Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
ON
STEAM ENGINEERING
INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS
If
SCRANTON,
PA.
GOVERNORS
VALVE GEARS
CONDENSERS
COMPOUND ENGINES
ENGINE MANAGEMENT
ENGINE INSTALLATION
37881
SCRANTON
if-
TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
The Steam Engine Copyright, 1894, 1895, 1898, 1900, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER
COMPANY. Copyright, 1902, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. Entered
:
at Stationers' Hall,
London.
The Indicator: Copyright, 1894, 1895, 1898, 1900, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER
COMPANY. Copyright, 1902, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY. Entered
at Stationers' Hall, London.
Engine Testing
Governors:
Copyright,
1902,
Entered
Valve Gears
Copyright,
1902,
Condensers
Copyright,
1902,
Entered
Compound Engines
Copyright,
1902,
Engine Management
Copyright, 1902, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY.
Entered at Stationers' Hall,-London.
:
err
NEW
YORK.
CONTENTS
Section
Page
Introduction
23
23
The D
Slide Valve
.-,'...
23
23
31
23
34
23
39
23
43
23
45
23
46
tion
THE INDICATOR
Construction of Indicator
24
24
24
....
....
...
...
General Features
24
24
24
15
17
24
18
24
23
25
grams
".
ENGINE TESTING
Thermodynamics
Calculating the
Piston
of the
Steam Engine
a Moving
.
Work Done on
....,..'....
....
iii
25
25
19
25
21
25
32
25
35
CONTENTS
iv
ENGINE TESTING
Continued
Brake Horsepower
Steam Consumption
Size of Steam Engines
Section
Page
25
25
40
44
25
49
GOVERNORS
Controlling the Speed of an Engine
26
26
.....
Inertia Governors
Isochronism
Adjustment of Governors
26
25
.26
30
26
34
VALVE GEARS
Definition and Classification
.....
....
....
...
....
....
Methods
of Reversing Engines
Double-Eccentric Link Motions.
Single-Eccentric Link Motion
Radial Gears
...'..".
.
Poppet Valves and Cam-Gears
Gridiron Valves: The Mclntosh
.
of
&
27
27
27
27
15
28
28
28
28
12
28
18
Sey28
23
28
27
28
30
Valve
............
CONDENSERS
Introduction
29
Condenser
Jet Condensers
Surface Condensers
29
29
29
23
Cooling Towers
29
33
Condenser Fittings
Quantity of Water Required for Conden-
29
42
29
45
29
47
Theory
of the
sation
Causes of an Imperfect
Vacuum
...
CONTENTS
COMPOUND ENGINES
of
Advantages
Construction of
The Receiver
Section
Compounding
....
Compound Engines
Page
30
30
11
30
22
30
28
30
31
30
33
'
Reheaters
Calculations Pertaining to
Compound En-
gines
ENGINE MANAGEMENT
Taking Charge
Starting and Stopping Engines
Lining Engines
Pounding of Engines
Hot Bearings
....
.
Lubricants
Lubrication
Tests of Lubricants
Automatic Lubricators
31
31
31
21
31
35
32
32
19
32
27
32
28
32
31
ENGINE INSTALLATION
Comparison
Engines
of
Types
of
Reciprocating
33
Selection of Engines
33
22
Engine Foundations
33
36
CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM
1.
may
1.
steam engine
be classified as follows:
motive, marine,
etc.
2.
According to number and arrangement of cylinders,
as simple, compound, triple expansion, quadruple expansion,
duplex,
3.
etc.
ting, rotary.
Each of these types may be horizontal or vertical, condensing or non-condensing, and, except the rotary engine,
single-acting or double-acting.
2.
essentially the same principles, and therefore the description of a single type will be sufficient to give a general
knowledge of these principles. For this purpose we shall
most common
is
the engine in
use.
23
For notice of copyright, see pae:e immediately following the
title
page.
23
method
is
shown
in
say, in this
end h
of the cylinder,
to
BA
When
circle.
the piston is at one extreme end of the cylinder, say at //, the joint A is at the point ;;z, and all three
4.
23
As the
O, B A, and C B, lie in a straight line.
moves to the right, the link C B moves also to the
right, while the joint A must move in a semicircle /;/ n.
When P arrives at the other end of the cylinder, the joint A
is at n, and again A O, B A, and C B are in a straight line.
The piston now moves back to the end h of the cylinder, the
links,
piston
joint
/;/.
The
rod,
cating parts.
The end h of the cylinder is called the head end, and the
end c the crank end. The distance passed over by the piston
during half a revolution of the crank is called the stroke,
and is plainly equal to the diameter of the circle described
by the end of the crank that is, the distance m n.
5.
arrow
it
it
is
in the direction
may run
shown by the
and
in 'the latter
The
cylinder, that
is,
from
left
is
called
the
VALVE ENGINE.
In Fig.
6.
engine
is
23
port
5 is the
steam-supply
is
crosshead
wristpin
3
4
is
is
FIG.
3.
valve. These are all movable parts of the engine, or parts that
change their relative positions when the engine is in motion.
The
7.
W.
of
23
the cylinder
is
shown by
slightly less than the distance between the cylinder heads, since a small space must
be left between the head and the piston, when the latter is at
the end of
its
stroke.
It
The
is
is
the travel
is
stroke of 22 inches
9.
is
At the ends
called a 16"
F and F'
22" engine.
the cylinder
is
counterbored
greater than M,
The piston projects partly into this counterbore at the end
of each stroke.
Were it not for the counterbore, the piston
would not wear the cylinder walls their entire length, and
that
is,
is
is
of the cylinder.
is
slightly increased,
Drain cocks
W and W"
Fig.
3,
may
be
discharged.
The
10.
rings k
piston
and
k'
23
rings k
and
k' in
rigidly connected
bending
stresses.
THE ECCENTRIC.
shows the eccentric that imparts motion to
the slide valve Fin Figs. 2 and 3.
It consists of a circular
disk of iron a, which is keyed or fastened by setscrews to the
shaft and revolves with it.
The center of this disk, which
is called the eccentric sheave, is at O.
It is evident
that, as the shaft revolves, the center O of the sheave a will
describe the dotted circle #, whose center is the center of the
shaft.
Consequently, the eccentric straps and the eccentric
rod d, to which it is fastened, will be moved horizontally,
during a half revolution, a distance equal to the diameter e
of the dotted circle.
This distance e is commonly called
the throw of the eccentric.
The distance O Q between the
center of the eccentric and center of the shaft is called the
radius of the eccentric or the eccentricity. It is plain
12.
Fig. 4
is tivice
the radius.
Attention
somewhat
23
is
here called
in the definition of
tliroiv.
Some engineers call the radius the throw,
but by far the greater part define throw as here given.
the term
is
is
is
in its stuffingbox.
14.
of
the valve
is
As the motion
given by the eccentric, the valve is in
when the
When Q
radius of the
O, Fig.
4, lies
when O Q
at the
lies
end of
its
chest.
THE
is
shown
el
/,
are the
port,
S T
the exhaust
steam ports, o, o the bridges,
the valve seat. The flanges of the valve,
a b and
c d, are
cover.
Of
10
23
is
FIG.
6.
23
11
and the amount of clearance. Diagram //, Fig. 6, represei)ts the piston just on the point of beginning the forward
tion, and,
and the center of the eccentric (this line will hereafter be called the eccentric radius) is vertical.
All the
Diaparts are about to move in the direction of the arrows.
gram K shows the positions of the parts when the crank has
moved through 90 from its position in A. The piston is at
the middle of its stroke, or very nearly there.
It would be
shaft
left
steam port
is
is
fully
fully
crank movement of 90
O a\
the eccentric
tion
is
ton has reached the extreme point of the return stroke, the
//.
it
S.
IV.
12
23
and
now
is
is
expansion of steam.
The following conclusion
nary
cut-off,
is
now
and
has outside
evident
an
therefore no expansion
With an
eccentric, there
ordi-
can be no
lap.
17.
the relative
the
in Figs. 7 to 14.
In these figures, the valve has both outside and inside lap, but no lead.
These diagrams have
been distorted, as was done -in Fig. 6, in order that the
side.
Suppose each pipe to have a steam-tight piston
working in it, the lower side of the pistons being subjected
to the steam pressure in the cylinder and the upper side to
each
23
13
If a pressure of
attached to the end of the piston rod.
10 pounds is required to compress the spring 1 inch, it is
19.
clear,
let
QX,
would trace
i.
e.,
Q X is
20.
Angle of Advance.
Consider Fig.
7.
The
piston
is
moving
in the
same
direction, as
If
advance.
FIG.
8.
23
15
Exhaust Port Fully Open. Fig. 8 shows the posiand valve when the exhaust port is fully
The crank has moved from the position Of (shown
22.
open.
by dotted
Steam
line) to
O a and
g to
b.
entering the head end of the cylinder and exhaustThe pencils have moved from 1 to 2
ing at the crank end.
on both diagrams
and N.
is
eccentric radius
of the
crank
half of its
diagrams
24:.
will
lines 2-S.
Closed.
its
16
FIG.
9.
PIG.
10.
17
of
positions
The
and
is
shown by
their distances
lines.
position.
FIG. n.
the steam port, i. e., cut off the steam, and from here to the
end of the stroke the steam in the cylinder expands. This
is called the point of cut-off.
The exhaust port is now
The crank and eccentric have moved
partially closed.
During
this
movement, the
Id
23
valve closes the exhaust port, and from now to the end of
the stroke, the steam in front of the piston is compressed.
This point in the stroke is called the point of compression.
In the diagrams
pencils.
line,
The
M and N, the
line
ment
moveon the
23
19
PlG.
13.
gram
28.
Piston at
End
its
diagrams
M shows
M and N, the
end
1'
of the cylinder
rise
23
of
20
FIG.
port.
As the
process
is
/VvV
14.
diagrams have not been drawn, but the student should follow the valve through the different positions and note the
effects on the diagrams.
To assist him in this, the corresponding points have been numbered as in the foregoing
figures.
in the stroke
It is
likewise
23
21
evident that
and an
mcci^ns
30.
that
if
Icep
and causes
later
and
FIG. 15
left
steam
the port a
stroke.
port.
little
That
is,
22
23
is
shown
in Fig. 15.
is
open a distance a
is
b.
end of the
This distance a b
at the
When
of 90
over," as in Fig.
seen that when the valve has lap (or lap and lead), the
angle a O b between the crank and eccentric is greater
than 90. Following the direction of the arrows, it is seen,
however, that the eccentric b reaches, say, the lowest point
is
FIG.
to
move downwards.
position
b' ,
for then
16.
Now, the
it
left.
23
It
cannot be opposite,
in the position
O g,
23
for in that case,
eccentric
in the
and
same
This law
angle of advance.
runs "over" or "under."
is
and
ahead of
the crank,
-{- the
eccentric is 90
An
that
same straight
example
when the
line.
It
is shown in Fig. 2.
It is perfectly evident
eccentric rod 11 moves to the left, the valve
move
to the
left,
being compelled to do so
The
the
same
straight line, the eccentric then being thrown too far to the
by the main bearing R'. The valve seat could, in this
case, have been placed farther from the center of the cylinleft
two rods
in line.
This,
however, would have made the steam and exhaust ports that
much longer. Since it is considered an advantage to have
ports as short as possible, a rocker-arm
was used.
24
34.
Again,
is
it
by the
ratio
gd gc (
:
15
4 inches
and ge
inches.
e-d
=4
J.
gd=
12 inches,
X ff
= 3.2
inches.
direction.
35.
It is often
center, as
shown
in Fig. 18.
and
d,
where
25
lie
FIG.
proportion
is.
throw of eccentric
or throw of eccentric
valve travel
valve travel
=gd
ge,
*o-fl
.
ge
attached as shown in Fig. 17. This can only be accomplished by placing the eccentric exactly opposite the position
shown in Fig. 17. That is, instead of placing the eccentric
90
angle of advance ahead of the crank, it must be
We have,
placed 90
angle of advance behind the crank.
must be
placed behind the crank, and the angle betvveen the two
90
angle of advance.
36.
said to be direct
when
it
opens the
and
closes
it
by moving
to the right
left
slide
port upon
to the left.
valve
is
is
moving
valve
SO
g 23
37.
of an indirect valve.
in Fig. 19 is
It consists of a
FIG.
an example
19.
The
chamber B.
Attention is called to the fact that a piston valve is not
necessarily an indirect valve piston valves are often made
as direct valves.
In the latter case their action is exactly
the same as that of the ordinary plain slide valve.
;
23
38.
27
It
it
39.
The
position
of
the eccentric relative to the crank for both the direct and
indirect valves, direct
in the table.
One
ECCENTRIC POSITIONS.
28
23
16,
FIG.
20.
so as not to have
eccentric
any
lead.
when crankpin
is
at
c.
e,
then,
Now,
is
the position of
the crankpin
let
move in the direction of the arrow x; that is, let the piston
commence its forward stroke. Since the valve has no lead,
the slightest movement of the crankpin in the direction of
the arroAv will cause the valve to open the left steam port.
When the eccentric has reached the position O g, the valve
has moved to
its
and any
23
29
movement
further
to close the
it
moved through
the angle g O h
g O e, Oh will represent the
position of the eccentric at the time cut-off takes place.
Laying off the angle // O i = c O e, we find the corresponding
Laying
off
From the point i (the center of the crankpin) as a center, with a radius equal to the length of the
connecting-rod (the length of the line a c), describe an arc
crank position.
From what
crank position
will
be
n.
From
;/
as a center, with a
return stroke.
41.
It will
stroke.
30
The
23
maybe summarized
as follows:
//
Will cause the valve to cut off and release the steam, as well
as close the exhaust port, later on the forward stroke of the
piston than on the return stroke.
FIG.
21.
come
23
31
43.
The Allen
or
FIG.
The passage A
Other-
in
is
Fig. 22,
cast in the
22.
The shoulders B,
valve and extends clear through it.
the valve seat are so constructed that when the edge
of
;;/
of
the valve
edge/
shoulder
is
at the other
Now, when
seat.
the valve
moves a
little
the same time, the edge p of the passage has moved past the
edge n of the valve seat; steam thus enters the passage A
and
The
effective port
is
doubled.
44.
when the
piston /*
is
1, it is plain that
stroke at the end // of
Referring to Fig.
at the
end of
A must
its
lie
at the point
in the
32
23
are in the
same straight
line.
When
FIG. 33.
shown
in Fig. 23.
When
the crosshead
A common
method
of doing this
make
mark
23
33
one end upon the floor (or, better, upon a solid block or part
of the engine bed), and with the pointed end make a mark e
upon the edge of the flywheel. The engine will probably
not be exactly on the center; the crankpin will be, say, at a
Now turn the engine in
point slightly above the center.
the direction of the arrow x' until the edge of the crosshead
The flywheel will have
aga^in comes even 'with the mark.
made nearly a complete revolution, and the crankpin will be
at a', the same distance below the center that a was above
it.
Since the flywheel has made a little less than a full
revolution, the mark e on the rim will not now be opposite
the marking points of the tram, but the latter will make a
new mark e' on the rim. Now, make a mark f half way
between the marks e and e', and turn the wheel until the
Put the
46. Directions for Setting Slide Valve.
engine on its dead center, place the valve on the seat and
connect it with the eccentric rod. Shift the eccentric on the
shaft until the valve has the desired lead.
Turn the engine
in the direction it is to run until it is on the other dead
If the lead is the same as at the other end, the
center.
valve is correctly set; if it is not the same, the valve rod
must be lengthened or shortened until the lead is the same
at both centers.
If, now, the lead is less than desired, shift
the eccentric forwards a little on the shaft; if the lead is a
little too great, shift the eccentric backwards.
After the valves are set and the engine is started, a pair
of indicator diagrams should be taken.
The diagrams will
show any
be
made
accordingly.
34
CLEARANCE
REAL,
23
AND APPARENT
CUT-OFF.
CLEARANCE.
47.
Piston Clearance.
When
the crank
is
on a dead
center, the piston is always a short distance from the cylinder head; this allowance is made so that a slight change in
and head
which any small quantity of water in the cylinwhen the piston is at the end of its stroke;
the incompressible nature of water would have the effect of
breaking some part of the engine if there were no space in
which it could collect. The short distance between the piston and the head when the piston is at the end of its stroke
is called the piston clearance.
der
may
48.
in
collect
at either
end of
first
is
volume
left
is
50. Measuring the Cleai-ance Volume. The clearance volume of an engine may be found by putting the
23
35
heavy
51.
oil for
clearance volume
inches, but
it
is
it
The
cubic
as a percent-
For
age of the volume swept through by the piston.
example, suppose the clearance volume of a 12" X 18"
engine is found to be 128 cubic inches. The volume swept
2
through by the piston per stroke is 12 X .7854 X 18
= 2,035.8 cubic
= G.3 per cent.
inches.
8
is
^|
"^
*,0o5.o
The clearance ma'y be as low as % per cent,
in Corliss engines and as high as 14 per cent, in very high-
speed engines.
36
23
gear engines.
REAL,
53.
AXD APPARENT
CUT-OFF.
By this is meant that the steam is cut off when the piston
has completed or $ of its stroke, as the case may be.
For
example, if the stroke is 48 inches and the steam is shut off
from the cylinder when the piston has moved 18 inches, the
cut-off
is
The
cut-off thus
spoken of
is
the appar-
ent cut-off.
54.
space.
cylinder and clearance space when the piston is at the cutpoint and the volume of steam in cylinder and clearance
off
space
when
example,
let
55.
Then, the
real cut-off
is
cut-offs
D A
length
23
cut off
is
37
when the
piston has
AC
is
-^./I X>
A B represents
above
DC
C+A D=.
'
.-
-=j-p
Let
in Fig. 24, s
= AC
-j-g
and
= AD
-^.
Rule
1.
^-(' + 0X100
Or
100
+i
EXAMPLE.
real cut-off.
SOLUTION.
The apparent
cut-off is
(44 4 * 8) * 10
found to be
1UU + o
'
is
= 48.5
Applyper cent.
Ans.
.
ratio of expansion
is
DB
-r-
DB ~ DC = 1
Since
'
DR
T'
^ *" ows
that the ratio of expansion is the reciprocal of the real cutFor example, if the volume of steam behind the piston
off.
when
at the
end
of its stroke
is
when
at
38
cut-off
is
of expansion
is
When
lo
The
ratio
23
steam
3 expansions.
is given in per cent., the ratio of
dividing 100 by the real cut-off in per
expansion is found by
cent.
Thus, if the real cut-off
expansion
is
^^-
is
= 4.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE.
Let
it
with the water weighed 5 pounds was poured into the end
After pouring in just enough water to fill
the clearance space, the vessel and water were weighed and
found to weigh If pounds consequently, the weight of water
The
If = 3
poured out of the vessel was 5
pounds.
weight (A 1 cubic inch of water is .03617 pound. The number of cubic inches poured into the cylinder is, therefore,
of the cylinder.
3 25
'
==
.
Oool
the volume of
is
89.85
is,
100
therefore,
3.31 per
The apparent
(62.5+
3.31)^
cut-off
is,
we say
moved
therefore,
In accordance with
100
is
=63.7 per cent.
100
o. ol
In accordance with Art. 56, the ratio of expansion is
100
~-
2,
very nearly.
23
39
What
is (a)
if
2.
If
what
is (a)
cuts off
the
(a)
(b}
4 per cent.
S>
|
(fr)
pounds of water
when
Ans.
\ (b)
(c)
Change
it is
The
new
valve.
application to an existing
valve gear is shown in Fig. 25.
In a case of this kind, the
outside and inside lap of the valve, the travel of the valve,
its
and the stroke of the engine are known; and the lead, if
not known, may be assumed.
With these data, the amount
that the steam ports are opened (the port opening), the
point of cut-off, the point of release, the point of exhaust
and the angle of advance of the eccentric can be
closure,
determined.
the semicircle
is
tangent
40
The
to gh.
About
o'
5/-rote
FIG.
25.
draw the straight line of. From the points of intersection d, /, and m of the lines o d, o /, and o ni with the
semicircle ad b, drop perpendiculars, as dk, //, and my on
the straight line a b.
About o as a center describe an arc
tangent to the outside lap circle and intersecting a b in /.
In the diagram just drawn, the distance o t represents the
port opening to the same scale to which the diagram was
drawn; the distance, a k shows the piston movement up to
the point of cut-off; the distance ay shows the piston movement up to the point of release, and the distance ap shows
the piston movement up to the point where the exhaust
port is closed, i. e., up to the point where compression
and
o'
begins.
59.
circle
The angle fo
When
is
can be drawn
23
/
b.
of
the line
The
of
41
of
now be
of a perpendicular
earlier.
o'
tangent lines o
//,
all
and
my will
also
move
to the
left,
42
23
By studying
in the
manner indicated
in the preceding
in
the semicircle a
trial, find
is
determined.
The question
one
of
how much,
if
any, inside
is
-that
23
SIZE OF
43
STEAM PASSAGES.
case
necessary.
= area of
= area of
c = area of
Let a
>
de
poo-
EXAMPLE.
What
size
H. S.
IV. -4
44
SOLUTION.
= 600
feet.
The
The
23
is f |
100
153.938,
say
154
600
g-Qoo~
square inches.
size of pipe is
sq. in.
in.
nominal diameter,
Ans.
Or
= de
4,000'
EXAMPLE. What should be the area of the exhaust port and what
should be the size of the exhaust pipe of the engine mentioned in the
example given
SOLUTION.
in Art.
66 ?
15
**
= 23.1
square inches
enced engineers would select the 6-inch pipe, in order not to cramp
the exhaust. Ans.
68. Rule 4. To find the area of the steam port, multiply the area of tJie piston by the piston speed in feet per
minute ; divide the product by 7,500 if the port is short and
direct, and by 6,000 if the port is long and tortuous.
Or,
and
a
7,500
=
,
UUU
EXAMPLE. What should be the area of the steam port for the
engine given in the example of Art. 66, if the port is short ?
23
SOLUTION.
45
600
7.500
Ans.
THE ROTARY
Since the time of Watt, it has been the aim of many
inventors to produce an engine in which the piston has a
rotary motion, thus dispensing with the connecting-rod and
6().
Innumerable designs have been proposed and patof which have been actually tried except for
special service where economy in the use of steam is but a
minor consideration, they have all proved commercial failIt is a very simple matter to design a rotary engine
ures.
that will turn (run) it is an entirely different matter, however, to have a rotary engine develop in constant and
extended service a horsepower on the same steam consumption as a reciprocating steam engine.
crank.
ented,
many
sliding, or
short time; rotary engines of the interlocking piston pattern either commence to leak badly after short service or
46
THE STEAM
23
TURBISTE.
THE INDICATOR.
INDICATORS AOT)
REDUCED
MOTIONS.
CONSTRUCTION OF INDICATOR.
GENERAL, CONSTRUCTION.
The Indicator
1.
diagram
24
For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the
title
page.
THE INDICATOR.
24
the general principles involved in all will readily be understood by reference to Fig. 1, which shows the general
2,
in
rise.
The spring d is compressed and resists
movement of the piston. The height to which
made
To
end
however,
to about
to
restrict
inch,
THE INDICATOR.
24
-,
This ratio
is,
for
most
in
and joints
motion.
z,
^,
and
k,
forming what
is
called a parallel
DETAILS OF INDICATOR.
The Spring.
rise
1 inch,
and the
vertical scale of
the diagram is, therefore, 40 pounds per inch; that is, the
vertical distance in inches of any point on the diagram
The
indicator
THE INDICATOR.
24
To
hole
is
more convenient,
the cylinder is
be used so as to bring the indicator into a vertical position
since, however, it is desirable to keep the connections to the
;
the cock by the nut r, Fig. 2, which wedges the conical projection s of the indicator tightly into the cock and thus
On account of the resistance
prevents leakage of steam.
offered
indicator, it is preferable to
of the cylinder, but if that
may be
of a three-way cock.
The
THE INDICATOR.
24
8.
is
sometimes applied to
Fig.
The
cylinder
(the
usually
em-
The
the
is
is
square inch.
piston c
smaller
that used
is
fitted to
bore and
when
_.
indi-
FIG 3
-
so, if
THE INDICATOR.
Ammonia
9.
Indicators.
24
ammonia
will
prevent the
of the indicator
the portions
REDUCING MOTIONS.
PANTOGRAPH MOTIONS.
Purpose of a Reducing Motion. The motion of the
paper drum is nearly always taken from the crosshead. How1O.
necessary to arrange
form of mechanism
some point of which
a
will
copy to a reduced
Such a mechpiston.
anism is called a reducing motion.
11.
The
panto-
The
THE INDICATOR.
24
is
to the point
line
straight
A B represents the
connecting C and D.
Letting h represent the length of
we have the following proportions:
FIG.
5.
or
bars.
that position of C.
13.
The
of the stroke
distance
points
A B\
and B.
this
is
To
THE INDICATOR.
when
B at
24
is
the distance
is
to
make
stroke and
C so that the distance A c is, as nearly as possiFor examequal to the desired length of the diagram.
let it be desired to take a diagram 3 inches long from an
then locate
ble,
ple,
The
is
attached
moves
or lazy tongs may be at any place that will enable the cord
to be led to the indicator in the shortest and most direct
manner;
it
is
not necessary, as
sometimes assumed, to
is
ever,
is
fixed point
THE INDICATOR.
24
in
The lower end of the lever is slotted and fits over a pin in
the crosshead; the other end of the lever is pivoted at a
and the cord is attached at V. The cord is
fixed point
THE INDICATOR.
10
24
in a
so that it will leave the point
direction parallel to the line of motion of the crosshead.
In the device shown in Fig. 7, the lever is connected to
guided by a pulley
W D.
sector
E V F, called a Brumbo
The center
pulley.
circle of
the
of
may
lever or
it
FIG. 7.
Fig. 6; in this case a guide
pulley similar to the pulley Z, Fig. 6, would be required.
16.
The types
of swinging-lever
head.
is
attached
is
from
constant
U
;
to the point
to
length of the long arm of the lever varies, while the length
of the short arm remains constant.
This results in a variation in the relative motions of crosshead
and cord
for differ-
consequence, distorted.
is,
WD
in
THE INDICATOR.
24
11
of the crosshead.
most purposes
18.
The
errors of the
reduction
obtained
by
W and
V is
works
lever.
in a slot
By
this
to the
pivot
constant for all
FIG.
$.
16
can be
THE INDICATOR.
:M
WD
to the ratio of
U V to U
S must
is
WD
are
these condi-
same straight
FIG.
the
and
fulfilled
points U, V, and
of
VC
of.
When
parallel.
tions
W,
be so loca-
and
VC
equal
joint
line,
lie
the
in the
the center
lies
on the
and D.
straight line joining
The cord must be guided by pulleys, as Z, so that it will
leave the bars S, Figs. 8 and 9, in a direction parallel to the
line of
19.
tions.
9.
Rule for Proportioning Swinging-Lever MoWith any swinging-lever reducing motion, the ratio
is
9, let /
/
-=
= .,UV
,.
In accordance
gram, and the distance from the pivot of the lever to the point
where it is connected with the crosshead are knozvn, multiply
the length of the diagram by the distance from the pivot to
THE INDICATOR.
24
13
/= length
L = length
Let
of
diagram;
of stroke
d= distance
D=
cross-
of
attachment of
cord (see
V, Figs. 6 to 9)
distance from pivot to point where lever is connected to crosshead (see
W, Figs. 6 to 9).
;
d=^-.
I
Then,
EXAMPLE
of the lever
3
1.
is
inches long
SOLUTION.
UW
The
EF
V of the arc
in order
EXAMPLE 2. In Fig. 7 find the radius
that the diagram may be 3 inches long, the stroke of the engine being
38 inches and the length
being 5 feet 5 inches.
SOLUTION.
is solved in the same manner as the preeffective length of the lever is 5 feet 5 inches
ceding one.
The
Applying the
65 inches.
This example
rule,
we have
/>rt
d=
'
radius of arc
EF
vx
08
o K
6 in., nearly.
Ans.
REDUCING WHEELS.
Reducing wheels form a very convenient and
2O.
The cord a
from
it
H.
S.
IV. -5
THE INDICATOR.
14
of
24
removed and
pulley can be
diagram.
stroke
12
of
Thus, if the
is
engine
the
inches
and
the
of
the
diagram
length
desired
is
The hub
contains
spring
that
is
the spring turns the wheel and winds the cord on again.
When
21.
THE INDICATOR.
24
15
may
they
lubricated,
lasts
22.
With
reducing
wheels
the
quick
11.
INDICATOR CONNECTIONS.
23. Indicator Cords. In order to transmit the motion
from the reducing motion to the paper drum with as little
loss or distortion as possible, it is
but
little.
To meet
this requirement,
drum
in the shortest
THE INDICATOR.
16
line.
When
is
motion,
of its
the cord
24
in the line
it
9; the use
much
as
it is
practicable.
..
I**
V^x^)^""T
^^
'
FIG
12
common method
is
tached
to
the
to
at-
paper
drum with
it
THE INDICATOR.
24
17
ATTACHMENTS.
SPECIAL,
person.
is
an electromagnet that
is
When
number
current
INDICATOR DIAGRAMS.
DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING DIAGRAMS.
27.
The makers
of
indicators furnish
very complete
new
is
not
oil
pencil so that
point so that it
line
it
makes a very
THE INDICATOR.
18
24
engine when the steam pressure is the same. See that there
is no backlash between the piston and spring.
Adjust the length of the cord so that the drum turns
at the
If it
of the stops, the cord is either too short or too long.
touches both, the travel of the drum is too great, and the
having
less travel.
line.
GENERAL FEATURES.
29.
THE INDICATOR.
24
19
teristic features of
will
3O.
13 and 14 are
FIG.
FIG.
13.
14.
of
2
3
is
is
5
6
is
is
is
THE INDICATOR.
20
The
24
lines included
6-1
is
the admission
1-2
is
the steam
line.
line.
2-3
spring
is 30,
the
Thus,
vacuum
if
line lies -
oO^-
When
.49 inch
below the
desired, the
great accuracy
be located in accordance with the indiThis is especially desirable when
cation of the barometer.
the engine is located at a great altitude above sea level.
Then the distance between the atmospheric and vacuum
lines may be found by multiplying the reading of the
barometer in inches by .49 and dividing by the scale of
the spring. For instance, if the barometer stands at 25 inches
and the scale of the indicator spring is 30, the vacuum line
line.
atmospheric
vacuum
is
line should
.41 inch
from
line.
Two Diagrams on
indicator
is
used, the
On
the
CD
THE INDICATOR.
24
the head end. or
it
21
KL M
if
the cock
EF
Fonvard.
FIG.
is
GHJ K
Return,
15.
is
greater than
C lies
through m perpendicular to the vacuum line.
on ABC, and since
L
is described at the same time
K M
as
A B C,
with the
THE INDICATOR.
line
24
KL M
tion
is
occurs in
crank end.
34.
Effect of
Diagram.
The
FIG.
The
17.
THE INDICATOR.
24
23
expected from this type of engine when the valves are corThe fact that the
rectly set and in good working order.
back-pressure line runs below the atmospheric line shows
plainly that the engine the card was taken from was conOn the other hand, Fig. 17 shows the form of
densing.
diagram that may be expected from an engine running at
On account of the high
250 to 300 revolutions per minute.
rotative speed, the lines are irregular, due to the inertia of
the moving parts of the indicator.
The compression is
large, as it shpuld be for engines running at a high speed.
The point of cut-off is never very sharply marked.
It
is
shown
readily seen
in 'Figs. 16
how
and
17, yet
each
is
the diagrams
considered as repre-
FATJI/TS
35.
indicator
is
the admission.
2
3
is
the cut-off.
is
the release.
is
I.
II.
the compression.
Cut-off
IV.
Cut-off
the
THE INDICATOR.
24
24
FIG.
18.
tric
fault
may
an excessit
reaches
main bearing.
Case
admission
II.
line 1
THE INDICATOR.
24
FIG
2,
25
and particularly 3
19.
the admission
The
is
effect of late
sion.
It
is,
enough lead
to
38.
Case
III.
its
pressure
FIG.
its stroke.
is less
20.
pressure; in
effect is of ten
THE INDICATOR.
26
under a light
load.
It
24
result in pounding.
The great range
in pressure also has a bad effect on the steam consumption.
39.
it
will
When
sion
may
this
is lost
is
and there
40.
Case V.
41.
Case VI.
is
The appearance
of
Release Too
!Late.
This
is
illustrated
in Fig. 19.
admission
will
line, as
shown
at
fin
in Fig. 22
THE INDICATOR.
24
27
It also
of such
Most
THE INDICATOR.
28
24
effect of
making
all
done
will
cylinder.
.earlier
45.
Remedy
for
The
fault illus-
The remedy
is
The
solid line
a b
when
cut-off
expands
is
so
the steam
early that
below
the
The
work
done
is
Now
represented by the area a bfe minus the area/^r.
let the steam be throttled or the boiler pressure be lowered
In order that
be the same with this
may
THE INDICATOR.
24
29
pressure as
cut-off
off,
46.
cut-off,
either
stroke,
47.
in
consequence,
fall
line.
If
the release
is
be so
much
and
H.
S.
IV. -6
THE INDICATOR.
30
24
is
well
shown
in
48.
the
correspondingly reduced.
If there is too little compression, the reciprocating parts
will not be satisfactorily cushioned; if there is too much
'compression, the energy due to the motion will be absorbed
before the end of the stroke; the piston must then be
pushed by the crank. In either case the effect will be a
will
pressure.
9
average practice to compress to about T the initial
with
with
pressure
high-speed engines,
medium-speed
3
engines, and from -fo to T with slow-speed engines.
It is
ff
THE INDICATOR.
24
31
51.
FIG.
atmospheric line
34.
M N represent the
lines
drawn by the
indi-
To draw
the theoretical expansion line on this diagram, first draw the vacuum line O X, as explained in
Art. 31. Perpendicular to
and O
draw the two
cator.
MN
and B K, just touching the two ends of the diagram. Measure the length A B between these two perpendiculars, and this will give the length of the diagram. Multiply the length so found by the clearance volume of the
lines
AL
THE INDICATOR.
32
24
A O equal to the quotient. From O draw the perpendicular O Y- this is the clearance line. Through the
of the steam line draw the horizontal
highest point
F.
line
Locate, as nearly as may be done by inspection,
the point of cut-off C, and through this point draw the perH. The point O where the vacuum line O
pendicular
distance
O Y
(the line
(the line of no pressure) and the clearance line
of no volume) intersect represents the point of no pressure
or
and no volume; the distance
represents the
A E
OH
HD
from
to the line
E F.
From
these
4',
2', 3',
M N.
phenomena known
reevaporation, which
as
shown
This
is
in Fig. 24 by the
thought to be due
may
THE INDICATOR.
24
is
33
corresponding to the
initial
pressure
theoretical.
line
rises
Thus, in Fig.
25,
the
theoretical
allows
expansion line fell below the theoretical curve, the inference would be that steam was escaping from the cylinder
through a leaky exhaust valve or past an imperfectly fitting
An
expansion line that closely follows the theoretnot, however, conclusive evidence that the
valves and piston are tight steam may leak into and out of
piston.
ical
curve
is
THE INDICATOR.
34
24
the cylinder at the same time and at such rates that the
expansion line will appear to be quite satisfactory.
54.
times very
difficult to
horizontal through the point representing the initial presThe point of intersection is then taken as the point
sure.
ff, Fig. 24, to
through which to draw the vertical line
55.
is
piston and
the
If
the
admission
it
meets the
line,
as
is
Scale of Spring=50.
FIG.
26.
happens
shown
that,
5 in
Fig. 26, the curvature
of the compression line
as
at
THE INDICATOR.
24
hook shown
at a, Fig. 27.
indicates that
steam
may
is
35
56.
its
line that
gradually
falls
is
its
With
line, as is shown by the diagrams in Fig. 17.
shaft-governor engines, especially, the valve opening is
often restricted and steam cannot follow the piston fast
steam
at the beginning of
THE INDICATOR.
36
24
back pressure
57.
higli
;/,
8-4 above
if
FIG.
28.
The expansion
but
THE INDICATOR.
24
37
6O.
readily detected
effected
its full
range of motion.
ENGINE TESTING.
THERMODYNAMICS OF THE STEAM
INTRODUCTION.
1. Thermodynamics is that branch of physical science
that treats of the relation between heat and mechanical
work.
A heat engine
in the
useful work.
3.
The steam
engine
is
moving parts
the energy
is
pulleys, belts,
of
and
where
it
title
page.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
vapor
to which
ciples as
4.
it
is
heated.
of a Gas.
All
ume
piston.
If
Careful experiments have shown that there is a fixed relation between work and heat and that heat can be changed
done by heat.
To show
the cylinder be so
it
is
made
In accordance with the theory of heat, the fall in temperameans that the molecules of the gas move slower part
of the kinetic energy represented by their rate of motion at
the beginning of expansion has been expended in doing the
ture
work
of
ENGINE TESTING.
25
9.
Compression of a Gas.
in a cylinder
compression.
If the compression takes place under such conditions that
the heat represented by the work done is removed from the
gas so as to keep its temperature constant, the compression
is
isothermal.
10.
The quantity
ENGINE TESTING.
25
sion
11. Relation Between Work and Heat During Expansion or Compression. In practice, it is seldom that the
No cylinder can
expansion is purely adiabatic or isothermal.
be so made as to absolutely prevent the transfer of some heat
to or from the gas, and it is difficult to impart or abstract
In any case,
heat so as to keep the temperature uniform.
however, it is always found that there is a definite relation
between the work done and the sum of the quantities of
heat represented by the change in temperature of the gas
and the heat imparted to or abstracted from it. This relation shows conclusively that the work done by an expanding
gas is always a change of heat to work.
12. Expansion Diagrams. The relation between the
pressure and the volume of a gas during expansion may be
To illustrate,
represented by means of a graphical diagram.
consider a cylinder A, Fig. 1, in which a piston Pfits.
The
cylinder is attached to a reservoir
by a pipe T that permits air from
to enter the space 5 when the valve V is
opened.
gauge
Now,
cylinder to escape when the piston is pushed back.
with the valve C open, push the piston clear back to the end
of the cylinder, thus forcing out all the air; then close C
and open
ENGINE TESTING.
of the air in the space S.
When the piston has moved a
certain distance to the left, close t so as to stop the admission
FIG.
of air
move
farther to the
falls.
1.
V was
it
moved
open.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
the points
which
Any
desired
number of
points
c, d, e,
f, etc.
can be located
volume.
14.
Hyperbola.
that name.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
pressure as the piston advances each vertical line representing the pressure in the cylinder after expansion begins is
;
the curve
fall
adiabatic expansion
is
expansion
line.
s'
DE
A BC
represents the isothermal, and A B' C' D' E'
the adiabatic, expansion line of a quantity of air whose origi-
curve
the distances
OF
DCBA
H.
IV.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
volume and the pressure. If, with the same original volume
and pressure, the air were compressed adiabatically, the
curve representing the relation between the volume and the
pressure would rise above the isothermal compression curve,
as is shown by the dotted line E W. If a quantity of air, whose
volume is represented by O F and whose pressure by F E',
compressed adiabatically, the- curve representing the relabetween the volumes and the pressures during the process of compression will be E' D' C' />' A, which is the same
curve that represented the relation for adiabatic expansion
from the volume O L and the pressure LA.
is
tion
17.
and work done as has been explained for gas. Owing, however, to the properties of saturated steam, by virtue of which
the pressure depends solely on the temperature and is independent of the volume, the relation between volume and
pressure is not as simple as is the case with a perfect gas.
For example, if a given weight of dry saturated steam
expands adiabatically, a part of it will be condensed; while
if the expansion is isothermal, the steam will be superheated
during its expansion. If there is a mixture of steam and
water, that is, if there is water in the vessel in which the
steam expands, the relation between volume and pressure
during expansion depends on the proportion of water in the
As long as there is water present, the steam will be
mixture.
saturated and the pressure during isothermal expansion will
be constant. This will be evident if we consider the fact
that the pressure of saturated steam (steam in contact with
water) depends solely on the temperature if the temperature
is constant, the pressure must also be constant, no matter
;
water
will give
is
up some
ENGINE TESTING.
25
can be derived
is
greater.
umes
of a perfect gas
when
it
otte's law.
A piston that is
19.
being pushed through a cylinder by the expansive force of a
gas or vapor acting
on one side must
Net or Effective Pressure.
generally overcome
the resisting force
of a gas or vapor
its
opposite
Thus,
in
Fig.
on
side.
3, let
space at the right is open to the atmosphere and, in consequence, is filled with vapor at a pressure of about 14.7 pounds
ENGINE TESTING.
10
25
resistance,
is
the total pressure of the steam on the left and the total presThis difference is
sure of the air on the right of the piston.
Since
called the net or effective pressure on the piston.
the pressure of the atmosphere is 14.7 pounds per square
as the piston
other
may
be found as follows:
Let
foot exerted
on the
piston
area of piston in square feet
distance in feet moved over by the piston.
;
A=
L=
W=.PAL-PV.
It is usually
in foot-
Then,
and
P 144 /,
W=PV=\4AfV.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
Rule
11
1.
^ie
in a
foot-pounds.
The same
result will be obtained by multiplying the prespounds per square inch by the volume displaced by
the piston in cubic inches and dividing the result by 12.
The volume displaced by a piston during a single stroke
sure
or a given period of time is often called the piston displacement for the stroke or the given period.
of 32^
horsepower does
SOLUTION.
it
develop ?
(a)
W=
32
5|
= 25,740 ft.-lb.
The number
of foot-pounds per
horsepower developed is, therefore,
(b)
25,740
80
minute
= 62.4 H.
P.
is
Ans.
25,740
80,
and the
Ans.
33,000
21.
done by a moving
be represented by a diagram similar to the diagrams used to represent the relation between the volumes
and pressures of an expanding gas or vapor. For example,
piston
may
in Fig. 4,
the line
two
lines (9Jf
OX being
and
O Fare drawn
at right angles,
O Y
vertical.
Suppose that the area of the piston is 2 square feet and that
the distance moved by it is 6 feet.
Then, when the piston
moves 1 foot, it displaces a volume of 2 cubic feet. On the
line
lay off a distance O-l, and let this distance repre-
OX
sent
which
=6
feet.
2 feet
is
three
2 feet
ENGINE TESTING.
12
25
Since the piston area does not change, the volume swept
is proportional to the piston travel;
therefore,
O-l may be taken to represent the displacement when the
through
x? cu.ft
and O-3, 12 cubic feet. The piston is supposed to be moving from left to right, that is, in the direction O
When
the piston
is
is,
^=
when
the piston
is at the point represented by 1, the presrepresented by the distance 1-1', which is equal to
O A. Likewise, when the piston is in positions 2 and 3, the
distances 2-2' and 3-3' respectively, represent the pressures
In brief, the pressure upon the left side of
at those points.
the piston at any position may be found by measuring the
sure
is
ENGINE TESTING.
25
13
OX
equal to
<
-^
oO
.49 inch.
constant throughout the stroke, the distance from any point on the line O
C parallel
to the line
to O
represents the opposing pressure on the piston when
of the cylinder
is
it is
The
22.
distance
DA (= O A
scale selected,
O-3
==
is
represented by the
ment.
According to rule
DA
DA
= OA
ODis
DA
1.51 inches;
C equals 2 inches.
3.02 square
Therefore, the area of the diagram is 1.51 X 2
The scale of pressure adopted was 1 inch equals
inches.
.49
volumes must be
Hence,
V= 6
D C.
1, the
work
is
W = UpV= 144 X
(30 X DA) X (6 X D C)
= 144X 30 X 6X (DA X D C)
= 144 X 30 x 6 X 3.02 = 78,278.4 foot-pounds.
23. The diagram may be used in another way. The distances O-l, O-2, and O-S may represent the distances
moved through by
the piston instead of the volumes disC represents the stroke of the piston,
Then,
placed by it.
in this case 6 feet, and since
C 2 inches, the horizontal
D =
scale
is
inch of length.
ENGINE TESTING.
14
The work
As
25
is
before,
A =
and
Hence,
144
144
X
X
30
X DA,
2 square feet.
X D A) x 2 X (3 X D C),
X 2 X 3 X (A D X D C)
(30
30
= 78,278.4 foot-pounds.
The latter method is the one usually employed in calculating the horsepower of an engine by means of the indicator diagram.
24.
The diagram
by the distance
C B.
To
the work, it is
necessary to find the average net pressure through-
calculate
In this case
FlG
the line
the
therefore,
HG = l(D A -f C B).
mean
of the
RFC D
mean
of pressures
HG
diagram A BCD.
being multiplied by the distance
ordinate
a length that,
give the area of a rectangle
the original area A
CD. The
ing this
represented by
This distance
work
is
called
has such
D C,
it
will
D C, then
144.
It
ENGINE TESTING.
25
ir,
FIG.
6.
the net pressure at any piston position is given by the vertical distance between the line A B of one diagram and the
between the
line
EDF B
area BCDF
B D
the
has been taken from one diagram and
added to the other diagram.
Now, to find the average work per stroke of a doubleacting engine, the sum of the areas representing the work
done during the forward and return stroke is divided by 2.
Evidently, the sum of the areas will be the same whether
we add the areas A B C D and E D F B or add the areas of
ENGINE TESTING.
16
25
ED
and
C B. Hence, the average
each diagram, as A B F
work will be correctly given by considering the area of each
diagram as representing the work done on the side of the
piston the diagram was taken from and dividing the sum of
While the assumption that the area of each
the areas by 2.
diagram, represents the net work done on its side of the
piston of a double-acting engine is not entirely correct, it is,
nevertheless, a very convenient assumption to make, and
will not
when both diagrams are considered. The convenience of making the assumption just explained is best
stroke
for
skill
this
in the use of
operation
is
assumption stated.
In a single-acting engine, which takes steam on one side
of the piston only, the other side of the piston being open to
K
-T
^
FIG.
7.
7,
where
OE
is
the
ENGINE TESTING.
25
17
OAB E
OCBE,
ABC (the area of the diagram).
26.
find its
of the diagram
the following manner: Divide the length O
(see Fig. 7) into a number of equal parts (10 or 20 parts are
number
The
area being found, the work is calcuthe area by the veris, multiply
tical scale of pressures, by the horizontal scale of volumes,
and by 144. The result is the work in foot-pounds.
in
square inches.
lated
by rule
1.
That
inch.
What
is
27.
Work Diagram
for
Expanding Steam.
In con-
ENGINE TESTING.
25
its
pressure
E = $ b B.
is
Therefore,
The
BE
own
heat,
it is
ENGINE TESTING.
25
19
when the steam supply to the cylinder was cut off when
one-third of the piston stroke was completed, is nearly
The work done per stroke is, therefore,
1.82 square inches.
1.82 X 30 X 6 X 144 =47,174.4 foot-pounds.
In the
first case,
boiler,
therefore,
i<i
=6,523.2 foot-pounds.
In the second case only 4 cubic feet of steam was taken from
the boiler. Consequently, the work done by each cubic foot
of steam used
twice as
much
was
as
47 174 4
*
= 11,793.6
foot-pounds, or nearly
What
is
2.
The mean ordinate of a diagram is .89 inch the length of the
50 pounds
diagram, 3.2 inches; the vertical scale of pressures, 1 inch
per square inch; the horizontal scale of volumes, 1 inch (diagram)
;
ft.-lb.
HORSEPOWER OF STEAM
INDICATED HORSEPOWER AXD NET HORSEPOWER.
The relation between the pressures on the two sides
moving piston and the work done on the piston was
explained in Arts. 19 to 26, and the student is advised to
29.
of a
ENGINE TESTING.
20
25
given period of time is known, the corresponding horsepower is obtained as follows: Having t/ie u<ork given in
foot-pounds per minute, to find tlie liorsepowcr divide by
33,000; if the work is given in foot-pounds per second, the
Horsepower is often
horsepower is found by dividing by 550.
abbreviated to H. P.
30.
the total power developed by the action of the net prestwo sides of the moving piston.
The
indicated horsepower
initials
I.
is
H. P.
32. Net horsepower is the difference between the indicated and the friction horsepower.
It is the power the
engine delivers through the flywheel or shaft to the belt or
the machine driven by it, and is sometimes called the delivered horsepower. Since the power an engine is capable
of delivering when working under certain conditions is
often measured by a device known as a Prony brake, the net
horsepower is also called the brake horsepower.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
33.
of
21
an engine
is
the
lltile 2.
cated horsepozver.
EXAMPLE.
under
full
load
when
By
- 39.7 =
100
net H. P.
H P
The mechanical
198.8.
Ans.
is
= 100 X
198.8
238~5
efficiency of a
Ans.
is
from 75 to
90 per cent.
In
19
to
accordance
with
known, the work done during the given period can be calcu-
The usual period of time considered when calculating the power of an engine is 1 minute; since 33,000 footpounds of work per minute is equal to 1 horsepower, the
lated.
FINDING THE
35.
The mean
effective
in
one
M. E. P.
pressure, or M. E.
P., is
ENGINE TESTING.
22
The mean
36.
effective pressure
may
25
be found in three
ways:
The
EXAMPLE.
is
in inches
and the
length
is 3.5
o.O
of
2.
The Planimeter.
37.
ment
is
shown
in Fig.
9.
A common
It consists of
The point /
piece of heavy unglazed paper or cardboard.
should be placed far enough from the card to enable the
wheel to
roll
card, as
it
will slip
ENGINE TESTING.
25
23
in the direction
of the hands of a
opposite the zero line of the vernier and moving the tracing
point once around the diagram, the zero of the vernier will
the inches and tenths that are to the left of the vernier zero,
and from the vernier find the nearest hundredth of a square
inch as follows: Find the line of the vernier that is exactly
The number of
opposite one of the lines on the wheel.
spaces on the vernier between the vernier zero and this line
is the number of hundredths of a square inch to be added to
An example is
the inches and tenths read from the wheel.
of the vernier lies between
presented in Fig. 10, where the
the lines on the wheel representing
4.7 and 4.8 square inches, respectively,
is
some-
on the wheel
H.
S.
IV. -8
shows that
added to the
from the wheel, making the area
this
ENGINE TESTING.
24
25
39.
made
Modifications
in a
number
considerably from
of Planimeter.
of different forms,
that shown in Fig.
Planimeters
some
9.
of
One
are
which
differ
of the
most
is
guided along a
40. Measuring the M. E. P. Directly. With the planimeter illustrated in Fig. 9, the M. E. P. is found by dividing the area as measured by the instrument by the length
of the diagram and multiplying the quotient by the scale of
the spring.
Many planimeters, however, including those
mentioned in the last article, can be used to measure the
of each of
41.
It is well to so
this dot in the paper, the operator knows that the motion
around the diagram has been completed. The direction of
motion of the tracing point must always be the same as that
of the hands of a watch motion in the opposite direction
;
ENGINE TESTING.
25
will
move
wrong
25
When
move
main part
of the diagram.
FIG.
An
11.
work
is
ing wheel at zero and pass the tracing wheel around the diagram two or three times, noting the reading of the wheel
ENGINE TESTING.
26
42.
tion
25
may
and
gives, approximately, the average height of the diaThe length of the mean ordinate should agree very
gram.
available, the M. E. P. may be obtained by measuring the ordinates in pounds instead of in inches the sum
of the lengths of the ordinates as so measured divided by
spring
is
is
the following:
Take a
strip of
paper having a
ENGINE TESTING.
25
27
nate lay
off the
In the same
way
divided by the
number
EXAMPLE.
(a) The lengths between the extreme points on a strip
of paper on which has been laid off successively the lengths of the
10 ordinates of an indicator diagram is 12T5ff inches.
What is the length
mean
of the
what
is
(b)
the M. E. P. ?
SOLUTION.
(a) Reducing the fractional parts of the sum of the
5
lengths of the ordinates to a decimal, we have T inch = .3125 inch.
The length of the mean ordinate is, then, 12.3125 -*- 10 = 1.23125 inches,
or to the nearest .001, 1.231 inches. Ans.
ff
(b)
spring, the
M. E.
P. is 1.231
20
mean
44.
= 24.62 Ib.
The length
of the dia-
gram
will
A
to the atmospheric line ;;/ n.
then selected so graduated that when the
mark is
placed on the line a b and the scale lies diagonally across the
diagram, the desired number of spaces will be included
between the mark and a mark that will fall on the line cd.
In Fig. 12 it was desired to divide the diagram so as to get
first
scale
drawn perpendicular
is
10 ordinates.
The length
of the
diagram
is
little less
than
mark on
the line c
d.
28
ENGINE TESTING.
to &
through each of the inch and half -inch marks from
would evidently divide the diagram into 10 spaces of equal
ENGINE TESTING.
25
29
45.
Mean Ordinate
of a
Diagram With
To
Ix>ops.
mean
to use a greater
for
an indicator diagram
is
from
when
rule:
to the
ENGINE TESTING.
30
25
by the whole length of the stroke; i. e., it is the apparFor a f cut-off and 92 pounds gauge pressure
ent cut-off.
in the boiler, the M. E. P. is [(92
14.7) X .917
17] X .9
off
= 72.6
It is to
compound engine
is
expanded
EXAMPLE.
engine cutting
The
boiler pressure is 80
SOLUTION.
80
= 80.21.
M. E.
cut-off
P.
pounds gauge.
+ 14.7 =
= (80.21
94.7.
is .847,
and
17)
.847
.9
The
E. P.
46,
table, Art.
boiler pressure
.847 x 94.7
56.89 Ib. per sq. in. Ans.
shown
is
in
divided,
ENGINE TESTING.
:u
obtaining the diagram was 40 pounds. Find (a) the length of the
ordinate and (b) the M. E. P. of the diagram.
SOLUTION.
(a)
spring,
mean
we have M. E.
2.
The
P.
1.294
is,
is
therefore, 18.11 -H 14
mean
40
= 51.76 Ib.
^^
ordinate
Ans.
/EXAMPLE
Fig. 14
The sum
18.11 inches;
mean
shown
is
in
divided
ENGINE TESTING.
32
CA:LCU:LATIKG
47.
25
I.
H. P.
Knowing
the dimensions and speed of the engine and the mean effective pressure on the piston, we have all the data for finding
moves in
Rule
4.
Let
I.
H. P.
IHP - PLAN
~
'
33,000
acting; that is, the steam acts on only one side of the piston.
Such are the Westinghouse, the Willans, and others. In
per minute.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
33
Unless
it
it is
acting,
LN
= IN where
where R represents
1/e
/ is
the
number of
But
N = 2 R,
Hence,
'
12
Rule
5.
12
EXAMPLE.
An
SOLUTION.
The
By
rule 5,
S=
5a
6C
= 572
modern
ft.
per min.
Ans.
follows:
Ft.
per min.
300 to 600.
600 to 1,000.
400 to 750.
600 to 1,200.
ENGINE TESTING.
34
taking as the piston area one-half the sum of the areas exposed
to steam pressure on the two sides of the piston.
Thus, if
we have a piston 30 inches diameter with a 6-inch piston rod,
the average area
30*
.7854
is
(30
.7854
.7854)
If
the piston rod is con692.72 square inches.
tinued past the piston so as to pass through the headend cylinder head, i. e., if the piston has a tall rod,
allowance must be made for the tail rod.
Thus, with
a piston 30 inches diameter, a piston rod 6 inches diam-
eter,
and a
2
(30
tail
X .7854-
.7854)
(3Q
X .7854-6' X
.7854)
2
*= 682.9
square inches.
EXAMPLE 1. The diameter
minute.
_ 40 X -H X (10* X
.7854)
500
59.5
H.
P.
Ans.
33,000
EXAMPLE
from an
18"
2.
20" engine,
FIG.
the horsepower.
is 60.
Compute
15.
(a)
the
mean
effective pressure
and
ENGINE TESTING.
25
SOLUTION.
the
35
-(a)
full lines.
parts, as shown by
lines or ordinates
(see
sum
diagram
is 7.8
7.84 inches.
we have
-^-
60
= 46.8
inch
a
(b)
To
stituted for
50.
to feet,
M. E. P. must be sub-
to rule 4,
P L A rN =H.P.
5
A^
ENGINE CONSTANTS.
An engine constant for a given engine
is
number
I.
is
thus considerably
reduced.
51.
When
Rule
ENGINE TESTING.
36
25
working strokes per minute, and divide the product by 33, 000 ;
the quotient will be the engine constant.
This rule
may
= LAN
.--
in
which
rotation,
'
33,000
Cu
EXAMPLE 1. What is the engine constant for a 16" X 20" engine running at a uniform speed of 200 R. P. M.?
SOLUTION. The length L of the stroke is ff feet, the area A of the
s
piston is 16 X .7854 = 201 square inches, and the number of strokes
is 2 X 200 = 400.
Substituting these values in the formula corresponding to rule 6, we have
52.
P.,
we
= 4.06 X 43.2 =
When
is
Rule 7. Multiply
and the area of
feet
of stroke
;
in
divide the
product by 33,000 for a double-acting engine. For a singleacting engine, multiply the length of stroke in feet by the
area of the piston in square inches and divide the product
by 83,000.
Or,
Cv =
2 /
oo,UUO
ENGINE TESTING.
25
Cv =
and
L,
33 QQO
Cv
where
The value
37
engine constant.
Cv
mean
of
find the
obtained by
a
/
Then
TT
_ f/LAJf
'
33,000
of
diagrams are
will generally be
to be taken, the factors s, L, A, and
constant; these factors may, therefore, be combined with
be given by
ENGINE TESTING.
:js
25
Or
~ sLAN
Ca 33,000'
The
indicated horsepower will then be given by multiplying this constant by the area of the diagram if the engine is
single-acting, or the average area of the two diagrams if the
54.
If
is
so constructed
Ch we
stant
Rule
have
Or,
C,
= sLAN
33,000/'
With
by
the engine
is
double-acting.
is
3i inches.
The length L
SOLUTION.
gram
in rule
9, we have
50
X j| X 113.1X500
33,000 X 3*
-'J -
AnS
ENGINE TESTING.
25
I. II.
P. in
39
//
the
ordinates;
scale of indicator spring.
In accordance with Art. 43, the length of the mean ordiis equal to the sum of the lengths of the ordinates divided
nate
and
in
is,
is
M. E.
P.
mean
=s/i
ordinate multiplied by
= s-.
n
IMP
56.
s-LAN
=
'
33,000
sLAN
C =
Or
33,000 n
II.
S.
IV.
ENGINE TESTING.
40
25
SOLUTION.
inches
Co=
EXAMPLE
19^
3^
615.75
33,000
180
20
=23
'
51
AnS
'
2.
one-half the
is
40
inches
SOLUTION.
I.
H.
P.
= 23.51 x
19 T\
= 451.1,
nearly.
Ans.
BRAKE HORSEPOWER.
DYNAMOMETERS.
57.
They
58.
of
absorption
dynamom-
ENGINE TESTING.
.59.
A transmission dynamometer is
41
used to measure
GO.
Brake horsepower
is
power measured by a Prony brake or other type of absorpThe brake horsepower of an engine or
tion dynamometer.
other motor working under given conditions is the same as
the net horsepower.
Since the power measured by an
absorption dynamometer is the power a motor delivers at
the shaft or flywheel, it is sometimes called the delivered
horsepower.
61. The Prony Brake. Fig. 16 represents a simple and
common form of Prony brake. It consists of two wooden
nS
w
FIG.
16.
blocks
ENGINE TESTING.
25
H.
Or,
P.
33,000
where H.
P.
arm about
center of
shaft;
N = number of
EXAMPLE.
A brake
SOLUTION.
with an arm
FIG.
H.
14
P.
200
33,000
17.
6.2832
= 3.198.
Ans.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
43
weight arm
band.
and the
friction
is
may
for the weight in the scale pan, and taking the length of
the lever as the distance between the center of the shaft
In
ENGINE TESTING.
44
25
reading the weight off the scale beam, it must be remembered that the weight to be used in the calculation is the
difference betwen the weight at which the scale balances
when
the brake
is
when
applied.
to
This arrangement
tinuously.
64.
It
is
shown
in Fig. 17.
feet.
STEAM CONSUMPTION.
CALCULATIONS RELATING TO STEAM CONSUMPTION
The indicator diagram also enables us to find
approximately the amount of steam consumed by the
65.
engine.
tomary
In referring to the steam consumption, it is custo take as a unit the steam consumed per horsepower
.per hour.
It is to
ENGINE TESTING.
25
45
O
FIG.
19.
and saved.
66.
To
ENGINE TESTING.
46
25
steam per stroke accounted for by the indicator. Mulweight per stroke by the number of strokes per
hour and divide by the I. H. P. of the engine. The result
will be the steam used per I. H. P. per hour.
of
tiply this
I.
H. P. per hour.
SOLUTION.
n and O
n.
The measurements
am=.
Om=
bn-=
On=
The length
stroke
2
g-
is
2 feet.
3.17 inches;
.6
inch
.333 inch.
of the diagram
= .6 foot of stroke.
am=
b
<?*
= 3.17
On=
The
X 45 =
X 45 =
X .6=
.71
.6
.333X .6=
is
18
.7854
in
is 45,
the
31.95 pounds;
27 pounds;
1.9 feet;
.2 foot.
47
= 254.47 square inches = 254-^~
feet.
ENGINE TESTING.
25
by the number
ot strokes per
weight
.240546
47
I.
H. P.
There-
is
120
loU
60
= 26.6451b.
Ans.
p=
loO
xo = a8-m
c,
when
the piston
is
at a,
piston arrives at a.
Hence, by calculating the water consumption at cut-off and then at release, a good idea of the
amount
of cylinder condensation
may be
obtained.
If the
is
always
less
68.
Where
the work
may
ENGINE TESTING.
48
Fig. 20.
the clearance
volume
to
be used
in
or, in
other words,
times
be
-j
j X
length
of stroke
U-
13,
750
IW
PL
Rule
13.
line
and
ENGINE TESTING.
25
From
EXAMPLE.
49
18" x
spring, 45.
3.4 inches;
1.
M. E.
per
2.
I.
P., 18
H.
P.
2.6 inches;
length
spring, 70.
What
What
spring, 30
M. E.
is
length of diagram L,
inch; R. P. M., 350;
the steam consumption per I. H. P. per hour ?
Ans. 21.92 Ib. per I. H. P. per hr.
/,
is
inch.
1.8
12";
P., 51.1;
inches; height
am,
.7
3.
If, in the above engine, example 2, the pressure at cut-off is
110 pounds, absolute the clearance is 8 per cent.
the length of the
diagram to the point of cut-off is .7 inch; the pressure at a point on
the compression curve is 49 pounds, absolute, and the distance of this
point from the end of the diagram is .14 inch, what is the steam con;
sumption per
I.
SIZE OF
69.
The problem
Ib.
per
I.
H. P. per
hr.
STEAM ENGINES.
of selecting a size of
simple engine
that will develop a given indicated horsepower is capable of
an infinite number of correct solutions, depending on the
ENGINE TESTING.
50
25
Rule
13.
inches, multi-
indicated Jiorsepovver by 33,000 and divide by the product of the mean effective pressure and the piston speed in feet
per minute.
ply
tlie
33,000 H
A
A=
ps
'
Or,
where
area of piston
H = indicated horsepower;
"
To
P=
mean
piston speed.
effective pressure;
13 by .7854
of the quotient.
rule
14.7)
.937
17]
.9
Applying
13, we get
X 25
= 33,000
K
QAA = 49. 1
The corresponding diameter
7O.
is
square inches.
=8
in.,
about.
Ans.
-fjfigTi
of strokes
number
of strokes
must be assumed.
num-
SOLUTION.
Stroke in feet
= -^
12
= 15 in.
Ans.
GOVERNORS.
THE SPEED OF
ENGINE.
AN
PURPOSE OF GOVERNORS.
The work
time; the pressure of the steam in the boiler, and, in consequence, the force that may be made to act on the piston is also
In order to keep the speed of the engine practically
variable.
or
ernor.
the force
is
much
greater than
s
it
is
-><;
title
page.
GOVERNORS.
26
crank
The
is
made
so
3.
done
in the cylinder
GOVERNORS.
26
Of
pressure or the pressure opposing the piston motion.
these three methods, the first and second are the ones most
generally used, although the third
tion with the second.
is
GOVERNING BY THROTTLING.
In the
4.
first
chest
is
in the cylinder.
is,
it
obstructs
its
governor.
When steam has its pressure reduced by flowing through
a narrow passage, like a partly closed valve, it is often said
to be
wiredrawn.
the cut-off
is
regulated by hand,
as, for
example,
is
the
GOVERNORS.
26
FORMS OF GOVERNORS.
THE CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR.
General Principles.
increases until
when
new position. This motion of the weight is transmitted by a suitable mechanism to the valve that controls
the flow of steam to the cylinder.
in the
7.
Fig.
1).
It
consists
of
weight
C.
When
revolves about
the pendulum
the axis at a
remains
ball
at a
pendulum
and
is
//.
repre-
GOVERNORS.
26
forces
may
be
By,
B x, andj5^.
8.
Governor.
Fig. 2
shows a
re-
of
balls B,
fect
collar
H.
S.
IV.
10
GOVERNORS.
Links
/,
26
When
the spindle.
pulled upwards
motion
is
the balls
by the
links
/,
fly
/
and the
rod ^,.
To
The Dashpot.
9.
As the
spaces above and below the piston in the cylinder.
piston moves up or down in the cylinder, the oil flows from
one side to the other through the small passage.
By
regu-
lating the size of the opening, the rate of flow of the oil
and, in consequence, the rate of motion of the piston can
be regulated.
is
called a
dashpot.
From what
rotation;
it ,is,
at a
uniform speed.
When
the engine
is
in order to
GOVERNORS.
*G
change
.57 inch
and
ute,
type
Another defect
in the simple
pendulum governor
is
the result
is
that
before the governor can move far enough to open the valve
and admit the steam required for the greater load, the speed
drop considerably below that correspondAny attempt to make the governor act
more promptly by increasing the weights will be futile,
since the mass whose inertia must be overcome is increased
of the engine will
ing to the load.
in the
in weight.
the
GOVERNORS.
26
it is
is
made comparatively
own
must
lift
revolves
iv
counterpoise
with the spindle.
lower end
it
At
is fitted
its
with a
motion to
transmits
The
lever
weight
carries
that can
be
a
ad-
will
run
by a small amount.
the governor to
by a belt from a pulley on the engine shaft to the pulley />,
which drives the spindle r by means of a pair of bevel gears.
balls.
as
The
result
is
GOVERNORS.
26
SPRING-LOADED GOVERNORS.
13.
closed
the
amount
of compression
the
sequence,
resistance,
can be varied.
and
flyballs
are
which
is
sawmills,
much used
is
called a
in
sawyer's lever.
is
but
little
GOVERNORS.
10
of the balls.
As
means
of
resistance in proportion to
the tension that may be
the
regulated
by
wheel and
worm
worm-
operated
x.
they lower
and
the springs,
valves v
the
shut
v'
off
flows
the
in
the
direction
of
arrows
through the
opening J to the steam
The two valves v
chest.
and v' are balanced; that
is, the pressure on the top
of one is balanced by a
nearly equal pressure on
FIG 5
their
easily.
same purpose
GOVERNORS.
26
11
as
to
in load.
more quickly
to changes in speed
to a tendency to hunt.
loaded governor is
engine can be changed by changing the tension of the spring.
SHAFT GOVERNORS.
16. Governing by Shifting the Eccentric. It has
been previously stated that the work done in an engine
cylinder can be regulated by varying either the point of
GOVERNORS.
26
of accomplishing this
vary
To
its
is
FIG.
6.
GOVERNORS.
13
line OS through the middle point of the valve seat, corresponding to the middle line of the valve when in its central
position, and the piston and valve are in positions corre-
consequently,
when
or E'.
The
radii
ef
EV
gent to this
circle, as in Figs. 10
valve from
its
and
11,
Ffrom
or E'
positions.
is
is
at the
left-
hand end of its stroke, just ready to begin its stroke to the
right, and the valve has moved from its central position far
enough to give the desired lead. Now, with the crank in
the dead-center position, let the eccentric be shifted so that
its center moves along a straight line at right angles to the
An inspection of Fig. 7 shows
center line O C of the crank.
that this movement of the eccentric does not change the
position of the valve; with the eccentric at any point, as E'
to the center line
or E", in the perpendicular through
C,
the lead of the valve is the same as when the eccentric is in
in
opening
is
is least,
the
maximum
port
GOVERNORS.
14
26
is the valve
prevented from opening the port at the beginning of the stroke at the position E", however, the amount
;
of opening
is
remains open
short.
18.
Fig. 7
the value
A OE
to
A O E'.
GOVERNORS.
26
19.
Effect on
mum
15
Maximum
in its
Displacement of Valve.
extreme outer position, the maxi-
is
E.
In
its
as
is
FIG.
GOVERNORS.
II!
2O.
26
the valve
steam.
of
its
stroke.
shifted to the position E' (see Fig. 11) the valve closes the
port and cuts off steam before the piston reaches the middle
point of its stroke.
21.
Effect
By
a con-
E along the
line E E' is to hasten release and compresThus, considering either end of the cylinder, as the
26
GOVERNORS.
1?
of exhaust
is
thus increased.
GOVERNORS.
is
These diagrams
the eccentric
is
shifted in such a
manner
also
show that
that
its
center
is
by the diagrams,
the shaft O.
Two
is
A B
illustrated
is
keyed to
bell-crank levers Z,
are pivoted to this
At one end these levers are enlarged so
IV,
The
eccentric
is
/,
/'
slotted, as
at the other
shown, so that
it
may
be shifted
GOVERNORS.
26
19
such a manner that its center c will move in a line perpendicular to the center line O Cot the crank. As the shaft
in
is
GOVERNORS.
20
26
prevented.
24.
Path.
arm
is
pivoted.
GOVERNORS.
26
tions;
of the
arm
As
tric is attached.
In Fig. 13
is
With
crank.
is
of suspension, in
located on the center line o C of the
the
treme
tion
outer
least,
posi-
the lead
being
is
repre-
sented in
the dia-
gram by
the
As
tance fa.
the
center
eccentric
shifts
dis-
towards the
tion
",
the
position E'.
FlG
lead
13 -
first,
as
is
when the
The
greatest
cut-off E".
S.
IV.
-n
GOVERNORS.
22
26
in Fig. 14,
the lead decreases as the eccentric center nears the center line of the crank,
when
This
method, however, has the disadvantage of wiredrawing the
steam at early cut-offs, with which disadvantage, however, is
the eccentric center
is
of the
reversing rocker-arm, the point of suspension
eccentric link must lie on the side of the shaft opposite the
crankpin,
in
order that
cut-offs,
the lead
may
26.
gives
may
increase at early
In Fig. 15
more
the lead
we have
method
of suspension
that
GOVERNORS.
possessing as
it
23
one
at
change
side.
in
The
lead
is
correrange
sponding to the usual load. When, how-
the
FlG
ever, the
eccentric
center approaches the position of
is
21.
illustrates the
15 -
(see Figs. 16
and 17)
A disk A is attached
GOVERNORS.
24
26
arm
c,
which
is
are connected
by a long
As the
is in the position of its greatest throw.
shaft revolves, the centrifugal force of the weights is resisted
by the tension of the springs Z>, D'. When the speed
eccentric
GOVERNORS.
26
25
INERTIA GOVERNORS.
28. Effect of Inertia of Weights on the Action of a
Governor. In the types of governors so far considered, the
force that acts to shift the valve or eccentric
is
principally
In the comparison of weightedand spring-loaded pendulum governors (see Art. 15), attention was called to the resistance that the inertia of the moving
parts of a governor offers to a change in their position, and
it was pointed out that the effect of inertia is first to oppose
the motion of the weights, then, after they have been set in
motion, to carry them beyond the point at which there is
equilibrium between their centrifugal force and the resistor the governor springs.
ance.
it
29.
made
GOVERNORS
26
26
is
and
this, in turn,
3O.
in inertia.
FIG.
18.
in all
governors of this
GOVERNORS.
26
27
class.
The parts are shown in the positions occupied when
the engine is standing still.
The wheel w, sometimes called
the governor case, is keyed to the engine shaft in the same
viously discussed.
31.
Now
of the load
let
result
GOVERNORS.
28
26
place later;
cylinder to
shaft, the inertia of the bar acts at once to shift the eccentric in the required direction, and so prevents the change
As soon as the eccentric reaches the position corresponding to the work to be done, the speed of the engine
operate.
is
controlled, as before,
centrif-
ugal force of the weight in c' and the tension of the spring.
The stops d' and d limit the range of motion of the bar.
the piston from bearing heavily against the walls of its cylinThe lug z', to which
der and so reduces friction and wear.
the spring
lever arm
is
at
changed. A
spring to the opposite end of the bar, and the dashpot may
In this way the direction
likewise be shifted to the lug o.
of rotation may readily be reversed.
32.
ors.
Path of Eccentric Center With Inertia GovernWith the governor shown in Fig. 18, the eccentric is
attached directly to the inertia bar, and the point of suspension of the bar is on the center line of the crank and on the
side of the shaft opposite that of the crankpin.
A governor
of this type has the advantage of having the fewest possible
number
GOVERNORS.
26
effect
29
earlier that has
some disadvantages.
In order to use an inertia governor with an eccentric susin the diagram Fig. 13, it is necessary to connect
pended as
GOVERNORS.
30
26
how
around
its
pivot
c.
ISOCIIRONISM.
33.
Condition of Isochronism.
The formula
for the
centrifugal force of a weight revolving around an axis outside its center of gravity is
F=. 00034
where
W Rn\
W= weight in pounds;
R=
This formula shows that the centrifugal force of a governweight increases at the same rate as the distance R from
the center of gravity of the weight to the axis.
From this
it is evident that if a governor is so made that the resistance
to the outward motion increases at the same rate as the
or's
circle in
at
GOVERNORS.
26
31
to
isochronous governor.
34.
limitations to Isochronism.
Tsochronism
is
desir-
it
weights will stay in any position and will have no control over
The slightest change from this speed
the steam supply.
will have the effect of shifting the weights to one or the other
extreme position, and either shut off the steam supply entirely
This will cause rapid
or open the admission valve wide.
fluctuations of the governor from one extreme position to
another; the distribution of steam will be most unsatisfactory, and although the variation in speed might be small,
the speed of the engine will be constantly changing.
The friction of the joints and the inertia of the moving
parts of a governor disturb the relation between the forces
and make perfect isochronism impossible. Unfortunately,
however, these resistances do not assist materially in steadying the governor and preventing violent fluctuations; in
fact, they often add to the violence of the fluctuations by
resisting the action of the forces until the change in speed
is great enough to overcome the added resistance with which
35.
Since, for a
not isochronous.
By suspending the balls from crossed
arms, however, as in Fig. 20, the height of the governor, i. e.,
the vertical distance between the centers of the balls and the
point where the center lines of their arms intersect the axis
of the spindle, remains nearly constant for any position of
the balls, and the condition of isochronism is very nearly
fulfilled.
By a careful choice of the relation between the
is
GOVERNORS.
32
26
length of the arms and the distance of their points of suspension from the axis, the crossed-arm governor can be made very
sensitive.
principle
have been
36.
nous by so adjusting the spring that, as the weights fly outwards, the resistance of the spring increases at such a rate
as to just balance the increase in centrifugal force.
Since a
perfectly isochronous governor would be too sensitive for
practical use, it is usual to so adjust the spring that its
resistance will increase somewhat faster than the increase in
the demand;
in
this
position there
will
be equilibrium
GOVERNORS.
26
33
If,
on the
37.
Effects of Friction.
motion of the weights in either direction; in consequence, they will not immediately respond to a change in
speed that destroys the equilibrium between the centrifugal
force and its resistance the speed will change until the difference is great enough to overcome the f rictional resistance
and, since friction is generally less between surfaces in
motion than between surfaces at rest with respect to each
resists the
other, the weights aje likely to be shifted too far, thus set-
ting up hunting.
of
moving
as possible.
38.
effect
two ends
GOVERNORS,
34
26
ADJUSTMENT OF GOVERNORS.
ADJUSTMENT OF SIMPLE PENDULUM GOVERNORS.
the valve for a given speed owing to these facts, the only
method of changing the speed of an engine controlled by
this type of governor is to change the ratio between the
;
by an application
of rule 1.
40.
It is often
may
In such a case,
be used:
= v
fi
Di
190
^75
6.514 in.
= 6f| in.,
nearly.
Ans.
26
GOVERNORS.
35
WEIGHTED-PENDULUM GOVERNOR*.
41.
will
GOVERNORS.
36
43.
26
and
Relations
Sensitiveness.
In Fig. 21 a weight
slides freely
on a
a centrifugal force
that is greater than T.
Now let the length of this spring be such that
when
the
It is a
GOVERNORS.
26
37
that the force exerted by them varies directly with the distance through which they are deflected.
If, therefore, the
is forced from the position where its center of
weight
gravity coincides with the center of the shaft and the position in which the spring 5 just touches it without being
WR
is
moved
Under
to the position
these
shown
by the spring will not be proportional to the distance R, but to the distance through
If we
a.
which the spring was compressed, that is, to
denote by
the tension of the spring when the weight is at
from the center, the magnitude of the tension
the distance
in the figure the force exerted
T=K(R
will
H.
S.
IV.
12
GOVERNORS.
38
is
When
deflected.
26
be T'
K(R -\-r-a).
increase in the
K (R
a)
Kr
The
(a >
number n
of revo-
lutions per
F=
its
is
T'
of increase
for the
WRn
The
W (R +
W
r}
n\
.00034
WR n* =
.00034 IF;/ (R
.
of increase
,s
P'
F=
+ r-R) =
.00034
Wn* r,
F = .00034 Wn* r = r
n R
#
*
(*)
formula
By comparing
(a)
GOVERNORS.
26
39
An engine with a govern6r spring so adjusted would run faster under a heavy load
that required a large valve opening with the governor
weights near their inner position than it would under a light
the weight was near the center.
is
to the
the outward
GOVERNORS.
40
26
RUIZES
FO
48.
Arts.
!\J)JTJSTING
consideration
43-46 shows
that
of
if
Rule
2.
Rule
3.
less sensitive
reduce the
initial tension
In general,
make the
inducing hunting.
of the springs.
of the weights or the resistance
The
resistance of the spring, and, in consequence, the speed of
the engine, can readily be changed in most types of governors
;
initial
GOVERNORS.
26
this
in
41
result
will
making
it
either in
too sensitive.
/^
opposite kind in
must be made
W\
in other words,
if
is
to be increased
smaller,
be expressed in
5.
sible to
weights.
GOVERNORS.
42
52.
The type of adjustment mentioned in Art. 51 is illusBuckeye governor, Fig. 22. In the Buckeye
trated by the
is
used.
controls
GOVERNORS.
26
43
any change
eccentric, a
in eccentric
results.
eccentric
Rule
iveigJit
6.
To increase the speed of the engine, shift the
nearer the pivot, or shift the spring connection farther
The amount
by
4 and
5.
In addition to the main springs F, the Buckeye govis provided with two auxiliary springs P.
These auxiliary springs act in opposition to the main springs
until the weights have moved outwards through the first
54.
ernor,
Fig. 22,
GOVERNORS.
44
26
The
make
reached,
it
initial tension,
the weights than could be obtained without causing unsteadiness and hunting during the inner half of the range.
GENERAL, INSTRUCTIONS.
Considerable force is required to overcome the friction of the valves and valve gearing of most engines; the
inertia of the valve and connections must also be overcome,
that is, they must be started from rest and given their max-
55.
imum
it
is
GOVERNORS.
26
45
of the weights
cially
when
lubrication
self-locking
mechanism
is
VALVE GEARS.
(PART
1.)
part
defined as that
the distribution
different types of reversible engines, or variable and automatic cut-off engines, the valve gear includes the mechanism
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION.
Valve gears are classified in a variety of ways, depending partly on their type and partly on the kind of service for
which they are used.
The most common terms used to
denote the different types and classes of service are the fol2.
lowing:
In this type the motion of
3. Fixed Cut-Off Gears.
the valve does not vary with the amount of work to be done
in the cylinder.
With a given setting of the valve, cut-off
*7
For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the
title
page.
VALVE GEARS.
2
is
it
constant.
example
27
an engine
of
do not vary.
4. Variable Cut-Off Gears. Under this head are
included all those gears in which 'the amount of work done
in the cylinder can be regulated while the engine is in operation by varying the motion of the valve so as to change the
If the motion of the valve is controlled
point of cut-off.
is
directly controlled
Cam
instead of eccentrics.
gears are
much used
in connec-
6. Releasing gears, or trip gears, as they are sometimes called, vary the point of cut-off by releasing the admission valve from the control of the eccentric, and thus permit
it to be quickly closed by some other device, usually a spring
or dashpot.
The
Corliss valve
gear
is
8.
The
cover the
classification
may
steam distribution.
VALVE GEARS.
27
change
its
may
venient
way
of
10.
in Fig.
1.
will
usually about
stroke.
is
is
located in a section
of the
steam
VALVE GEARS.
4
valve has ports s, s.
auxiliary eccentric.
It is
When
FIG.
fill
in mid-position, as shown in
are open and allow steam to
it is
t,
27
i.
As
it
way from
moves
11.
is
either
/,
and
same manner
The
any plain
slide valve.
main
may
may
off is small;
VALVE GEARS.
27
destroys
cut-off.
On
name
is
but
used to-day.
12. The Meyer cut-off valve, Fig. 2, is an improvement on the preceding type and is free from most of its dis-
FIG.
advantages.
The main
2.
valve consists of a
flat
plate with a
or ports A,
leading to the edges that control the admission
of steam to the cylinder.
The cut-off valve consists of two
that slide on the top of the main valve so as to
plates B,
The
set in the same manner as with the plain slide valve.
auxiliary eccentric is so set that, when cut-off takes place,
the cut-off valve has a motion opposite in direction to that
is
VALVE GEARS.
main
of the
sage
der.
valve.
The
27
cut-off valve thus closes the pasis being admitted to the cylin-
The
action
may
2.
Ob
position
is
main eccen-
of
90
+ angle
of
The
is
auxiliary
set in a po-
nearly opposite to
that of the crank.
By in-
sition
FIG.
3.
VALVE GEARS.
27
valve in the
15.
The
first
step
To
16.
may
set the
The Meyer
valve
is
.S.
IV.- 13
is
8
cut-off will be the
VALVE GEARS.
same
motion of the
such a case, the valves are set with special regard to the more
important direction of rotation.
A modification of the Meyer valve is shown in Fig. 4.
Here the cut-off valve consists of a single plate a with inclined
the edges of the ports through the main valve as the changes
made by the right- and left-hand screws in the distance
valve are helical, their shape being the same as though the
valve and seat of Fig. 4 were wrapped around a cylinder.
By rotating the cut-off valve around its center by means of
VALVE GEARS.
27
described
is
It is a
the valve
valves,
invented.
When
that varies the throw of the eccentric, the plain slide valve
has another defect that is not overcome by the mere process
of balancing.
This defect
is
steam
is
wiredrawn
in its passage
the valve
full
VALVE GEARS.
10
27
to secure a liberal port opening with early cutby giving the valve overtravel thus involves an increase
in the travel of the valve and in its weight, both of which
add to the power required to move it. Once during each
stroke the heavy valve must also be started from rest and
given a velocity that becomes greater as the distance through
which the valve must move is increased to overcome the
offs
Several
this
designs for
means,
its size
able degree.
19.
Unless
it is
VALVE GEARS.
27
destroys
its
circular form.
11
will
soon leak.
In some
large.
2O.
that has
advantages of the piston valve and at the same
time overcomes some of its faults. Fig. 5 shows a form of
this valve used in the engines built by the Ames Iron
Works, and is a form that, with several minor modifications, is used in a great number of shaft-governor engines.
The valve V consists of a thin rectangular casting with
openings or ports through it for the passage of live and
exhaust steam to and from the cylinder. It works between
the face of the valve seat and ja. similar face formed by a
many
of the
engine
spring.
is
12
VALVE GEARS.
27
VALVE GEARS.
27
13
Another advantage
is
that
when
and pressure
it
of the valve
can be planed or
scraped so as to overcome this wear; this operation, how-
seat
the strips
plate,
s, s'
If the valve or
ever, requires considerable care and skill.
the faces between which it works are unevenly worn, it will
be necessary to scrape them to a new surface; this is a
tedious and
somewhat
difficult
facilities, avail-
valve, the
is
Woodbury,
is
the pressure plate a short distance from the valve until the
valve and its seat become uniformly heated.
22.
of the
19 to 21
of the valve
amount
of
VALVE GEARS.
_rrn
By
this
arrangement
VALVE GEARS.
15
tight.
The most
VALVE GEARS.
16
27
The
a part.
will be
CONSTRUCTION.
25. Cylinder and Valves. Fig. 8 is a section that
shows the general construction of one form of cylinder and
valves.
As shown, there are four distinct valves. Two of
these, v' and v, admit steam to the crank end and head end
of the cylinder, respectively.
They are in communication
with the steam chest d and steam pipe s. The other two
valves, r and r, communicate with the exhaust chamber /
and exhaust pipe o.
The valve r' allows the steam to
exhaust from the crank end of the cylinder; r controls the
exhaust from the head end.
The valves v, v' are called the steam valves, and r, r'
are called the
exhaust valves.
The valve
An
is
about equal
their ports
VALVE GEARS.
27
It is also
17
FIG.
is,
they
8.
open but one passage for the flow of the steam to and from
the cylinder.
of construction
VALVE GEARS.
18
27
and F', called the steam- valve stems, and the exhaust
valves by the spindles R and
called the exhaust- valve
steins
',
more
and hook
cranks J/,
M'
/'.
Likewise,
rigidly
keyed the
The
disk, or
28.
M and
is
M'
fore,
the rods E,
blocks /j, B
E'.
These disengaging
links
hook
on to
',
are collars
',
sa
JJt
VALVE GEARS.
27
19
an arm to which
the
arms / and
/' of the
disengaging hooks.
Considering
now
this
motion
precisely the
3O.
is
is
right.
As
will
be
VALVE GEARS.
20
of the eccentric
valves
is
considerably improved.
In the figure,
O represents
VALVE GEARS.
27
21
CD
31.
the eccentric and crank, the eccentric and crank positions corresponding to the wristplate positions from A to
of
are
The
the wristplate stud.
in the six positions, B^ to
of
vertically over the center
eccentric center is represented
extreme positions of
',
its
of
VALVE GEARS.
22
end of
its stroke,
27
its
E'.
motion
most
rapid.
The exhaust
valve was opened wide before the piston began its stroke to
the left, and the period of most rapid closure is that during
downwards, the arm of /' in its upward motion will strike a'
and thus release the block B' earlier; the opposite motion of
the collar will evidently have the contrary effect.
We thus
see that the point of cut-off can be varied by swinging the
collars G and G'
The position of the collars is generally
.
controlled
hook
is
by the
is
the case.
an oscillating one,
trip after
it
VALVE GEARS.
27
23
'
35.
As shown
in the sectional
view, Fig. 9, the dashpot consists of two concentric cylinders of different diameters.
In the upper and larger of
these cylinders fits a piston having a central projecting portion that extends downwards and forms a plunger that fits
is
placed a short
when
it is
in its
or
opening
may
//.
S.
IV.
14
VALVE GEARS.
24
27
FIG.
middle position
11.
little
FIG.
13.
VALVE GEARS.
26
In
all
27
wristplate,
when the
position
of
the crank.
Diagram
C,
Fig.
12,
ments.
38. At D, in Fig.
which its motion
12,
is
double-headed arrows.
learned, this constitutes the limiting position for the releasing of the admission valve a, which for that reason is supposed to have just occurred, as indicated by its closed position.
As
then the
moment
VALVE GEARS.
27
2?
G and
G',
in
diagram D, Fig.
12.
39.
In diagram E, Fig. 12, the piston is finally represented in that position, near the end of its forward stroke,
for which the exhaust valve e just begins to open for the
when
the crank
is
at half stroke.
With
is
it
It
VALVE GEARS.
28
27
Effects of Lead.
41.
By
earlier
motion.
is not wanted for all the valves, more lead
being required on the exhaust valves when they close for
compression than is wanted on the steam valves. But this
does not help us to get the steam valve closed previous to
the opening of the exhaust valve nor the exhaust closed
before admission of steam.
The effect, then, of lead, as
derived from the advance of the eccentric to an angle of
more than 90 from the crank, is to hasten both the opening
the
piston
amount
of lead
Amount
42.
valve
is
VALVE GEARS.
27
29
again, cut-off
it
will
given by which the amount of lap for a valve can be determined. It depends somewhat on the design of the valve and
its relative proportions
also on the conditions under which
In all cases the lap increases with
the engine is to work.
the size of the cylinder.
The table given below furnishes a
fairly reliable guide as to the amount of lap to be given to
;
VALVE GEARS.
27
VALVE GEARS.
27
centered.
when
The marks
the wristplate
is
extremes of motion a
31
is
opposite b
is
At the two
opposite either c
or d.
It may be well, however, to test these
marks, or rather to see that the eccentric and carrier rods have proper adjustment relative 'to the motion of the
wristplate. To do this, rotate the eccen-
44.
Adjusting the
I^ap.
w at its
center of motion.
Upon removing
the back
VALVE GEARS.
32
opening.
27
KIG.
15.
how much
record
is
kept of
45.
posed to be
in
at its center of
gives
this
movements.
position,
except
that
a'
is
supposed
to
be
VALVE GEARS.
27
33
unhooked and
MN
rod for that end, so the valve will trip at that point. The
valve and the reach rod for the other end of the cylinder
must be adjusted in a like manner. To determine the
point of \ stroke, mark the length of stroke on the crosshead guides and measure off \ of this from each end. After
a few trials, partially rotating the engine back and forth, at
the same time making careful adjustments of the reach
rods, cut-off can be made to take place at exactly similar
It is well, now, to lower the governor
points for each end.
to the lowest position and observe that the cut-off mecha-
/.
VALVE GEARS.
34
27
will
surely
plunger
48.
General Summary.
the same amount
off so that
To
of
steam
is
admitted at both
change
release.
in the
If the
not necessary to disturb it in ordinary cases.
dashpot rod is too short, the latch will not hook. Look out
for this.
It is an excellent plan to mark every position;
one can then tell at a glance if any adjustments have been
As a final test of the valve setting an indicator
disturbed.
diagram is to be recommended.
is
TWO ECCENTRICS.
VALVE GEARS.
27
35
the exhaust.
The exhaust eccentric can then be given the
angular advance required by the conditions, while the steam
valves may be made to open early enough to secure the
desired lead with the steam eccentric set without any angular advance or even at an angle of less than 90 with the
The steam eccentric thus reaches its extreme throw
crank.
position later in the stroke, and the range within which
cut-off
is
is
correspondingly
lengthened.
50.
Amount
to
Q-
steam and exhaust valves for one end of the cylinder will
both be open at the same time, thus allowing steam to blow
from the steam chest directly through the cylinder into the
exhaust.
VALVE GEARS.
36
27
SAFETY STOPS.
Most, if not all, modern Corliss valve gears are fitted
with some kind of a safety stop that will prevent the running away of the engine in case the governor belt should
In that case the governor will slow down and then
break.
stop, and hence, if no safety device is fitted, act as if the
engine had slowed down; that is, it will lengthen the cut-off
so as to speed up the engine, thus allowing it to run away.
To prevent this, some kind of a device is usually fitted that
prevents the steam valves from hooking on when the governor stops. When the engine is about to be started, this
safety device would prevent the starting of the engine, as
the steam valves cannot operate, and hence a collar is
usually fitted to the governor by means of which it can be
raised sufficiently to allow the steam valves to hook on in
As soon as the engine is running this collar obvistarting.
ously must be lowered again so as to render the safety stop
52.
operative.
In order to secure the advantages of the four oscillating valves and the wristplate motion of the Corliss gear
without the attendant disadvantages of the restricted speed
is imposed by the releasing gear, and also
to secure the positive valve motion and the superior degree
of regulation that can be obtained with a shaft governor, a
of revolution that
number
of engines
VALVE GEARS.
27
54.
Engines
37
high-speed
VALVE GEARS.
(PART
2.)
to
2.
of shaft-governor engines,
In the case
is
directly
attached to the governor mechanism, it is generally necessary to shift all parts of the governor to a new position in
the governor case, or wheel, to which the governor is
For this purpose most governor cases are proattached.
vided with two sets of holes to which the different parts of
To reverse the engine, the
the governor may be attached.
vS.
IV.
15
title
page.
VALVE GEARS.
28
new
case.
ing the eccentric on the shaft are used on engines that must
often be reversed, but on which the double eccentric and
link motion is for some reason not desirable.
These devices
are most often used on comparatively cheap engines, such as
are employed on traction engines and road rollers. In some
is slotted and attached to the shaft in
such a manner that its center may be shifted across the
shaft in much the same way as the eccentric of a shaft-
governor engine
may
VALVE GEARS.
28
used for shifting the control of the valve from one eccentric
to the other are illustrated by the diagrams, Fig. 1.
The hook,
5.
or
in Fig. 1 (a), is
one of
stem pin/>; the valve will, therefore, be driven by the eccenand the steam distribution and direction of motion
tric
will be the same as though this were the only eccentric. The
eccentric rods are suspended by rods r and r' from an arm
,
the gab
lifted
is
e is
it
engages the
pin.
/.
The
pin
/ drives
of a rocker-arm or
by being
block.
VALVE GEARS.
Stem
28
VALVE GEARS.
28
reversed.
7.
The Gooch
link, Fig.
{he link,
is
On account of this
point and cannot be raised or lowered.
fixed suspension, the Gooch link motion is often called a
stationary link motion. As shdwn in the figure, // is
the hanger by means of which the link is suspended from the
fixed point /'.
pin p in line
the valve
is
When
straight,
eccentric
in
9.
Motion.
end
of the link.
Now,
VALVE GEARS.
determinate.
28
is
at
some
point between the middle and the upper end of the link slot;
the motion of the valve will now be controlled partly by each
eccentric, but the eccentric a will
motion than
have more
Under
effect
on the
these conditions
the valve travel and the amount of port opening will be less
than when the block is at the extreme end of the link, and
cut-off will take place earlier.
it
moves from
its
With a
extreme to
its
approaches the
link motion, as
mid-position from either
becomes
position.
earlier,
With
all
11.
In Fig. 2
(a)
is
shown a
Stephenson link motion with the link in midThe crank c is on its dead center, and the eccenposition.
trics a and b both lie on the side of the shaft next to the link.
The eccentric rod from the upper eccentric a is connected to
diagram
of a
VALVE GEARS.
28
the upper end d, and the rod from the lower eccentric b is
connected to the lower end e of the link. When the rods
are arranged as here shown they are said to be open. In
(b) of the same figure the eccentrics have the
position on the shaft as in diagram (), that is, when
diagram
same
Valve Stem
Valve Stem
Valve Sfem
Valve Sfem
PIG.
2.
the crank
is
of the shaft
in this
// is
on
its
towards the
VALVE GEARS.
crank
is
on
28
its
Thus, suppose
rods in
(c)
same as
in (a)
although at
first
at
(c]
Effect
12.
As
usually made, the radius of the center line of the slot of the
link in the Stephenson link motion is equal to the distance
of the link
block
when
the link
is
gear position
there
is
engine.
13.
method
The general
to first put
gear position for the direction in which the
engine runs the greater portion of the time and set the valve
the link in
full
is
VALVE GEARS.
28
is set.
It is to be observed, however, that
the lead must be equalized by shortening or lengthening the
eccentric rod instead of the valve stem, as was done in
In following this plan, the result of the
the first operation.
valve
is
VALVE GEARS.
10
28
With
link that swings freely about the fixed point e. As the eccenthe pin d swings in an arc whose center is e and
tric revolves,
whose chord is equal to the throw of the eccentric. The upand-down motion of the eccentric center gives an additional
motion to the upper and lower ends of the link, the action
d and having
The combined
nearly the same
effect of the
rate eccentric.
By moving
to different
28
VALVE GEARS.
11
VALVE GEARS.
12
28
positions
fore, constant.
Since the link is used only to vary the point of cut-off and
not to reverse the engine, the link block need not pass
RADIAL GEARS.
17.
gears
There
is
way
VALVE GEARS.
13
move them
steam distribution
is
desired.
18.
in Fig. 5 as applied to
a radial valve gear; no eccenimparted to the valve by the
is
but motion is
motion of the connecting-rod A.
tric is used,
B is pivoted to
pivoted at b to the
is fulcrumed at c.
At the point d
is attached, which is free to turn
on the link B, the lever
about the fulcrum e at the end of the reversing lever E.
This lever
is free to turn about a pin f carried by
the reversing rocker shown directly behind the reversing
the connecting-rod at a\
swinging lever C, which
its
other end
link
is
lever E.
of
e.
attached.
is
When
'
the curve
gg. Assume
28
VALVE GEARS.
28
shown
Then
in the figure.
to be a direct valve,
will
15
steam port until g reaches the lowest point of the curve g ig'
After passing the lowest point, the valve moves upwards, thus
closing the steam port.
Shortly before the engine reaches
the bottom center, i. e., shortly before
occupies the position i the exhaust port is opened and remains open until g
reaches the highest point g'.
After passing this point the
exhaust port closes quite rapidly, and closes entirely before
the crank reaches the top center again.
The engine is
reversed by shifting the fulcrum f of the reversing lever
.
Now,
top center, the upper steam port must be opened.
since the lowest point of the curve g ig" is to the right of g,
it follows that in order that the valve may open the steam
was
at/".
position just
which
link
VALVE GEARS.
16
19.
Fig.
6.
28
same manner
is
as with
shown
in
is
the fulcrum
valve-stem
c.
At
connecting-rod
VALVE GEARS.
28
17
as
is
shown
in Fig.
6,
which
is
When
a direct-connected
indirect valve
is
in
any intermediate
full-gear
positions.
posi-
The
nearer c
is
moved
take place.
Conversely, the nearer the fulcrum is to c or c',
In the
the larger the valve travel and the later the cut-off.
See-Marshall gear the lead is constant for all cut-offs,
//.
S.
W.ib
VALVE GEARS.
18
28
CAM GEARS.
POPPET VALVES
POPPET VALVES.
The Poppet valve is a type of valve possessing a
number of valuable features that has been much used on
slow and
medium speed
22.
rotative speeds.
shows
as
this
applied
type
to
the
Fig. 7
of
valve
Putnam
leads
VALVE GEARS.
28
19
is
Unequal expan-
make
it difficult
method
24.
VALVE GEARS.
The exhaust
It is
ing
28
valve
bored out to
downwards
tion, or piston, is
slightly smaller
fit
in
FIG.
8.
Thus, the force acting upon the under side of the valve and
tending to open it when live steam is in the cylinder is
greatly reduced, the steam acting only upon a ring having
an area equal to the difference of areas between those of the
The valve is attached to the stem in the
seat and piston.
same manner as the steam valve,
VALVE GEARS.
28
25.
21
it
and
it
is
CAM GEARS.
Cam
gears from the main shaft, although the cams are often
The cams are so formed
placed on the main shaft itself.
and
set
will
its
valve
quickly at any desired points in the stroke, the steam distribution can be made almost perfect with this type of gear.
of different
By sliding the cam along the shaft the particular step for the required point of cut-off can be made to
operate the valve. Tapered cams have also been used which,
length of time.
when
slid
VALVE GEARS.
22
28
28.
illustrated
As
stem
x.
point of the
when this point is reached, the lever and with it the stem
and valve drop back, thus closing the port. The closing
motion of the valve is accomplished partly by gravity, partly
s;
VALVE GEARS.
28
23
VALVE GEAR.
29.
Gridiron Valves.
valve.
The exhaust-valve
of bars d, d,
valve.
up
seat
d and
^, c,
30.
valves,
that the wear of the valve and seat and the power required
The resistto operate the valve are considerably reduced.
VALVE GEARS.
28
25
serious loss
31.
from -wiredrawing.
The
& Seymour
of the valve
stem
w and the
link u.
nections serves to drive the steam and exhaust valves for the
VALVE GEARS.
28
27
the parts of a toggle joint lie in nearly the same straight line,
is much less than the motion
imparted when they form a
considerable angle with each other.
It is also seen that
when one of the toggles, for example the one driving the
steam valve, is in the angular position, the parts of the other
in a straight line.
The straight-line position of each of
the togglejoints corresponds to the period during which its
valve is closed; the valve, therefore, has but little motion
lie
the toggle are taking and leaving their angular position the
valve thus has a rapid motion during the period of opening
;
and
33.
for the
end of
the cylinder shown in Fig. 10 (a), is imparted to it by the cutoff eccentric through connections to an oscillating shaft n,
the rocker-arm /, the rod g, the bell-crank /i, the link i, and
These parts are also shown by themselves
/.
(c).
A similar set
of connections transmit
cut-off valve.
The
motion
cut-off valve
steam valve, and so cuts off the supply of steam to the cylinder, is varied by varying the angle of advance of the eccentric through the action of a shaft governor.
34. Buckeye Valve Gear. One of the most interesting and successful applications of the riding, cut-off valve is
that of the Buckeye valve gear (see Fig. 11), which shows
the gear applied to a Tangye bed engine (see also the sectional
view in line with the rocker-arm shown in Fig. 12). In this
VALVE GEARS.
'28
action of the
the link
valve
is
The
is
ence to Fig.
of the link c
12,
is
stem
35.
z,
Fig. 11.
VALVE GEARS.
28
29
governor position. The effect of this constant throw in conjunction with the combination of the cut-off rocker-arm with
ities in
VALVE GEARS.
30
28
the cylinder
ports.
exhaust pipe
Cut-off
in the
of
k.
backward
stroke
cut-off
takes
place.
If
the cut-off
is
move
The
valves are
now
set.
Few
General Princi-
ples.
Nearly every principle involved in the construction
of the governors and valve gears now used in stationary
practice is illustrated and explained in connection with the
description of the types that have been described in the preceding articles. These principles have been applied in a
careful study, however, will generally reveal the true character of the device and enable the engineer who has the requisite
VALVE GEARS.
28
skill
and experience
31
knowledge
of the
part, or
best
when asking
number and
and type
of engine and,
it
was
if possible, to give
built and installed.
amount
of lost motion.
It must, however,
be too tight as well as too
loose, and that the effect if the joint is too tight will be
more speedily and surely disastrous than it will be if there
is
a moderate
amount
may
of lost motion.
Two
41.
fitted in a hole or
eye in the
link.
If
VALVE GEARS.
32
28
joint,
With
it
if
properly designed,
is
generally preferred.
all
If
on the motion,
is
working loose of bolts, nuts, and cotters and of the jam nuts,
setscrews, or other locking devices by which they are held in
place. Attention to these details will prevent much trouble.
Setting Valves for Equal [Leads and Cut-Offs.
account of the disturbing effect of the angularity of
the connecting-rod, it is generally impossible to so set the
valves of an automatic cut-off engine that cut-off for
different loads will be equal for both ends of the cylinder.
In some gears, however, the effect on the point of cut-off
of the angularity of the rod is neutralized by giving the
eccentric rod an angle with the rocker that will affect the
valve motion in the same way that the angle of the connecting-rod affects the motion of the piston with such a gear,
the valve may be set for equal leads, and equal cut-off will be
obtained for the whole range of cut-off.
42.
On
43.
it is
VALVE GEARS.
28
33
the lower port than is given for the upper one this secures
an earlier admission of steam to the lower end of the
cylinder and aids in arresting the downward motion of the
In many cases of fixed cut-off engines
reciprocating parts.
;
it
will
easily secured
if
the valve
is
of the time,
44.
One
@f the
most useful
and noisy,
valves
it is
is
speed, and
What changes
indicator
45.
is
concerned.
Pressure-
plate valves demand much careful attention to prevent leakage and a consequent waste of steam. The plate, valve
seat,
freely
enough to permit
of steam.
screws, it
H. S.
If
IV.
17
VALVE GEARS.
34
it
rests
28
on edges that must be planed or scraped, the diffistill greater and the adjustment requires a con-
culties are
otherwise the unequal expansion of the valve and its surroundings may cause the valve to stick and break the valve gear.
wear and
loss of
be secured only
when
the supply of
oil
power, it is also
from the valve
thoroughly and
met by
periodilubrication can
is
uniform and
VALVE GEARS.
28
35
FIG.
With the steam-chest cover off, set the valve so that it just
covers one of the ports and make a center-punch mark on
the valve stem at the point to which the tram reaches when
one end is in the fixed center-punch mark, as shown in the
it will just cover the oppoa similar center-punch mark on the
stem for this position. With the tram and these marks, the
figure.
site
port and
make
VALVE GEARS.
36
28
by hand
Turn steam
until
49. Locating the Port Opening by Indirect Measurement. It is sometimes impossible or inconvenient to
determine by direct observation the points at which a
valve
ports.
be located by indirect
measurements in the followLet Fig. 15
ing manner:
may
After remov-
direct valve.
ing
will
valve
when
it
is
in position,
15.
valve
when
surface of
the
the
latter is in
VALVE GEARS.
37
surfaces.
is
d and
Head End
e the cut-off
Crank
FIG.
of the valve.
The
c are
edges
End
16.
be in line
af
when
ab
df.
the distance
af= ac
ef.
VALVE GEARS.
38
28
been set
for).
fd= 2^
inch
f ace
Thus, assuming a b
and/V
inches,
is
is
14
(2J
= 2J-
= 5 inches, a c =
inches,
lead,
and that
move
19 inches,
believed
it is
a.
its
Place
the distance
lead)
= 19
af
(14J
is
i)
assumed
(fc
shows that the valve
5^ inches and a c
5 inches,
it
=
2
inch.
Conversely,
if
this distance
a fis
VALVE GEARS.
28
inches.
rod
43.
39
The valve
is
now
equal lead.
53.
When an indirect
all.
af=
(a c
+ desired
lead)
/>, or
place the crank on the head-end dead center and shift the
eccentric until
b
(fd desired lead). Fasten
afa
the eccentric.
will
VALVE GEARS.
40
28
make
work
freely.
Mark
all
parts
CONDENSERS.
INTRODUCTION.
EFFICIENCY.
The
pounds.
The mechanical energy stored up in 1 pound of good coal
= 10,892,000 foot-pounds. Reduis, therefore, 14,000 X 778
cmg
this
to
10,892,000
horsepower per hour, we have I^TT^.
oo.OOO X ^0
if all
the heat
made
available by the burning of a pound of coal was transformed into work, it could be done at the rate of 5.5 horsepower per hour.
We
pound
of coal.
We
all this
will
is
when considered
now endeavor
heat that
is
29
For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the
title
page.
CONDENSERS.
In the
first place,
29
work
ation,
losses
make
This
fair
loss
average
varies
may
the cylinder.
As each
4.
that
is
is
capable of doing
amount
a definite
is
accompanied
by a
of this
reduction
of
work by the
temperature.
CONDENSERS.
29
That
ordinary temperature.
Absolute temperature
to the
is,
ordinary temperature
-f-
460.
take the
amount
energy contained
of
in the entering
steam
Useful work
The
efficiency of
to the total energy
total
energy
an engine
;
is
: :
7*t
Tv
therefore,
= T
Efficiency
-^
2.
CONDENSERS.
4
cannot exceed,
1,500
1
1,400
oOO
= T^.
29
Absolute zero
far as
steam
is
is
the
con-
The above
CONDENSATION.
7.
the exhaust
7",
may
5=
mal
if
non-condensing,
is
*=
CONDENSERS.
29
771.9-679.5
j^r
7 1 1.
12
= 22
8.
may
Fig.
efficiency
T -
is
^j
1
if
T;
-
condensing to
771.9- 601.7
771.9
per cent.
engine.
line.
MN
is
The back
pressure, as
H K,
now being
instead of
E,
A B CHKL
will
FE D HK
PG H K
amount
/'
of steam per stroke represented by the length
while the non-condensing engine uses an amount represented
by AK. Either case shows the economy of the condenser.
.
CONDENSERS.
THEORY Or THE
29
CO3STDEKSER.
FORMATION OF VACUUM.
is converted into steam at the
occupy 1,646 cubic inches of
space, and, conversely, if 1,646 cubic inches of steam at the
atmospheric pressure are condensed into water, it will occupy
but 1 cubic inch of space; hence, if a closed vessel is filled
with steam at the atmospheric pressure and that steam is
condensed to a cubic inch of water, -fff of the space will be
9.
If a
atmospheric pressure,
it
will
steam and
more or
is
released there
leaks around the piston rod and valve stems, and in the case
of the jet condenser and the induction condenser, the air
contained in the condensing water is also released in the condenser under the influence of the partial vacuum. There is
still
10.
water and
differ
is
from water
not.
To
in that
they are
suppose
are filled, A with
illustrate this,
A and B, Fig. 2,
with air or vapor; now pump out, say, one-half
CONDENSERS.
29
pumped
out,
will
vapor
the
air
still
fill
or
the
have become
will
atten-
law
that
pressures
the
of
~O~i
different
gas
are
was
the
or
CONDENSERS.
-ii
same as
engine,
CONDENSERS.
29
air
'
CONSTRUCTION OF COKDEKSERS.
CLASSIFICATION.
classes,
JET CONDENSERS.
TYPES.
17.
The
of jet condensers, viz.
condenser, the siphon condenser\ and the induction
common jet
condenser.
common jet
this vessel
H.
S.
1%
its
CONDENSERS.
10
sewer or elsewhere.
19.
but it
The form
is
of a
common
important that
it
20.
shown
The common
in Fig. 3, in
body
in case of flooding.
condenser in
jet
which
is
FIG.
it
3.
of the condenser;
B is the
exhaust
water that
is
CONDENSERS.
29
11
to the
21.
jet
the
condenser
vacuum
Fig.
3,
is
is
and
kept closed
is shown at O,
valve P, which should be
not in actual use, to exclude any air that
produced thereby.
is provided with
when
This pipe
a.
CONDENSERS.
12
29
receiving, chamber of the air pump to pass through the openings in the bucket into the barrel of the pump. The bucket,
in ascending, forces the air, vapor, and water through the
Whatever
delivery valves b, b' into the hotwell L.
quantity of water may be required for boiler feeding is
taken from the hotwell by the feed-pump through the
pipe M\ the remainder of the water in the hotwell runs off
through the discharge pipe N.
If the injection water is so impure as to be unfit for
boiler feedwater, all the water in the hotwell is allowed to
run to waste and pure feedwater is supplied from another
source; this is a great loss of heat, however, as the temperature of the feedwater must be raised to at least that of
make
it
23.
jet
condenser shown in
operation,
it is
24. The jet condenser now generally used differs somewhat in form from the one just described. It occupies less
CONDENSERS.
space and the air
pump
13
is
same in both. As an example of this type of condenser a description of one of this class is given below.
In Fig. 4 is shown a section of a Worthington independent
condenser. The cold water enters the condenser at b,
jet
cally the
CONDENSERS.
14
29
whence
it
forced by the
is
pump through
the discharge
pipe/
The above described condensing apparatus is operThe air pump having been started, a
25.
ated as follows:
vacuum
//,
occur.
The spray
slits
pipe c has at
its
by means
CONDENSERS.
15
momentum
thus
vacuum
is
lost;
from
28.
air leaks.
In Fig. 5
is
shown a
the condenser.
jet
condenser in connection
CONDENSERS.
16
29
A portion of this
into the sewer.
charged through
discharge, however, flows through E to the feed-pump G,
which forces it through the coil in the heater to the pipe
The exhaust from the two pumps is
leading to the boiler.
discharged into the feedwater heater through the pipe M.
It will be noticed that water from the overflow pipe
This is because
enters the feed-pump under a slight head.
the water is heated by the exhaust steam, and hot water
cannot be raised by a pump like cold water. A pipe
leads
from the boiler and supplies steam for both pumps.
30.
It will
So long as
the proper amount of water continues to flow into the upper
end of the pipe and a corresponding amount flows out at the
lower end, the air and vapor in the condenser will be carried
CONDENSERS.
29
It
The siphon
denser.
denser
is
called
con-
the
Injector
con-
An
illustration
and a
denser.
31.
description of an example of
this type of condenser,
as the
known
Baragwanath con-
is here given.
Fig. 6 represents a sectional view, in which a is the
denser,
exhaust pipe
is
the injec-
is
The steam
is
as
enters
FIG.
e.
CONDENSERS.
18
29
hotwell.
by the pressure
water
in
of the
CONDENSERS.
29
tial
19
down
the discharge
enter.
denser
is
is
closed.
33.
If
more than 20
pump may
then be dispensed
with.
is based
35.
on the same principle as that of the steam injector, used so
largely for boiler feeding, and it may properly be called an
it
is
name by
the trade.
Fig. 7 represents a partial sectional view of a condensing
apparatus of this type. It is known as the Kortliijf universal exhaust steam induction condenser and is manufactured by L. Schutte & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
-:
u
I
'
'
'
,
FIG.
7.
CONDENSERS.
21
i around the ram 7, passing into the condensing chamber e through the annular opening k, where it
meets the exhaust steam, which is then condensed. Here
annular space
sewer
36.
To
steam
it
may be called upon to handle, this
condenser requires that it shall be adjustable. This is
accomplished by the ramy' being made tapering and capable
of being raised and lowered at will, which operation varies
the size and capacity of the annular opening k and controls
the volume of water admitted to the condensing chamber e.
The ram is adjusted by the hand wheel acting through a
rack and pinion.
The area of opening required by the
steam that enters the condenser is regulated by the sleeve/,
which covers more or less of the openings in the tube d,
as may be required.
This sleeve is raised or lowered by the
hand wheel q, which also acts through a rack and pinion.
It will be observed that this apparatus is capable of very
tities
fine
of
adjustment.
CONDENSERS.
22
29
This
provided in the automatic free exhaust valve r.
valve closes automatically when the condenser contains a
vacuum and opens automatically when the vacuum is
It is fitted with a piston s to prevent the
destroyed.
valve hammering. If it should become necessary or desirable
to cut the condensing apparatus out of service and to run
the engine non-condensing, the free exhaust valve may be
locked open by turning the hand lever / to the left.
The operation of the check-valve b is as follows: The
inclined suspension bar u has a tendency to open the valve,
while the inclined supporting bar v has a tendency to close
Thus the valve is balanced by its own weight, which is
it.
so distributed that there
is
clo-
38. When the injection water is supplied to the condenser under pressure, as from an elevated tank or from the
street main, instead of being siphoned up, the openings w
and x are blanked.
When the injection water is siphoned into the condenser
the
is
opening
blanked.
When
steam
39.
is
It
will
and
the
and
dis-
power that
made
is
is
CONDENSERS.
29
23
SURFACE CONDENSERS.
PURPOSE.
When
4O.
do
It is
this.
The
In this
way
the water of
PUMPS REQUIRED.
41. The surface condenser requires two pumps, viz.,
an air pump and a circulating pump. The duty of the circulating pump is to force the injection water through the
tubes of the condenser; the air pump removes the air, vapor,
There
and water of condensation from the condenser.
being two pumps connected with the surface condenser to
do the work that is performed by one pump in the case of
the jet condenser, they can be
only one
pump
is
much
smaller than
when
used.
ADVANTAGES.
42.
its first
Though
is more complicated,
more attention on the
cost greater,
and
it
requires
CONDENSERS.
24
29
ring loss of fuel and time and the expense of scaling and
cleaning them.
CONSTRUCTION.
43.
FIG.
pumps.
The body
8.
of the condenser
is
an air-tight vessel of
it
The
pipe from the engine is connected at a.
steam, on entering the condenser, strikes the perforated scatwhich distributes the steam over the tubes more
tering plate
The exhaust
CONDENSERS.
29
25
d,
it falls
to the
pump
or of
its
becoming
atmosphere.
Part of the
44. Making Up for Ix>ss of Water.
steam that is generated in the boilers is lost in various ways,
such as blowing off with the safety valve, opening the gaugecocks, and blowing the whistle, also through the cylinder
and other drain cocks, by leakage, etc. therefore, after
all the exhaust steam from the engine is condensed into
water there will not be enough of it to keep up the supply
of feedwater; this deficiency is sometimes made up by
drawing a corresponding amount of water from the
For this purpose a
circulating side of the condenser.
U-shaped by-pass pipe is fitted around one of the tube-sheets
and provided with a cock or valve; this allows a communication to be opened up between the steam and water sides
;
of the condenser;
at o
and
H.
f>
S.
IV.
19
shown
CONDENSERS.
26
29
45.
Though
deficiency
of
the
4G.
Effects of Grease.
a surface condenser
side,
29
CONDENSERS.
27
47. It is not an easy task to clean out a surface condenser having several thousand tubes; it is one of the most
disagreeable duties a practical engineer has to perform.
This grease is very sticky, resembling tar, and is very difficult to remove not only from the tubes and tube-sheets, but
It can
also from the skin and clothing of the operator.
generally be softened by a liberal application of kerosene
If gasoline is
oil or gasoline, which facilitates its removal.
it must be remembered that the vapor given off is
highly inflammable, and hence no naked light should be used
near the condenser.
used,
This
may
be accomplished by introdu-
The
cing an efficient grease extractor in the exhaust pipe.
grease extractor is an apparatus that is coming largely into
use and which contributes greatly towards keeping condensers
It should be found in every
boilers free from grease.
well-equipped condensing steam plant as a matter of economy.
and
CONDENSERS.
28
the
Company,
of
New York
City.
is
of
pump
CONDENSERS.
29
chamber
and flows, as indicated by the arrows, through
the inner tubes of the lower nest of double tubing to the
left.
Having passed through their entire length, the water
returns through the annular space between the outside of
the inner tubes and the inside of the outer tubes into the
chamber G.
Fig. 11
this double tubing.
to
passes through
nest
of
From /
with
it
From
double
it
all
is
pump piston O draws the air, vapor, and water of condenand dissation out of the condenser through the opening
charges them through the valves
V V
,
and nozzle
in
CONDENSERS.
30
29
The steam then comes into contact with the cold tubes
through which the cold circulating water is being pumped
and is immediately condensed. As soon as this occurs, the
water of condensation collects at the bottom of the condenser and flows through the opening B into the air-pump
barrel, from which it is discharged by the piston of the air
the nozzle AT into the hotwell or feed tank.
In this condenser the air and circulating pumps are operThe tubes of
ated by the independent steam cylinder P.
this condenser are secured to the tube-sheet at one .end only
pump through
may
ring.
CONDENSERS.
52.
31
Condenser tubes
FIG.
12.
But the end play must be restricted, else the tubes will crawl
by successive expansion and contraction until they become
detached from either one or the other tube-sheet; this is
obviated by the shoulder e in the gland. The space between
the end of the tube and the shoulder is provided to give the
tube room to expand or for the end play mentioned above.
53.
condenser by admitting
The
it
to be necessary.
The test
is
made by removing
CONDENSERS.
32
29
filling the steam side of the condenser with water both ends of every tube should then be
carefully examined. If water flows from any of the tubes, it
proves that those tubes are split, and they should be drawn
If the time cannot be
out at once and new tubes inserted.
;
spared just then to put in new tubes, the leaky ones may be
plugged up at both ends with dry white-pine plugs, as a
temporary repair; but it is always best to make a permanent
55.
is
The sulphuric acid in connection with the copper in the condenser tubes and the iron
of the condenser casing, feedpipes, and boilers
completes a
especially in mineral regions.
CONDENSERS.
29
33
56.
As
tank.
expended
in
and
c.isintegrating the
it
is
its
zinc in preference
destructive energy
zinc.
The
zinc plates
electrical contact.
The
bottom blow.
CONDENSER ACCESSORIES.
COOLING TOWEKS.
INTRODUCTION.
The
great economy of using a condenser in connection with the steam engine has become so generally recognized by steam users, as it has been by engineers from the
57.
it
them
CONDENSERS.
34
29
The
part.
58.
the
first
of cooling liquids;
off
the heat by a
liquid previously cooled, as, for instance, occurs in the surface condenser, in which the heat of the exhaust steam is
59.
When
at
first,
until
it
is
it
is
can hold.
It
brought into
CONDENSERS.
35
61.
of heat
name
somewhat
in construction
all
are
fan
CONDENSERS.
36
29
the
pipe/, passes up the central pipe g, and is delivered on the upper layer of
tiling and over the whole
cross-section of the tower
the
by
distributing
de-
which consists of
four pipes, radiating from
the central pipe g, which
are caused to revolve about
vice
/z,
the
walls
action of the
The
air.
on
end in horizontal layers,
one on the other, and is
tiling is placed
vidual
tile
of each success-
is.
next lower
breaking joints, as
it were; the object of this disposition is to break up both
the currents of air and water so that the most extended
contact will take place.
layer,
CONDENSERS.
$9
37
the top layer will be divided over at least two tiles in the
second layer, three in the third, four in the fourth, and so
on until it becomes spread over fifty-four tiles in the bottom
layer on the grating.
The
manner, but
in a reverse
The current
circulating fan
of air
^,
manhole
affords access
38
CONDENSERS.
CONDENSERS.
29
after weaving.
tower and the
39
The mats are practically metallic sponges capable of holding a large quantity of water in suspension, which accumulates and drips off into the supply reservoir at the bottom
of the
tower.
To
assist
by means
a',
the
air
in
is
mats.
65.
is
shown
in
water
is
e for use
again
in the condenser.
far
CONDENSERS.
40
FIG.
67.
15.
is
a structure built of
The
or bricks, according to circumstances.
cooling surfaces are built up of checkerwork or crosspieces
of boards in horizontal layers set at right angles to one
wood,
steel,
CONDENSERS.
29
41
another.
down over
in falling at
is
is
68.
weather.
of cooling discharge
water
71.
sists
The Idnde system of cooling discharge water connumber of sheet-iron cylinders immersed about
of a
IV.
20
CONDENSERS.
42
L.OSS
When
72.
29
OF WATER BY EVAPORATION.
injection water
is
CONDENSER FITTINGS.
73.
make
Certain fittings
it
complete.
vacuum gauge,
may
consult
it
at
any time.
standard
thermometers,
their
utility
is
obvious.
The
CONDENSERS.
43
water
is
required.
75.
It
may happen
water
very cold and that not enough of it is required for condensation to fill the barrel of the circulating pump, which
may cause slamming of the valves. If the circulating pump
is independent of the main engine, the difficulty may be
remedied by slowing down the pump; but if the pump is
attached to and operated by the main engine, this cannot be
is
done.
To meet
slamming.
The amount
of
lift
may
same purpose
by a pipe or channel way,
between the discharge and the receiving chambers of the
circulating pump, fitted with a valve, which, on being
76.
is
Another method
of accomplishing the
to provide a communication,
By regurgitating
regurgitate back towards its source.
meant the flowing back and forth of a liquid.
is
CONDENSERS.
44
29
79.
mingled
one for
are required
the feedwater.
80.
number
inter-
and
repairs.
81.
The
hot well, or
feed tank
which
is
practically
is
informed as to the
82.
the
vacuum
of the air
adjunct of a jet
a device that will automatically break
in the condenser in case of a sudden breakdown
This
condenser.
is
pump, and
will
filling
up
of the
CONDENSERS.
29
45
The number
to condense a
of
pound
of
final temperature of
temperature of the condensing water.
its
pressure.
must be abstracted
from the
final
pound
of
condensing water.
rule
CONDENSERS.
46
29
condensed steam and'32 ; divide the remainder by the difference between the temperatures of the entering and departing
condensing water.
Or,
where
pound
of
steam
pound
of
steam
/,
/,
/,
The
is
In a jet condenser
at the point of release in the cylinder.
the final temperatures of the cooling water and the con-
EXAMPLE
is, t 3
/,.
ture of the condensed steam on entering the air pump is 140. How
many .pounds of condensing water are required per pound of steam ?
SOLUTION.
at a pressure of 4
rule 1,
pounds absolute
is
1,128.641 B. T.
U.
pound of steam
Then, applying
we have
^=
CONDENSERS.
29
47
85.
more
of
pump may
easily
if
be
a log
of the
pump
is
partially disabled.
greater,
water.
it
48
CONDENSERS.
29
COMPOUND
ENGINES.
OF COMPOUNDING.
HISTORICAL,.
In 1781 Jonathan Hornblower constructed and patented an engine, similar to the present "compound," that
had two cylinders of different sizes. Steam was first admitted into the smaller cylinder and then passed over into the
1.
cylinders.
2.
over the single-cylinder engine with an equal ratio of expansion and of equal power, but it is doubtful whether this
30
For notice of copyright, see pa#e immediately following the
title
pane.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
was
effected.
613 = 140.
Now, the cylinder walls, espeengines having a very slow piston speed and having
the cylinder poorly covered, will cool off to nearly the
temperature of the exhaust steam, and hence the incoming
steam must give up part of its heat in order to heat the
will
be 753
cially in
of the stroke.
5.
steam
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
exhaust steam
is
ratio of expansion.
613
229.
is,
that
we have
a higher
thought
will
this
enlarged temperature range, a good deal more initial condensation will occur in order to raise the temperature of the
From this the conclusion
cylinder walls to 842 again.
may be drawn that increasing the range of temperature
increases the loss due to cylinder condensation.
We
will
now
why
COMPOUND ENGINES.
steam.
It is a
30
temperaNow, by
expanding steam successively in several cylinders, we not
only decrease the temperature range in each cylinder, but
also greatly decrease the fluctuation in temperature of the
cylinder walls of each.
Then, as the rate of heat transmission
is
temperature,
8. Another probable cause of reduction of cylinder condensation by compounding is that the steam condensed in
the high-pressure cylinder and reevaporated
during the
exhaust period enters the low-pressure cylinder as steam;
hence, the heat given up in the high-pressure cylinder by
the entering steam in heating the
cylinder walls is not a
total loss, as would be the case
if, instead of exhausting
into a second cylinder, exhaust took
place into the atmos
phere or into a condenser.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
compound
The pres-
a'
compound engine
of coal.
10.
sider
In order to show
two engines
of
how
this
is
possible,
we
will con-
FIG.
1.
expansive engine and the other a so-called tandem compound engine that has two cylinders in line with each
Obviother and a piston rod common to both cylinders.
as shown
ously, both pistons are carried on the same rod,
in Fig. 1.
The cylinder A is called the high-pressure
cylinder and the cylinder B is known as the low-pressure
The exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder
cylinder.
chest
passes through the exhaust passage a into the steam
of the low-pressure cylinder.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
Area
30
revolutions
inches;
of
piston,
sions
dem
200
compound engine is
51.1 + 600 X 17.03
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
the cylinders of a
AA
A*
e tc
of the stroke
Stroke.
in
COMPOUND ENGINES.
From
this table
we
into a
compound
compound engine
maximum
30
if
compound than in
tandem compound
hence, the
will
when changed
to a
tandem compound
of equal
power.
ing the
maximum
when
it
power, nearly.
having
250
XM X
The horsepower
cylinders of
51.1
both engines.
X 90
Ot5j UUU
of
Jiigj
is
2.5
33,000
348.4 H. P., nearly.
of the
That
of
the
compound engine
We
33,000
thus see that the horsepower
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
sidered.
Many compound
one of which
is
shown
in plan in Fig. 3.
possesses a mechanical advantage not only over the simple expansive engine, but also
over the tandem compound engine of equal horsepower. In
a cross-compound engine the high-pressure cylinder a and
low-pressure cylinder b are placed parallel to and alongside
Both cylinders are conof each other, as shown in Fig. 3.
nected to a common crank-shaft c, which carries the flywheel df between the bearings and has cranks c and /"at each
These cranks are placed at right angles to each other,
end.
so that when one crank is on a dead center, the other is
midway between the centers. In consequence of this there
is a much more uniform turning moment on the crankshaft than in a tandem compound engine, and hence the
H.
S.
IV.
21
COMPOUND ENGINES.
10
30
heaviest wheel.
In
cross-compound
high-pressure
cylinder
engine
passes
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
11
CONSTRUCTION OF COMPOUND
ENGINES.
CLASSIFICATION.
15.
Types.
16.
compound
type.
absence of a receiver, or vessel destined to receive the highpressure exhaust before it passes to the low-pressure cylin-
Woolf compound
While most tandem compound engines are of the
Woolf compound type, it must not be inferred that all of
der, is the distinguishing feature of the
engine.
17. The Receiver Compound. In the receiver compound type the high-pressure cylinder exhausts into a separate vessel, chiefly in order that the cranks may be placed
any desired angle other than
(in line with each other)
or 180 apart.
This is not feasible without the employment
at
COMPOUND ENGINES.
12
30
both cylinders.
commenced
its stroke.
In a compound
expansion, or quintuple-expansion engine.
engine the steam is expanded in two separate stages, but
not necessarily in two cylinders; in a triple-expansion
original volume, or
five,
etc.
different
cylinders.
is
expanded. Thus,
with three cylinders and three cranks, there being one high-pressure
In such an
cylinder and two low-pressure cylinders.
engine one-half of the exhaust steam from the highpressure cylinder passes to each low-pressure cylinder.
Such an engine is distinctly a compound engine, and may
be more fully denoted as a three
compound
engines
have
been
built
-cylinder,
compound engine.
three-crank,
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
13
it
is
sizes
cylinder is 11 inches
low-pressure cylinder 20 inches in diameter,
and stroke 15 inches, would be designated as a 11" X 20"
in diameter,
15"
compound engine.
X 22" X 34" X
tion a 14"
mean
cylinder.
CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS.
22.
It is
component
engines as follows:
H.
P.
/.
P.
I.
P.
I.
P.
L. P.
high-pressure cylinder;
= intermediate-pressure cylinder;
= first intermediate-pressure cylinder
= second intermediate-pressure cylinder;
= low-pressure cylinder.
;
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
15
In English
cylinders have been lettered to correspond.
M. P. designates the intermediate-pressure cylinder.
books,
is
pressure cylinder
is
Tandem
compound engines of either design may be vertical or horizontal; when vertical they are often called steeple com-
pound engines.
Fig. 4 (<:) shows the cylinder arrangement of a crosscompound, high-speed engine. In these engines there are
generally two flywheels placed outside of the cranks, the
c,
whence
it
P. cylinder.
The
latter exhausts
a separate vessel.
Fig. 4 (/) shows the cylinder arrangement of a three-crank, three-cylinder, triple-expansion
engine with the cylinders placed close together. In this
COMPOUND ENGINES.
16
30
or condenser.
Fig. 4 (g) illustrates the cylinder arrangement of a fourSteam
crank, four-cylinder, quadruple-expansion engine.
enters the H. P. cylinder from the steam chest a it exhausts
through b into the first intermediate receiver c, whence it
;
I.
through
P. cylinder.
I.
P. cylinder.
lat-
receiver
^,
(It)
engine that
The
is
beginning, to find
to the
apart.
same crankpin.
them.
23.
a tandem
In the
the high-pressure cylinder, which in highspeed tandem compound engines is generally placed behind
the low-pressure cylinder b. In large
medium-speed engines
the high-pressure cylinder is often
placed nearest the
is
is
in
Fig.
5.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
Steam
is
conducted to
PIG
connecting pipe
c into the
the condenser or
finally exhausted into
cylinder b,
in nearly all
atmosphere through the exhaust pipe e. As
and
is
COMPOUND ENGINES.
18
30
The engine
high-speed engines, a shaft governor is used.
of the side-crank type that is, the crank is on the end of
the crank-shaft.
Many tandem compound engines are built,
is
24.
Horizontal Cross-Compound.
A perspective view
FIG.
is
given in Fig.
7.
6.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
d leading from
The cranks
steam chest.
it
19
to the low-pressure
apart; owing to
are placed 90
it
26.
Fig. 8
As shown,
uncoupled.
d of the dynamo. The steam coming from the highpressure cylinders passes through reheating receivers e, e.
The engine has high-pressure cylinders 44 inches in diameter,
field
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
minute.
to 12,000 horse-
power.
30
COMPOUND ENGINES.
21
FIG.
9.
effort is the
same as
if
they
COMPOUND ENGINES.
22
30
is
as
e,
which
latter
THE RECEIVER.
28.
In practice the receiver is often given such dimensions that it has a volume equal to that of the low-pressure
When its volume is that large, the pressure withcylinder.
in it varies but little, so long as the
weight of steam supplied
by the high-pressure cylinder in one revolution of the engine
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
23
29.
exert a
its
receiver being a vessel having a constant volume, the presit depends on two things which are the rate at
sure within
which steam
drawn
is
out.
When
receiver
30.
When
saturated steam
is
now
COMPOUND ENGINES.
24
The
initial
30
pressure will
32. Making the cut-off earlier in the high-pressure cylinder means a lower pressure at release and a lower receiver
pressure; consequently, the mean effective pressures in the
two cylinders, and hence the power of the engine, are
decreased by this means.
33.
The amount
by means
it
same as
cylin-
before.
amount
of
Thus,
if
as
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
25
raised
if
is
work
will
From
35.
must be changed. This will explain why the governing mechanism of many compound engines operates upon
the high-pressure cut-off, which manner of governing is open
to one serious objection, however.
When the governor
c,ut-off
an
work
will
may then
36.
cut-offs.
work done
in the
two
cylinders.
That
is,
when the governor makes the cut-off later in the highpressure cylinder, it also makes it later in the low-pressure
cylinder; conversely, when the load is lighter, the governor
makes the
RECEIVER FITTINGS.
Receivers should always be fitted with gauges registering from zero to the maximum pressure in one direction
and from zero to 30 inches of vacuum in the other direction,
i.
The receiver should also be
e., with compound gauges.
37.
fitted
S.
IV.
22
COMPOUND ENGINES.
26
30
Otherwise, the high-pressure cylinder, aided by the momentum of the flywheel, would pump the receiver full of steam
and cause
it
to explode.
many
engineers
EQUALIZING
WORK DONE
IN
THE CYLINDEBS.
amount
of
work
is
at present in a
somewhat unsettled
From
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
27
pressure.
is,
it
initial
42.
In practice
given engine,
it
is
is
concerned.
it,
to distribute the
work between the cylinders so as to obtain the smallest possible water consumption compatible with steady and satisThis object in any case can only be
factory running.
attained by repeated trials, changing the receiver pressures
in order to change the work done in each cylinder and
noting the water consumption after each change. In other
words, it is the best plan to try to secure the highest
economy obtainable in conjunction with a satisfactory
mechanical operation.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
28
30
The
dant.
control of the
There
is little
itself is
concerned.
When
44.
In a compound
jacket than that which enters the cylinder.
engine a jacket may be applied to the high-pressure cylinder and the receiver, and in a triple-expansion engine to the
first
in neither
be applied to the low-pressure cylinder.
The
object of the steam jacket is to prevent condensation taking
place in the cylinder; if the steam that runs the engine can
be superheated sufficiently to prevent initial
condensation,
there will then be no need of a steam
jacket, and the
engine will be more economical without a steam jacket than
with one.
case need
it
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
29
is
condensed
in heating
up the
reached.
steam ceases
i.
e.,
to expand
and correspondingly lowers in pressure and temperature,
and unless the steam is cut off very early in the stroke, no
cut-off
is
falls
given up by the piston, cylinder, and head, raising the terminal pressure in the cylinder.
When the piston arrives at
the end of the stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the pressure and temperature of the steam lowers immediately, the
remainder of the water previously condensed then being
reevaporated by the heat extracted from the cylinder walls,
piston, and head, and passes out with the exhaust steam.
The exhaust steam is much colder than the metal, and during
the whole of the return stroke is absorbing heat from the
piston, cylinder walls, and head, lowering their temperature,
which has to be raised again by the steam entering for the
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
30
is
The action that takes place in a steam-jacketed cylinquite different, as thefollowingdescription will indicate
Suppose the jackets to contain steam at the same tempera46.
der
is
ture as the steam entering the cylinder this being the usual
case with the high-pressure cylinder of a compound or triple-
steam inside the cylinders becomes less through expanfrom the cylinder walls to this steam,
reevaporating the small amount of water condensed by the
The walls, in turn, absorb heat from the steam in
piston.
the jacket, condensing some steam in the jacket, but mainWhen
taining the cylinder at nearly an even temperature.
the exhaust valve opens and the pressure and temperature
of the steam in the cylinder become lower, there is no water
to reevaporate; but as the steam inside the cylinder is then
much cooler than the walls of the cylinder, it absorbs heat
from them during the whole of the return stroke, which
heat, in turn, is absorbed from the steam in the jacket, and
of the
is
The actual gain effected by
practically wasted.
the use of a steam jacket on a cylinder is the difference
between the saving due to the prevention of condensation in
the cylinder at the beginning of the stroke and the loss
this heat
by
and
this
COMPQUND ENGINES.
30
31
REHEATERS.
47.
reheater
monly used
in
is
multiple-expansion
engines
and
consists
which are so arranged that the working steam must circuaround them thoroughly and become reheated, from
w'hich fact the apparatus receives its name.
Formerly,
receivers were simply reservoirs placed between the cylinders.
The next step was to provide th'ese receivers with
steam jackets, and from noticing the economy obtained
from the steam-jacketed receiver, the reheater was
It is claimed by advocates of the reheater
developed.
that a gain of 10 per cent, can be realized by their
use under favorable conditions.
This, however, depends
entirely on circumstances, and a reheater, instead of causing
a gain, may cause a positive loss.
Furthermore, it can
seldom or never be predicted beforehand whether a reheater
will be a gain or a loss.
However, it can always be
determined afterwards whether the action of the reheater
is profitable.
If a thermometer placed in the low-pressure
exhaust shows that the temperature of the exhaust steam
is higher than that corresponding
to its pressure, the
should
reheater is wasting heat, and the
reheating
be abandoned.
In proportioning the reheating surface,
late
large
b secured
between the
shell
a and cover
c.
number
expanded into
expanded at the other end into the tube plate e, which is
bolted to the head /.
It will be noticed that the head e and
tube plate /form a vessel that is independent of the shell of
the receiver, so that the tubes are perfectly free to expand
COMPOUND ENGINES.
or contract.
by the cover
pipe
joint
pass.
30
of the reheater
pipe
make
//
is
and
closed
air drain
a steam-tight
An auto-
is
FIG.
10.
and
is
49. For very large engines reheaters are often constructed similar to tubular boilers, the tubes being expanded
into rigid tube-sheets riveted to the shell.
The working
such a reheater
is
started,
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
33
POUND ENGINES.
RATIO OF EXPANSION.
RATIO OF EXPANSION BY VOL.TJME.
51.
The
engine
is
E=
v =
up to the point
of
V = volume
v
t
= volume
swept
through
clearance included.
by high-pressure
piston,
COMPOUND ENGINES.
34
30
*=
Or.
Rule 2.
To find the total ratio of expansion, multiply
the ratio of expansion of the high-pressure cylinder by the
volume of the loiv-pressure cylinder up to the point of release
and divide by the volume swept through by the high-pressure
piston, clearance included.
-.
*--
of
it is
expansion" is
always under-
EXAMPLE 1. The volume of the high-pressure cylinder of a tripleexpansion engine, up to the point of cut-off, is 650 cubic inches the
volume of the low-pressure cylinder is 13,650 cubic inches. What is
the total ratio of expansion ?
;
SOLUTION.
2 l.
EXAMPLE
pound engine
Ans.
The volume
2.
is
SOLUTION.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
53.
35
engine
54.
triple-
COMPOUND ENGINES.
36
30
engine.
and
cylinders are referred to the low-pressure cylinder
added to its mean effective pressure. While this method
shortens the labor of computing the horsepower, it obviously
does not show the distribution of work between the cylinders, and for this reason is going rapidly out of use.
The
57.
difficulty of
mean
feasible.
mean
effective pres-
59.
is
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
37
order to determine the probable ratio of expansion by presWith a steam pipe of ample size and the throttle
sure.
wide open, the initial pressure in the high-pressure cylinder
will probably average 5 pounds per square inch below the
The terminal pressure, i. e., the pressure
boiler pressure.
at the point of release in the low-pressure cylinder, may
be assumed to average 9 pounds absolute in condensing
engines and 19 pounds absolute in non-condensing engines.
Then, the total ratio of expansion, by pressure, will be the
absolute initial pressure divided by the absolute terminal
This determination of one of the factors (the
pressure.
total ratio of expansion), being based
on assumptions that
differ considerably from the conditions actually existing, will serve to show why the determination of the mean
effective pressure is only approximate at best, and that,
may
sponding
to the type
A>
Or,
where
p m = mean
A = initial
in Table II.
(A '-A) X/,
effective pressure
cylinder;
The
engines.
may be estimated
and
II.
pounds
at 17
for
pounds
condensing
may
actually
COMPOUND ENGINES.
38
TABLE
I.
**o
30
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
39
low-pressure piston in
Square inches, and the number of strokes per minute, and
It will be noticed that this
dividing the product by 33,000.
is the same rule by which the horsepower of any simple
engine
is
calculated.
+ 14.7) 5 = 184.7, say 185 pounds per square inch. The terminal pressure, by Art. 59, may be taken as 9 pounds. Then the ratio
of expansion by pressure is if = 20.55.
By Table I, the factor for a
Since 20.55 is about
ratio of expansion of 20 is .199, and for 21 is .192.
midway between 20 and 21, the factor to be used may safely be assumed
to be midway between .199 and .192, say .195. The back pressure, by
Art. 59, may be estimated at 3 pounds. Since the engine is fitted
with piston valves, which are the equivalent of slide valves, the factor
to be taken from Table II is .6.
(175
pm -
(185
.195
3)
.6
19.8
inch.
m 19.8 X ffX
56^X^85-4X2X140
CYLINDER VOLUMES.
61. The average ratios of cylinder volumes of compound
and triple-expansion engines with different steam pressures
are given in Table III.
COMPOUND ENGINES.
40
TABLE
III.
80
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
(PART
1.)
TAKING CHAKGKE.
The
1.
power plant
it
first
is
to
in
engines,
boilers,
pumps, and
their
appurtenances.
He
should notice
He
if
is to spare for taking up the wear on conThe cylinders should be wiped out
necting-rod journals.
thoroughly with oily waste and a liberal coating of cylinder
oil should be applied to the wearing surfaces before closing
up the
cylinders.
31
For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the
H.
S.
IV.
23
title
page.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
off,
The
If
off,
If
machinery,
left
there by careless
is
workmen
it is
advisable
that the engineer in charge should attend to this duty perPrior to replacing covers, bonnets, or cylinder
sonally.
heads, the gaskets should be examined
if
worn
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
smooth
but
itself; if
down with
must be
a scraper and
done;
connecting up, the crankpin brasses should not be set up
file,
it
skilfully
too tight upon the pin; better leave them a little slack,
to be taken up after the engine has been running for
awhile.
/
Examine the
7.
box
stopped up.
9. When satisfied that the pump is in good order, proceed to trace up the pipes. Commence with the suction
pipe at the pump; follow it up and examine every foot of it
to and from the filter, feedwater heater, or grease extractor,
if there be one or the other, to the source of the feedwater
supply, wherever that may be, and make sure that there is
Now start at the
nothing the matter with this supply.
pump
if
it is
in
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
Treat all
the valve up and down until it works freely.
globe valves in a similar manner, and if any of them need
Trace up the auxiliary feedpacking, attend to it at once.
and
pipes, both suction and delivery, in the same manner
with the same care and attention that was given the main
feedpipes.
11.
air
If
pump and
up
or independently.
12. Locate all cocks and valves in the piping and ascerwhat everyone of them is for; locate particularly all
those connected with the feedwater supply system, both in
the steam pipes and in the water pipes.
tain
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
and apparatus,
it is
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.
17.
Warming Up and
The engine
thorough order and the fires
Getting Ready.
in
boiler,
it
is
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
engine
them
is
to
warmed up slowly, as
of a cylinder of this character
should be
down on
their seats.
When
this
31
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
21.
place at the throttle preparatory to starting the engine, provided he has no oiler, is to start the oil and grease cups
It is well to feed the oil liberally at first, but not
fee.ding.
to the extent of wasting it; finer adjustment of the oiling
gear can. be made after the engine has been running a short
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
after a
and
all dirt
Cleanliness
day.
an
Much
saving in
instead of throwing
it
away.
the engine
oil
is
Bath brick
is
much
better for
this purpose.
in
Arts.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
the cylinder.
when
the
is
examined;
if
drain cocks;
if
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
10
31
oil
running
satisfactorily,
his
27.
It
is
heard
in the cylinder after the engine has been running for a while.
This means " water in the cylinder," and the cylinder drain
It is also an intimation
cocks should be opened promptly.
that the boiler is inclined to prime; this may be checked by
closing the main stop-valve just enough to wiredraw the
steam a
little.
on the center.
matter of experience.
29.
close the
main
is
oil
is
feed and
seated,
30.
tion, in
When
is
again admitted to
it.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
11
forth
gear.
31.
with
either
The
ting pump.
air
pump removes
the
air,
vapor, and
33.
It is
circulating
pump
vacuum engine.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
'12
31
circulating pump to be
This
of the air pump.
its
34.
circulating
35. After the main engine has been running for a few
minutes to equalize temperatures, the speed of the air and
circulating pumps and the admission of injection water
should be regulated so as to maintain about 26 inches of
vacuum in a surface condenser and a feedwater temperature of about 115 F.
A higher vacuum than 26 inches,
when the barometer stands at 30 inches, will result in a loss
of heat from cold feedwater, and it will also cause a highspeed engine to
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
13
hand, and
stopped.
it
is
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
14
STOPPING
39.
A SLIDE-VALVE CONDENSING
31
ENGINE.
The operation
densing engine is
non-condensing engine of the same type, with the addition
that after the main engine is stopped the vacuum engine is
also stopped, and in the same way, i. e., by closing the
throttle, after which the injection valve and the discharge
valve should be closed and the drain cocks opened.
,
engine
is
the engine
is
stopped.
SUMMARY.
instructions given in Arts. 24 to 4O apply to
any slide-valve engine, whether vertical or horizontal, and
also whether it is fitted with a ball or pendulum governor, a
41.
The
at
is
not in
action.
is
started
43. In the Corliss engine the eccentric rod is so constructed and arranged that it may be hooked on or unhooked
from the eccentric pin 'on the wristplate at the will of the
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
15
its
45.
socket in the
The way
floor.
be moved.
After a
a glance which
way
little
to
know
at
bar.
cir-
up the cylinder
ing bar.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
16
31
from the
Before starting a
sure cylinder
is
ing valves, which greatly facilitate the operations of warming up and starting.
Usually a compound engine will start
upon opening the throttle.
50.
start
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
may have
and a coating
17
and rust
and caused the pistons to
of carbonized oil
stick fast.
must
be blown off through the receiver safety valve; if the pressure in the receiver is too low to start the low-pressure piston, more steam must be admitted into the receiver. If the
and
remove
valves,
if
ing,
it.
51.
If
it
there
compound engine is on
must be pulled or jacked off. If the high-
the center,
it
it
is
When no pass-over
cylinder, in order to start the engine.
is fitted, but the engine has a link motion, sufficient steam
to pull the high-pressure crank off the center can generally
be worked into the low-pressure cylinder by working the
H.
S.
IV.
24
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
18
31
links
is
on a dead
center,
rolling-mill,
ing
is
own fancy
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
that
it
will
19
tion
sumption.
to signal,
should immediately open the throttle very
slightly, in order to keep the engine warm, and stand by
for the next signal.
If the engine is fitted with an inde-
it
should be thrown
off,
engine
While
not start promptly, and perhaps not at all.
waiting for the signal, the cylinder drain valves should be
opened and any water that may be in the cylinders blown
out.
When dry steam blows through the drains, the
will
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
20
31
58.
It
is
working platform
This platform
within easy reach of the engineer's station.
usually placed in a commanding position, from whence the
is
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
21
of the air
is
concerned.
STARTING, STOPPING,
engines
machinery,
activity
for it.
in
general,
to
look
after,
requiring greater
ENGINES.
INTRODUCTION.
The operation
61.
Purpose.
reduced to a minimum. Absolute accuracy, though desircannot be attained, and if it could be attained, it could
not be maintained.
Too much care, however, cannot be
exercised in lining an engine, as its future smooth running
and efficiency will depend very largely on the accuracy with
able,
which
this operation
is
performed.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
22
31
3.
The center
4.
line of the
both
lie
rod.
be
it is
gener-
level.
UP.
63.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
:n
23
64.
The
first
following manner:
nuts, as
shown
at a
Fig.
1.
may now
and
prevent
metal
sheet
it
The pieces of
slipping through the holes.
be cut, say, 2 inches square, and the
may
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
24
of a loop,
the
off
31
line.
65.
The
line
FIG.
2.
is
lighter
will
tion until
It is
90
apart.
66.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
25
Then,
line c
if
may
the cylinder.
67.
as* is
may
be
block
a,
which
is
turned to just
fit
into
is
faced
68.
After comple-
of the shaft
The
to its relative position with the inboard bearing b'.
inboard bearing, however, is usually cast solid with the
Hence,
bedplate; therefore, it is fixed and cannot be moved.
in adjusting the line d, the aim must be to stretch the line
through the center of the bearing b and at the same time to
have
it
In order to accomplish
at right angles to the linear.
be necessary to erect two standards, as shown in
this, it will
Fig.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
26
31
The
if the shaft itself were in place.
just as they would be
alinement of the line d in reference to the bearing b' can be
tested by calipers, but a better method is to insert a block of
wood, made as shown in Fig. 3, into the bore of the bearing.
It would be well to fit a similar piece of wood into the bore of
69.
We may now
the line must coincide with the center line of the inboard
bearing.
70.
square
is
ent method
A somewhat differ-
may
strip into
the middle.
Now
it
upon the
feet long,
Taper the
divide the
plainly in
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
27
operation on the other side of the line c, and if the end of the
strip touches the line d at exactly the same spot that it did
before, the line //is at right angles to the line c; but if the
end of the strip does not touch the same spot on the line d
at both trials, the line
d is
c,
colored threads are easily sighted, and the marks are more
sharply defined and cleaner than when made with paint or
may
72.
Another
test to
lines are at
right angles to each other is to measure from their intersection distances of 6 and 8 feet, one on each line. Then, if the
measurement from line to line, measuring in a straight line
at
right angles.
73.
The
6,
line
8,
and
d repre-
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
28
31
d in
end of the
line
d will, when
in the
wrong
direction, deflect
both
lines,
When
the line
they cross.
75.
In lining up a
new engine
new shaft-bearing
76.
may now
line,
when
77.
may
We
are
now ready
and
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
29
both ends of the guides, they are in line verthe same ends of both guides must either
be raised or lowered, remembering that raising one end of
line c agree at
tically.
If not,
the guide
is
By
line
c,
'may be ascertained
level
may
if
ends.
FIG.
4.
the guides.
At the center there is a small hole b through
which the line passes, while the lines cd and e/ drawn
at right angles to each other, serve to locate the center
t
line
in
similar
its
a manner
proper position, this being done in
to that
stuffingbox.
illustrated
in
Fig. 3
for
the
piston-rod
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
80
31
the shop,
it
is
to be
shaft.
80.
In order to
make
may
be pursued
is
The crankpin
d and
a, Fig. 5, is
a piece of
wood
is
brought up to
fitted between
"
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
31
strip, of
shaft
is
81.
if
when properly
lies parallel
alined,
to the cen-
centered,
previously
the center line of the
rod
coincides
piston
with the center line of
FIG
the
therecylinder;
fore, the piston rod should be parallel with the upper
This may be readily tested by
surfaces of the guides.
then
placing the piston at the forward end of its stroke;
measure downwards from the lower edge of a straightedge
laid across the
guides at e
and/
If
the
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
two measurements agree, the piston rod is in line; otherbe adjusted until the piston
wise, the crosshead shoes must
rod
is in its
83.
proper position.
is
shown
method
of testing the
and
in Fig. 7
into
put
follows:
it
may
practice
be
as
Connect the
connecting-rod to the
crankpin and key up
the brasses snugly to
the pin; then put the
crank on or near one
of its dead centers, as
at
ert
c,
7,
and ex-
slight
pressure
Fig.
tance
a', it
parallel to the
plane.
positions of
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
33
It will
cannot
connecting-rod
brasses
must be
chipping,
filing,
pass
this
fitted to the
and
test
satisfactorily,
the
scraping until
it
fills
the
require-
ments.
85.
of the wristpin
connecting-rod
may
be used.
Key
push the crosshead forwards until the end of the connectingIf the center line of the rod
rod just rests on the crankpin.
is the same distance from both collars of the crankpin, the
To
wristpin is in the correct position in one direction.
//. S.
IV.
25
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
34
31
prove
it
half centers
position
shaft.
in Reference to
essary condition,
because,
otherwise,
brasses
the
when
keyed tightly to one pin will not fit the other pin, or, as
To
usually expressed, they will bear on one side only.
make this test, a thin coating of Prussian blue or red-lead
paint is put on the crankpin and the rod is connected up
and adjusted rather snugly to the wristpin and a little less
The crank is then turned through
snugly to the crankpin.
one revolution, when the crankpin brasses may be examined.
If they show marking all over, their correct adjustment is
assured, but if the coloring matter is rubbed off at either
end of the crankpin, it shows that the brasses do not fit the
equally on
87.
all
must be
filed
and scraped
Order of Operations.
An
engineer in lining up
in the
proven.
If a new engine
is
be adjusted by liners
and
it
cannot readily
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
35
POUNDING OF ENGINES.
CATTSES.
The
88.
is
LOOSE BRASSES.
89.
of pounding in engines
the pounding is produced by
the journals striking against the sides of the brasses as
the cranks are passing the centers and at the instant the
change of direction in the motion of the pistons takes place.
is
If
loose
journal
brasses;
may
be
nature
is
obvious.
set
up on the
they will heat from friction, which may have a more disIn
astrous effect than a moderate amount of pounding.
the case of shaft journals, they may be set up without
stopping the engine, provided they can be reached without
in
the machinery.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
36
31
is
hard sheet-brass
liners,
gauge
down
one
These
side, for convenience of chipping and filing.
keepers are sometimes made of hardwood and are capable
of being compressed slightly by the
pressure exerted upon
them during the setting-up process. When the boxes are
babbitted, the body of the box is occasionally made of cast
iron, in which case iron liners and keepers are used instead
of brass ones.
92.
either
The
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
37
being set up too tightly, and on account of the comparatively small surface over which the friction is distributed,
require the greatest care and need constant watching.
The
oiling device should be of the best and the oil should never
be permitted to stop feeding or the oiling device to get out
93.
it is
sometimes
called.
There
is
shaft that
fit
in
If these collars
sometimes the
WATER
IX CYLINDER.
Pounding often occurs in the cylinders and is frequently caused by water, due to condensation or carried
over from the boilers. This may be a warning that priming
is~ likely to occur in the boilers or has already commenced.
The first thing to do at such a time, if the cylinders are not
94.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
38
31
of danger.
head
priming,
the
if
violent, after
remedy
which
is
it is difficult
to suppress.
LOOSE PISTON.
95.
Another source
the piston
may
it
will strike
examination,
found slack, the cause of the nut backing off is
thereby explained, and it should be screwed down solid to
setscrew
is
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
SL.ACK
97.
39
FOLLOWER PLATE.
junk
ring, as
it
called
der head, which it surely will sooner or later, either the piston or the cylinder head is bound to be broken. Therefore, if
there is any intimation that a follower bolt is adrift in the
down the engine instantly, take off the cylinder head, remove the old bolt, and put in one having a
cylinder, shut
tighter
fit.
99.
is
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
40
31
be mentioned here that the length of a connectingmeasured from center to center of the bore of the
crankpin and wristpin brasses.
It
may
rod
is
nut.
To
frequently.
of the stroke
at a glance.
100.
of
pounding
101.
The manner
causes pounding
maybe
in
which
insufficient
explained as follows:
compression
For practical
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
41
reasons there must always be some lost motion at the wristand shaft bearings. Now, in passing the dead
centers, the direction of pressure is suddenly reversed, and in
pin, crankpin,
when compression
is insufficient.
FIG.
8.
as
shown
By giving
motion
in the pins
and journals
is
side to the other before the crankpin reaches the dead center,
so that by the time the live steam suddenly acts on the
piston
is
it
pounding.
up the
lost
If the compression
motion, there will be
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
42
31
103. Too much compression causes such a great resistance to the motion of the crank that it will tend to slow it
down and thus increase the unsteadiness of the engine.
Abnormal compression manifests itself by a dull, muffled
sound in the cylinder or on an indicator card by the comIt will not cause
pression line rising above the steam line.
any pounding at the journals.
104.
Insufficient lead is a
common
cause of pounding;
in fact, it is rare to see an indicator card that shows suffiThe exact amount of lead to be given to
cient steam lead.
105.
it
will
The reason
pound
is
tion
106.
too low
even
31
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
will
43
cause pounding,
very high vacuum in a condensing engine will sometimes cause pounding by not permitting sufficient cushion
for the piston to impinge upon.
POUNDING AT CROSSHEAD.
107. The crosshead is a prolific source of thumping
and pounding from various causes, of which the getting
loose of the piston rod is one of the most common causes.
There are several methods of attaching the piston rod to
the crosshead. The rod may pass through the crosshead
with a shoulder or taper, or both, on one side of the crosshead and a nut on the other or the rod may be secured to
;
The remedy
other at each change of motion of the piston.
similar effect will be proobvious set up the nut.
duced if the cross key should work loose and back out, the
is
remedy
108.
Another source
of
109.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
44
31
11O.
result
are provided.
also cause
pounding
in the air
pump,
all
which must be
of
and
to
circulating
admit enough of
pump
will
it
to stop the
pounding
in the
too cold.
To
meet
barrel of the
pump
this check-
valve
may be
air,
by
all
manner
pump.
as
was
specified
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
45
CONCLUSION.
113.
as well as
derangements
of
114.
The
engineer,
who is
They
.ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
(PART
2.)
HOT BEARINGS.
CAUSE, PREVENTION,
AND
CUBE.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.
Introduction. Hot bearings are the source of much
anxiety and annoyance to the engineer, besides interfering
very seriously with the proper performance of the engine.
1.
2.
Causes.
of bearings
may
be enumerated as follows
Newly
brasses.
Not enough
oil.
title
page.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
External heat.
Brasses fitted too snugly between collars of journal.
Springing of bedplate.
Springing or shifting of pedestal or pillow-block.
in
should be some means of adjusting the brasses, so as to prevent the shaft having a side movement when they are worn.
it
Watching Bearings.
of large
engines,
every bearing and oil cup; this will require frequent trips
around the engine to examine the oil
cups to ascertain if they
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
and to replenish
While making his
rounds, he should feel with the palm of his hand the brasses
of those bearings that have shown a tendency to heat and
those that are most liable to heat, particularly the crankpins.
oil
the
*.-'.'
6.
Should any of
the
oil
some
soapstone with the oil and feed the mixture into the bearing
through the oil holes, between the brasses, or wherever else
little aqua ammonia introduced into
it can be forced in.
a hot bearing will sometimes check heating by converting
the
into soap
oil
lubricant.
by
Mineral
an excellent
not saponify.
the heat and that they are gripping the journal harder and
harder the hotter they get; at this stage, if the engine is
not stopped or if the heating is not checked, the condition
of the bearing will continue to grow worse as long as the
engine is running, and may become so bad as to slow down
8.
mentioned
The
state of
in
H.
S.
IV,
26
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
may
when
loose,
will ensue.
11.
If it is absolutely
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
12.
of the brasses
soon as possible.
As
it
is
permanently
13.
new
ones.
ment
of this end.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
14.
hooks side by side form a shell or a hard surrubbing parts, and the needle points can no
longer engage with each other, thereby lessening very
greatly the danger of heating by friction and eliminating
of these little
face on
it
tfoe
entirely
when properly
lubricated.
Wearing Down Bearings. The conditions mentioned in Art. 14 exist with new brasses and the journal
of an engine bearing; therefore, if a new engine or one
15.
is run moderately,
in regard to both
speed and load, and with rather loose brasses, until the
needle points are bent over, there will be little danger of
the bearings heating thereafter from this cause if proper
attention
is
familiarly termed -wearing down the bearIngs. The impression generally conveyed by this expression
is that the metal of the brasses and
journal is actually worn
This
is
what
away; such
is
If the
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
33
the brasses
amount
unless
there
enough
alone.
just been
thoroughly overhauled and the journals and brasses of
which have been refitted are liable to heat. The wearing
surfaces of the bearings having been newly worked or
machined, the surface of the metal is in the needle stage,
and, also, the brasses have not yet had a chance to adjust
17.
i.
e., it
loose brasses, until the needle points are bent over and a
shell has been formed on the wearing surfaces, and until
the brasses have accommodated themselves to their sur-
roundings.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
BRASSES SET
18.
When
TIP
32
TOO TIGHTLY.
is
inevitable,
bearings result from this cause than any other, and with less
It is often the case that an attempt is made to stop
excuse.
a thump or a pound in an engine by setting up the brasses
in
some other
way.
19.
The
by setting up the cap nuts or key. Here the experience and judgment of the engineer is called into play to
decide just how much to set up, as it is very easy to overdo
the matter and set up too far, with a hot bearing as the
ever,
result.
when
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
Another method
22.
follows: Fill
in
enough
of
them
on the journal when the cap nuts or keys are set up solid.
Run the engine for a while in that condition and note the
effect then take out a pair of the liners and set up solid
Repeat this operation until the brasses have reached
again.
;
brasses any
more than
is
absolutely necessary.
pair of
BRASSES.
the
as
friction
it
is
should be.
The remedy
will
the
entire
surface,
is
If the distortion
the distortion of the brasses.
not too great, the brasses may be refitted to the journal by chipping, filing, and scraping; but if they are twisted
so much that they cannot, within reasonable limits, be
of
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
10
33
24.
As long
tion
is
coefficient of friction
results.
The way
25.
ing of
that case do not bear fairly or sit squarely in their beds, and
while they appear all right to the eye, they may not be
sit
squarely
itself
must
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
11
26.
this
why some
tain line.
27.
tioned in
FEED STOPPED.
It
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
12
NOT ENOUGH
29.
The
32
OIL,.
effects
is
Of course
degree.
drop of oil at the right time and in the right place is just
as good as a quart injudiciously applied.
steady feed, a
drop at a time, is what a journal requires.
and
how
clear
it
All
looks.
oil
cups,
oil
cans,
and
oil
by means of an
all
danger of bearings
oils will
be elim-
inated.
31.
oils of
is
bad quality
such a great
variety of lubricating oils on the market whose quality cannot be definitively decided upon without an actual trial that
a difficult matter to avoid getting a bad lot of oil someAbout the only safe way to meet this trouble is to
pay a fair price to a reputable dealer for oil that is known
it is
times.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
13
to be of
oils.
OIL,
cool.
33.
so closely that
oil
if
The grooves
it
if
is
the engine
are usually
is
required
care
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
GRIT IN BEARINGS
32
34.
Grit
is
this matter.
The causes
it is
Work done on
down upon
it
all floors
If piles
carelessness in wetting down the ashes and clinkers.
of red-hot clinkers and ashes are deluged with buckets of
ashes and grit that penetrate into every nook and cranny to
which it has access, and it will find its way into the bearings
sooner or
later.
Throwing large quantities of water on the
hot clinkers and ashes should be stopped
sprinkle them
instead and close the fireroom door while the ashes and
clinkers are being hauled or wet down or while the fires are
being cleaned or hauled.
;
open
bits of
As
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
15
between the ends of the brasses and the collars of the journals of every bearing on the engine and kept there while
the engine
37.
is
standing
Bearings are
still.
now
engine.
fit,
the adjust-
39.
other.
40.
There
is
This
is
to
make
it
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
16
larger
if
circumstances permit
it
to be done.
32
If
if
this is
neces-
OVERLOADED ENGINES.
41.
The
effect
is
that for which they were designed, the friction exceeds the
The only thing to do
practical limit and the bearing heats.
to remedy this difficulty is to reduce the load on the engine
to within the
amount
it
was intended
to stand.
42.
surely will.
44.
to heat,
will
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
17
is remedied.
The guides may also heat from other
causes; for instance, the gibs may be set up or lined up too
much. Of course, if such is the case, they should be slacked
defect
end
if
EXTERNAL HEAT.
45.
is
the result.
ment
of the engineer.
47.
If
it
is
hardly pos-
warm up
little
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
18
them
will
to bear
32
will
still
brasses.
The
48.
little off
SPRINGING OF BEDPLATE.
the bedplate of an engine is not rigid enough to
resist the vibration of the moving parts, or if it is sprung
49.
If
way
As a rule, a
engineer to put his strength on the wrench.
nut or bolt should be set up just solid; with very rare exceptions, a sledge hammer should never be used in driving a
wrench, as 3-inch steel bolts have been broken in this way.
It is also very bad
practice to drive a nut up with cold
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
19
The method
and
calls for
engineer.
INTRODUCTION.
51.
Classification.
52. Properties.
The origin of lubricants is not so
important to the engineer as their lubricative properties
solid matter.
//. S.
IV.
27
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
20
32
It should be especially adapted to the conditions as to speed and pressure of the rubbing surfaces on
which it is to be used the question of cost is also a con-
foreign matter.
All first-class lubricants possess these properties to a greater or less degree, and each of them is
adapted to its own particular class of work. They are also
sideration.
all
oil
heaviest journals.
53.
Thick or heavy
oils
Some
oils
of
accurately by either
engineer
in
ordinary engine-room
Even the
questioned and they
practice.
cumstances
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
21
55.
who
is
grease that in his judgment are best suited to the machinery he has in charge, taking care to select light-bodied oils
for
light
machinery and to
grade his
selections
down
have discovered by development and observawhich is the best one for his purpose, and it will then
only be a matter of common sense to hold on to that one
until he has good reasons to believe that he can get a better
one; then, taking the last one as a standard, he might try
another lot of well-recommended samples in the same way as
before, and so on until he finds the best one for his purpose
that the market affords, and at the same time he acquires
valuable experience with lubricants.
It is important, however, that he should confine his experiments to well-known
standard brands of lubricants only, otherwise he will waste
much valuable time without gaining a corresponding benefit,
and when he finds an oil that, after a fair trial, is satisfactory, he should use it and no other.
of oils, he will
tion
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
22
how
learn
to distinguish
32
add very greatly to his general store of engineering knowledge, thereby enhancing the value of his services.
Animal
57.
fats of
are
oil,
FLUID LUBRICANTS.
Animal oils are derived from the
Oils.
animals and
Lard
-whale
oil,
oil,
Of animal
fish.
lu-bricants
porpoise
oils,
oil,
seal
pure lard
oil
it
oil,
shark
sperm
oil.
ward against
chilling to a certain extent, the winter strained oil only should be used when
it is exposed to a temperature sufficiently low to congeal the
ordinary
oil.
Of the fish oils, sperm is the best lubricant, but its scarand high price precludes its general use. It is used,
principally in a refined state, for oiling indicators and other
delicate mechanisms.
Whale and porpoise oils are somecity
oil,
haden
it
it.
Menquickly
eral of
palm
oil.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
The olive oil is probably the leading vegetable oil used for
lubricating machinery, but all the others in the above list
are fairly good for that purpose.
Castor oil and cottonseed
oils are more liable to gum than pure olive oil.
Linseed oil,
either
raw or
oil
is
it
(palm oil)
not a good
lubricant.
PROPERTIES OF MINERAL,
No.'
OILS.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
24
32
purpose
light,
cylinders.
The color of a mineral lubricating oil
is
not always an
61.
Oils.
There is a great variety of
manufactured for all sorts of purposes and
Compounded
compounded
oils
at all prices.
They are, generally speaking, simply made
to sell without regard to merit or value as lubricants.
62.
them by mere
inspection.
There
cost less
is
sold cheaply.
is
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
25
classes,
oils
They
axles of vehicles
cart grease.
of engines.
68.
made by
litmus-paper
test.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
26
32
69.
greases, Nos. 1 to 3
SOLID L.TTBIIICAXTS.
70.
The
mica, metaline.
minimum.
73. Soapstone, sulphur, and mlea, in the form of
powder, are sometimes mixed with oils and greases to
improve their lubricating qualities for heavy and hot
Sheets of mica pressed together and held firmly
journals.
in a casing have been used instead of brasses with fair
success.
74.
said to require
of graphite
the surface of the bearing; it is
no other lubrication.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
27
LUBRICATION.
is
minimum and
another to a
becoming
hot, which,
if
itself in
either
76.
cants for
many
oils
lubri-
oils
oils.
Moreover, animal
them from
boilers entirely
by placing an
efficient
28
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
exhaust
pipe
condenser.
32
or grease used;
efficient at
thoroughly
tual in reducing the friction of a bearing that has suddenly
become heated hence the practice of mixing graphite, flour
sulphur, etc. with the oil to increase its body and lubricative
;
properties.
TESTS OF LUBRICANTS.
APPARATUS.
79.
there
is
very well and assist him greatly in the selection of his lubricants; besides, they have the merit of being within the reach
of every engineer in his ordinary engine-room practice.
80.
The
make
these tests
white glass
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
29
is
neutral.
The
the race of the drops of oil down the inclined plane.
oil that reaches the bottom of the plane last ranks highest in
Of course, this is only a comparative test, but it
viscosity.
will enable the operator to select the oil best adapted to his
purpose from a number of samples. After making a selection, it would be well to try the precipitation test given in
Art. 87 on it for artificial viscosity.
Greases cannot be tested for viscosity in the way
82 ; about the only convenient method
'for the engineer to do this is by rubbing some of the grease
between his fingers and thumb or in the palm of the hand,
noting the result. After some practice he will be able to
83.
described in Art.
84.
oil
that
is
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
30
32
sand until the pan is filled with it; place the pan and contents on a hot stove, over a gas jet, or in any other convenient place for heating it; immerse the bulb end of the
high-grade thermometer in the oil in the cup and watch the
rise in temperature; when it reaches 300
pass a lighted
match slowly across the top of the cup; repeat this every
two or three degrees rise in temperature until the vapor
arising from the oil ignites with a flash, then note the temperature as indicated by the thermometer; it is the flashing point. Continue the test until the oil ignites and burns
on the surface. When that occurs the reading of the thermometer gives the burning point.
85. The Cold Test. Partly fill the metal cup with a
sample of oil place the cup in the pan fill the pan around
the cup with cracked ice mixed with rock salt and sal soda
cover the apparatus over with a piece of bagging or blanket
and keep it covered until the oil in the cup is congealed;
then remove the freezing mixture from the pan and fill the
pan with hot water; when the oil in the cup commences to
melt, immerse the bulb of a thermometer into it and note
;
the temperature
it is
87.
otherwise
it is
pure mineral
oil.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
31
is
rejected.
88.
The presence
be detected by pouring a drop of the susof blackened glass and holding the
glass at various angles to the light; if it shows rainbow
colors, it contains mineral oil.
vegetable
pected
oil
oils
may
89.
AUTOMATIC LUBRICATORS.
CLASSIFICATION.
The
90.
steam engines and similar machinery may, in accordance
with their purpose, be divided into two general classes,
bearing lubricators and steam lubricators.
91.
as
one
intended for, and only applicable to, the lubrication of bearThis class is divided into three subclasses, plain and
ings.
Plain and sightsight-feed lubricators, and grease cups.
feed bearing lubricators are intended and can only be used
for oil;
grease
clips, as implied
built to
use grease.
92.
of the
Steam lubricators
moving parts
in contact
they
may be
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
89
32
containing the oil; the latter being lighter than water floats
on top and overflows into a suitable passage as the water
in the bottom of the reservoir increases.
Hydrostatic
lubricators depend for their operation on the pressure
generated by a head of water furnished by condensation
of steam.
BEARING LUBRICATORS.
93. A plain lubricator is the simplest form of a device
for automatic lubrication it generally takes the f prm shown
;
in Fig.
2.
It consists of
the body a
by
of
is
contained in
over.
device
The advantage
is
its
of
simplicity;
this oiling
the disad-
lubricator.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
94.
oil
generally
A valve
c, which can be locked in any posiby the locknut */,. serves to regulate
The oil enters through
the flow of the oil.
the hole shown in the lower end of the tube b.
The drops of oil issuing from the tube b
show plainly in the sight-feed glass e. The
upper cover has a hole in it through which
the reservoir is filled; a movable cover f
tion
s.
e,
fastened
34
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
a lubricator b
is
from
wristpin.
To
a wiping device d
This carries the wiper e, which
stationary cup
c,
is
adjusted so as
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
97.
in various
35
ways and
either
the cup.
compression grease cup
may be hand-operated or spring-operFig. 6 shows one of the type
named.
By screwing the cap
down by hand over the base, the
ated;
first
grease
forced out.
is
J>
IV.
28
o.
FIG.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
STEAM LUBRICATORS.
99. Mechanical lubricators. Hand-operated mechanical steam lubricators are generally small force pumps connected to a suitable oil reservoir and having the discharge
pipe connected to the main steam pipe close to the throttle.
Their construction and operation is so simple as to require
no description.
known
tomatic
as
lubricator."
It
con-
7.
The
plest
Fig.
8.
a central tube a
filled
is
and
The simshown in
provided with
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
is
as follows:
pipe.
lubri-
valve
B controls
the
of the lubri-
The
receptacle
is
lubricator.
The steam, coming in
contact with the cold surfaces of
the oil and receptacle, condenses.
Since water
is
heavier than
oil,
bulk
steam
pipe.
The
want
of oil or otherwise.
1O3.
To
overcome
the
objections
mentioned
in
of the
steam
Its construc-
is as follows:
A cylindrical receptacle d is provided
with a central tube a communicating with the threaded
shank e and the sight-feed glass A. To fill the receptacle,
tion
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
the cap
means
of the valve B,
opening of which
admits it to the inside
the
the
to
as
glass
A.
coming
in
sight-feed
The
steam,
contact with
the
from
the
latter
drop by drop or
in a thin stream, depending on the position of the
either
regulating valve
is
C.
It
9.
of oil
is
checked.
oil
is
increased.
ant.
By means
the lubricator
may
down
feed, which means that the oil "is discharged downwards in respect to the feed nozzle. These
lubricators are not very reliable in their action, since the
oil is not forced
through the feed nozzle, but only flows
cator uses a
through
it
by gravity.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
39
104. Hydrostatic Lubricators. All water-displacement lubricators belong to the single-connection type,
this meaning that there is only one connection to the steam
pipe and, consequently, that the oil must pass through the
same passage through which the steam is admitted. Hydrostatic lubricators are made in two styles, single-connection
and double-connection. In a double-connection lubricator
there are two connecting pipes to the steam- pipe, the steam
being admitted through one pipe and the
lubricator through the other.
is
105.
shown
A typical
oil
leaving the
The
latter flows
106.
water
There
in the
D\
off
from the
a drain cock
is
oil
reservoir
by closing the
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
40
The
unscrewed.
A small
valve
when
is
the
filling
plug
FIG.
is
E works
is
is
unscrewed
10.
drops
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
To
1O7.
to stop
41
it,
To drain the
rarely be disturbed.
lubricator while steam is on the pipe into which it delivers,
and S being open, open G. When not
close the valve D, and
when once adjusted need
filler
plug
O and
double-connection lubricator
of
glass
sight-feed
through the pipe h
and
and
1O9.
cator,
To
close
fill
the lubri-
the valve
k^
shown
in
mode of attachment to
denser a has
is
open G.
FIG.
11.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
42
32
remove
valve
shut
filler
/,
fill
it off
i.
11O.
the condenser
feed
valve
oil.
The regulating
glass c.
i controls the flow of the
At j
bricator
is
cator
may
sired.
When
By means
b.
^and
//,
be shut off
the lubri-
when
de-
first
FIG.
filled
12.
nearly up to
into the
bottom
d.
of the lubricator,
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
43
densed by coming into contact with the relatively cool surfaces of the condenser the latter is made large in order to
;
111.
when
the throttle
is
closed.
'ENGINE INSTALLATION.
COMPARISON OF TYPES OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES.
VERTICAL VERSUS HORIZONTAL ENGINES.
Uses of Vertical Engines.
1.
The
inverted vertical
engine
that
is,
running engines.
2.
Controlling: Features.
The
engine are
The
first
title
page.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
of great magnitude;
always problematical, even with the
most carefully planned constructions. This bad feature
of the horizontal engine is entirely overcome by making the
engine vertical the weight of the piston is then borne by
the speed
is
3.
Many
4.
engine
is
much more
inaccessible than
The
vertical
the horizontal
when the
shaft is raised
inch.
The vertical engine
on an average about 12 per cent, more than the
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
horizontal engine.
same degree of care and attention that the horizontal machine will, owing to its inaccessibility and the
labor and exertion required to reach its various parts. This
receive the
it is so,
nevertheless.
Comparison of Headroom.
The
vertical
engine
many
practical
verti-
cal engine.
It is the cheaper engine, is much more accessible for repairs, oiling, and inspection, and can be cared for
The
horizontal engine
concentrate as
and where
it
is
desirable to
in as small a space as
making
of engine.
water pockets,
its
economy
if
will fall
the latter
is
of the four-valve
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
this is
due to
is
and
is
counteracted
made
made
compound,
in
ing-mill service.
There are
two
engine, usually
vacuum
pots, weights,
sufficient
means.
springs,
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
11.
The
engine.
may
12.
Economy
The
economy
of
one-valve positive
usually run at as high speeds as the
The four-valve positive autoautomatic cut-off engine.
is somewhat more expensive than the
matic cut-off
engine
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
more
The
13.
14. Comparison of Throttling and Automatic CutOff Engines. The simple throttling engine is the oldest
type of engine and is probably the least used at the present
time.
Its strongest claim to existence is simplicity, and
for many purposes and locations the claim is strong.
It is
much less economical than the automatic cut-off engine, is
usually built for slower speeds, and generally there is not
much attention paid to the features conducive to economy.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
There
16.
Meyer valve
is
engine,
17.
engi-
neering problems, the problems relating to the use of compound engines resolve themselves chiefly into problems of
The cost of fuel and amount of power required
finance.
are leading factors in determining the use of compound
engines, generally speaking.
When
is
18.
As
it
becomes more
important to compound, for the reason that a 1,000-horsepower engine does not cost five times as much as a
200-horsepower engine of similar design and construction.
When
H. S.
IV.
29
is
low,
compounding becomes
of less
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
importance, and
variable load
20.
minimum.
Steam Consumption.
good four-valve
auto-
steam
hour.
A good
of-
if
sup-
engines.
21.
Factors to be Considered.
simple versus
compound engines
is
33
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
The cylinders are arranged sometimes with the high-pressure cylinder behind and sometimes with the low-pressure
Both arrangements have their advancylinder behind.
will
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
10
33
23.
principal objection to the tandem engine is the inaccessibility of the cylinders and pistons for inspection or -repair.
The cylinders are also liable to get out of alinement if not
The
making
ders.
a heavy cast-iron sole plate extend under both cylinfront cylinder should be securely bolted to this
The
move
24:.
This
The eco-
make
The
frictional resist-
ances of pistons and rods should be the same with both, but
in the tandem compound
they are much more liable to
increase in time, due to its greater liability to get out of
The valve-gear resistances should be practically
the same in both types, but usually are slightly in favor of
alinement.
and duration
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
The
26.
of the
11
two types
same economical
6
engine requires a wheel about l T times heavier than a crossff
engine.
This, in turn, requires a larger and
heavier shaft and bearings and means an increased velocity
compound
o
oil;
in this
27.
Comparison of
Cost.
cost;
if
this,
its
however,
is
carefully investigated,
service,
give the
no appreciable difference.
29.
With
equal elaboration to secure smoothness of running, and comparing condensing engines, the tandem engine will generally
The reason for this is seen when it is considered that
excel.
compression is the main factor tending to secure smoothness
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
12
33
all
journals.
To prevent
this,
reciprocating parts.
valve-gear engines.
Purpose
of Duplex
Reversible
Engines.
it is
similar in
this
expected to grow and expand often the exact expansion cannot be predicted with certainty. While a certain amount of
surplus power can be provided for in installing the original
;
33
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
13
If conditions so
original engine
s
it
der, as
fuel by
The
33. Comparison of Mechanical Efficiencies.
mechanical efficiency of the simple engine of equal power
compared with the duplex should be a little higher. There
should be no appreciable difference in the economical
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
14
33
moment
necessarily a heavier shaft and larger bearings; this operates to reduce the mechanical efficiency of the simple
engine.
minimum
Classification.
The
line of
demarcation between
when considered
in connection with the number of revolutions per minute, assigns them to the class in which
they
This characteristic is the manner in which regulabelong.
tion
is
secured.
engines,
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
15
machine.
36.
engines often
be carefully watched.
37.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
16
33
fitted,
to some extent on highspeed engines, but the result has not been altogether encouraging, and in several instances they have been absolute
move them.
engine.
39.
Effects of
first
cost of
The
neces-
high-speed
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
17
the stroke must be shortened, which results in a high percentage of clearance volume the frequency with which this
clearance volume or part of it is filled with fresh steam
;
affects the
economy
some
extent.
that
its
speed
engine
speed.
is
much
The
is
Jjubrlcation.
lubrication,
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
18
33
This
the excess, great wastes may result in this direction.
provided against to a great extent by providing splashers,
is
it
is
and automatically returned to the bearings. In this socalled return system, a liberal stream or several streams of
oil are kept running upon the bearing surfaces.
43. Accessibility of High-Speed Engines. From the
compact, rigid nature of the design of high-speed engines,
they are not as accessible as the slow-running machine, but
it cannot be argued that they are particularly difficult of
access.
44.
Owing
the velocity of the center of inertia, the wheels for highspeed engines can be made very much lighter and still obtain
the same degree of unsteadiness as in the slow-running
45.
much
less.
One
of
the elements in
high-speed engines that, no doubt, contributes much to the economy of the machine is the little
time allowed for initial condensation of each charge of steam
and for the changes in temperature preceding each charge
some of the single-acting very quick-running engines have
met with not a little success, their designers attributing it
;
that
the
engines, and
vital
many
importance
in
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
19
little
slow speed.
46.
Savings
engine has
its
it
the
common
range of power
is
it is
48. Economy of Slow-Speed Engine's. The slowspeed engine, which at the present time is almost invariably
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
20
33
engine.
49.
The
slow-
speed engine is much the larger, heavier, and more expensive machine, and usually costs lys times as much as the
The foundations are
high-speed engine of equal power.
also more expensive, but the boiler capacity need not be so
in efficiency.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
50.
21
The
apparent by constant breakage and short life, was soon recognized, and moderate speeds of about 90 to' 100 or 110 revolutions per minute were returned to.
These speeds are
now seldom exceeded, and somewhat slower speeds are advised
when long life and immunity from accidents are desired.
Reducing the rotative speed of direct-connected engines
operates to increase the diameter of the armature or revolving field of the electrical generator, a-nd this, in turn,
increases the first cost of the unit it is here that the highspeed engine obtains its grip in the solution of the problem;
;
but after passing a very moderate power, say 200 to 300 horsepower, the item of economy becomes of such magnitude that
the more economical and more expensive slow-running unit
establishes its ultimate value to the engineer or purchaser.
51.
Where
the high-
speed engine has 'its disadvantages, corresponding advantages may be found in the slow-running engine, and vice
versa; slow-speed engines besides being much more economical do not require the close attention demanded of
more
equal
of
they require very heavy wheels for the same degree
unsteadiness.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
22
33
SELECTION OF ENGINES.
INTRODUCTION.
52. The problem of selecting an engine for a specified
service is one demanding all the skill, experience, and forethought of the constructing engineer, for on it rests one of
the vital and constant items of expenditure of the indusThe elements
try of which it forms so important a part.
determining the selection of an engine may be briefly mentioned here as the influence of the kind of service, the location, first cost, cost of fuel delivered at the boilers,
steam
consideration.
KIND OF SERVICE.
53. Self-Selecting Service. Evidently the service to
which an engine shall be put is the first determining element in the selection of an engine. In many cases the kind
of service at once determines the general type of machine,
as,
for instance,
tive,
and
which the type is not self-selecting. The serbe divided into continuous running with uniform
load, continuous running ivit/i variable load, continuous run-
however,
vice
ning
in
may
until
to gro^uth,
and
intermittent running.
54.
When
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
23
available
maximum
efficiency
economy
demanded
poses, the
on the engine.
56.
I*>ail.
For
H.
S.
IV.
30
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
24
if
33
condensing water
demand
for
power
be the choice.
57. Continuous Running With Uniform But Increasing Load. For continuous running with a uniform load,
which is expected to be increased, however, through extension of the business, we turn naturally to the simple non-condensing engine of high or low grade, depending on the cost
of fuel, and arrange to make it into a duplex engine, a condensing engine, or a compound condensing engine,
if
water
available, as
demands
are
account of the high pressure required to successfully operIn the absence of condensing
ate this type of machine.
water, the increased power could be most easily and inexpensively provided by
there
Intermittent Running.
58.
is
much
among
of engine.
One of the most
ing element of considerable weight.
familiar examples of intermittent running is the hoisting
In the coal fields we find the simplest types of
engine.
engines with no pretence at economy, while in the Northwestern copper-mining district we find the most elaborate
triple-expansion hoisting engines working with 185 pounds
steam pressure.
Africa
it is
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
25
is
favor will result in intermittent work, and it must be conis reason in the contention.
59.
The problem
classes of
investment even though the extra expense of providing coolIf the power
ing towers for condensing water be added.
required is small, the high-grade engine is very seldom or
never used, even though the cost of fuel be large. For
reversing rolling-mill service, the simplest and strongest type
engine is used, the high-grade or multiple-expansion
engine seldom being used.
of
plant.
is
chosen.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
26
33
is
required.
62.
INFLUENCE OF LOCATION.
The influence of location must be
Fuel Cost.
con-
ence.
cost,
It
it
is
is
fuel
cost,
63.
Cost of Transportation.
The
cost of transporta-
speed engine.
to location,
is
districts,
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
27
through dangerous and difficult mountain passes. The simplest types of engines working without expansion and ingeniously divided into a number of parts determined by the
size of the machine are
usually chosen for these locations.
Even here the item of fuel cost enters, which, with perhaps
evpn the water supply, must also be transported in a similar manner as the engine parts; hence,
high-grade engines
working expansively have sometimes been chosen. It is
almost needless to say that the first cost of such an engine is
quite high, and that it taxes the skill of the designer and
builder to the utmost to produce it.
64.
Existing Conditions.
65.
to enter
first
against which
weighed.
all
Whether
of
first
cost
may
prevail
but, on
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
28
33
able
installation economically, it will generally be a wise investment to install the high-grade slow-running engine, taking
advantage of water for condensation if possible and compounding if available steam pressures are not too low for
good results.
66.
an engine
the
selection of
by
Introdxtctlon.
is
that for special services and extraordinary locations and conditions, special engines must be designed to meet the condition, and to a great extent regardless of first cost or the
cost of fuel.
These are special cases and are almost self-
solving.
67. Cheap Fuel. When fuel is cheap and, as is sometimes the case, must be burned to dispose of it, an engine low
in first cost will be the natural choice.
This feature should
be combined with simplicity, and the engine should be of
such design as to require as little attention as possible, since
where cost of fuel is of little or no consequence, the whole
steam plant is liable to be neglected or left to care for itself,
In this case, one of the singleparticularly the engine.
acting vertical enclosed-crank type of engine or some similar
simple engine would be the natural selection.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
The extent
29
depends on the
one
to
active
is
sometimes practiced, as
is
also
69.
If
vacuum
of not less
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
30
is
33
the steam.
All other
is
somewhat expensive
much exceeding
in coal-mining districts
have found
a paying investment to
fuel
71.
is
controlling
single-cylinder or multiple-expansion.
Generally the steam
pressure should be 100 pounds gauge pressure for effective
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
31
foj"
both pumping
machinery and
By
duration of service
machinery
is
is
often
meant the
life
of
to
distant
localities
return, for
vided against.
it
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
32
33
provided.
many
75.
trollable,
periods,
and possibly
33
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
selection of
28 pounds of water at 70
1
pound of steam
at 19
The
duplex engine is an excellent and efficient means of increasing power, as is also compounding by adding a low-pressure
cylinder if condensing is practicable, even at the expense of
a cooling tower. Another means of increasing the power
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
34
77.
33
usually
that the delivery water, which the air pump delivers to the top
of the tower, in its descent is divided into the
greatest possible number of sprays or films an artificial current of air traverses the surface of the
water, extracting the heat from it and
;
rendering
it
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
35
condenser
is
all
is a problem not only demanding large experience and most careful study of the details, but it also
demands a broad and comprehensive investigation regardThe conclusion to put in one large
ing future conditions.
70.
scheme
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
36
33
ENGINE FOUNDATIONS.
One of the
80. Purpose of Engine Foundations.
most important items in the installation- of engines is to
provide a suitable foundation, not only in order to rigidly
support the machine, but also to absorb the jars and shocks
due to its reciprocating motion, because if these are not
absorbed, it will result in injury to the engine in question
and also to adjacent property, such as other foundations,
walls, and structures of any kind resting on the adjacent
soil.
81.
Supporting Power of
Soils.
The foundation,
82.
Depth, of Foundations.
The depth
of a founda-
than 4
83.
Absorption of Vibrations.
High-speed engines
is
type very
used to balance the reciprocating
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
37
for
Vertical
84. Foundation
Cross-Compound
Engine. In a vertical two-crank high-speed engine having the cranks placed opposite each other, the vertical
forces act to vibrate the machine in a vertical plane parallel
Such foundations should be designed
to the crank-shaft.
engine
much
power
through
capstones
hole to the edge of the stone for a 1-inch bolt and 10 inches
There should be 4 to 8 inches of masonry
for a 3-inch bolt.
outside the capstone, and if the sides are carried down
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
in
straight, sufficient bearing area will be covered, except
Vertical engines, owing to the small
cases of alluvial soil.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
39
the sides
are constructed
tom.
boiler tubes, or
around the bolt successive layers of cement conthrown in and well rammed until the desired
1 inch all
crete are
height
is
pipes, old
of at least
reached.
but
tion
it is
considered objectionable, as it prevents any connecthe superstructure and the concrete and
between
U.
6'.
IV.
31
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
40
33
// / UJ
pile 7 inches in
88.
When
rock
is
An underlying
been tried with
questionable success; a layer of 2 or 3 feet of sand constained laterally by a casing to prevent displacement has
proved quite effective. The sand is also filled in around the
to prevent vibration must be constructed.
stratum of timber or rubble or of both has
heavy layer
of asphalt
is
89.
Capstones.
is built.
These are
usually require capstones to make a good job.
usually granite and vary in thickness from 8 to 24 inches.
Concrete foundations usually require no capstones.
of
Instead
They
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
41
to keep
the,
oil
it
will dissolve
cement.
it.
in
in the
largest
in
types of land
engines.
92.
such cases
it
is
the
best
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
washers
is
33
Tap
Mefor gyefo/f
Wrought/ran Hashes
lifting
lowering the
bolt
or
in
place.
In large work
quite important to
have the foundation
93.
it is
^/nrer/Edft/an of washer.
3.
94.
With many
of
stones are leveled and grouted, they lay off the holes from the
castings and drill holes for the bolts with a diamond drill.
With
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
them
while the
them
43
in position
masonry
is
it is marked the center line of the crankSuitable marks and dowels to facilitate putting it
together, if of such dimensions that it is necessary to ship it
at right angles to
shaft.
parties.
generally
but there
it
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
44
33
an axis
do
position and the correct levels, the only remaining thing to
to set the center line of the crank-shaft parallel to the
is
of the engine
with grouting.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
99.
Grouting.
45
of iron bor-
cement.
The
must be driven
rust joint
will
structed to constrain
in,
dams being
flow
in,
suitable
to
its
proper place.
it
con-
Bolt holes
adjustment.
for vertical
A SERIES
OP
TREATED OF
IN THIS
VOLUME.
refer.
No
number
as the
engine cylinder.
(2)
What
What
is
of
an engine
(4)
(5)
(3)
if
there
is
What
is
Is
it
when
slide valve
operated
Define lead.
(13)
With an ordinary
ning under,
crank ?
(14)
How
is
slide valve and an engine runthe eccentric set behind or ahead of the
823
23
How
(16)
affect
What
(17)
valve
the connecting-rod
compression
(18)
State in your
14*
(20)
In a 36*
28* engine
moved over
piston has
44*
minute.
should be used
j
I
What
Steam pipe
Exhaust pipe
=
=
18
in.
22
in.
THE INDICATOR
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
(1)
(2)
What
What
What
is
a reducing motion
is
In Fig.
diagram may
U IV 40
inches.
Ans. 5
(6)
What
(7)
What
in.
is
the
vacuum
line
and how
is
its
position
(10)
If
to be doing
remedied
24
THE INDICATOR.
(11)
(a)
How is
the
amount
?
(b)
24
of compression influenced
What
by
(a)
What
faults in
I,
which
FIG.
engine
(b)
How may
(14)
I.
diagrams shown
in Fig. II.
(15)
Why does the actual expansion line generally rise
above the theoretical expansion line near the end of the
stroke
THE INDICATOR.
24
due
(18)
(a)
(b)
To what
Expansion
Criticize the
are
wavy
lines that
on a diagram generally
drop by a series of steps ?
lines
diagrams shown
in Fig. III.
FIG. in.
FIG. IV.
(21)
Criticize the
diagrams shown
in Fig.
IV.
ENGINE TESTING.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
(1)
Define
adiabatic
(a)
expansion;
(b}
isothermal ex-
pansion.
Why
steam when
gas
is
it
(4)
.45.6
by the piston at each stroke is 6.3 cubic feet, (a] how much
work is done at each stroke ? (b} The engine makes
76 strokes per minute; what horsepower does it develop ?
3'
(5)
What
gram and
(b}
is
(a)
how
the
is it
mean
found
'
An*5<
'
( ?)
-!
25
//.
5.
IV.
32
(6)
in>
ENGINE TESTING.
25
When
170.8.
I.
(10)
how may
3>
'
(b}
306.98.
(a)
16 inches?
AnS
((a)
'l()
What
(17)
engine
is
37.013.
592.2.
of
an
ENGINE TESTING.
25
(19)
is
running at 350 revolutions per minute, the weight
241 pounds and the spring balance A indicates 10 pounds.
What horsepower is developed ?
Ans. 30.78 H. P.
(22)
bn
like
diagram
Fig.
.02 inch,
19:
On
am =
.36 inch,
Ow = 3Al inches,
= 3.25 inches. The
.7Q inch,
and eh
hour.
(23)
diagram
am=.7l
per
I.
Ib.
The
H.
P. per
hour
What
is
GOVERNORS.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
Explain how the flywheel aids the governor in taking
(1)
care of sudden changes in the load.
What
governor
is
sensitiveness of a
(6)
(a) Why does a spring-loaded governor act more
quickly than a weighted-pendulum governor, and (/>) why is
it less apt to hunt or race ?
(7)
If
the eccentric
is
shifted
at
maximum
port opening
How
same
McEwen
engine,
in adjusting the
assist
GOVERNORS.
How
(11)
26
if it is
desired
Why
How
(13)
Why
(14)
hunt
Ans.
pendulum governor.
Why
(16)
is it
(17)
of
a simple
pendulum governor,
(19)
ernor
self-locking gov-
VALVE GEARS.
(PART
1.)
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
(2)
What
What
(3)
(1)
Gonzenbach expan-
sion valve.
In what position relative to the crank are the eccenMeyer cut-off valve ?
(4)
is
non-
slide
If
(5)
adjustable,
(6)
valve
when used
(7)
What advantages
engine
What
(10)
is
VALVE GEARS.
2
If
(12)
2?
work?
Explain the necessity of lead and lap on Corliss
(13)
valves.
Why
(14)
two eccentrics
made with
at one
The rocker-arm
(19)
valve
(20)
is
Why
On an
engine using the Meyer cut-off valve, admission occurs too early on the crank end, but is correct on the
head end. What must be done in order that admission may
occur at the correct time at both ends of the cylinder ?
(21)
VALVE GEARS.
(PART
2.)
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
When
(1)
adjustable
is
used,
is
the cut-off
(3)
crossed,
rods
If
(4)
is
If
how
is
is
shifted towards
(7)
Why
is
is
in
Can the
the lead
Why
is
(8)
how
little
used on auto-
VALVE GEARS.
2
(11)
(a)
Why
be obtained with
What
(13)
(a)
28
Is it generally possible to
an
and equal
more lead
one
stem.
How
will
the
lead be affected
if
when the
link
is
(b) if
&
Seymour valve
on the motion
gear,
what
of the valves
is
CONDENSERS.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
Why is
(1)
a condenser
What
(2)
condenser
that a perfect
is
pump
attached to a
condenser and
is
liable to hap-
(6)
(7)
If
only sure
tight
.
in
(3)
jet
it
(8)
way
in
In a siphon condenser,
What
how
is
the
vacuum formed
CONDENSERS.
29
is impure, what
(a) If the supply of injection water
(12)
type of condenser should be used ? (b) Why ?
(13)
(a)
face condenser
What
(14)
(b)
What
some
are
What
Where a
(17)
(a)
is
surface condenser
(16)
of the
is
surface condenser
is used, why is it objectionable to take feedwater from the circulating side of the
condenser to supply that lost by leakage, blowing-off etc. ?
,
condensers
(c)
What
?
(b)
How may
(18)
tubes
(a)
?
tected
(b}
is
What
(a)
condenser
How
How may
(20)
(21)
(23)
split
packings be detected
(22)
for
How
the tube-sheets
inside
good composition
(19)
denser
is
leaky tube
How
What
is
and outside
On what
principle do
all
(27)
(a)
warm water
(b)
falling
Which has
the
CONDENSERS.
29
(28)
densing water.
If the valves of a
(29)
circulating pump which is driven
from the main engine slam on account of too little water
being pumped, how may the slamming be stopped ?
The temperature
is
55
(34)
The exhaust
it
is
(35)
In
obtained
practice
about
COMPOUND ENGINES.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
Mention some
(1)
of the mechanical
single-cylinder engine of
equal power.
Why
(2)
used
in a single cylinder
State briefly
(3)
why the division of the temperature
range between several cylinders tends to reduce cylinder
condensation.
Is it probable that the steam condensed in the high(4)
pressure cylinder does any work in the low-pressure cylinder ?
(a)
(5)
steadiness, a
engine
(b)
Why
Briefly distinguish
(7)
Explain
why
a receiver
is
Mention some
&
Sons.
30
by John Musgrave
COMPOUND ENGINES.
(10)
What
(11)
of the
steam
that* enters it
drop
30
the term
"
"
drop
when
in a receiver
on the quality
How
How may
(14)
If
is
What
by changing the
have on the relative
raised
Why
(16)
receiver
is
(17)
(a) In a cross-compound engine having duplicate
piston rods, connecting-rods, crankpins, and crossheads, the
power developed by the two cylinders is the same. Will
Why?
(18)
In practice
how
is it
(19)
(a) What is the object of the steam jacket ?
(b) Will
anything be gained by using a steam jacket when superheated steam is used ? (c] Why ?
(a)
What
is
a reheater
(b)
What
is its
purpose
(23)
If
a reheater
is
why
is
it
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
(24)
(a) To what is the ratio of expansion of a multipleexpansion engine equal ? (b) Does the volume of the intermediate cylinders affect this ratio ?
The
What
Ans.
In what two ways
(26)
may
12.
Ans.
11.
Estimate the probable horsepower of a triple-expansion engine having cylinder diameters of 15, 26, and 39 inches.
The common stroke is 24 inches and the speed is 180 revoluThe boiler pressure is 180 pounds, the
tions per minute.
engine is condensing and is fitted with slide valves.
Ans. 511 H. P.
(28)
//.
S.
IV. -33
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
(PART
1.)
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
Explain how water hammer is caused by suddenly
(1)
opening a stop-valve or throttle valve and allowing steam
to enter a cold steam pipe or cylinder.
(2)
What
steam pipe
(3)
How
(5)
how may
From what
is it
easiest to start
a horizontal engine ?
In starting a slide-valve non-condensing
(7)
why should the throttle be opened quickly ?
engine,
(8)
If
a cracking noise
after starting,
what
is
31
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
pumps
is
fitted
Why
Describe briefly the manner of starting a slideis fitted with a surface con-
(12)
(13)
(a) Why must the injection valve of a jet condenser
be opened at the same moment that the engine is started ?
"
hot," how may it be started ?
(b) If the condenser gets
(14)
(a)
purpose
(15)
What
is
what
is its
engine.
How
receiver of a
is
will too
cylinder of a
compound engine
(19)
(a) For what class of compound condensing engines
the use of an independent vacuum engine particularly
advantageous
If a
(20)
cut-off gear,
engine
is
(b}
Why
reversible engine
how should
stopped
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
cylinder
Why
(b)
is
this
done
How may
(28)
ter lines of
plane
it
(29)
ing in
(30)
What
engines
is
How may
Why
breakdown
is
(33)
(b)
(a)
compression
may
cause an
(34)
In case
it is
its
pounding, how
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
(PART
2.)
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
(1)
What
bearings
it
(If)
are the
arguments
adjustable bearings
for
and against
What
bearings
is
(a) solid
how should
engine
(5)
What
is
"
?
replaced
(7)
(b]
(a)
How
(8)
(9)
(10)
May
loose
brasses cause a
bearing
to
heat
bearings
heating of
and
(11)
(a) Explain why brasses that have been quickly
excessively heated are liable to pinch the journal near their
edges.
() How may this be prevented ?
32
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
How
(12)
or dirty
oil
(13)
(a)
(&)
Why ?
Why is
(18)
On what
(19)
Mention some
(20)
(22)
(a)
how
good
lubricative qualities of an
gravity or its viscosity ?
What
?
is
What
(I)}
What
is
oil
for
oil
always be
(b}
Why
(24)
(25)
lubricating
the sources
are
Why
oil
How
How
its specific
(a)
machinery
(b)
Can the
(a)
(21)
little side
oil.
lubricating
judged by
becoming hot
Why
pressure
(27)
How
lubricating power of an
>
(28)
How may
approximately judged
(29)
What
is
oil
meant by the
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
it
(33)
(a)
lubricator,
lubricator
engine
(35)
(a)
(b]
be divided
Why
(b)
static lubricator
(36)
(a)
What
is
On what
depend
may steam
lubricators
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
(1)
(a)
What
are the
two
Why
as
If
(a)
to give
fairly
(5)
(b)
pound engines
should be considered
(7)
What
pound engines
(8)
Explain
What
is
tandem com-
why
compound engine
compound engine
(9)
is
is
of equal power.
33
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
Why
(10)
33
(11)
of high-speed engines.
(a) What two forms of valves are principally used
(12)
on high-speed engines ? (b} What are their relative advantages and disadvantages ?
consumption.
high-speed
(a)
What
is
Why
(20)
selected
but
is
is
business
What
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
superheated steam
If
(22)
(23)
What
(24)
Mention some
number
is
is
economy
manufacturing plant.
How
made
(a)
?
on the upper
(b)
What
What
How
(28)
where
is
it is
a sufficiently hard
What
called for
(30)
and held
is
How
A KEY
TO ALL THE
IN
THE
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
INCLUDED
IN THIS
VOLUME.
The Keys that follow have been divided into sections corresponding to the Examination Questions to which they
refer, and have been given corresponding section numbers.
The answers and solutions have been numbered to correspond with the questions. When the answer to a question
involves a repetition of statements given in the Instruction
Paper, the reader has been referred to a numbered article,
the reading of which will enable him to answer the question
himself.
in this
See Art. 4.
crank-shaft.
The
(2)
The
(3)
bearings.
cylinder with
(4)
when considered
as a whole,
is
Art. 6.
See Art. 7.
The diameter
the eccentric
(7)
By
is
outside lap
is
outsioje
edge of the valve projects beyond the edge of the steam port
when in mid-position; by inside lap is meant the amount
that the inside edge of the valve projects beyond the edge
See Art. 15,
of the steam port when in mid-position.
23
H. S
IV.
34
(8)
No.
(9)
The angle
tion
23
the eccentric radius makes with the posiif the valve had neither outside lap nor
would occupy
See Art. 2O.
it
lead.
The exhaust
(11)
earlier.
Lead
(12)
the piston
is
is
when
at the
using a rocker-arm.
(14)
By
(15)
No.
the crank.
X
.
(17)
To
(18)
(19)
= 4,310 cubic
X 100 =
5 -?3 per cent.
.7854
247
is
See Arts.
28
inches.
Jlmj
The apparent
Applying
rule
be
100
(21)
(22)
-j-
The
,
id
1, Art.
= 30.27
55, we
fin
is
find
per cent.
= 35
Since the
per cent.
Ans.
1
ratio of expansion,
14
is
Ans.
cut-off
piston
the, clearance
Then,
01 v*
(20)
42 and 43.
by Art. 56,
is
f\f\
^-Z7 = Ans.
2.76.
06.
23
away from
The points
it,
of release
In case the
all, but the port opening will be greater.
port was opened originally its full width, the port opening
obviously cannot be greater now than the width of the
at
o.
(23)
minute.
inches,
we
7854
1>52
1>00
steam
pipe.
18 inches, nearly.
By applying
rule 3, Art.
67,
get
1.880
1,000
4,000
as the area of the exhaust pipe.
is
\ /-||TT
y 7oo4
= 22
in
'
nearly.
Apply-
THE INDICATOR.
(1)
The
About equal
to one-half
See
Art. 3.
the diagram.
Art. 19,
(5)
By
(6)
See that
it is
F= 4
5 in.
Ans.
The joints
lash
enough to
that there is no backSee Art. 27.
THE INDICATOR.
24
and compression
Cut-off, release,
(b)
will
be
See
later.
Art. 36.
of the valve stem so as to make
occur earlier on the end doing the greater
amount of work. See Art. 44.
(10)
the cut-off
(11)
(a)
needed.
9
y ^ the
(jb)
initial
is
ff
(12)
(a) There is probably some restriction in the steam
See
passage leading from the boiler to the cylinder.
Art. 56.
The
(/>)
is
See
prevented.
Art. 57.
The
(c)
off.
(13)
(a)
late.
is
The rounding
(14)
all
too
also excessive.
make
the
(1C)
it
there
(b)
is
To
when
24
(18)
THE INDICATOR.
Compression
is
too
early on
is
it
leaks
in.
ENGINE TESTING.
When a
(a)
(1)
added to
it
be adiabatic.
See Art. 7.
(b)
When
(2)
The work
ll t
See Art.
the same.
is
(3)
of
it
will
Art. 17.
(a)
(4)
W
(b)
By
rule 1, Art.
144 P V =
144
45. 6
6.
is
41, 368. 32
ft. -Ib.
Ans.
95.27 H. P.
00,01)1)
(5)
(a)
The mean
the average of
Art. 24.
is
(b)
length.
all
Ans.
ordinate
It is
ENGINE TESTING.
25
(6)
1x2
2 cubic feet.
in cubic
volume of cylinder
-e
j.
length of card
See Art. 21.
Work
(b]
scale
144
stroke
per
32,400
scale
vertical
ft.-lb.
feet
cu.
per
ft.
inches
of
in.
Ans.
area X horizontal
piston
work
or
6.75 X f X 50
144
Ans.
H.
P.
The approximate
25.6
176.8
100
net
151.2.
H. P.
The
I.
151.2
85.5 per cent.
inf.
17b. o
H.
efficiency
P.
friction
by rule 2
Ans.
X
|4I
o. lo
50
43.65
Ib.
per
sq. in.,
M. E.
P.
Ans.
From
table, Art.
jj
46, 75
+ 14. 7 = 80.
cut-off
is .904,
7.
and
ENGINE TESTING.
25
.904
(81.1
(13)
ton in
Piston speed
minute.
rule 5, Art.
P.
is
(a)
1
M. E.
By
(b)
48, 5
?i2|l??
= 720
ft.
per min.
Ans.
(15)
area
and
The length L
(a)
of the stroke
is f-|
2 feet
the
_
~ f|X
254.
we have
47X185X2
33,000
(b)
have
I.
=
=
of stroke is
60
length
(16)
(a) Scale of spring s
24" X .7854
452.39 square
of piston
3 feet; area
of working strokes is 2 X 150
inches, and the number
ff
is 20.
Sub-
60X3X452.39X300
33,000
(b)
The
I.
H.
P.
20
37.013
16
592.2.
Ans.
See
Art. 56.
(17)
tion
(18)
= 260
The
_.
pounds.
of absorp-
= 274.5 14.5
pressure on the scale
Substituting, in rule 11, Art. 61, we have
net
33,000
Ans
ENGINE TESTING.
The
(19)
lever
arm
10
net pull is 241
Art. 61, we have
H. P.
=' n
in this case is
= 231
V48
'
25
=2
feet
and the
pounds.
*'*
By
then at release.
(22)
Length
of stroke
length of diagram
o. /vD
Om
3.41
Area
ume
of
.51
of 27.9
The M.
The
I.
H.
E. P.
*'
45
3*5
X
33.37
P. is
If
= 33.37
X. 7854X160X2
X
16^
-
hour
pounds.
33,000
.1*8217X160X2X60 =
10O.4:
^^
P. per
^^ ^
ENGINE TESTING.
25
(23)
The pressure
The weight
absolute.
at
of
Q=
37.5
3.36
50
is
a cubic
.71
Using rule
27 79 lb Per
'
35.5
pounds,
foot of steam
'
12,
H R
"
at
this
we have
Per hr
"
Ans.
GOVERNORS.
When the turning effect on the crank is greater than
(1)
the average resistance, part of the energy is absorbed in
increasing the speed of the flywheel; but when the turning
effect is less than the average resistance, the flywheel gives
up part of its energy and thus tends to keep the speed constant until the governor has time to act.
See Art. 2.
is
When
for a given
increased.
(G)
(a) The small forces acting on the weight of a
weighted-pendulum governor require some time to over-
come the
GOVERNORS.
the governor
is
26
The maximum
(7)
port opening
is
As
(a)
(8)
(b)
is
in the lead as
This
the cut-off becomes earlier, to prevent wiredrawing.
method of suspension has the disadvantage of tending to
permit the engine to run away when the load
See Art. 25.
off.
is
suddenly
thrown
may
be.
of the bar
(11)
By connecting
from the
inertia bar
the eccentric to an
manner that
its
arm separate
arm to the
this
direction of rotation,
will
(13)
By
GOVERNORS.
26
when
Applying rule
(15)
D^
80
1, Art.
4O, we have
5.55
= 5^
in.
in.,
Ans.
nearly.
nor
is
is
become
See Art. 42.
liable
enough.
to
to be
too
or
not
sensitive
and 39.
(18)
lighter.
See rule 4,
Art. 5O.
of the
(20)
advance
(21)
The
is
increased.
The
ratio
is
of
the
springs
By proportioning
(22)
will increase slower than the centrifugal force of the weights.
H.
S.
IV -35
VALVE GEARS.
(PART
1.)
(1)
and poppet
valves.
See
Art. 8.
(2)
To
the points
Art. 9.
-|-
eccentric, until the edge of the cut-off valve just closes the
passage of the main valve that is open to the cylinder; then
See Art. 15.
fasten the eccentric.
(6)
The
plain
drive
it,
eccentric,
is
RW
VALVE GEARS.
cut-offs,
27
If
the valve
is
given
See Arts.
2O and
21.
The steam
most rapid
when they
moving
(12)
at their
The valve
will
work
rate,
See Arts.
34 and 4O.
VALVE GEARS.
27
amount
give
it
The
so-called
The degree
of regulation is also superior because the wristdriven by a shifting eccentric controlled by a shaft
By the use of two eccentrics all the other advangovernor.
plate
is
same.
(19)
Cut-off
is
made
remain the
Overtravel
that which
Art. 18.
is
VALVE GEARS.
(20)
To
27
valve travel.
VALVE GEARS.
(PART
(1)
To vary the
No.
eccentric
and a separate
cut-off
2.)
it is
cut-off valve.
and 7.
The
link
is
(5)
Yes
there
in mid-gear.
The
is
See
when
the link
is
in the
running
move them
828
VALVE GEARS.
(9)
of the
two leads
is a constant quantity
See Art. 21.
The
(10)
tight,
but
28
is
valve
(11)
(a)
The steam distribution can be made almost percams can be made of such shape that the
stroke.
(b)
At high speeds
unsatisfactory.
(12)
the gear
See Art. 26.
is
is
noisy and
its
action
is
(a)
No; the
By
steam ports.
By
set
On some
the aid of a tram and these two marks, the valve can be
without removing the steam-chest cover. See Art. 47.
VALVE GEARS.
28
other.
(19)
The
lead
is
is
(b)
CONDENSERS.
(1)
On
in the
exhaust steam
and the air that leaks in around the piston rod and valve
stems, and also on account of the vapor from the water.
See Art. 9.
(a)
densed by
Art. 15.
When
the condenser
is
be formed.
CONDENSERS.
29
a closed vessel and condensing the exhaust steam, the pressure on the exhaust side of the piston is made less and consequently the net pressure on the piston will be increased.
See Arts.
(7)
9 and 11.
By -means
an indicator card.
of
By
To
pump
(a)
is
No.
If
required
there
to
is
force
vacuum
the
inches, the
of 24
water but
7 feet.
See
Art. 31.
(a)
surface condenser.
(13)
(a)
The
Two.
circulating
It relieves the
or vapor that
may accumulate
29
CONDENSERS.
(16)
pump
soon become
as impure as the injection water and it will then be necessary to blow off some of the very impure water and to
replace it with less impure water, thus causing a serious
loss of heat.
The coating
(a)
may
hand.
By introducing
(c)
(18)
tin. 1
(b}
pipe.
and
zinc, 29 per cent.
(a) Copper, 70 per cent.
See Art. 5O.
per cent.
They should be tinned both inside and outside.
;
steam
(21)
(22)
By removing
of the tubes
On
current
of the con-
heat
the water undergoing the cooling process extracts the
from the remaining part. See Art. 57.
CONDENSERS.
29
The amount
To evaporate
(25)
pound
air
and
placed that it falls in a fine spray or thin sheets, thus exposing a large area of evaporating surface to be acted upon by
See Art. 62.
the air.
(27)
(a)
By
radiation,
by evaporation.
(b)
Evaporation.
(28)
sists of
air,
and
The Linde system of cooling discharge water cona number of horizontal thin metallic cylinders
immersed to one-third
water.
By
By
By
the use of a
(31)
On
(32)
From
vacuum
breaker.
Applying rule
we
we
find
H to
be 1,131.462.
get
(135-32) = 20.57
W= 1,131.462105
55
,
'-
lb.,
nearly.
J
Ans.
CONDENSERS.
29
(33)
5
is
being used.
See
Art. 87.
(34)
From
1,125.144.
the
for
Steam Tables,
1, we get
130
,
(35)
pounds absolute
is
Applying rule
About
65
vacuum.
COMPOUND
ENGINES.
On
(2)
is less friction.
account of
initial
cylinder condensation.
See
Art. 3.
initial
and
final
temperature.
See
Art. 7.
(4)
The greater
pressure
cylinder
(a)
A tandem
compound
engine.
as
Because the turning moment of the tandem compound engine is not as uniform as that of the cross-compound
See Art. 14.
engine.
(b]
30
H.
S.
IV.
36
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
and 17.
To
the
number
expanded.
of different stages in
Art. 27.
By drop
(10)
release
and
(11)
is
meant the
in the receiver.
Owing
difference
pressure at
in
drop
steam and thus make it
(12)
ume
amount
the pressure
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
(13)
By changing the cut-off in the low-pressure cylinder.
See Art. 33.
(14)
and more
cylinder
Art. 35.
(17)
(a)
(b]
Because the
relative
amount
of
work done
in the
independent of the
See
cylinders.
two
Art. 39.
(a)
To
No.
(c)
will
(20)
To thoroughly
cylinder in
(22)
which
it
does
Art. 47.
wasting heat.
See
COMPOUND ENGINES.
30
To
No.
(b)
(25)
the ratio
By
we have
rule 2,
E = 12,460
=ia
'
AnS
'
3,118
By
we have
rule 1,
E = *W = II.
The
initial
absolute
Ans.
is
approximately
pounds per square inch.
The terminal pressure may be taken as 9 pounds (see
Art. 59). The ratio of expansion by pressure isJ-f^ = 21.1,
say 21. By Table I, the factor for a ratio of expansion of 21
The back pressure, by Art. 59, may be estimated at
is .192.
The factor to be taken from Table II is .60.
3 pounds.
(28)
pressure
Applying rule
3,
we get
(180
+ 14.7)
pm =
(190
.192
3)
"^
.785*
igo
.60
20.03,
is
= 61Lgt say 5U
Ans
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
(PART
1.)
action
Art. 19.
All
oil
parts before
it
and 23.
First, thoroughly warm the steam pipe by slightly
(4)
opening the stop-valves and allowing the steam to flow until
then close
it issues from the drain cock near the throttle
the drain cock and slightly open the throttle or the by-pass
around the throttle, thus allowing the steam to enter the
steam chest and cylinder. The drain cocks on the cylinder
and steam chest should also be opened, and if the cylinders
are steam-jacketed, steam should be turned into the jackets
;
31
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
To
31
further
warm
the
From
(7)
To jump
There
is
first
it
water
probably
in
the
cylinder.
See
Art. 27.
(9)
If
danger
of
cracking
the
cylinder.
See
Art. 29.
(10)
other.
33 and 35.
engine has been running a few minutes, the speed of the air
and circulation pumps and the admission of injection water
should be regulated.
See Arts. 34 and 35.
(13)
(a)
moment
If
the engine
entering.
will
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
(I)}
When
before
it
it
(14)
(a) The snifting valve is used on jet condensers.
It is similar to a safety valve, but is held to its seat
simply
its
by
Its
purpose
the condenser
is
when
it
eccentric rod
(17)
may
vacuum
(20)
It
the engine
(21)
They should be
dicular to the
Art. 62.
center
ENGINE MANAGEMENT
4
(22)
31
the cord central with the head end of the cylinder by shifting it about until it measures the same distance from all
(a)
The center
higher
Art. 75.
(26)
It
may
pin touches the line stretched through the center of the cylinder and measuring the distance from the line to one of the
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
(30)
By reducing
See Arts.
9O
and 91.
(a)
Yes.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
31
pump
By
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
(PART
2.)
(1)
(a) If it were not for the wearing of the bearings
and journals, the solid bearing would be the ideal bearing, as
it cannot be tampered with by careless persons.
Its main
disadvantage is that
on account of wear.
(b]
it
The advantage
of adjustable bearings
is
is
necessary
may
(2)
If
increasing the
oil
mix some
flake graphite, flour sulphur, or powdered soapstone with the oil and feed the mixture into the bearing.
Aqua ammonia
will also
See
Art. 6.
(3)
The
contraction.
Stop the engine and slack off the brasses; then keep
(4)
the inside of the bearing deluged with a mixture of oil and
graphite, sulphur, or soapstone. If necessary, cold water may
be applied to the outside of the bearing. See Art. 11.
S3?
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
2
(6)
It is difficult to replace
32
(a)
(b)
By
Yes.
the
hammering
The
brasses
then slacked
may
off until,
by
Badly
(10)
fitting brasses.
When
By chipping
All
(12)
and all
oil
cleaned.
(13)
off
to the journal.
oil
(a)
It
See
Art. 33.
(b)
Because
oil
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
(14)
By chipping
oil
channels
in
the
See
brasses.
Art. 33.
Because
it
of oil
and
On
the
amount of greasy
particles that
it
contains.
(20)
(b)
(a)
No.
Because the
specific gravity of
an
oil is
not an indica-
(a)
Pure lard
(b)
Olive
oil.
oil.
oil
an
According to their
Because
(23)
See Art. 61.
specific gravity.
point.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
(24)
and fatty
oils
oil.
(27)
is
By rubbing
(28)
thumb
or in the
The
(29)
from the
(30)
placed
oil.
palm
oil will
Boil about a pint of the oil, into which there has been
or 2 ounces of caustic soda or concentrated lye, for
the
(31)
(32)
oil,
it
viscosity
Sulphur.
is
increased.
Steam is allowed
(33)
the
The
oil
(a)
and as
it
(34)
(a)
No.
ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
32
glass.
(35)
static.
(b)
Mechanical,
See Art. 92.
(a)
On
water -displacement,
and
hydro-
condensation of steam.
(36)
In
double-connection
lubricator
the steam
is
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
(1)
The
(a)
The
(b)
and the
size of
the
See Art. 2.
engine.
reason
first
is
self-evident.
As
to the second
reason, the piston of large horizontal engines, and particularly the low-pressure piston of compound engines, becomes
so massive that
manner that
cylinder.
it
it is
will
See Art. 2.
cost, the
of
it.
(a)
(3)
(b}
valve
Yes.
tively driven
by a shaft governor.
The
(5)
cost of fuel
of
valviis
by
fairly
power required.
(6)
more
i-
liable to
a higher degree of
H.
S.
IV.
37
skill is
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
The
(8)
The
and pistons
for
inspection or repairs.
and crankpins
is
the
same
dem compound.
the
a flywheel
times heavier than the cross-compound; this
requires a heavier shaft and larger bearings, which greatly
See Art. 25.
increases the f rictional resistance.
1^
See
Art. 28.
first
cost
(a)
it
to leak.
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
(13)
Owing
high-speed engines
slow-speed engines.
(14)
Owing to the high speed, but little time is allowed
for initial condensation or for change of
temperature in the
There
(17)
much
first
cost
(20)
Because
it
or a
engine, a condensing engine,
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
it.
67 and 68.
Arts.
is
it fit
plants the various departments require widely varying speeds or are required to run
overtime or all night, or they may require power for but a
(24)
many manufacturing
(a)
floor,
of brick,
(27)
(a)
The
ENGINE INSTALLATION.
33
The foundation
is usually
supported on piles driven
to 4 feet apart from center to center.
To form a
footing for the foundation a timber grating is fastened to
the top of the piles and a layer of concrete is deposited, or
(28)
from
2|-
If the
capstone
is
The
niac, sulphur,
INDEX
NOTE. All items in this index refer first to the section (see the
Preface) and then
to the page of the section. Thus, "Air leaks 29 32" means that
air leaks will be
found on page 32 of section 29.
INDEX
Buckeye valve gear.
tl
ers
"
of surface c o n
"
of Corliss
dense rs
valve
Xll
Cups, Grease
"
Plain grease
Cut brasses and journals
INDEX
INDEX
Xiii
Page
Sec.
27
Down
38
Effects of friction
Drain cocks
.....
Drainage, Influence of
6
3
Drop
"
23
Regulating the
Drum,
Indicator.
3
of..
"
engines, Mechanical
"
non
14
e n -
reversible
"
reversible
engines,
"
vertical
"
"
and horizontal
compound
engines..
Duration of service, Influence
"
of
engines for
Sec.
23
Eccentric
"
center
with inertia
governor, Path of.
.
"
Governing by
positions,
Radius of
rods.
Table
of...
23
23
Open and
23
23
two
Economic performance of high-
27
speed engines
Economical receiver pressure,
33
steam by
compounding
"
"
80
of automatic engines 83
of slow-speed engines 83
tum
33
"
26
26
of throttling
24
25
21
28
31
30
25
80
compound ..........
foundation.
24
com30
30
33
Purpose
of .....................
38
foundations .........
foundations, Depth of
Governing a com-
88
83
................
30
Heat ...................
High-speed Corliss....
25
pound
27
Horizontal cross-com-
pound ................
80
installation ............
S3
management ...........
management .........
31
32
Mechanical efficiency
of an .................
25
Meyervalve ...........
84
Multiple-expansion....
or small units, One
80
large
out of line
Placingthe
Plain slide-valve
ready, Getting an ......
Receiver compound...
Reversing single eccentric ................
of inertia of weights on
the action of a gov-
ernor
"
"
"
"
"
30
Most
"
"
28
23
of
in use of
"
'
28
96
......
"
16
27
Cross-compound
Connecting
cylinder,
indicator to ...... ..
Duplex vertical and
"
'
Eccentricity
Eccentrics, Corliss gears with
Economy
Page
83
23
sheave
Throw
26
26
crossed...
'
"
shift-
ing the
Position of the
"
29
..................
pound ..............
Transmission..
Direct-connected
Dynamos,
of grease ..............
of large clearance vol-
horizontal
33
"
of lead ..................
Efficiency of an engine, Mcchanical .......................
"
Purpose of
"
26
efficiency of
-
ernor ................
ume
24
"
"
Page
45
on a gov-
Rotary ................
Simple expansive..
Simple expansive ......
Sixeaof ................
81
XIV
"
Starting a slide-valve
condensing
Starting a slide-valve
"
"
'
non-condensing
Steam
Steeple compound. ...
Stopping and reversing a compound
slide- valve
"
Stopping a slide-valve
condensing
Stopping a slide-valve
non-condensing ....
.
Tandem compound
Tandem compound
The reciprocating
.
steam
testing
Thermodynamics
Sec.
Kind
"
33
of service of
Limiting speeds of
leasing gear
Lining
33
re-
33
31
INDEX
Fiber graphite
Finding the M. E.
P.
by
ordi-
INDEX
Sec.
Governor, Pendulum
Pickering
26
26
Porter
rod
"
"
"
throttling
'"
....-
Weighted
Westinghouse
Governors
Adjustment of
Adjustment of shaft
Adjustment of simple pendulum
"
"
"
9
7
27
19
"
end dead center
Headroom, Comparison
38
26
26
Adjustment
26
23
1
26
34
28
36
26
34
ing
"
"
"
"
26
pendulum
weighted
26
35
changesof speed,
26
Adjusting
40
for
Forms
"
General instructions
26
"
"
26
44
"
Inertia
26
25
Purpose of
Rules for adjusting
26
26
40
Shaft
26
11
Spring-loaded
with adjustable
26
of
for
the
33
sensitiveness
of
"
tion of
"
"
"
"
^
"
pendu-
"
33
of
lum
"
"
35
24
pressure cylinder
speed compound engines
speed Corliss engine
speed engines, Accessibilityof
"
of
Adjustment
...
spring-loaded
"
...
Dangerous
Remedies for increas-
"
26
of.
pendu-
lum
"
Hanger ...
Head end
26
Setting an indirect
valve attached to
ashaft
28
Simple pendulum. .. 26
"
Sec.
4
33
speed on weight of
wheel. Influence of
"
"
fly...
28
26
41
Graphite
32
26
vertical
Fiber
Grease cups
"
cups. Compression
32
26
32
35
32
35
32
35
29
26
spring
attach-
ments
"
cups. Plain
Effects of
"
"
ffine
"
"
engine, Supporting
pistons of
versus vertical en-
25
25
Boiled
32
25
Horse-fat
Compounded
Cup
32
25
Horsepower, Brake
"
Brake
Set
Gridiron valves
Grit in bearings
Gritty oils
Grouting...
Guides, Testing alineuient
32
25
32
25
28
28
32
;
ot..
14
12
&
45
81
28
gines
"
"
"
"
"
33
Duplex
80
and
cross-compound en-
32
Axle
"
"
32
Greases
33
88
engines
Hints for adjustment and care
28
of valve gears
"
Sf>
for use of planimeter
Hookgear
and
weights
33
oil
Calculating the
indicated
Delivered
Delivered
Friction
Indicated
INDEX
INDEX
Sec.
xix
INDEX
measure-
engines
reversible
engines,
poses of duplex
Not enough oil
Number of expansions
.
Pur-
"
striking heads
INDEX
.V
Ratio of expansion
of expansion by pressure
"
of expansion by volume
Reading the vernier of a planimeter
Real cut-off
Receiver
XX1I1
Page
33
Sfc.
Pag
33
81
31
21
35
30
engine
_'.-,
H
BO
fittings
pressure
"
80
Most eco-
pressure,
nomical
"
Return stroke
28
system of lubrication.. 83
Reversible engines, Purpose of
33
duplex
engines. Shifting
eccentric for
and
Reversing
stopping a compound side-valve
80
80
volume
"
"
Comparison of
Reciprocating engines,
types of
"
Reducing
"
engine
engines, Methods of
"
23
M xtures
"
"
"
"
swinging lever.... 24
motions
24
motions for high
94
speeds
motions, Pantograph 24
motions.
lever
24
24
Re-evaporation
Kefitted brasses
and journals
32
31
19
1
87
28
28
gines
single-eccentric en-
Kine
starting,
sion engines
31
"
valve gears
27
96
Revolving pendulum
cut-off
valve. Setting
Riding
the
Swinging
11
motion, Slotted
"
12
28
28
32
3
18
31
gear
rocker
23
shaft - governor en-
23
steam engine..
friction,
for
"
33
parts
fulfilled in
"
Requirements to be
lining engines
H
Compound
"
for
Ring.Junk
Rocker-arm
and
21
2
4
27
31
39
27
29
wristplate.
Centering Corliss
32
Ropebrake
86
29
Rose
Rotary engine
Rules for adjusting the
29
10
23
45
tiveness of governors..
26
40
for compression
Running, Engines for intermit-
24
30
33
24
Regulation,
speed on
Effect
of
30
high
33
Regurgitating valve
Reheater
Relation
between
29
30
and compression
25
"
sibility of
24
ing
"
Continuous
"
32
24
33
22
Continuous
83
"
"
sensi-
"
tent
expansion
44
oil
S3
83
Stc.
Paft
27
86
80
89
88
96
84
Scale of indicator spring
Schutte system of cooling water 89
Seal oil
See-Marshall radial vlve gear
19
8
41
16
INDEX
gines .....................
Sensitiveness of the governor,
Increasing the
"
of go ver n or s,
Rules for adjusting the.
"
...
Relations
b e
tween
spring
Sec.
Page
33
22
32
20
27
13
33
22
26
26
40
estal
block ...............
outboard bearing .....
32
32
"
'.
36
of ...................
33
31
33
22
"
33
22
"
32
25
"
28
governor ............
28
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
Shark
Corliss
31
38
versing ...............
eccentric link motion...
28
27
"
"
"
"
"
23
31
33
43
26
45
"
30
28
18
28
32
30
26
11
of .....................
26
36
"
38
31
27
31
36
31
25
31
30
31
31
oil....
32
22
33
.......
29
25
23
23
31
23
31
31
23
"
"
23
23
valve
engine. Stopping
and reversing a com-
28
28
a' ..............
Stopping
"
"
governors, Adjustment
steam passages
28
''
"
28
of
32
"
governors
40
versing ................
governor, Setting an indirect valve attached
to a ....................
..
31
26
28
...............
30
27
28
33
30
......
"
......
20
27
30
.........
................
expansive engine
expansive engine
33
expansion engines...
the valves of the Buckeye val ve gear .......
the valves with a radial
valve gear ...........
lves f
equal leads
32
com-
39
27
33
31
28
and cut-offs
"
pound
"
"
"
26
28
or pillow-
ad j u stment
23
"
and ............
Sec.
pound
..................
31
"
valves, Forms of .........
Slotted swinging lever reducing motion ...................
Slow-speed engines, Economy
of...
..
23
34
33
Page
Sec.
Page
33
20
"
speed versus high-speed
33
engines
Small units or one large en-
14
33
35
gine
33
11
Snifter
31
13
31
13
Snifting valve
"
>
valve
Soapstone
Soda cock
Soils, Supporting power of
Solid lubricants
indicator
Special
"
indicators
"
25
"
26
"
29
26
33
36
32
26
oil
17
24
"
26
40
26
"
"
"
"
32
22
Relation
between
26
36
Govern-
attachments.
ors with adjustable
weights and
"
"
"
"
31
12
distribution,
for faults in
in..
Improper
Remedies
engine
engine,
ting
The
28
23
25
44
24
28
31
40
24
27
23
23
reciproca-
engine,
Thermodynamicsofthe
engines, Horsepower of
engines, Size of
Expansion curve of
Expansion of
...
Gain
in
expansively,
work by using
jacket
lubricators
"
"
"
"
"
25
Classification
engines,
of
25
19
25
49
25
25
25
18
80
28
32
36
32
36
23
43
lubricators. Mechanical
passages, Size of
plant, Inspection of
31
41
"
"
"
ports
pressure, Influence of..
turbine
23
33
30
23
46
ronism with
26
loaded governors. Ad26
vantages of the
26
loaded governors
loaded pendulum gov-
32
"
"
"
valve steins
valves
27
18
27
16
10
26
35
24
32
18
18
31
shaft
Starting a compound engine.. 31
a simple Corliss en31
gine
'
a slide-valve conden-
26
81
11
31
sing engine
a slide- valve non-con-
"
densing engine
liss
compound
panding
25
17
compound engine
Stems, Exhaust valve
"
Steam valve
30
15
27
18
27
18
Stephenson link
28
16
14
37
29
Stocker cooling tower
24
Stop motions, Indicator
32
Stopped, Oil feed
enCorliss
a
simple
Stopping
31
gine
a slide-valve condensing engine .... 31
"
a slide - valve non-
40
31
10
31
19
31
80
5
"
condensing engine
and re versing a compound slide-valve
engine
16
11
16
14
en-
gine
for ex-
Steeple
32
"
Work diagram
"
Page
26
Springing of bedplate
"
Stc.
24
Indicator
loaded governor, Isoch-
ernors, Adjustment
of
Scale of indicator
"
distribution,
"
24
distribution, Faults
"
of
Sperm
"
"
"
32
Steam consumption
29
attach-
ments
31
20
31
compound
en-
gine
"
81
xxvi
quadruple
expan-
sion engines
Stretching center line of cylinder.....
"
center line of shaft
of
indicator
Striking
against the stops
drum
Stroke
"
Forward
"
Return
INDEX
Sec.
Trip
" collars
"
valve gears
Triple and quadruple expan-
Page
27
is,
27
18
27
31
21
"
ing
30
expansion engine
29
Tubes, Condenser
"
Supporting condenser 29
23
Turbine, Steam
Types of automatic cut-off en-
gines
TT
Continuous
ning with
load,
12
30
31
46
33
Sec.
Page
32
run38
24
33
22
25
85
33
35
Continuous
running with
speed
of
rotation,
Constant for a
Units, One large engine or
small...,
..
Up feed for lubricators
XXVII
INDEX
Sec.
Work done by
expansive force
"
ofagas
done in the
"
done
25
cylinder,
Methods of controlling
the
a
"
26
in the cylinders of
compound
Equalizing
engine,
XXIX
Page
Sec.
Page
29
Testing bore of
"
Testing alinement of
Wristplate
"
Corliss
Centering
rocker-arm and
31
81
27
27
30
Sec.
Zero, Absolute
29
Page
2
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
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