Keep Scavenging (Unit II)

Paws Web Radio, the official student-run station of Adelphi University, serves up a mix of radio
hits alongside shows and music produced by current students. The radio station also has a section
of the site devoted to student written music blogs. Though only available online, the station has a
full schedule of programming and partners with other university media outlets to make sure
students voices (and their favorite tunes) are heard.
In addition to a main campus on Long Island, the school also has outposts in Manhattan, Hudson
Valley and Suffolk County, contributing to a total student population of nearly 8,000 students
who can tune into Paws from any device with Internet.
QUICK FACTS

Paws broadcasts 24/7, with a mix of music, political shows and other student-driven
programs. Paws DJs can also be seen around the school spinning music for campus
events.

In addition to the bustling radio station, Adelphi has a number of other options for student
involvement, including organizations, leadership opportunities, volunteer and community
service programs, Greek life and social events and multicultural opportunities.

The school was named as a Best Buy in Fiske's 2014 Guide to Colleges, while U.S. News
& World Report named the school a Top 15 Overperformer in undergraduate academic
reputation.

http://www.bestcolleges.com/features/best-college-radio-stations/

The Nigerian government has awarded licences to 27 tertiary institutions to operate community
radio on their campuses. The education institutions given licences are to use the radio stations for
teaching, research and entertainment. Radio remains the best medium of mass communication in
Africa because of the continent's long-standing oral tradition.

Students of computer science, languages, theatre arts, marketing and advertising have welcomed
the innovation as a means of acquiring techniques and skills before graduating. Tertiary
institution leaders are clamouring for permission to operate campus television in collaboration
with Nigeria's growing private sector.
In April 2002, the government granted a radio licence to the University of Lagos. This opened
the door for more tertiary institutions to seek radio stations and in 2007 a set of licences was
approved by President Shehu Musa Yar'Adua for private, public and regional tertiary institutions.
There were two major reasons for the expansion of campus radio. First, the government was
satisfied with the way the University of Lagos made use of its radio licence. Second, there was a
pressing need to provide a communication infrastructure for the newly founded National Open
University whose role is to provide university education to school-leavers who could not gain
admission to limited slots in universities.
Satisfied with the progress, the government decided to increase the number of institutions
entitled to operate radio stations to 27. At a ceremony to hand over the licences, Yomi Bolariwa,
Director-General of the National Broadcasting Commission, appealed to the institutions to be
objective and non-partisan in their utilisation of this communication mode.
"The commission will not tolerate any breach of the broadcasting code," he warned. The
immediate beneficiaries of the radio stations are students of mass communications and
journalism. For more than 50 years, since the first departments of communication were created at
University of Nigeria in Nsukka and the University of Lagos, teachers and students have pressed
for the establishment of campus radio and television.
"The teaching hospital is indispensable to those studying medicine. Laboratories are useful for
students in natural and applied sciences. And radio and television are strategic and practical tools
to students of communication and journalism," declared Mercy Akpan, a lecturer in the
department of communications at the University of Uyo.
The creation and integration of radio stations into communication departments will go a long
way towards solving a serious handicap confronting students seeking jobs after completing their
studies. Employers are not enthusiastic about recruiting 'greenhorns' from universities because of
their obvious lack of practical experience in, for instance, producing programmes for different
audiences and marketing new products to sceptical consumers. Companies have had to pay to
have graduates trained at public and private stations.
"Campus radio stations have removed, for the first time, the need to retrain graduates. We will no
longer make use of our funds to train graduate employees on how to prepare and present
marketing programmes for our products," declared John Adamu, a public relations manager for a

beverage company in Lagos.

Students of engineering and computer sciences are likely to be interested in the technical aspects
of campus radio. The installation and maintenance of radio stations attracts electronic
engineering students, while the use of internet services interests computer science students.
"We have informed lecturers that we want to be involved in the installation and subsequent
maintenance of our radio station," said Ismaila Abdullahi, president of an association of
engineering students at Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria. "We are opposed to the idea of a
turnkey project, whereby we are instructed by communication companies only on how to press
the button and switch on the electrical equipment of the radio station."
Lecturers have thrown their weight behind such student demands.
Despite the numerous pedagogical advantages attached to the presence of radio stations on
campuses, there are fears in some circles that this powerful communication tool may be abused.
In recent times, some public and private radio stations have been temporarily closed because of
partisan programmes on issues that threaten peace and harmony in Nigeria.
"Nigeria is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious nation state. Religion and ethnic clashes do occur
from time to time as a result of inflammatory statements by fundamentalists with vested
interests," said an influential member of the National Broadcasting Commission who wished to
remain anonymous.
"Campus radio stations must restrain themselves from partisan ethnic and religious politics. They
must be seen as building bridges between ethnic groups and religions."
http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090416201514473

College radio stations have long filled dorm rooms and frat house cleanups of lazy Sunday
afternoons. Theyre also bastions of free speech fueled by artsy, and music-obsessed students that
are sometimes years ahead of the mainstream. From the 1960s, when the FCC began issuing
class D licenses for 10-watt stations, college radio has been a staple of the college experience,
and college town life in general.
While radio as a whole has been threatened by financial difficulties and changing consumption
preferences, college radio continues to thrive, and many stations have grown since their days as
early adopters of online streaming.

From 100 to 5000 watts, from impromptu jam seshions to CHVRCHES and Bloc Party stopping
by, heres our list of the nations top college radio stations.

WSBU 88.3 FM operates a 165-watt station that broadcasts 24/7. Run by 16 student
directors who oversee the stations verticles, 200 student volunteers keep this station ranked #1 by
the Princeton Review running.
History is on the side of this station, that has undergone six name changes and survived since
1948. The Buzzworthy, a print and online zine published several times a month has also
become famous. Hip hop and Indie rock staples like the Mountain Goats, or Peter Bjorn and John
are often featured on WSBU.

Ithaca College Radio began in 1941 in the Little Theater dressing rooms in Ithaca. The hosts
didnt have great equipment, but you could listen in if you were within earshot of the public
address system speakers in adjoining rooms. Today WICB operates a 4,100 watt antenna with a
traditional audience of 250,000 people, and an online audience thats much larger. The station
won MTVus Woodie award for best college radio in 2008, and was ranked #1 for most
popular college radio station in Princeton Reviews 2014 rankings.
WICD is slightly more mainstream than other stations on the list, but schedules programming for
Modern Rock, Jazz, Hip Hop, Specialty, and my favorite Hobos Lullaby.

WERS is commercial free, and bills itself out to be Bostons discovery station, helping
listeners to discover their next favorite artist. Accordingly, WERS steers off the beaten path and
covers an eclectic mix of local, independent talent, and re-discovered and obscure classics.
Standing Room Only on Saturday and Sunday mornings provides a segment of this eclecticism
by offering New Englands most listened to musical theater broadcast. If you are looking for old
hits, and independent-minded new artists, WERS is the place for you.

WGRE was established as the first educational radio station in the nation as a 10-watt broadcast
in 1949. Now its the largest student organization at DePauw, with over 200 student DJs. The
station has now been in top ten of Princeton Reviews college radio rankings for 14 years. This
year they were #2 on the list.
The station is known for alt-rock, and focuses on promoting up-and-coming alternative artists.

WASU only admits students seriously considering careers in broadcasting, and it shows.
Affectionately known as the App, this station is known for locating low-key indie rockers
before they make it big. The station was the winner of MTVus Woodie Award in 2012.

This non-commercial, student-run, and freeform radio station has been a favorite of Portlands
since it first came on air in 1994. Accompanying a slick website, where listeners can interact
with DJs and the community, KPSU is currently not on citywide FM, but entirely streamed
online. The station imposes no restrictions on programming on its 65 (mostly student) volunteer
DJs, and, as youd expect, often helps keep Portland weird.

The above picture shows the basic stages of the commercial transmitter, its blocks/stages and
how they are connected with each other. I would like to describe each of these block
independently so it could help the beginners see the big picture and thus better understand how
transmitters are designed. So lets start!

Audio Source
Also referred to as Audio Frequency (AF) which usually is around 20Hz-20KHz. This can be
either CD player, computer, tape, microphone or just about any other audio device. The audio
signal should have as good characteristics and quality as possible. Connectors from Audio
Source to the Audio Limiter should also be of a better quality to make sure that there isn't any
noise coming to the audio stages of a transmitter (yellow blocks).
Audio Limiter

Also known as Compressor or Automatic Level Control. This circuit is usually built using
operational amplifiers in conjunction with other controlling IC's. And these are the following
task of this device:
1. Provides 100% of allowable modulation. In other words the level of incoming sound is a
maximum that modulator can handle (perfectly matched with the sensitivity of the
modulator). That's why the sound on the receiver is very high but at the same time very
clear.
2. Prevents over modulation. The best thing is to keep modulation to the maximum
(100%) but if that allowable line is crossed then there would be over modulation of audio
cycle when the RF carrier is removed completely from the air thus producing distortion in
the transmission. How does that happen? In most of the transmitters the same block or
even a transistor is responsible for both modulation and generation of the carrier
frequency (88-108MHz). If over modulation takes place transistor (Q1) becomes so
unstable that it cannot generate a clear carrier frequency and in result we hear the
distortion.
3. Keeps an audio on the same level. This is especially crucial when using microphone as
a source because its dynamics (audio levels) are never steady. When playing music, some
of the tracks might be recorded at different audio levels and when a user receives a given
radio station he or she doesn't want to set an audio level every few minutes or so, you
want the sound loudness to always be the same.
If you just want to build a simple transmitter so you can transmit your music around the
house you can live without automatic level control but then you'll need to make sure that
audio signal of your source is set to minimum level and that it is matched with your
transmitter.

Also known as encoder, coder or multiplexer (MPX). Stereo encoder is a circuit that takes both
channels of audio (L and R) and mixes it into one so called MPX channel. Stereo encoder uses a
process called multiplexing which allows to transmit more than one signal over a single link,
route, or a channel. The circuit is driven by an oscillator that switches between the two channels
of audio with a frequency of 38KHz per second to merge these channels into one. Additionally,
38KHz frequency is divided in half to produce a 19KHz PILOT tone that receiver will need to
use to decode MPX signal back into two audio channels. Once the two audio channels are mixed
and 19KHz frequency is generated they are then merged together to form a MPX signal that FM
transmitter will transmit.
Modulator
This block places audio frequency on top of a carrier frequency (frequency in which one wants to
transmit, in our case 88-108MHz). We may also refer to this block as a mixer because it mixes
two different frequencies.
Oscillator

Just as the name implies oscillator oscillates or generates a carrier frequency (88-108MHz).
Oscillator can generate various types of frequencies and may be used for many different
purposes. It can be found in most of the electronic devices and in our case it is found in all FM
transmitters and receivers as well. A simple one transistor FM transmitter is in fact nothing else
but an oscillator and a modulator. An output power of one transistor oscillators found in these
transmitters is often very small, 50mW or below. If such transmitter does not have at least a
separator or an amplifier then in that case this oscillator is very prone to frequency drifts. A
single touch to its antenna may cause a slight frequency change.
Oscillator Types:

1. VFO (Variable Frequency Oscillator) - An oscillator whose output frequency can be changed
by adjusting a variable inductor or variable capacitor.
2. VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator) - An oscillator whose output frequency is controlled or
changed by an application of external voltage. VCO uses varicap diode that changes the
capacitance as different levels of voltage are applied.
3. PLL (Phase Locked Loop) - A circuit that synchronizes a frequency of VCO with a frequency
of a reference oscillator by using a comparison of phase between the two signals. PLL takes a
frequency of VCO, divides it into a lower frequency which can be compared with a stable
reference oscillator. Then amplifiers are used to send an appropriate voltage back to the VCO to
keep the desired frequency stable.
4. Crystal Oscillator - Oscillator that uses a crystal to generate a frequency.
Separator
This is usually a single transistor that separates a low oscillator's signals from an antenna or the
rest of the blocks. When separator is in place it usually brings a greater oscillator's stability
especially in low power transmitters where there is no amplifier at all. When an amplifier is used
this part may be omitted because an amplifier acts as a separator too.
RF Amplifier
RF amplifier is a circuit that takes small incoming RF signal and increases its strength multiple
times. Most amplifiers use several transistor stages; driver and output stages that amplify RF
signal gradually. For instance if you connect a 50mW signal to a 10W transistor you cannot
expect a 10W output signal. This is because such transistor might need at least 1W of incoming
signal to produce an output at its maximum power peak.
You should always take precautions when dealing with amplifiers that produce 1W or more
output power. Never connect them to power without a proper antenna or a dummy load. By
doing so you are running a risk of destroying your output stage transistor(s).
Power Meter
This device connects to an output of an amplifier to see how many watts are being transmitted.
You may also connect it to the end of the antenna cable if it's a long one to see how much
power has been lost through that cable. In lower power transmitters you may use a single

transistor and a LED as a power indication, but to have a precise measurement you will
definitely need a power meter.
Antenna
Antenna is an equally important element of every transmitter because it is used to dispatch or
radiate the signal of the transmitter. You may have a powerful amplifier, but if you have a poor
antenna only a fraction of that signal's strength will transmitted to the air. Transmitter's amplifier
should always be matched with the antenna by using variable capacitors to achieve maximum
signal performance. Avoid running a long antenna cables form your amplifier to an antenna to
minimize the power lose, and if you have no choice use better quality antenna cables.
Glossary
FM - Frequency Modulation
VHF - Very High Frequency (30MHz to 300MHz)
UHF - Ultra High Frequency (300MHz to 3GHz)
VFO - Variable Frequency Oscillator
VCO - Voltage Controlled Oscillator
PLL - Phase Locked Loop
Oscillator - device that generates a frequency

http://www.electronics-diy.com/intro_txfm.php