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69
features of (a) three-dimensional data collection, @) measurements of ground reaction forces, and (c) movements under competitive conditions, that altogether would
have allowed the determination of joint moments of force of competitive techniques in weightlifting. Lacking, therefore, is essential information on the factors governing specific techniques and conditioning practices. Through this
investigation, we attempted to overcome this lack of scientific information.
Methods
Subjects
At the 1985 World Weightlifting Championships in S M e d j e , Sweden, virtually
all lifts in the snatch and in the clean and jerk in all weight categories were recorded
using video techniques. In addition, 20% of these were also filmed and ground
reaction forces were measured for about 80% of the lifts.
Kinematic parameters of the movement of the bar were determined from
video recordings. With respect to these, two extreme groups were formed using
four weight categories (i.e., 60, 75, 90, and 110+ kg), the furst comprising the
10 best lifts of the four first-place Group A athletes and the second comprising
the 10 poorest lifts from Group B. In all, 82 lifts were studied.
The three-dimensional kinematic and kinetic analysis, including a calculation of the joint moments, was obtained directly from film and the measurement of ground reaction force (GRF). Chosen were 17 attempts in three weight
categories (i.e., 60,82.5, and 110+ kg). Among these were Shalamanov's world
record lift and the best lifts of gold medalists Vardanyan and Krastev. Six unsuccessful lifts were also included in the analysis.
Definition of Variables
The present analysis focused on the snatch technique from the beginning of the
movement to the point at which the lifter dropped under the barbell. This phase
is considered to be the most important and technically most difficult part of the
whole movement and is treated accordingly in the literature. The initial choice
of parameters was based on a theoretical and practical approach by considering
the kinematics of the movement of the bar and of the lower limb, and external
kinetics in the form of ground reaction forces. Then certain variables associated
with muscular control, namely net joint moments of force in the lower extremity, were investigated. Table 1 shows the selected variables.
70
RFt
* N1s"'maximum
Figure 1 Positioning of the video cameras V1 and V2 and the cine cameras C1
and C2 with respect to the weightliftem' stage.
Figure 3
recorded by both the video and film cameras. Figure 3 shows the points that were
digitized in the three-dimensional analysis from the films. Reduction of the video
recordings was completed using a video digitizer, with the reference framework
providing a suitable scale for the various sagittal planes involved in the movement.
Kinetics-Ground Reaction Forces. The measurement of ground reaction
forces (GRF) in high level competition poses problems that are quickly obvious
in weightlifting. Whereas external kinetics can be fully determined from the G W ,
the mounting of force plates may be difficult for several reasons. The insertion
of the plates into the competition platform must not alter its mechanical or visual
characteristics. Furthermore, the precision of the measuring apparatus must be
maintained throughout the competition, and also, in this case, must withstand
over 1,200 consecutive impacts from falling weights.
Ground reaction forces were measured using two Kistler force plates (600
x 1,000 mm) specially designed for this project. Particular attention was paid
to precision, mechanical stability, and safety with respect to impact. The mounting frames were set in a four-tonne concrete block. The force plates were then
firmly mounted on top and within precisely cut recesses in the competition platform. In order to avoid any mechanical contact between them, the 5-mm slits
that separated the plates from the surrounding material of the platform were then
sealed with a soft dustproof plastic. The output of all 16 measuring channels was
fed into a Data General Computer through appropriate amplifiers. The data acquisition was triggered automatically as soon as a threshold of 300 N was reached
and included all measurements during the previous 3 seconds as well. The sampling frequency was 100 Hz and the total measurement time on each occasion
was 10 seconds. This system, using separate plates for right and left feet, permits measurement of the three GRF components, the coordinates of the point
of application of the force, and the free pe~endicularmoment.
Kinetics-Muscular Moments. An effective evaluation of technique and
development of optimal methods of training a knowledge of the time histories
of the various muscular moments (joint moments) is of utmost importance. From
external kinetic data and three-dimensional kinematic information concerning the
joint centers of the lower limbs, it is possible to calculate the net muscular moments around various joints in all three planes. It is important to note here that
these are net moments and that the effects of antagonistic muscular activity have
not been considered.
The calculation undertaken here with respect to muscular moments around
the joints of the lower limb are based on careful determination of the position
of the joint center and of the GRF vector. Control tests showed that the moments
created by the inertial forces of the individual segments of the body were consistently under 5 % .These inertial forces were therefore not included in the calculations. In the results, only those muscular moments acting in the principal plane
of movement are,reported, This plane of movement is defined by the relative
position of the long axes of adjacent segments and is that which is associated with
the motion brought about by the major muscle groups involved.
.5 m
1
I
74
of the first pull the barbell is moved toward the lifter. With the lowering of the
knees a small opposite movement occurs, during which the second pull and the
drop under the barbell again results in movement toward the lifter. In the case
of nearly all lifters in Group A, the barbell's pathway does not cross a vertical
reference line projected upward from the initial position of the bar. This applies
to many Group B lifters too. As a rule, this movement ends with a jump backward in the drop under the barbell. Garhammer (1985) has already drawn attention to this jump, which is considered by Vorobyev (1978) to be a fault.
The patterns of Group A and B lifters from various weight categories are
presented in Figure 5 for comparison. In particular the patterns show the maximum changes in horizontal displacement during the various phases of the lift.
It is clear from this analysis that the new technique of pulling the bar toward
the lifter is widely used, and the total variation in horizontal movements of Group
A lifters is noticeably less than for Group B. The extent of these movements indicates the degree of instability involved or, as the case may be, the degree of
correction needed to complete the lift. This parameter also serves as a measure
of the additional acceleration and mechanical work that must be produced.
Vertical
110t kg Class
75
Figore 6 - Correlation between maximum effective lift of barbell (BBH max) and
body height (BH).
time [sl
Figure 7
respect to Group A: (a) the maximum barbell height attained is less; (b) the maximum second peak is smaller; (c) the duration of the lift is shorter; and (d) body
stature is slightly shorter. These characteristics reflect the better technique of the
Group A lifters.
77
Table 2
Barbell Kinematics
Weight classlgroup
6Okg
A
B
Unit n-10 n = l 1
parameter
75kg
A
B
n=10 n=10
90kg
A
B
n-10 n = l l
llO+kg
A
B
n-10 n=lO
--
kg
130.8
7.5
m
1.57
0.04
m
0.83
0.05
m
0.88
0.05
m
0.10
0.02
mls
1.31
0.05
1.65
mls
0.08
s
0.62
0.04
s
0.89
0.03
0.56
W
1269
BBW
BH
BBHmax
BBHL
Vmaxl
BBHmaxlBH,
Pav
I
90
'
'
0,
Figure 8
-50
I '
'
'
i -00 time
Isl
78
is clear to see and is about 15" at full bend. Such differences can vary according
to the size of the true angle involved and the orientation of the plane of vision
to the plane of movement. Thus it appears that a two-dimensional estimation of
body angles (i.e., with one camera only) offers limited scientific application. A
satisfactory solution to this problem is only possible through a three-dimensional
analysis using two appropriately positioned cameras.
Figure 9 shows the characteristic curves of the angles of the lower limb
as well as the velocity curve of the bar in Shalamanov's world record lift (143
Velocity of barbell h / s l
WORLD BECORD
I
Figure 9 - Velocity of barbell and angles of the lower extremity and angle between
trunk and horizontal. TP1 and TP2 are the times of 1st and 2nd pull, respectively.
TP1 = lift-off until min. of knee angle; TP2 = min. of knee angle until 2nd max.
of knee angle (Pietka & Spitz, 1978).
79
kg barbell, 60 kg weight category). The knee angle increases to an initial maximum even before the lift-off of the barbell, followed by a pronounced bend at
the knees until a minimum angle is reached (end of frst pull). Then there is a
clearly shorter intensive extension made up to the second and absolute maximum
knee angle achieved (end of second pull). The changes in angle at the ankle are
generally similar to those at the knee, but of much less magnitude. The angle
at the hip increases steadily over the two phases to a maximum that coincides
well with the maxima of the other two joint angles. All three lower limb angles
in fact reach their maximum values within 0.04 sec of one another at the end
of the second pull. The angle between the trunk and the horizontal decreases slightly at the beginning of the first pull, as the increase in knee angle at this point
is greater than that of the hip. Once the initial maximum knee angle has been
reached, the trunk angle increases steadily to a maximum that coincides approximately with the foot-off, which precedes the action of dropping under the barbell. The maximum vertical velocity of the barbell is reached just before maximum
extension of all the joints approximately 0.05 sec before foot-off.
Listed in Table 3 are the major kinematic results of 17 selected attempts
from various weight categories. These data are purely descriptive and provide
information on successful and unsuccessful lifts by world class athletes, including Shalamanov's world record (143 kg) and the Gold Medal winning lifts of
Table 3
Kinematics of the Body Motion
Subject
Shalamanov
Kritsky
Trautman
Senet
Vardanyan
Erhard
Tsintsanis
Gunyashev
Krastev
BW
BBW
kg
kg
Joint angles0
Knee
Hip
Max. ang. ~ e l . ~ l s e c
TP1 TP2
Knee
Hip
s
P1
P2
P2
80
Vardanyan (177.5 kg) and Krastev (202.5 kg). The size of this sample, together
with the enormous differences in anthropometric characteristics and lifting techniques between the various weight categories, does not allow these particular data
to provide any worthwhile characteristics of better performances. Even when comparing good and poor lifts by the same athlete, the kinematic data do not reveal
any particular trends. In fact, a comparison of the top lifters Shalamanov and
Vardanyan reveals remarkable differences in all the measured parameters in both
the first and second pulls.
As a rule, however, it appears that as the barbell weight (BBW) increases,
the duration of the first pull also increases, whereas with the exception of
Shalarnanov the duration of the second pull remains approximately constant at
around 0.15 sec. This result agrees well with the findings of Vorobyev (1978).
The maximum angular velocities around the knee in the second pull are also generally larger than in the first pull, and the extension of the hip occurs faster than
at the knee.
500
0
-500
Figure 10
Figure 11
Isfl
----
Table 4
Selected Parameters of Ground Reaction Forces
BW
kg
BBW
kg
RFz
Fzl
Fz2
Fz3
Subject
kNls
Shalamanov
60
Kritsky
Trautmann
82.5
135
140
143
140
140
145
147.5
-150
- 175
1 75
177.5
- 145
160
- 165
195
- 202.5
202.5
- 205
17.5
28.5
20.0
12.0
7.0
6.5
6.4
24.0
14.5
12.5
15.0
14.5
9.0
12.0
11.0
11.0
22.0
28.0
2573
2532
2501
2857
2867
2925
2907
3061
3350
331 0
3312
3743
3757
3793
4060
4019
4335
4290
1725
181 1
1749
1668
1675
1785
1773
1663
2218
2085
2235
1701
2080
2556
231 2
2453
2180
2151
Senet
Vardanyan
Erhard
Tsintsanis
134
136
Gunyashev
130
Krastev
150
Internal Kinetics (Muscular Moments). The muscle moments, as previously stated, are calculated from the carefully determined spatial coordinates
of the center of the joints of the lower extremity and the resultant GRF vector.
Despite the limitation that only net muscular moments are considered, they still
represent a very important kinetic parameter that is closely related to the muscular control of the movement. The muscular moments of one leg are shown in
Figure 13. The chosen example is typical of lower weight categories. When a
curve is positive the extensors must be active, whereas when it is negative the
flexors must be active (mathematically speaking, the curve for the knee should
in fact be inverted). As the barbell nears lift-off and up to the end of the first
pull, the moment about the hip joint becomes approximately constant while the
moments about the other two joints decrease. The moment about the knee becomes negative, that is, the knee flexors become active. The relatively rapid flexing
of the knees is only possible with the active support of the flexor muscles. At
the beginning of the second pull all of the moments are once again positive, the
knee and ankle moments reaching a second maximum during this phase before
declining rapidly. Immediately before the foot leaves the ground (foot-off) all
three moments reach zero.
These general patterns of the moment-time curves are very reproducible
for individual athletes, though they change somewhat between athletes as a result
of performance differences. In the heavier weight categories there is an essentially similar pattern in the first pull, although variations do occur in the second
pull.
Figure 12
Total GRF, vertical component for selected attempts in the weight
categories 82.5 kg (a-el, and llO+ kg (f-j), respectively. The data given are
= unsuccessful.
namelweight categorylweight of barbell/ + = successful,
Figure 13 - Muscular moments acting in the joints of the leg from beginning until
foot-off. Top = knee angle.
The numerical results of 15 individual attempts are presented in Table 5.
It is interesting to note the relatively small knee and ankle moments. Ranging
from the 60 kg weight category to the 110+ kg weight category, the maximum
values for the knee extensors lie between 65 Nm and 258 Nm. The knee flexors
create maximum net moments of between 65 Nm and 161 Nm. From these figures,
characteristic of competitive movements at the highest level, it is impossible to
explain problems reported from the apparent overloading of the joint. The hip
extensors must be active for a significantly longer period of time, which includes
the first pull and adds up to between 0.4 sec and 0.6 sec. In addition they have
to compensate for net moments 2-4 times larger than in the case of the knee,
that is, from 260 Nm to 660 Nm. These values indicate the dominant role of the
hip extensors in weightlifting and provide evidence of the massive loads to which
the muscles and joint structures of the hip are exposed.
There is a high correlation between maximum moments at the hip and
the total mass of the system (r = 0.95), which also means that increasing barbell
weights leads unavoidably to increased loads on the hip (see Figure 14). The corresponding values for the knee joint show that the moments do not increase proportionally with external loads. In Figure 14 the second peak maximum moment about
the knee (MK max2) and maximum negative moment in the opposite direction
85
Table 5
Extreme Values of Muscular Moments
Subject
BW
BBW
kg
kg
MF [Nm]
MK [Nm]
Min
MH [Nm]
Max2
Max
Shalamanov
Kritsky
Trautrnann
Senet
Vardanyan
Erhard
Tsintsanis
Gunyashev
Krastev
180
Figure 14
230
280
330
380
- Plot of selected moments in the leg versus system mass (BW + BBW).
86
about the knee (MK min) are plotted against the total mass of the system. The
correlation coefficients for the extensors (r = 0.61) and the flexors (r = 0.57)
were found to be relatively weak and can perhaps be explained through differences in technique.
The moment at the knee joint is dependent upon the magnitude of the
resultant GRF and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of this
force and the joint center. Through changes in this moment arm, the moment
about the joint will vary. Figure 15 shows an example using the heaviest weight
category, comparing Gold Medalist Krastev (BW 150 kg, BBW 202.5 kg) and
Group B lifter Tsintsanis (BW 136 kg, BBW 160 kg). The vertical component
Figure IS
knee.
87
of the GRF is larger for Krastev because of the greater mass involved. However,
the maximum moment about the knee joint is quite the reverse, Krastev's in fact
being smaller. The explanation lies in the,different moment arms of the GRF,
Tsintsanis' being larger than Krastev's. The larger moment of the knee flexors
in Krastev's case simply underlines the forceful support offered by the knee flexors at the end of the first pull.
This comparison demonstratestwo things: first, that knowledge of the GRF
alone is insufficient for deducing anything about the muscular activity involved,
and second, that the position of the knee joint with regard to the GRF direction
appears to be an important technical factor in this phase of the snatch. This factor
can significantly influence the forces transmitted by the joint and surrounding
musculature. The position of knee joint is certainly as important as the time history of the knee angle.
Figure 16 - Complete set of parameters. From top to bottom: body angles, barbell
velocity, vertical component of GRF, muscular moments.
89
i
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i'
Acknowledgments
This investigation was initiated and supported by the Subcommission for Biomechanics and Sport Physiology of the Medical Commission of the IOC (Chairman, Prince
Alexandre de Merode). We are grateful to the Federal Institute for Sport Science (BISP)
who supported the analysis, to Kistler Instruments for providing special force plates, and
to Data Genetal for their computer assistance.
Thanks are also extended to The International Weightlifting Federation (President,
G. Schodl; General Secretary, T. Ajan) and the Organizing Committee of the Swedish
Weightlifting Association (C.-E. Hermansson, S. Johansson, B. Johanssori, and T. Torstenson) for their excellent support of this project.