Rotameter

A rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of a liquid or gas in a tube. Karl
Kueppers invented the rotameter in 1908, which has been widely used since then for a variety of
applications. Rotameters are included in a class of devices known as variable area meters that
depend on the substance they are measuring to change the area of the test field being measured.
Rotameter-Elements
The term Rotameter was derived from the fact that floats originally were produced with
slots to give them rotation for the purpose of centering and stabilizing the float. The essential
elements of any rotameter are listed as follows. In addition to suitable inlet and outlet
connections, they comprise (1) a metering tube and (2) a float.
1. Metering Tubes. In modern practice, they are formed on a mandrel and annealed to
prevent internal stresses so that strong, uniform tubes result. This method also permit the
forming of tubes with greater reproducibility and interchangeability and forming special
shapes, such as non conical tubes with curved elements designed to spread out the
graduations at the lower end of the range. It is possible to modify the conical form
slightly in order to give the exact linear relationship between aperture and float position
which is not quite achieved with a purely conical tube.
2. Floats. Floats can be made from several materials to obtain corrosion resistance or
capacity modification. Ratings are generally in terms of meter capacity, using a stainless
steel float. It has been found that the float shape determines to a large extend of how
much a rotameter will be influenced by changes in the viscosity of the measured fluid.
Floats having sharp edges have been found to be relatively insensitive to viscosity
changes over a considerable viscosity range.

How Rotameters Work

Rotameters consist of a tube, generally made of glass, and an object known as a float.
The float is always denser than the substance it is resting in and does not actually float on the
substances surface, but rests somewhere between the substances surface and the bottom of the
container. As a liquid or gas passes through the tube, the flow causes the float to rise. Under
normal circumstances, gravity causes the float to fall. Depending on the substances flow rate,
the float will rest at a specific level in the tube. By marking each level in the tube, a precise flow
rate measurement can easily be obtained by noting where the float rests.

Applications

Rotameters are used in systems that involve a liquid or gas travelling through a tube. For
example, rotameters are used in oil pipelines to measure the flow rate of oil as it is dispersed
from one location to another across great distances. Portable rotameters can also be constructed
to measure the flow rate of large bodies of liquid or gas, such as rivers, oceans, streams, as well
as the atmosphere. These portable rotameters can simply be dunked into the substance they are
measuring in order for a measurement to be taken.

Advantages
1. Low cost.
2. Low pressure drop.
3. Rangeability is better.
4. It is suitable for small flow rates.
5. It is easily equipped with alarms and switches or any transmitting devices.
6. It also measures the flow rate of corrosive fluids.
7. There is an availability of viscosity-immune floats.
8. It can be used in some light slurry services.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to handle the glass tube type.
2. It must be mounted vertically.
3. It is not suitable for pulsating services.
4. Generally it is limited to small pipe services.
5. It is limited to low temperatures.
6. Accuracy is = 1/2 to 10%.
7. It requires in-line mounting.

Target Flow Meters

Also known as drag force flowmeters, insert a target (drag element), usually a flat disc or
a sphere with an extension rod, into the flow field. They then measure the drag force on the
inserted target and convert it to the flow velocity. This was invented by Akeley, Lloyd T. in 1968.
How Target Flowmeters Work
Target flowmeters measure flow by measuring the amount of force exerted by the flowing
fluid on a target suspended in the flow stream. The force exerted on the target by the flow is
proportional to the pressure drop across the target. Similar to differential pressure flowmeters,
Bernoullis equation states that the pressure drop across the target (and hence the force exerted
on the target) is proportional to the square of the flow rate. Using this relationship, 10 percent of
full scale flow produces only 1 percent of the full scale force. At 10 percent of full scale flow, the
target flowmeter accuracy is dependent upon the transmitter being accurate over a 100:1 range of
force. Transmitter accuracy is typically degraded measuring low forces in its range, so flowmeter
accuracy can be similarly degraded. Therefore, this non-linear relationship can have a
detrimental effect on the accuracy and turndown of target flowmeters. Remember that of interest
is the accuracy of the flow measurement system --- not the accuracy of the transmitter.

How to Use Target Flowmeters

Target flowmeters inferentially measure the flow of liquids and gases, such as water, air,
industrial gases, and chemicals. Be careful using target flowmeters on fluids that can coat the
target, because the flowmeter accuracy can be degraded. This flowmeter can be applied to
sanitary, cryogenic liquids, relatively clean, and corrosive liquids. Thematerials of construction
of all wetted parts, including the flowmeter body and seals, should be considered. Inline target

flowmeters are available up to approximately 6 inches in size. Insertion target flowmeters are
available for larger line sizes. Applications requiring sanitary piping systems are often found in
the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, such as in the manufacture of drugs and vitamins.
Sanitary applications are especially prevalent in the food and beverages industry where
cleanliness is important. Applications for target flowmeters are found in the mining, mineral
processing, pulp and paper, power, petroleum, chemical, and petrochemical industries. Common
applications include the measurement of process and cooling water flows.

Applications
The target meter is applied in a number of fields for measurement of liquids, vapours and
gases. It allows unimpeded flow of condensates and extraneous material along the bottom of a
pipe and at the same time allows unimpeded flow of gas or vapour along the top of the pipe.
Advantages
1.Low initial set up cost
2.Can be used in abrasive, contaminated, or corrosive fluid flow
3.Can be made to measure flow velocity that is sporadic or multidirectional with sphere
drag element designs
Disadvantages
1. Pressure drop is inevitable due to the rod and the drag element
2. Less popular than it was before

Turbine Flow Meters

The Turbine flow meter (axial turbine) was invented by Reinhard Woltman and is an
accurate and reliable flow meter for liquids and gases. It consists of a flow tube with end
connections and a magnetic multi bladed free spinning rotor (impeller) mounted inside; in line
with the flow.
The turbine flow meter is mainly used for the purpose of measurement of liquid and gas
at very low flow rates output signal that varies linearly with volumetric flow rate over specified
flow ranges. The entire fluid to be measured enters the flow meter, then passes through a rotor.
The fluid passing through the rotor causes it to turn with an angular velocity that is proportional
to the fluid linear velocity. Therefore, the volumetric flow rate is linear within the given limits of
flow rate.

Working
The flowing fluid impinges on the blades of turbine (rotor), imparting a force to the blade
surface which causes the rotation of the rotor. At a steady rotational speed, the speed of the rotor
is directly proportional to the fluid velocity, and hence to volumetric flow rate. The speed of
rotation is monitored in most of the meters by a magnetic pick-up coil, which is fitted to the
outside of the meter housing. The magnetic pick-up coil consists of a permanent magnet with
coil windings which is mounted in close proximity to the rotor but external to the fluid channel.
As each rotor blade passes the magnetic pick-up coil, it generates a voltage pulse which is a
measure of the flow rate, and the total number of pulses gives a measure of the total flow. By

digital techniques, the electrical voltage pulses can be totalled, differenced and manipulated so
that a zero error characteristic of digital handling is provided from the electrical pulse generator
to the fluid readout.
Applications
The turbine meters are widely used for military applications. They are particularly useful
in blending systems for the petroleum industry. They are effective in aerospace and air borne
applications for energy-fuel and cryogenic flow measurements.

Advantages
1. Better Accuracy [ 0.25% to 0.5%].
2. It provides excellent repeatability [ 0.25% to 0.02%] and rangeability (10 : 1 and 20 : 1).
3. It has fairly low pressure drop.
4. It is easy to install and maintain.
5. It has good temperature and pressure ratings.
6. It can be compensated for viscosity variation.
Disadvantages
1. High cost.
2. It has limited use for slurry applications.
3. It is not suitable for non-lubricating fluids.
4. They cannot maintain its original calibration over a very long period and therefore periodical
recalibration is necessary.
5. They are sensitive to changes in the viscosity of the liquid passing through the meters.
6. They are sensitive to flow disturbances.
7. Due to high bearing friction is possible in small meters, they are not preferred well for low
flow rates.

Coriolis Mass Flow Meter

- Invented by Gaspar Gustav de Coriolis (1835)
How Coriolis Mass Flowmeters Work
Coriolis mass flowmeters measure the force resulting from the acceleration caused by
mass moving toward (or away from) a center of rotation. This effect can be experienced when
riding a merry-go-round, where moving toward the center will cause a person to have to lean
into the rotation so as to maintain balance. As related to flowmeters, the effect can be
demonstrated by flowing water in a loop of flexible hose that is swung back and forth in front
of the body with both hands. Because the water is flowing toward and away from the hands,
opposite forces are generated and cause the hose to twist. They represent about 21% of all
flowmeters sold.
In a Coriolis mass flowmeter, the swinging is generated by vibrating the tube(s) in
which the fluid flows. The amount of twist is proportional to the mass flow rate of fluid passing
through the tube(s). Sensors and a Coriolis mass flowmeter transmitter are used to measure the
twist and generate a linear flow signal.
Plusses and Minuses
This technology has high accuracy, can handle sanitary applications, is approved for
custody transfer and is highly reliable and low maintenance. Mass flow is more important than
volume for fluids intended for the production of energy. These include petroleum liquids and
natural gas both compressed and liquefied. The cost is high, especially for line sizes above four
inches. Pressure drop can be a consideration for U shaped tube designs and high viscosity
fluids.

How to Use Coriolis Mass Flowmeters

Coriolis mass flowmeters measure the mass flow of liquids, such as water, acids, caustic,
chemicals, and gases/vapors. Because mass flow is measured, the measurement is not affected by
fluid density changes. Be particularly careful when using Coriolis mass flowmeters to measure
gas/vapor flows because flow rates tend to be low in the flow range (where accuracy is
degraded). Also, in gas/vapor applications, large pressure drops across the flowmeter and its
associated piping can occur.
This flowmeter can be applied to sanitary, cryogenic, relatively clean, and corrosive
liquids and gases/vapors in pipes smaller than 6-12 inches. General applications are found in the
water, wastewater, mining, mineral processing, power, pulp and paper, petroleum, chemical, and
petrochemical industries. Materials of construction are generally limited to stainless steel and
Hastelloy C. Straight-tube designs are available to measure some dirty and/or abrasive liquids.
Many applications for Coriolis mass flowmeters are found in chemical processes where
fluids can be corrosive and otherwise difficult to measure. In addition, the relative insensitivity to
density allows Coriolis mass flowmeters to be applied in applications where the physical
properties of the fluid are not well known. These flowmeters can also be used in chemical feed
systems found in most industries.
Industries Where Used
The industries in order of higher to lower are chemical, oil and gas, food and beverage,
pharmaceutical, pulp and paper, power, metals and mining, and water and wastewater followed
by all others in small amounts.
Application Cautions for Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
If the pressure drop is acceptable, operate a Coriolis mass flowmeter in the upper part of
its flow range because operation at low flow rates can degrade accuracy. Note that high viscosity
fluids increase the pressure drop across the flowmeter. For liquid flows, make sure that the
flowmeter is completely full of liquid. Be especially careful when measuring gas/vapor flow with
Coriolis mass flowmeters. Pay special attention to installation because pipe vibration can cause
operational problems.

Coriolis meter overview

A Coriolis meter comprises two main parts:

A sensor (primary element)

A transmitter (secondary element)

See Fig. 1.

Fig. 1Coriolis flowmeter (Courtesy of Daniel Industries).

With this design, the gas flows through a U-shaped tube. The tube is made to vibrate in a
perpendicular direction to the flow. Gas flow through the tube generates a Coriolis force, which
interacts with the vibration, causing the tube to twist. The greater the angle is twisted, the more
the flow increases. The sensing coils, located on the inlet and outlet, oscillate in proportion to the
sinusoidal vibration. During the flow, the vibrating tubes and gas mass flow couple together
because of the Coriolis force, causing a phase shift between the vibrating sensing coils. The
phase shift, which is measured by the Coriolis meter transmitter, is directly proportional to the
mass flow rate. The vibration frequency is proportional to the flowing density of the flow.
However, the density measurement from the Coriolis meter is not normally used as part of the
gas measurement station. Like other meters, the Coriolis is usually mounted in a meter tube.
Because the device is insensitive to flow disturbances, there is no requirement for any form of
flow conditioning, straight lengths, or meter tube.
Advantages of Coriolis Flowmeter

Capable of measuring difficult handling fluids

Independent of density changes, flow profile and flow turbulence. Hence straight lengths
are not required.

No routine maintenance required since no moving parts

High accuracy

Disadvantages of Coriolis Mass Flowmeter

Not available for large pipes (upto 150 mm only)

High flow velocities required for detection resulting in high pressure drop

Expensive compared to other flowmeters

Difficulty in measuring low pressure gases.

Thermal Mass Flow Meters

History
Thermal flow meters were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Brooks
Instrument and Tylan General were leaders in the development of the first thermal mass flow
devices. In the early 1980s, the emerging semiconductor industry quickly became the largest
consumer of mass flow devices. A new entrant in the mass flow market, Unit Instruments,
developed a line of products targeted at that segment. Metal seal and ultra-high purity devices
were the primary advances through the 1980s. Through the 1990s, mass flow product
developments included digital I/O, higher flow rates and more industrialized packaging. In the
first decade of the new century, digital bus protocols, MEMS sensors, pressure transient
insensitive devices and multi-gas/multi-range (MultiFlo) devices were the primary advances.

In 2009, Brooks Instrument acquired certain assets from Celerity Instrumentation, which
included all mass flow devices formerly branded as Unit, Tylan, Mykrolis, Millipore and
Celerity. Brooks Instrument has a rich portfolio of mass flow technology and is a leading
supplier of mass flow devices to a broad range of industries and applications.
How Thermal Flowmeters Work
Thermal flowmeters use the thermal properties of the fluid to measure the flow of a fluid
flowing in a pipe or duct. In a typical thermal flowmeter, a measured amount of heat is applied to
the heater of the sensor. Some of this heat is lost to the flowing fluid. As flow increases, more
heat is lost. The amount of heat lost is sensed using temperature measurement(s) in the sensor.
The transmitter uses the heat input and temperature measurements to determine fluid flow. Most
thermal flowmeters are used to measure gas flows. Thermal flowmeters represent 2% of global
flowmeter sales.
The amount of heat lost from the sensor is dependent upon the sensor design and the
thermal properties of the fluid. The thermal properties of the fluid can and do vary with pressure
and temperature, however these variations are typically small in most applications. In these
applications where the thermal properties of the fluid are known and relatively constant during
actual operation, thermal flowmeters can be used to measure the mass flow of the fluid because
the thermal flow measurement is not dependent upon the pressure or temperature of the fluid.
However, in many applications, the thermal properties of the fluid can be dependent upon
fluid composition. In these applications, varying composition of the fluid during actual operation
can affect the thermal flow measurement. Therefore, it is important for the thermal flowmeter
supplier to know the composition of the fluid so that the proper calibration factor can be used to
determine the flow rate accurately. Due to this constraint, thermal flowmeters are commonly
applied to measure the flow of pure gases. Suppliers can provide appropriate calibration
information for other gas mixtures, however the accuracy of the thermal flowmeter is dependent
on the actual gas mixture being the same as the gas mixture used for calibration purposes. In
other words, the accuracy of a thermal flowmeter calibrated for a given gas mixture will be
degraded if the actual flowing gas has a different composition.

How to Use Thermal Flowmeters

Thermal flowmeters are most commonly used to measure the mass flow of clean gases,
such as air, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium, ammonia, argon, and other industrial gases. Mixtures,
such as flue stack flow and biogas flow, can be measured when their composition is known. An
advantage of this technology is its dependence upon thermal properties that are almost
independent of gas density. Be careful when using thermal flowmeters to measure the flow of
gases with unknown and/or varying composition, such as hydrogen-bearing off-gases and other
mixtures that can disproportionately affect the thermal flowmeter measurement.
Thermal flowmeters can be applied to clean, sanitary, and corrosive gases where the
thermal properties of the fluid are known. Thermal flowmeters are most commonly applied to
measure pure gases, such as would be used for laboratory experiments, and in semi-conductor
production. They can also used in chemical and petrochemical plants when the thermal
properties of the gas are known. With proper attention to materials of construction, the flow of
corrosive gases, such as hydrogen chloride and hydrogen sulfide can be measured.

Plusses and Minuses

Thermals are middling cost and they are good for low pressure gas. They are well suited
for stack flow measurement and emissions monitoring uses. Insertion models are a very good
choice for large pipe sizes if used as insertion meters. The best attribute is that if the gas is
known, the meter reads true mass flow without needing to include pressure in a calculation. The
accuracy is medium only and they are used primarily for gas. Not good for steam flow.
Industries Where Used
In order of magnitude, these are used in oil and gas, power, chemical, water and waste, metals
and mining, food and beverage, pulp and paper, pharmaceutical and textile industries.
Application Cautions for Thermal Flowmeters
Thermal flowmeters should not be applied to abrasive fluids because they can damage the
sensor. Fluids that coat the sensor can alter the relationship between the thermal properties of the
fluid and the measurement and adversely affect the flow measurement. Extensive coating can
render the sensor inoperable unless the sensor is routinely cleaned. This can increase
maintenance associated with these flowmeters.
Varying the percentage of certain components that have different thermal properties from
calibrated values can cause thermal flowmeters to become highly inaccurate. In other words,

thermal flowmeters are often not suitable for applications with fluids that have varying
composition and unknown components. However, in some applications, thermal flowmeters
could measure reasonably accurately when the flow stream contains components with similar
thermal properties.
Aerosols and gases with droplets can cause thermal flowmeters to become erratic and/or
measure full scale flow. This is because the large amount of thermal energy used to heat the
liquid/droplet is interpreted as a high flow signal. Operating a thermal flowmeter above its
maximum flow rate will generally not damage the flowmeter but can cause measurement error
because its calibration curve can become unpredictable.

Principle of Operation

There

are

five

primary

elements

to

mass

flow

controller:

1) Body: The body provides a compact platform for all of the other mass flow controller
elements, as well as the primary flow path for the fluid being measured.

2) Restrictor/bypass: The restrictor (bypass) causes a restriction in the flow path, causing a
reduced flow through the sensor. It is important that the ratio of flow through the restrictor vs.
the flow through the sensor be constant. A variety of bypass techniques can be employed
depending
on
the
flow
rate
and
application.
3) Sensor: The sensor is the heart of the mass flow controller. It uses heat and a differential
temperature measurement to provide a signal that is proportional to mass flow. There are twowire, three-wire and MEMS sensors available. The type of sensor used depends on the supplier
and the application.

4) Circuit board: The circuit board is the brain of the mass flow controller. It manages the
external inputs and outputs (I/O) to and from the device, as well as the internal I/O with the
sensor and control valve. If the flow signal does not match the set point signal (command input),
the valve drive is adjusted to reposition the valve as required.

5) Valve + orifce/jet: The valve combined with the orifice (jet) is the flow control element.
There are several types of valves used on mass flow controllers depending on the flow rate and
application. The majority of flow controllers use a normally closed solenoid-type control valve.
This valve has a coil winding around a valve stem. When the coil is energized, it creates a
magnetic field that is modulated to adjust the height of the plunger and valve seat assembly
inside the valve stem. When energy is applied, the plunger is attracted to the top or pole piece in
the valve stem, raising the valve seat off the orifice and allowing fluid to flow through the
device. From full closed to full open, the valve seat only moves a few thousandths of an inch.
While these valves control flow, it is not recommended that they be used as a positive shut-off
valve.

Applications
Thermal mass flow devices are used in a variety of industries and applications where accurate
repeatable gas or liquid mass flow is required. Some of the typical industries and applications are
listed
below:
Aerospace

Hydraulic systems test

Ventilation R&D
Hardening canopies for jet aircraft
Silicon carbide for aircraft brakes

Analytical/Gas Analyzers

Sample gas preparation and measurement

Calibration gas control

Automotive

Engine test
Emissions test
Leak test
Verification of SHED (Sealed Housing for Evaporative Determination) operations

Biotech/Pharmaceutical

Reactor gas control for fermentation

Bioreactor gas control of dissolved oxygen and pH
Tablet coating

Chemical/Petrochemical

Measurement of gases in chemical processes and manufacturing

Catalyst research
Pilot plant flow control

Electronics Manufacturing

Manufacture of computers
Monitors
Memory devices and other electronic equipment

Food & Beverage

Aeration
Blending
Process control in bottling, drying, mixing, cooling
Protective gases for packaging
Control of additives and pigments
Flavor dosing

Fuel Cells

Control fuel delivery

Atmospheric simulations
Production efficiency testing

Furnaces

Flame control
Gas mixing and blending
Gas distribution
Gas consumption measurement for internal accounting purposes

Heat Treating

Burner control
Blanket gas control

LED Lighting

Metal organic chemical vapor deposition

Vapor control

Medical

Equipment performance validation

Anesthesia
Medical equipment manufacturing
Specialty coatings

Metal Processing

Blank gas control

Sparging
Improved quality of manufactured metals

Packaging

Protective gases in packages

Solar/Photovoltaic

Chemical deposition
Thin film coatings

Semiconductor Manufacturing

Chemical vapor deposition

Etch
Back-side wafer cooling and other critical processes in the production of semiconductor
chips

Advantages of Thermal Mass Flowmeter

No temperature or pressure compensation required

Linear output (as temperature differential is proportional to mass flow)

Can be used on corrosive process streams if proper materials are specified

DC voltage or 4 to 20 mA dc outputs available

Disadvantages of Thermal Mass Flowmeter

Practical for gas flows only

Subject to blockage by foreign particles or precipitated deposits due to small openings in
flowmeter

Power requirements excessive in larger pipe sizes

Has to be taken out of process line for servicing

Accurate field calibration is difficult