How about that grape vines are capable of producing grapes
for over a century!
How much? One glass of wine is made up of approximately one grape cluster or 75 grapes.
There are four glasses of wine in one bottle, ten bottles of wine per vine, and 400 vines per
acre - each of which produce about 800 gallons of wine.
Sterile wine is so complex that it contains more organic chemical compounds than blood
serum. It has very high acidity and contains too much alcohol for pathogens to live in it,
making it sterile.
Preservatives: The two most common preservatives used in winemaking are sulphur
dioxide (220/224) and sorbic acid (200/202). They are used mainly to protect against
exposure to oxygen and bacteria, which are factors that can severely affect the quality of the
grapes and the finished product.
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